(Introduction to

Philosophy
Final Term Fact
Sheet)

Angelica R. Ayagan
Instructor
 Major Philosophers and Their Ideas
1. Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)
Thomas Aquinas was a 13th century Dominican
friar, theologian and Doctor of the Church, born in
what is known today as the Lazio region of Italy. His
most important contribution to Western thought is the
concept of natural theology (sometimes referred to as
Thomism in tribute to his influence). This belief
system holds that the existence of God is verified
through reason and rational explanation, as opposed
to through scripture or religious experience. This
ontological approach is among the central premises
underpinning modern Catholic philosophy and liturgy.
His writings, and Aquinas himself, are still considered
among the preeminent models for Catholic priesthood.
His ideas also remain central to theological debate,
discourse, and modes of worship.

Aquinas’ Big Ideas

Adhered to the Platonic/Aristotelian principle of realism, which holds
that certain absolutes exist in the universe, including the existence of the
universe itself;
Focused much of his work on reconciling Aristotelian and Christian
principles, but also expressed a doctrinal openness to Jewish and Roman
philosophers, all to the end of divining truth wherever it could be found;
The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) declared his Summa Theolgoiae
— a compendium of all the teachings of the Catholic Church to that point —
“Perennial Philosophy.”

2. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)

Aristotle is among the most important and
influential thinkers and teachers in human history,
often considered — alongside his mentor, Plato — to
be a father of Western Philosophy.” Born in the
northern part of ancient Greece, his writings and ideas
on metaphysics, ethics, knowledge, and
methodological inquiry are at the very root of human
thought. Most philosophers who followed — both those
who echoed and those who opposed his ideas — owed
a direct debt to his wide-ranging influence. Aristotle’s
enormous impact was a consequence both of the
breadth of his writing and his personal reach during
his lifetime.
 In addition to being a philosopher, Aristotle was also a scientist, which
led him to consider an enormous array of topics, and largely through the view
that all concepts and knowledge are ultimately based on perception. A small
sampling of topics covered in Aristotle’s writing includes physics, biology,
psychology, linguistics, logic, ethics, rhetoric, politics, government, music,
theatre, poetry, and metaphysics. He was also in a unique position to prevail
directly over thinking throughout the known world, tutoring a young Alexander
the Great at the request of the future conqueror’s father, Phillip II of Macedon.
This position of influence gave Aristotle the means to establish the library at
Lyceum, where he produced hundreds of writings on papyrus scrolls. And of
course, it also gave him direct sway over the mind of a man who would one day
command an empire stretching from Greece to northwestern India. The result
was an enormous sphere of influence for Aristotle’s ideas, one that only began
to be challenged by Renaissance thinkers nearly 2,000 years later.
Aristotle’s Big Ideas
Asserted the use of logic as a method of argument and offered the basic
methodological template for analytical discourse;
Espoused the understanding that knowledge is built from the study of things
that happen in the world, and that some knowledge is universal — a prevailing
set of ideas throughout Western Civilization thereafter;
Defined metaphysics as “the knowledge of immaterial being,” and used this
framework to examine the relationship between substance (a combination of
matter and form) and essence, from which he devises that man is comprised
from a unity of the two.

3. Confucius (551–479 BCE)

Chinese teacher, writer, and philosopher
Confucius viewed himself as a channel for the
theological ideas and values of the imperial dynasties
that came before him. With an emphasis on family and
social harmony, Confucius advocated for a way of life
that reflected a spiritual and religious tradition, but
which was also distinctly humanist and even
secularist. Confucius — thought to be a contemporary
of Taoist progenitor Lao-Tzu — had a profound impact
on the development of Eastern legal customs and the
emergence of a scholarly ruling class. Confucianism
would engage in historic push-pull with the
philosophies of Buddhism and Taoism, experiencing
ebbs and flows in influence, its high points coming
during the Han (206 BCE–220 CE), Tang (618–907
CE), and Song (960–1296 CE) Dynasties. As Buddhism
became the dominant spiritual force in China,
Confucianism declined in practice. However, it
remains a foundational philosophy underlying Asian
and Chinese attitudes toward scholarly, legal, and
professional pursuits.
Confucius’ Big Ideas
Developed a belief system focused on both personal and governmental
morality through qualities such as justice, sincerity, and positive relationships
with others;
Advocated for the importance of strong family bonds, including respect
for the elder, veneration of one’s ancestors, and marital loyalty;
Believed in the value of achieving ethical harmony through skilled
judgment rather than knowledge of rules, denoting that one should achieve
morality through self-cultivation.

4. René Descartes (1596–1650)

A French philosopher, mathematician, and
scientist, Descartes was born in France but spent 20
years of his life in the Dutch Republic. As a member of
the Dutch States Army, then as the Prince of Orange
and subsequently as Stadtholder (a position of
national leadership in the Dutch Republic), Descartes
wielded considerable intellectual influence over the
period known as the Dutch Golden Age. He often
distinguished himself by refuting or attempting to
undo the ideas of those that came before him.

Descartes’ Big Ideas

Discards belief in all things that are not absolutely certain, emphasizing
the understanding of that which can be known for sure;
Is recognized as the father of analytical geometry;
Regarded as one of the leading influences in the Scientific Revolution — a
period of intense discovery, revelation, and innovation that rippled through
Europe between the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras (roughly speaking,
15th to 18th centuries).

5. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 82)

A Boston-born writer, philosopher, and poet,
Ralph Waldo Emerson is the father of the
transcendentalist movement. This was a distinctly
American philosophical orientation that rejected the
pressures imposed by society, materialism, and
organized religion in favor of the ideals of
individualism, freedom, and a personal emphasis on
the soul’s relationship with the surrounding natural
world. Though not explicitly a “naturalist” himself,
 Emerson’s ideals were taken up by this 20th century
movement. He was also seen as a key figure in the
American Romantic Movement.

