CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Historical Background of Conventions and Exhibitions

According to Wikipedia (2010), a convention centre is “a large building designed to hold a
convention, where individuals and groups gather to promote and share common interests.
Convention centres typically offer sufficient floor area to accommodate several thousand
attendees. Very large venues, suitable for major tradeshows are sometimes known as exhibition
centres”. An exhibition is a display of items in a public place, allowing a specific industry to
showcase and demonstrate their latest products (Pyramid Visuals, 2010.).

The most iconic example of the convention centre is the Crystal Palace, designed for the 1851
Great Exhibition. At the request of Queen Victoria, London architect Sir John Paxton created a
stunning new architectural typology as a symbol of Britain's world domination: an innovative
structure of glass and iron that stood proudly in Hyde Park. The building encompassed 990,000
square feet, and was 1,851 feet long and 128 feet high. More than six million visitors and 14,000
exhibits insured the success of the exhibition. Profits helped build the Natural Science Museum,
the Royal Albert Hall, and the Victoria and Albert Museum of Fine Arts (PCMA, 2010).

Exhibitions have been around since the ancient times, being used by civilisations such as the
Egyptians, Romans, Phoenicians, Greeks and Chinese. They would hold exhibitions in the
market squares and bazaars where tradesmen would travel to meet with the makers of cloth, dye,
and silverware. The first exhibition centre was believed to have existed 2,500 years ago, when
archaeologists excavated remains on the East Mediterranean coast. Artefacts such as remnants of
coins from many different areas were found revealing that trade was carried out across a large
area of the region. As time passed trade spread from the East Mediterranean coast, across to the
west and into the north of Europe. As a result of this, new markets evolved and as interactions
between different countries increased, there was a higher demand for new and interesting
products and services. New distribution routes became essential, and this led to the industrial
revolution which dramatically changed the way business was conducted. Tradesmen began to
offer a range of products for sale instead of just one and they started selling products in large
quantities (Pyramid Visuals, 2010).

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The first exhibition as we know it in the modern sense, was held in 1798 (Year VII, under the
French Republican calendar) in Maisond’Orsaia No. 667 Rue de Varenne in Paris. The expo was
so successful that the Minister Neufchateau arranged a new exhibition, the three last days of the
year. This, the first official “expostiotione” with a number of 110 exhibitors took place in an
appropriate building on the Mars field. It was not the only state industries represented, but also
Paris manufacturers. Thus it was found, Sèvres, alongside Angouleme and Leroy, exhibited their
watches. Boule and Gonthière exhibited their furniture. Napoleon celebrated his Italian victories
in the form of marches and processions (World Exhibition, n.d.).

In Victorian England during the mid-1800’s exhibitions were considered as social outings with
many exhibitions focusing on a theme, for example in 1851 the ‘Great Exhibition’ held at Crystal
Palace bared the theme of ‘works of industry of all nations’. Exhibitions are currently one of the
most effective ways of marketing. They provide a mixture of information, communication and
entertainment and it is the only medium that allows the use of all five senses in an environment
of face to face contact (Pyramid Visuals, 2010.).

2.1.1 The Great Exhibition

According to historical records the first World Exposition was located in London. The Society
for the Promotion of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce invited several companies in 1756 and
1757 into a prize draw in London (Pyramid Visuals, 2010.) As the leader of the industrial
revolution, Britain was very self-satisfied with this fact, and in 1851 Queen Victoria decided to
create an exhibition symbolising the industrial, military and economic superiority of Great
Britain. In addition to this she felt it important to parade her achievements alongside the ‘less
civilised’ countries. By just creating an exhibition conveying the feats of Britain itself, it would
have lacked the technological advancements pioneered by Great Britain and its many Empires. In
order to celebrate everything that the country has achieved, the Queen decided to parade all of
the accomplishments to both Britain and the rest of the world. Queen Victoria was eager to
reinforce her feeling of contentment with her reign, so her husband Prince Albert conceived the
idea of the ‘Great Exhibition’.

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 Plate 1: The Great Exhibition at Hyde Park
Source: Nel, (2010)

Plate 2: Interior of the Crystal Palace

Source: Encarta Encyclopaedia.

The great Exhibition was held in Hyde Park, London at Crystal Palace which was especially
constructed to hold this exhibition. Constructed by Joseph Paxton, The Crystal Palace was built
in ten days and was a huge iron structure covered in over a million feet of glass.

Over 6,200,000 visitors attended the 13,000 exhibitions that were held to marvel at the industrial
revolution. Some of the most popular exhibits that people travelled to see were the Jacquard

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loom, an envelope machine, tools, kitchen appliances, a reaping machine and steel making
displays. The items that were displayed derived from all members of the British Empire for
example; India, Australia and New Zealand. The profits from this exhibition funded places for
the public, for example; The Albert Hall, The Science Museum, The Natural History Museum
and the Victoria and Albert Museum. After the Great Exhibition closed, Crystal Palace was
moved to South London and reconstructed and Queen Victoria opened it in 1854 as a 200 acre
Victorian ‘Theme Park’ (Pyramid Visuals, 2010).

2.2 Conventions and Convention Centres

Conventions consist of meetings for large groups of people and include lectures, displays,
exhibitions and demonstrations in a certain subject or for an industry. They are concerned with
educating the people that are interested in a certain field. Speakers prepare papers that are
presented to delegates which are then published for further circulation. The reason for these
events is for people to connect on a physical level, to meet, shake hands and have a personal
connection. It is a way to build up a network of contacts and be educated about an industry, a
profession or an interest. Today, conventions continue to flourish and are large scale events that
vary from 500 to 10000 delegates or more (Nel, 2010).

Convention centres are more than just spaces for large conference and exhibitions; they house a
variety of other functions and activities:

1. It is an information hub for the city and for tourists that showcase the indigenous culture
and characteristics of a region.
2. It is a business centre that offers facilities from the sale of daily newspapers to banking
services and professional meeting infrastructure.
3. It is a vibrant atmosphere of restaurants, coffee shops and lounge areas where delegates
and the public can meet and converse.

Convention centres are places where people from across the globe meet and therefore cannot be
seen as massive sheds that house events, but it is rather as places where architecture and people
meet and interact with one another. Like stadiums and theatres, convention centres deal with an
architecture of gathering. They are structures that house events, where openness is created, only
to be filled with activity.

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2.2.1 Convention Centre as a Building Type
A convention centre is a purpose-built venue designed primarily to host major conferences and
events (Nel, 2010). These events may be local or international. It consists of:

1. A main tiered auditorium with a capacity to seat at least 1000 delegates;

2. Two or three additional meeting spaces of about 800 and 400 capacity;
3. Immediately adjacent meeting and exhibition space (>10000 square metres, flexible and
divisible);
4. The ability to provide catered functions for the delegates;
5. Hotel accommodation of varying standards on-site or nearby.

2.2.1.1 Spaces in the Convention Centre

Main spaces:

The Plenary where delegates are seated for presentations – normally an auditorium space that
can be configured in a classroom or theatre seating arrangement.

The Exhibition Hall where exhibition stalls are set up – a flexible space that can easily be
configured to suit exhibitor’s needs.

The Ballroom or Banquet Room where dinners or cocktail parties are hosted – an open floor
space where tables and chairs can be configured for different events

The Plenary, Exhibition Hall and Ballroom can all consist of one space or structure that is
divided and configured differently to provide for the specific needs or it can be separate spaces
that are dedicated to their functions, meaning that they can be used simultaneously. These spaces
are supported by smaller meeting rooms, boardrooms and multi-functional spaces.

Foyers and Breakout Rooms:

The Main Foyer – this space allows for the main circulation through the building, connecting
different functions and entrances to meeting rooms and exhibition spaces.

Breakout Spaces – spaces that allow delegates to break away from the main space of activity

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Restaurants, business services and information desks are in close proximity to the foyer spaces as
these areas are the public and semi-public spaces in the building.