Emerson’s Big Ideas

Wrote on the importance of subjects such as self-reliance, experiential
living, and the preeminence of the soul;
Referred to “the infinitude of the private man” as his central doctrine;
Was a mentor and friend to fellow influential transcendentalist Henry
David Thoureau.

6. Michel Foucault (1926-1984)

Historian, social theorist, and philosopher
Michel Foucault, born in the riverfront city of Poiltiers,
France, dedicated much of his teaching and writing to
the examination of power and knowledge and their
connection to social control. Though often identified as
a postmodernist, Foucault preferred to think of himself
as a critic of modernity. His service as an international
diplomat on behalf of France also influenced his
understanding of social constructs throughout history
and how they have served to enforce racial, religious,
and sexual inequality. His ideals have been
particularly embraced by progressive movements, and
he allied with many during his lifetime. Active in
movements against racism, human rights abuses,
prisoner abuses, and marginalization of the mentally
ill, he is often cited as a major influence in movements
for social justice, human rights, and feminism. More
broadly speaking, his examination of power and social
control has had a direct influence on the studies of
sociology, communications, and political science.
Foucault’s Big Ideas
Held the conviction that the study of philosophy must begin through a
close and ongoing study of history;
Demanded that social constructs be more closely examined for
hierarchical inequalities, as well as through an analysis of the corresponding
fields of knowledge supporting these unequal structures;
Believed oppressed humans are entitled to rights and they have a duty to
rise up against the abuse of power to protect these rights.
7. David Hume (1711–77)
A Scottish-born historian, economist, and
philosopher, Hume is often grouped with thinkers
such as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Sir Francis
 Bacon as part of a movement called British
Empiricism. He was focused on creating a “naturalistic
science of man” that delves into the psychological
conditions defining human nature. In contrast to
rationalists such as Descartes, Hume was preoccupied
with the way that passions (as opposed to reason)
govern human behavior. This, Hume argued,
predisposed human beings to knowledge founded not
on the existence of certain absolutes but on personal
experience. As a consequence of these ideas, Hume
would be among the first major thinkers to refute
dogmatic religious and moral ideals in favor of a more
sentimentalist approach to human nature. His belief
system would help to inform the future movements of
utilitarianism and logical positivism, and would have a
profound impact on scientific and theological
discourse thereafter.

Hume’s Big Ideas

Articulated the “problem of induction,” suggesting we cannot rationally
justify our belief in causality, that our perception only allows us to experience
events that are typically conjoined, and that causality cannot be empirically
asserted as the connecting force in that relationship;
Assessed that human beings lack the capacity to achieve a true
conception of the self, that our conception is merely a “bundle of sensations”
that we connect to formulate the idea of the self;
Hume argued against moral absolutes, instead positing that our ethical
behavior and treatment of others is compelled by emotion, sentiment, and
internal passions, that we are inclined to positive behaviors by their likely
desirable outcomes.
8. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
Prussian-born (and therefore identified as a
German philosopher), Kant is considered among the
most essential figures in modern philosophy, an
advocate of reason as the source for morality, and a
thinker whose ideas continue to permeate ethical,
epistemological, and political debate. What perhaps
most distinguishes Kant is his innate desire to find a
synthesis between rationalists like Descartes and
empiricists like Hume, to decipher a middle ground
that defers to human experience without descending
into skepticism. To his own way of thinking, Kant was
pointing a way forward by resolving a central
philosophical impasse.
Kant’s Big Ideas
 Defined the “Categorical imperative,” the idea that there are intrinsically
good and moral ideas to which we all have a duty, and that rational individuals
will inherently find reason in adhering to moral obligation;
Argued that humanity can achieve a perpetual peace through universal
democracy and international cooperation;
Asserted that the concepts of time and space, as well as cause and effect,
are essential to the human experience, and that our understanding of the
world is conveyed only by our senses and not necessarily by the underlying
(and likely unseen) causes of the phenomena we observe.

9. Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55)

A Danish theologian, social critic, and
philosopher, Kierkegaard is viewed by many as the
most important existentialist philosopher. His work
dealt largely with the idea of the single individual. His
thinking tended to prioritize concrete reality over
abstract thought. Within this construct, he viewed
personal choice and commitment as preeminent. This
orientation played a major part in his theology as well.
He focused on the importance of the individual’s
subjective relationship with God, and his work
addressed the themes of faith, Christian love, and
human emotion. Because Kierkegaard’s work was at
first only available in Danish, it was only after his
work was translated that his ideas proliferated widely
throughout Western Europe. This proliferation was a
major force in helping existentialism take root in the
20th century.
Kierkegaard’s Big Ideas
Explored the idea of objective vs. subjective truths, and argued that
theological assertions were inherently subjective and arbitrary because they
could not be verified or invalidated by science;
Was highly critical of the entanglement between State and Church;
First described the concept of angst, defining it as a dread the come from
anxieties over choice, freedom, and ambiguous feelings.

10. Lao-Tzu (also Laozi, lived between the 6th and 4th century BCE)
Historians differ on exactly when Lao-Tzu lived
and taught, but it’s largely held that sometime
between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the “old
master” founded philosophical Taoism. Viewed as a
divine figure in traditional Chinese religions, his ideas
and writings would form one of the major pillars
(alongside Confucius and the Buddha) for Eastern
thought. Lao-Tzu espoused an ideal life lived through
 the Dao or Tao (roughly translated as “the way”). As
such, Taoism is equally rooted in religion and
philosophy. In traditional telling, though Lao-Tzu
never opened a formal school, he worked as an
archivist for the royal court of Zhou Dynasty. This
gave him access to an extensive body of writing and
artifacts, which he synthesized into his own poetry
and prose. As a result of his writing, his influence
spread widely during his lifetime. In fact, one version
of his biography implies he may well have been a
direct mentor to the Buddha (or, in some versions, was
the Buddha himself). There are lot of colorful
narratives surrounding Lao-Tzu, some of which are
almost certainly myth. In fact, there are some
historians who even question whether or not Lao-Tzu
was a real person. Historical accounts differ on who he
was, exactly when he lived and which works he
contributed to the canon of Taoism. However, in most
traditional tellings, Lao-Tzu was the living embodiment
of the philosophy known as Taoism and author of its
primary text, the Tao Te Ching.