Service Spaces and Marshal Yards:

The Kitchens – large areas are needed for catering purposes and will be located away fom the
public side of the building.

Marshal Yard – an area where deliveries and preparations can take place to set up and service
the infrastructure for large events.

The service areas are technical spaces and the most disconnected from the public faces of the
building. Included in this is the parking that needs to be provided. Even though it is a service
structure to the building, there is a public element as this will be used by visitors, therefore a
public link is necessary between this ‘service area’ and the public foyer of the building.

Public and Urban Spaces:

These include; Outdoor Exhibition Space, Amphitheatre, Public Gardens, and Performance
Areas.

Providing public spaces (other than bus and taxi stops) is a required element for a convention
centre to receive large amounts of visitors and host major events and will be explored as an
important part of the building to relate to the site and provide a new public space for the city.

2.2.2 Convention Centre Typology

An analysis of the problems convention centres face in their urban context and raised certain
issues; focus was more on the spaces inside the building and the expression of the form, (Nel,
2010), pertinent issues addressed were:-

1. How is the building generated? Convention centres aim to satisfy the needs of event
organisers, who have specific needs in terms of the layout, size and flexibility of spaces.
The popularity that this building type has reached across the world can be attributed to
the fact that it is a one-stop-shop that hosts an array of spaces and functions that event
organizers and attendees require. All the activities can be hosted under one roof. This
concept has resulted in atypical diagram that almost every convention centre is based on.

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 Firstly, a decision is taken to determine the size of the building, calculated by
determining the maximum number of delegates that will be hosted at any given time and
multiplying it by the minimum sq. m/person. Secondly, to accommodate all the activities
under one roof, the space requires a flexible layout – not designed for a specific activity
but for any activity that could be required. The resultant diagram is an open space that
can be configured in different ways and becomes shed-like in nature.
2. Responding to human scale. Proportionately to floor areas, the height of event spaces
become massive and the space results in a massive volume. This makes it very difficult
for these structures to respond sensitively to the human scale. The large space
requirements are the reason for the industrial shape and expression that define most
convention centres. Industrial structures are designed to house machines and therefore
there is a lack of connection between the architecture and the person.
3. Creating a sense of identity. A convention that attracts thousands of delegates to a city
plays an important role in the tourism industry of a place. Conventions are promoted by
selling the clients a unique experience. Therefore, the building is an ambassador for the
region as it is the first place that visiting delegates will experience. The building should
strive to create experience. It should project the visitor out into the surrounding and
encourage to experience of the city. It should offer views, create urban connections, and
arrange spaces towards public activities, among others.

Factors affecting the design and location of convention centres include:

a) Connectivity to support services and infrastructure – proximity to hotels, restaurants and
leisure activities, public transport infrastructure, etc.
b) Relationship to roads and surroundings – definition of street edges, setbacks, etc.
c) Building as object in space or space defining element – integration with city streets,
follows building lines, prominence, etc.

2.2.3 Technical Aspects of Convention & Exhibition Centre Design

Under this heading, important technical issues involved in the design of a Convention and
Exhibition Centre will be dealt with. Spaces requiring a level of technical understanding to
generate their design and calculate their floor areas will be investigated. These spaces include:

The Auditorium (Plenary Hall) – to consider visual and audio comfort for the audience

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 The Exhibition Space – to consider the needs of exhibitors and visitors

The Main Kitchen – to accommodate equipment and staff necessary to serve delegates
and visitors

The size and floor areas of the Parking Requirements will also be calculated.

The spaces are analysed for the activities that they contain and their interior volumes and areas
that are required. Therefore, external expression of spaces and buildings is not necessarily
explored here but may be informed by contained space. The architectural nature and sustainable
issues of spaces will also be explored to contribute to a holistic understanding of spaces and their
construction.