Lao-Tzu’s Big Ideas

Espoused awareness of the self through meditation;
Disputed conventional wisdom as inherently biased, and urged followers
of the Tao to find natural balance between the body, senses, and desires;
Urged individuals to achieve a state of wu wei, freedom from desire, an
early staple tenet of Buddhist tradition thereafter.

11. John Locke (1632–1704)

An English physicist and philosopher, John Locke was
a prominent thinker during the Enlightenment period. Part
of the movement of British Empiricism alongside fellow
countrymen David Hume, Thomas Hobbes, and Sir Francis
Bacon, Locke is regarded as an important contributor to the
development of the social contract theory and is sometimes
identified as the father of liberalism. Indeed, his discourses
on identity, the self, and the impact of sensory experience
would be essential revelations to many Enlightenment
thinkers and, consequently, to real revolutionaries. His
philosophy is said to have figured prominently into the
formulation of the Declaration of Independence that initiated
America’s war for independence from the British.
Locke’s Big Ideas
 Coined the term tabula rasa (blank slate) to denote that the human mind
is born unformed, and that ideas and rules are only enforced through
experience thereafter;
Established the method of introspection, focusing on one’s own emotions
and behaviors in search of a better understanding of the self;
Argued that in order to be true, something must be capable of repeated
testing, a view that girded his ideology with the intent of scientific rigor.

12. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527)

Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli is at once among
the most influential and widely debated of history’s thinkers.
A writer, public office-holder, and philosopher of
Renaissance Italy, Machiavelli both participated in and wrote
prominently on political matters, to the extent that he has
even been identified by some as the father of modern
political science. He is also seen as a proponent of deeply
questionable — some would argue downright evil — values
and ideas. Machiavelli was an empiricist who used
experience and historical fact to inform his beliefs, a
disposition which allowed him to divorce politics not just
from theology but from morality as well. His most prominent
works described the parameters of effective rulership, in
which he seems to advocate for leadership by any means
which retain power, including deceit, murder, and
oppression. While it is sometimes noted in his defense that
Machiavelli himself did not live according to these principles,
this “Machiavellian” philosophy is often seen as a template
for tyranny and dictatorship, even in the present day.

Machiavelli’s Big Ideas

Famously asserted that while it would be best to be both loved and
feared, the two rarely coincide, and thus, greater security is found in the latter;
Identified as a “humanist,” and believed it necessary to establish a new
kind of state in defiance of law, tradition and particularly, the political
preeminence of the Church;
Viewed ambition, competition and war as inevitable parts of human
nature, even seeming to embrace all of these tendencies.

13. Karl Marx (1818–83)

A German-born economist, political theorist, and
philosopher, Karl Marx wrote some of the most revolutionary
philosophical content ever produced. Indeed, so pertinent
was his writing to the human condition during his lifetime,
he was exiled from his native country. This event would,
however, also make it possible for his most important ideas
 to find a popular audience. Upon arriving in London, Marx
took up work with fellow German Friedrich Engels. Together,
they devised an assessment of class, society, and power
dynamics that revealed deep inequalities, and exposed the
economic prerogatives for state-sponsored violence,
oppression, and war. Marx predicted that the inequalities
and violence inherent in capitalism would ultimately lead to
its collapse. From its ashes would rise a new socialist
system, a classless society where all participants (as opposed
to just wealthy private owners) have access to the means for
production. What made the Marxist system of thought so
impactful though was its innate call to action, couched in
Marx’s advocacy for a working class revolution aimed at
overthrowing an unequal system. The philosophy underlying
Marxism, and his revolutionary fervor, would ripple
throughout the world, ultimately transforming entire spheres
of thought in places like Soviet Russia, Eastern Europe, and
Red China. In many ways, Karl Marx presided over a
philosophical revolution that continues in the present day in
myriad forms of communism, socialism, socialized
democracy, and grassroots political organization.

Marx’s Big Ideas

Advocated a view called historical materialism, arguing for the
demystification of thought and idealism in favor of closer acknowledgement of
the physical and material actions shaping the world;
Argued that societies develop through class struggle, and that this would
ultimately lead to the dismantling of capitalism;
Characterized capitalism as a production system in which there are
inherent conflicts of interest between the bourgeoisie (the ruling class), and the
proletariat (the working class), and that these conflicts are couched in the idea
that the latter must sell their labor to the former for wages that offer no stake
in production.

14. John Stuart Mill (1806–73)

British economist, public servant, and philosopher
John Stuart Mill is considered a linchpin of modern social
and political theory. He contributed a critical body of work to
the school of thought called liberalism, an ideology founding
on the extension of individual liberties and economic
freedoms. As such, Mill himself advocated strongly for the
preserving of individual rights and called for limitations to
the power and authority of the state over the individual. Mill
was also a proponent of utilitarianism, which holds that the
best action is one that maximizes utility, or stated more
simply, one that provide the greatest benefit to all. This and
other ideas found in Mill’s works have been essential to
 providing rhetorical basis for social justice, anti-poverty, and
human rights movements. For his own part, as a member of
Parliament, Mill became the first office-holding Briton to
advocate for the right of women to vote.