2.2.3.1 The Plenary Hall

Nature of the Space

The main function of the auditorium is to host plenary sessions for delegates (plenary hall). The
plenary hall is considered the main space in a conference centre and spatial requirements for
other activities are derived from the capacity that the plenary hall can support. As the space that
hosts the core activity of conference, the auditorium will assume the role of being the main
object that other activities and spaces are generated from (Nel, 2010).

The nature of plenary sessions:

1. The audience and the speaker are the subjects of the space. All focus is on the speaker
who is delivering important information to the audience. This is a private activity in the
sense that the speaker and the audience are not concerned with other activities around but
only the matter at hand.
2. The space is therefore introverted.
3. The space is directional (focused on the stage, speaker).

The expression of the building shape:

The specific functional and technical requirements results in auditoriums having a specific form.

The form of the space will affect the form of spaces around it.

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Flexibility:
As conferencing events are not always being hosted, the plenary will be able to be used for other
things such as theatre productions, musical performances, exhibitions, etc.

Technical Requirements

Technical requirements for the plenary hall/auditorium include:

a) A minimum ceiling height of 3.5 metres

b) Unobstructed view of stage from all areas
c) Lighting minimum of 400 lux that can be dimmed and space has to be able to totally
blackout
d) Acoustic RT 60<1.2 seconds
e) Isolation from external noise sources to exceed 70dbA
f) Built-in audio equipment
g) Seating with a minimum of 600mm wide and row space with a minimum of 800mm

Figure 1: Seating Dimensions

Source: Metric Handbook Planning and Design Data, Second Edition

h) Goods lift: 4m x 2.5m

i) Fire exits and disabled access to all areas
j) Stage at a minimum of 700mm high and at least 50m2
k) Foyer areas must provide occasional seating and refreshment areas
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2.2.3.2 The Exhibition Space
Nature of the Space

The main function of the exhibition space is to host events that showcase new products, trends
and technology to the public and potential consumers in the form of trade shows and product
launches, to become, temporarily, a large (or small) gallery for art exhibitions or music festivals,
and sometimes provide a space where a television studio can broadcast live updates from such as
the last 2010 FIFA World Cup. The nature of the space is therefore multi-functional and ever-
changing to adapt to the specific needs of the users. A shell that contains and supports a variety
of activities in a comfortable environment with the necessary infrastructure and invites the public
to be entertained and educated (Nel, 2010).

The nature of exhibits:

1. Exhibits are different in size, weight and shape and will require different display options.
Therefore, the volume of the space needs to be proportionate. These attributes must also
be considered in allowing for deliveries and access doors.
2. Illumination of exhibits can be supplemented in day time by natural light. A linear
skylight located along the edge where a wall and the ceiling plane meets will wash the
surface of the wall with light. Openings in the roof plane visually organize spaces.

The movement and experience of visitors:

Circulation through exhibits is organized differently dependent on the nature of the exhibition,
trade show or other events. Circulation to important spaces such as foyer, break rooms and toilets
must be clear to visitors.

The exhibition space functions as a part of a whole. The main event could occupy the entire
building at once. For this reason, a number of support spaces are required to ensure the visitor of
a pleasant experience and provide organisers with necessary infrastructure. The entrance and
registration foyer serves as welcoming spaces that also provide information and directions
through the building. The concourse connects different exhibition spaces to each other as well as
connecting the exhibition space to the rest of the building. Breakaway spaces provide an escape
from the main event and allow for retail areas, restrooms and outdoor areas.

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The size and shape of the space:

The size, in terms of volume, will vary with each event. Floor areas, ceiling heights and delivery
bays are therefore designed to the assumed maximum space requirements of events that the
exhibition space will host. Market research in the interest and expenditure on exhibition activities
will define the most accurately what types of events can be expected.

Flexibility:

Flexibility of the space for smaller or bigger events, display in different mediums and hosting
more than one event at the same time should be considered. This means the vertical and
horizontal planes need to be adjustable to adapt to comfortable proportions.