Mill’s Big Ideas

Advocated strongly for the human right of free speech, and asserted that free
discourse is necessary for social and intellectual progress;
Determined that most of history can be understood as a struggle between
liberty and authority, and that limits must be placed on ruler ship such that it
reflects society’s wishes;
Stated the need for a system of “constitutional checks” on state authority as a
way of protecting political liberties.

15. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)

Friedrich Nietzsche was a poet, cultural critic,
and philosopher, as well as possessor of among the
most gifted minds in human history. The German
thinker’s system of ideas would have a profound
impact on the Western World, contributing deeply to
intellectual discourse both during and after his life.
Writing on an enormous breadth of subjects, from
history, religion and science to art, culture and the
tragedies of Greek and Roman Antiquity, Nietzsche
wrote with savage wit and a love of irony. He used
these forces to pen deconstructive examinations of
truth, Christian morality, and the impact of social
constructs on our formulation of moral values. Also
essential to Nietzshe’s writing is articulation of the
crisis of nihilism, the basic idea that all things lack
meaning, including life itself. This idea in particular
would remain an important component of the
existentialist and surrealist movements that followed.

Nietzsche’s Big Ideas

Favored perspectives, which held that truth is not objective but is the
consequence of various factors effecting individual perspective;
Articulated ethical dilemma as a tension between the master vs. slave
morality; the former in which we make decisions based on the assessment of
consequences, and the latter in which we make decisions based on our
conception of good vs. evil;
Believed in the individual’s creative capacity to resist social norms and
cultural convention in order to live according to a greater set of virtues.
16. Plato
Greek philosopher and teacher Plato did nothing
less than found the first institution of higher learning
in the Western World, establishing the Academy of
Athens an d cementing his own status as the most
important figure in the development of western
philosophical tradition. As the pupil of Socrates and
the mentor to Aristotle, Plato is the connecting figure
in what might be termed the great triumvirate of Greek
thought in both philosophy and science. A quote by
British philosopher Alfred North Whitehead sums up
the enormity of his influence, noting “the safest
general characterization of the European philosophical
tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to
Plato.” Indeed, it could be argued that Plato founded
political philosophy, introducing both the dialectic and
dialogic forms of writing as ways to explore various
areas of thought. (Often, in his dialogues, he employed
his mentor Socrates as the vessel for his own thoughts
and ideas.) While he was not the first individual to
partake of the activity of philosophy, he was perhaps
the first to truly define what it meant, to articulate its
purpose, and to reveal how it could be applied with
scientific rigor. This orientation provided a newly
concreted framework for considering questions of
ethics, politics, knowledge, and theology. Such is to
say that it is nearly impossible to sum up the impact
of Plato’s ideas on science, ethics, mathematics, or the
evolution of thought itself other than to say it has been
total, permeating, and inexorable from the tradition of
rigorous thinking itself.

Plato’s Big Ideas

Expressed the view, often referred to as Platonism, that those whose
beliefs are limited only to perception are failing to achieve a higher level of
perception, one available only to those who can see beyond the material world;
Articulated the theory of forms, the belief that the material world is an
apparent and constantly changing world but that another, invisible world
provides unchanging causality for all that we do see;
Held the foundational epistemological view of “justified true belief,” that
for one to know that a proposition is true, one must have justification for the
relevant true proposition.

17. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78)

Rousseau was a writer, philosopher, and —
unique among entrants on this list — a composer of
operas and classical compositions. Born in Geneva,
 then a city-state in the Swiss Confederacy, Rousseau
would be one of the most consequential thinkers of the
Enlightenment era. His ideas on human morality,
inequality, and most importantly, on the right to rule,
would have an enormous and definable impact not
just on thinking in Europe, but on the actual power
dynamics within Western Civilization. Indeed, his most
important works would identify personal property as
the root to inequality and would refute the premise
that monarchies are divinely appointed to rule.
Rousseau proposed the earth-shattering idea that only
the people have a true right to rule. These ideas
fomented the French Revolution, and more broadly,
helped bring an end to a centuries-old entanglement
between Church, Crown, and Country. Rousseau may
be credited for providing a basic framework for
classical republicanism, a form of government
centered around the ideas of civil society, citizenship,
and mixed governance.

Rousseau’s Big Ideas

Suggested that Man was at his best in a primitive state — suspended between
brute animalistic urges on one end of the spectrum and the decadence of
civilization on the other — and therefore uncorrupted in his morals;
Suggested that the further we deviate from our “state of nature,” the closer we
move to the “decay of the species,” an idea that comports with modern
environmental and conservationist philosophies;
Wrote extensively on education and, in advocating for an education that
emphasizes the development of individual moral character, is sometimes
credited as an early proponent of child-centered education.

18. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–80)

A French novelist, activist, and philosopher,
Sartre was a leading exponent of the 20th century
existentialist movement as well as a vocal proponent of
Marx ism and socialism. He advocated for resistance
to oppressive social constructs and argued for the
importance of achieving an authentic way of being. His
writing coincided with, and contrasted, the sweep of
fascism through Europe, the rise of authoritarian
regimes, and the spread of Nazism. Sartre’s ideas took
on increased importance during this time, as did his
actions. Sartre became active in the socialist
resistance, which aimed its activities at French Nazi
collaborators. Of note, one of his activist collaborators
was both a romantic partner and a fellow major cohort
 of existentialism, Simone de Beauvoir. Following the
war, Sartre’s writing and political engagement centered
on efforts at anticolonialism, including involvement in
the resistance to French colonization of Algeria. In
fact, his involvement earned Sartre two near-miss
bomb attacks at the hands of French paramilitary
forces. Also notable, Sartre was supportive of the
Soviet Union throughout his lifetime. Though
occasionally serving to raise issues regarding human
rights abuses as an outside observer, he praised the
Soviet Union’s attempt at manifesting Marxism.

Sartre’s Big Ideas

Believed that human beings are “condemned to be free,” that because
there is no Creator who is responsible for our actions, each of us alone is
responsible for everything we do;
Called for the experience of “death consciousness,” an understanding of
our mortality that promotes an authentic life, one spent in search of experience
rather than knowledge;
Argued that the existence of free will is in fact evidence of the universe’s
indifference to the individual, an illustration that our freedom to act toward
objects is essentially meaningless and therefore of no consequence to be
intervened upon by the world.

19. Socrates (470–399 BCE)

A necessary inclusion by virtue of his role as,
essentially, the founder of Western Philosophy,
Socrates is nonetheless unique among entrants on this
list for having produced no written works reflecting his
key ideas or principles. Thus, the body of his thoughts
and ideas is left to be deciphered through the works of
his two most prominent students, Plato and
Xenophon, as well as to the legions of historians and
critics who have written on him since. The classical
Greek thinker is best known through Plato’s dialogues,
which reveal a key contributor to the fields of ethics
and education. And because Socrates is best known as
a teacher of thought and insight, it is perhaps
appropriate that his most widely recognized
contribution is a way of approaching education that
remains fundamentally relevant even today. The so-
called Socratic Method, which involves the use of of
questioning and discourse to promote open dialogue
on complex topics and to lead pupils to their own
insights, is on particular display in the Platonic
dialogues. His inquisitive approach also positioned
him as a central social and moral critic of the Athenian
 leadership, which ultimately led to his trial and
execution for corrupting the minds of young
Athenians.

Socrates’ Big Ideas

Argued that Athenians were wrong-headed in their emphasis on families,
careers, and politics at the expense of the welfare of their souls;
Is sometimes attributed the statement “I know that I know nothing,” to
denote an awareness of his ignorance, and in general, the limitations of human
knowledge;
Believed misdeeds were a consequence of ignorance, that those who
engaged in nonvirtuous behavior did so because they didn’t know any better.

20. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951)

Born in Austria to a wealthy family,
Wittgenstein is one of philosophy’s more colorful and
unusual characters. He lived a life of eccentricity and
professional nomadism, dabbling in academia, military
service, education, and even as a hospital orderly.
Moreover, during his life, he wrote voluminously but
published only a single manuscript. And yet, he was
recognized by his contemporaries as a genius. The
posthumous publication of his many volumes
confirmed this view for future generations, ultimately
rendering Wittgenstein a towering figure in the areas of
logic, semantics, and the philosophy of mind. His
investigations of linguistics and psychology would
prove particularly revelatory, offering a distinctive
window through which to newly understand the
nature of meaning and the limits of human
conception.

Wittgenstein’s Big Ideas

Argued that conceptual confusion about language is the basis for most
intellectual tension in philosophy;
Asserted that the meaning of words presupposes our understanding of
that meaning, and that our particular assignment of meaning comes from the
cultural and social constructs surrounding us;
Resolved that because thought is inextricably tied to language, and
because language is socially constructed, we have no real inner-space for the
realization of our thoughts, which is to say that the language of our thoughts
renders our thoughts inherently socially constructed.
Name:_________________________________________________ Score:___________

Reflection Guide: (Module 2 Philosophy)

1. Socrates was accused of corrupting the mind of the youth of Athens
because he criticized its leader and religion. He was condemned to death
by drinking a cup of prison. What do you think of this manner of death?
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2. Plato was not in favor of democracy because it caused the death of his
teacher Socrates. In democracy, the vote of the majority prevails. Why
should the vote of the illiterate be considered equal to vote of the literate
voter?
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3. Aristotle try to gather all the knowledge from all sources available to him
during his time, while Plato mainly relied on IDEAS. Which of these two
philosophers would be favored by today’s students?
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4. What would you think that the Chinese communists have forgotten
Confucius and Lao Tzu?
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5. St. Augustine of Hippo was an intelligent unbeliever. He became a

Christian after he read the New Testament. How can a person know God
thru the Bible?
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6. If you asked to prove the existence of God, which of the five ways of St.
Thomas Aquinas to prove God’s existence would you use? Explain.
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7. According to Immanuel Kant, you must doubt everything. How can you
remove doubt in order to believe in everything?
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8. John Locke taught that you learn through experience alone. How can you
disprove this theory?
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9. Do you believe that without experience, you cannot learn? Explain.
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10. There are many misunderstanding regarding the value and meaning of
peace. Which Filipino cultural value can you share regarding peaceful co-
excistence?
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Philosophy of the human person

The Origin of the Earth and Primeval life Forms

From the dawn of history man has been the subject and the object of
wonder to himself and others. From our present standpoint in the 21" century
the study of the history of man's origin on planet Earth can be a daunting task.
The origin of the Earth cannot but fill us with awe and wonder. A scientific
theory puts the age of the Earth at 4.5 to 5 billion years. This theory portrays
the birth as the result of the Big Bang - an explosion which scattered gas of
extremely high temperature and energy in all directions. When the gas, which
was a hundred thousand million centigrade, cooled particles began to stick
together. Cooled asteroids hit the Earth and created craters. The cooling
continued and water filled the craters and the oceans.
With water life forms appeared. All life forms on Earth shared a common
origin billions of years ago. The first signs of life on Earth began to manifest
four billion years ago. Cells evolved during billions of years and life forms were
mostly microscopic and simply single-celled. Complex life evolved from the first
primitive cells as the atmospheric level of oxygen began to rise approximately
630 - 635 million years ago. It is now widely agreed that stromatolites - are
the oldest known life form on earth which has left a record of its existence. A
scientific study from 2002 shows that geological formations of stromatolites
3.45 million years old contain fossilized cyano-bacteria. Therefore if life
originated on Earth this happened between 4.4 million years ago when water
vapor first liquefied these were theories about the time the signs of life
appeared. But how did life begin remains the biggest mystery of all. There were
also theories about the origin of life. One such theory is called abiogenesis or
the original evolution of life or living organism from inorganic or inanimate
substance. Louis Pasteur in 1862 proved that life cannot be generated from
non-living matters. When, for example, milk has been sterilized by heat or
radiation and bacteria have been eliminated, no possible living organism can
survive nor reproduce. He disproved the theory of spontaneous generation.
Only a living matter or cell can generate another living cell. Charles Darwin on
February 11, 1871 suggested that the origin spark of life may have began in a
warm little pond with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, light, heat
and electricity. Or, the theory that a “primeval soup” of organic molecules could
be created according to Alexander Oparin in his book “the origin of life”
published in 1924, through the action of sunlight. Then, though the action of
sunlight these molecules combine into droplets, grow and reproduce, and so
have a primitive metabolism. Still another scientist, J. Haldane contented that
the earth’s pre-biotic ocean formed a “hot dilute soup organic compounds. This
theory was known as Biopoiesis- the process of living matter evolving from
self-replicating non-living molecules. All theories of spontaneous generation are
dead. It is said that Charles Darwin admitted that living terrestrial life forms
was called to life “by a creator”. The origin of the anthropological development
of the human person is viewed from Philosophical. Biblical and Theological.