Indoor/Outdoor Events:

Figure 2: Indoor / Outdoor Exhibition

Source: Nel Jacques

Large exhibits such as cars at motor expos can be exhibited outdoors. The exhibition
presentations and media activities can be set up inside while some exhibits spill onto outdoor
exhibition space where they can be enjoyed more informally with greater freedom and space for
visitors.
The shape of the overall space is therefore a major consideration. Mostly squares and rectangles
are used for simple plan layout and ease of partitioning.
Technical Requirements

The technical function of the exhibition space is to provide structural and information services to
support exhibition activities. This includes the structural requirement of large spans to cover

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uninterrupted floor space and provisions for a large amount of services for exhibitors, organisers
and visitors.

Figure 3: Natural Lighting of Interior

Source: Nel Jacques

Size and shape:

a) Minimum floor to ceiling height is 4 metres

b) Minimum of 1.4m2 per individual
c) Minimum of 0.7m2 per individual for foyer and registration spaces
d) Access from foyer to different exhibition spaces dependent on how the hall is divided
e) Natural light – openings in roof with hatches to close when desirable. Direct sunlight will
result in unnecessary heat gain. Reflected and diffused sunlight will contribute to a
pleasant internal environment

Circulation and display:

a) 65% of the floor area for exhibitors or stalls or booths

b) 35% for circulation and viewing.

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Exhibits:

a) Minimum live load capacity of 10kN/m2 for floors and roof structures. A roof structure
that facilitates the hanging of objects is desirable
b) Direct access to the exhibition floor for delivery vehicles
c) Large moveable doors to delivery side that offer maximum opening area
d) Minimum overall lighting of 300 lux
e) Total blackout of spaces is desirable.

2.2.3.3 Parking Requirements

Parking requirements is worked out for event spaces functioning at full capacity and
simultaneously. Overflow areas will be available in the surrounding area for larger events. The
floor area required will be calculated at the stage when the accommodation schedule is formed
and other spaces have been assigned with floor areas (Nel, 2010).

1. Offices 1 parking space / 25m2 (+10% of parking for visitors)

2. Auditorium 1 space / 4 seats
3. Exhibition hall 1 space / 30m2 of display spaces

Figure 4: Parking Space Dimensions

Source: Architect’s Data, Third Edition

2.2.4 Recent Trends in Convention and Exhibition Centre Design

According to (Russell Lee, 2007) convention centres, "are where the city markets, its goods and
services, produce and wares were bought, bartered or exchanged, this was where people met,
exchanged ideas and technologies, and socialised. Today these centres have replaced the

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traditional town hall as the place of gathering and celebration. Connected and integrated urban
planning, flexible centre design and advances in technology will provide a facility that acts as a
“transformer” and a forum for communication, it will be readily adaptable to deliver a unique
event experience and showcase the city to which it belongs. These memorable experiences are
the generators of revenue, the driver of a Convention and Exhibition Centre. Competition
amongst centres locally and internationally necessitates delivery of a quality experience with
value on investment for the customer”. He identified some of the key future trends for
consideration in convention and exhibition centres. They include:

1. Location

Convention centres must be designed to attract and conduct a myriad of events, including large
regional and international conventions, trade shows, exhibitions, entertainment, various
performing arts, sporting events and other such activities. Exhibition and Convention Buildings
are, by their nature and location, emblematic of their local environment and culture and
consequently represent a unique design challenge. The facility is used by locals and international
visitors alike and as such should say something about the city and country where it is located.
Whilst, local usage of these facilities is important for domestic trade, the major benefit of these
facilities is in attracting potential international customers. Due to the intense competition for
international conventions, a key aspect consideration for organisers is the facilities location.
Most modern facilities have suitable facilities so what differentiates them? Organisers look for
added value such as close proximity to the CBD, ease of access from the airport, availability of
activities and attractions for delegates.