The human person: Philosophical Anthropology

The philosophical study of the human person is called Philosophical
Anthropology -It studies the acts of intellectual knowledge and acts of free will
or freedom. Boethius, a philosopher in the 6th century A. D. defined a person -
as an individual entity or substance of rational nature. St. Thomas Aquinas
taught that every human being is a person or human substance consisting of
the rational soul and a body. Therefore, what distinguishes essentially a person
from an animal is his intelligence; animals of whatever species rely on their
instincts. A human person can sometimes make a bad judgment and freely
pursue a bad decision. Nevertheless in that instance the person does not lose
his intelligence nor freedom of choice. He may be faulted for lack of
discernment or misguided reflection, and he might have been unduly
influenced or pressured by uncontrollable passion whereby he loses the full
use of his free will. Nevertheless he was never deprived of his intellect and free
will so as to judge his action not to be a human act- an act made with the use
of intellect and free will. Amore important consideration than the question of
whether there is a freedom of choice is whether the action was a moral act. A
human act should lead a person to his ultimate end: God. The morality of a
human act refers to its conformity with the ultimate end. Whatever leads a
person to his real end is good; whatever deviates him from his real end is bad.
In order to determine the conformity of human acts to man’s ultimate end, it is
very necessary to keep in mind basic truths about God, creation, the spiritual
nature and freedom of man and vocation/purpose in life. Without truths a
person cannot know the moral order he ought to observe.

The Human Person: Biblical Anthropology

The first three chapters of the Book of Genesis narrate the story of God
creating the world and humankind. Christians always refer to Creation as the
work of Almighty God who by His words of command: "Let there be... light.."
the universe and heaven bodies, animals, birds and fishes were called to
existence. A man Adam, and a woman Eve were created too in order to take
charge of the Earth. The message in the creation story beautifully expresses
the greatness of God and the dignity of Adam and Eve:
O Lord, Our Lord how awesome is your name throughout all the
Earth! You have set your majesty above the heavens! Out of the mouths of
babes and infants you have drawn a defense against your Toes, to silence
enemy and avenger. When I see your heavens, the work of your fingers,
moon and stars that you set in place. What are humans that you are
mindful of them, mere mortals that you care for them? You have made
them little less than a god, crowned them with glory and honor. You have
given them rule over the works of your hands, put all things at their feet.
 All sheep and oxen, even the beasts of the field. The birds of the air, the
fish of the sea, and whatever swims the paths of the seas O Lord, our
Lord, how awesome your name through all the earth.
- Book of Psalms Chapter 8

Then and now Christian believers never ceased to be amazed at God's work of
creation. However, other questions linger in their mind: Why are we in this
world? Is this World going to end someday? lf God is Wise and powerful, why is
there evil in this world? Who is responsible for the evil, and will it ever end?
The believers who are perplexed about these very valid questions should always
remember “the truths of creation – its origin in God, its order and goodness,
the vocation of man, and finally the drama of sin and the hope of salvation”
(Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1994)

The Human Person: Theological Anthropology

Then God said: "Let us make man in our image, and after our likeness.
Let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, and the
cattie and over all the wild animals and all the creatures on the ground. God
created man in his image; in the divine image he created him; male and female
he created them. (Genesis 1:26-27) Man, the image of God possesses the
dignity of a person. The human person, created in the image of God, is a being
at once of body and spirit: "The Lord formed man of dust from the ground, and
breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a Living being.
That breath of life is the soul and is often used to refer to human life or the
entire human person. "Soul” can also refer to the innermost aspect of man by
which he is most especially in God's image. "Soul" signifies the spiritual
principle in man. The human body shares in the dignity of "the image of God"
because it is animated by a spiritual soul. The unity of soul and body is so
profound because it is the spiritual soul that the body made of matter becomes
a living, human body; the union of spirit and matter in man form a single
nature: human nature. It is the teaching of the Catholic Church that every
spiritual soul is created immediately by God and that it is immortal. It
separates from the body at death, but will be reunited with the body at the
final Resurrection. Sometimes the soul is distinguished from the spirit, for
example, St. Paul praying that God may sanctity his people wholly, with "spirit
and soul and body" kept sound and blameless at the Lord's coming. "Spirit"
signifies that from creation man is ordered to a supernatural end and that his
soul can freely be raised beyond it deserves to communion with God. Man and
woman as spouses and parents transmit human life to their descendants and
cooperate in a unique way in the Creator's work. And finally God made them
stewards of creation, making them responsible for the world God has entrusted
to them. Unfortunately, they failed in their responsibility. As the consequence
to that original sin, life for them and their descendants became precarious,
with all kinds of evil and death an everyday experiences. Dust unto dust, we
mourn the loss of what could have been a blissful life. God so loved the world
that he gave his only Son as the New Adam to redeem and transform the world.
But this time, he invites men and women of faith to restore to Human persons
their glory as the crown of creation. Pope Francis in his Address to the
Pontifical Academy of Sciences at Vatican City on October 27, 2014 spoken of
the origin or the universe. He declared: "The beginning of the world was not a
work of chaos that owes its origin to another but derives directly from a
Supreme Principle who creates out of love".. The Big Bang, which nowadays is
pointed as the origin of the world, does not contradict the divine act of creation,
but rather required it. The evolution of the nature does not contrast with the
notion of creation ,as evolution presupposes the creation of being that evolve.
The evolution of man was previously discussed in a 2006 The Catholic News
Service" which stated the position of the Vatican regarding the evolution of
human. The emergence of the human supposed a willful act of God, and that
man cannot be seen as only the product of evolutionary processes. The
spiritual element of man is not something that could have developed from
natural selection but required an ontological leap". That simply means that the
soul of man which is spiritual cannot evolve from the body which is material.
And, therefore, the soul is created by God and infused in the body of the
human person. The appearance of homo sapiens in the world continues to
baffle paleontologists and anthropologists. The oldest fossils of the common
ancestors of all life forms could be tracked to an aquatic micro-organism which
lived in extremely high temperature is 2 billion years old. The discovery of the
oldest homo sapiens based on fossils continues to shed more light on the
emergence of the earliest homo sapiens. Until further discoveries are made the
earliest known homo sapiens roamed Africa about 195,000 years ago. Many
other theories and hypotheses will be published from time to time. Truly, the
ancient homo sapiens Who migrated out of Africa to Asia between 2 - 1.8
million years, and to Europe between 1.5 to 1 million years ago has come a
long way. However, the most intriguing question is still the same. Did human
persons descend from apes?

THE ASPECTS OF THE HUMAN PERSON

MAN- A UNIQUE CREATURE
The different perspectives of the anthropological development of
man which have been presented broaden one’s understanding of the human
person. Beginning with inanimate, non-living objective that existence of life and
life processes set any living organism apart. Plant, on the other hand, are living
organism with the added capability to absorb the nutrients from the soil or
water and gather energy from the nature or artificial light to grow. Some plants
grow and trees soar to great heights. Others produce seeds, flowers, and fruits.
They reproduce. They creeps like vines, but they cannot transfer themselves
from one place to another on their own; their flowers are blown away by the
wind to grow somewhere, or their seeds which are eaten with the fruits are
carried away by birds animals and water to grow and reproduce. Animals,
fishes and birds and winged insects can move freely, feed themselves, and
reproduce one or several off springs. Birds and insects, and even certain
species of animals can fly to great heights. Water creatures Swim from water
surface to the deepest abyss under the seas and oceans. Some animals can
even be trained to perform in circuses. Some people suspect that animals can
think; but they really depend on their animal instincts. It is definitely the
ability to think that sets human apart from non-human of all species. He can
fly an airplane or space ship higher and faster than any bird, and dive to the
depths of oceans with the submarine. He can reproduce and clone plants and
animal. He is even now tempted to reproduce human bodies in the laboratory
with stem cells. Moreover, the freedom to choose and to act freely in order to
pursue what Good, and to act accordingly is another great difference that man
possesses. When man, conscious of himself and reflects on his ability to know
himself, his intellect will pursue the Truth relentlessly wherever he might find
it. The object of the intellect is The Truth in the same way that the object of the
will is The Good. It is by his intellect and free will that man, and his soul given
by God the Creator, because of his love gave to man that man the image of
God. This is also the basis of his human dignity and rights.
MAN-A SURVIVOR
Human persons begin to exist as persons at the moment of
fertilization when the human sperm and egg join to start a new form of
existence do unique cell which attaches itself to the uterus in order to obtain
its nourishment and develop with in its mother's womb. The science of
Medicine has reached the stage of sophistication that enables it to follow the
path of development of the human embryo until it becomes viable, that is, able
to live on its own - to breathe and take in oxygen into its lungs, and be orally
fed - detached from the umbilical cord, and it’s neat pumping oxygenated blood
throughout its body by means of veins and a arteries. Having survived months
in comfortable and secure environment it enters the world to begin another
round of developmental processes more difficult and dangerous than its former
life stage. Inspite of any harm done to the embryo during the gestation period,
which might have caused abnormality, whether physical or mental, intentional
or accidental, the baby is born with human dignity by the mere fact of its
having a soul created and given to it by God at the moment of its conception or
fertilization. The Right of the Unborn Child is an essential truth that must be
upheld and defended at all times and at all costs, because the value of human
life for all men and women is based on the fact of that unique gift of a soul and
lite given by God to every human person at the beginning of its existence. The
threats to the human embryo are innumerable. Insufficient pre-natal cares,
protein deficiency in food intake, unhealthy physical and moral environment
have been shown to be detrimental to the fetus. The birth of babies with
abnormality is a cause of extreme anguish to the parents. Some parents resort
to prenatal screening of the fetus with the help of modern scientific medical
technology with the purpose of aborting the fetus when an abnormality is
detected. Abortion is a crime in the Philippines based on the Constitution and
legal system. The Flipino saying:"Madaling maging tao, mahirap magpakatao
appears to be simplistic and unrealistic, because of the many trials and
difficulties involved before the birth of the human person. Some difficulties
experienced by the fetus can gradually surtace after its birth during the child-
rearing stage. On the other hand, the kind of environment where the child will
be brought up can also make a difference in reality, what is at stake is the
HUMAN DIGNITY of every child and its
HUMAN RIGHTS.