2. Technology – Flexible Building Elements

Convention centres have dramatically evolved in their design over the last century. During the
post-war era the typical design of a centre was little more than a large warehouse with pre-
function space added on at the front, large docks taking up valuable space and little attention
paid to its aesthetic appearance. Today and looking to the future priority has been placed on
designing a centre that is a marketable destination able to generate revenue for its city. The
building will be the ‘container’ for communication; it will facilitate connection with its urban
context and provide comfort and convenience for its users. The reduction in large tradeshows

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and the increase in more frequent smaller corporate meetings and related events require facilities
to maximize the flexibility and efficiency of space within the design. Flexibility is generally
delivered by having column free space, service pits or trenches, operable walls, air conditioning,
high floor loadings and rigging capability. Whilst these items are effective, they are also
considered mandatory. More recent innovations to the building focus on providing a quicker turn
around and reduced operational costs for facility managers and event organisers. These items
include:

 Catwalks
 Operable Ceilings
 Operable Floors
 Operable Seating
3. Technology – Communications

Technology is quickly changing in its application for convention centres. At a recent medical
conference at the Washington D.C. Convention Centre, the breakout rooms became virtual
surgical theatres. Attendees watched live surgeries conducted by some of the best doctors in the
world. They were able to interact by asking the surgeons questions while the operations were in
progress. This live virtual experience was made possible by the convention centre’s sophisticated
broadband internet capability. Five years ago, that type of global demonstration would have been
difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. But today it’s the type of event that can be put together
with relative ease in the world’s top‐tier convention centres. Another popular high‐tech feature in
convention centres are the LCD screens located around the building, particularly, where each
screen can be programmed individually for use in everything from a static display of information
to live broadcasts.

4. Meeting Consumer Demand

The above example of communication capability represents a standard that major convention
centres must achieve in order to be competitive. Leading centres and their customers are
increasingly redefining what constitutes the leading edge of technology. Whilst the buildings are
designed to last over 50 years, their communication systems must be upgradeable every 3-5
years. For most new centres, a major component of their construction is the installation of the

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world’s best electronic technology. This includes ample fibre‐optic cable in the building's
communications “spine,” the wiring system that carries signals throughout the facility. Its
capacity needs to allow for technology upgrades on a regular basis. In addition to communication
systems, centres also need to have staff available to assist during pre, and post the event. Many
groups only tap the surface of what they can do with electronic technology because they find it
somewhat intimidating. To accomplish this, tech-staff need to be able to translate every aspect of
the process into understandable language.

5. Wireless Technology

The most consumed technological service at convention centres is now wireless internet
connectivity. Wireless technology offers a great opportunity not only as a communications tool
but also as a revenue source for groups.

6. Environmental Initiatives

Through an integrated approach to the design of facility, the principles of Ecologically

Sustainable Development (ESD) can be integrated into the design for a new centre. The target
that should be established for a new project should be the production of a climate change neutral
solution. The initiatives proposed below represent world’s best practice for Convention and
Exhibition Centres, with consideration given to the use of passive design technologies, such as
natural lighting and natural ventilation, the selection of materials, the efficiencies in plant design
and operation, as well as the significant opportunities for the utilisation of renewable energy
sources. They include:

 Living Roof
 Renewable Energy
 Passive Building Design
 Building Materials

2.3 Circulation and Spatial Experience

Stiles et al (2009) opined that the way in which we experience urban spaces depend to a large
degree on the way in which they are arranged and how we move through them. This in turn is a
function of the way in which the design of pathways and movement channels interacts with the

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overall spatial composition. The spatial experience of the user can therefore to a large extent be
influenced and orchestrated by the decisions taken by the designer. The ability of the designer to
influence the movement patterns of the user depends to a large extent on the fact that we all like
to take the easiest and most convenient route across a space, the ‘line of least resistance’. The
implication of this is not to simply join up the entry and exit points of a space with a straight line
– the so-called desire line- that marks the shortest distance between the two points, but instead to
design and articulate the space such that the easiest and most convenient routes also seem to be
the most natural ones, even when they may not always be the shortest.