MAN-A SOCIAL BEING

 The human person exists in a relationship from the first moment of his
life, when good created his soul and body. His life journey reaches another
stage after his comfortable and secure existence inside his mother's womb. HIs
Din o e world w is umbilical cord cut and forced to breathe on his own was his
first experience of violence. Nevertheless, that experience was offset by the
loving welcome he received from family and relatives. There will be other and
perhaps more painful events in his young e aside from learning good manners
and right conduct. Learning to socialize will his adolescence with
disappointments and heartbreaks. Preparing himself tor gainful employment
through education will put him in stiff competition with others who might be
more ambitious and aggressive than himself. He will sooner than later learn
that this is not a friendly world where one can live alone and in isolation from
others. He might even think that the best rule of conduct is to live and let live,
not minding others and doing his own thing without any consideration for his
fellow human beings.
Individualism can lead to the other extreme by thinking that others exist
to be at his service and his pleasure. He can proceed down this path of
selfishness of I, me, and myself. He might be able to continue on the path of
self-adulation and invulnerability, but, for how long, only he can honestly
admit. He is not unique in striving to find meaning and happiness on his own
terms. As a matter of fact, when Aristotle defined man as a social animal he
could not miss the fact that togetherness of animals served many purposes,
like security against other savage beasts and teaching the young survival skills.
Anti- social conduct never made anybody happy, contented and at peace.
Socially conscious, considerate and respectful of others are characteristics to
attract true friends. As the saying goes: No Man Is an Island.

MAN-AN INTEGRAL UNITY

The human person is an integral unity of body-mind-emotions. It is
worth recalling that the human person or man is a body-soul unity. Likewise,
let us not forget that inherent in the soul is man's intellect and free will. And,
finally, let us remember that it is the soul, directly created by God and infused
in the body that gives life to the body, so much so that all the functions or all
activities of the body cease at the moment of death. When the immortal Soul
leaves the body or corpse then it begins to return to dust are reminded or this
tact every Ash Wednesday. On that day ashes are placed foreheads as the
Minister repeats the word from the Book of Genesis 3:19 “You are duo and to
dust you shall return". Nevertheless, before that inevitable and irreversible
event happens to each person many wonderful milestones in the life of man
take place. There are positive milestones worth recalling to be grateful for, and
to encourage everyone to become truly the image of God.
There is a saying from Thales (624-546 B.C) a pre-Socratic Greek
philosopher, and Juvenal (b6-127 A.D.) a Roman poet:"Mens sana in corpore
sano, meaning: “A healthy mind in a healthy body". We can instantly
understand that we should strive to develop a healthy body which can support
and maintain a healthy mind. A mentally healthy person is one who enjoys
emotional, physical and social well-being. He is able to function in society and
capable of coping with normal stresses of everyday me, and to work
productively. He is confident and has self-esteem. On the other hand, there are
physical illnesses which originate from mental/psychological and emotional
stressors.
Studies on human development starting from conception till death
have been done from different perspectives. From conception the fetus is said
to start to feel, taste, hear and smell. These senses gradually develop further
after birth with the sense of sight added.

Man's emotional development has been shown to be influenced

positively by how he is provided with parental care and his basic needs for love,
security, food, clothing and shelter are satisfied. Otherwise, his emotional
development is negatively influenced by the denial or absence of his needs.
This shows how biological or physical needs are intertwined with emotional
needs. With the progressive development of his mind he begins to feel, think
and reflect on what is happening to him. By the way he is treated he begins to
respond in a positive way, in a shy or even belligerent manner. If the
environment he is being brought up is supportive, he develops trust, security
and self-worth. He learns to respect himself, to recognize his feeling, emotions
and express them. He feels the need for friendship and intimacy.

The demands of social life begin to grow and claim more skills and
work to earn the respect of his peers, and to rise in respectability before others.
And if he plans to from his own family more pressures will be exerted on his
physical, mental, emotional, psychological and social well-being. He may
believe in his capacity Cope win the demands of a happy and meaningful life.
The onset of midlife crisis can be a great source of many life-changing episodes
and transformation. It may seem that the previous life stages are not difficult
enough; now man must face at around 40 years of age the so- called midlife
crisis. It calls for a new pattern of living. At the start of this crisis man begins
with questions about himself, his job, his religion and God. He feels bored,
irritable and angry. He is unhappy with his life and he wants something new
and different than usual. Because of his behavior he appears strange to his
family and friends. He wants to transform a most everything about himself, his
relationships. He feels being misunderstood and so segregates himself and be
alone. Those closest to him might have no idea about what he is going through.
They want to help him, but they have no clue how. Actually, mid-life crisis is a
crossroad in a man's life. He must choose whether to continue in his
psychosomatic imbalance and get stuck indefinitely, or seek help and
understanding until he regains his equilibrium. He can overcome his condition
and return a transformed man.

Illness is part and parcel of the human condition. Certain illnesses

are easily cured with simple medication. Others need surgical procedures. But,
whatever man does to take care of his well-being, the process of aging may be
delayed for a short period of time. Soon signs like declining reaction time,
waning muscular strength and stamina, perception, sense of hearing and smell
appear. The feeling of impending end and the fear of facing death alone can be
very dreadful. However, he may have the consolation and courage to face
death, if he can truthfully say that his life has been generously spent for the
good of others too. With a clear and good conscience he can face his merciful
Judge and loving God.

Reflection Guide:
1.How did the universe begun?
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2.What are the theories regarding the origin of primeval life forms?
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3.In what way is man superior to all other created beings?
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4.What are the two elements of the human person which are considered
necessary in order to judge whether his action is moral or immoral.
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5. Why is man a unique creature?
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6.Why do we say that man is a survivor?

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7.Explain the saying: “a healthy mind in a healthy body”
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8.In what ways is a human person a social being?
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9.What happened when a man is in mid-life crisis?
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10. How can one person be different from another?
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