2.3.1 Circulation
In the field of architecture, circulation refers to the way people move through and interact with a
building. In public buildings, circulation is of high importance; for example, in buildings such as
museums, it is important to have a floor plan that allows continuous movement while minimizing
the necessity to retrace one's steps, allowing a visitor to see each work in a sequential, natural
fashion. These pathways are how we experience architecture; the design of these pathways has
an enormous effect on the success or failure of a plan. Circulation spaces ought to be as
interesting as any other part of a building. There are always unique opportunities to make
circulation interesting. Obvious pathways include hallways (horizontal circulation) and stairs
(vertical circulation). But every space we are able to occupy is part of the circulation system of a
building. Halls can be expanded to become spacious areas like vestibules, foyers, galleries,
arcades, and colonnades. Vertical circulation can include elevators and escalators. Less obvious
pathways are the spaces between and around furniture: the spaces in rooms where people are
likely to walk. All of these variations on circulation are important aspects of architecture because
it is through movement that we enjoy architecture as a three-dimensional experience. Without
movement, architecture is merely a stage set: entertaining to look at, perhaps, but with no direct
relationship to the user. Good circulation is essential to successful architecture. Like the flow of
blood in a body, circulation works best when the route is clear and unobstructed. After all, how
can you appreciate beautiful spaces if you don’t know where to go or you’re constantly bumping
into obstacles? When we confront people with an obstacle course, their eyes are on the obstacles,
not the architecture (Knorr, 2009).

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As part of an architectural brief, circulation is generally detailed as a percentage value of total
floor area. Such a value is typically a standard value, defined by building type. General
architectural principles note consideration of path configuration, path-space relations and the
form of circulation space; a building’s circulation system as positive elements that affect our
perception of the building’s forms and space. Such attention though is typically distracted from
the start by the importance indicated in the architectural brief and its representation of circulation
as servicing; being an area provision to link the parts. This promotes optimisation and the
practise of trying to organise rooms in a plan in the most efficient arrangement so as to minimise
circulation space, which hinders the potential articulation of circulation space. Perceiving
circulation as little more than optimisation inherently defines space that is linear, juxtaposed and
generally considered as little more than a connector between destinations, which equates to the
manifestation of the corridor (Ireland, 2008).

Traffic patterns are most effective when clear, logical, and unambiguous. However, that doesn’t
mean they need be boring. Walking through a work of architecture is a sequence of events, and
every event can be interesting. In a well-designed floor plan, every event reinforces the theme,
variations, and development of the overriding functional requirements and aesthetic purpose.
Circulation spaces should be designed as meaningful parts of the whole. When circulation must
exist independent from the main spaces because of privacy or security, the architect still has
many design tools available to keep things interesting. When the budget allows, foyers can be
generous, halls can be designed as galleries, and stairs can be compelling focal points.
Circulation need never interfere with furnishings or function. The challenge is to find interesting
and lively transitions from one space to another. Space flows naturally and effortlessly when
circulation is an integral part of architectural design. Good circulation does not necessarily mean
that the shortest path between two points is best. It means that the most architecturally rewarding
path between two points is preferred (Knorr, 2009).

2.3.2 Space
The space a building occupies and the space within a building are very important in architecture.
Understanding how to define one space, enables the overlapping of multiple spaces to explore
the variety of spatial zones established in a project. The number of different ways to define a
space depends on the clarity of the elements that form the space (Autodesk, 2010).

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All space needs to be articulated and structured in order to function properly. This does not just
go for outdoor spaces but for indoor space too. Indeed, perhaps this principle is easiest to
understand in the context of indoor spaces. A simple house is enclosed within its outer walls, but
to function as a dwelling it needs to be further subdivided into a series of rooms each having a
specific function. The sizes of the rooms and their relation to one another are important for the
functioning of the house. Simply increasing the size of the rooms does not create more useable
space. Indeed more space is often most easily created by separating off a space for a specific
purpose from an existing one and thereby actually making it smaller (Stiles et al, 2009).

2.3.3 How We Experience Space

The way in which spaces are experienced is very closely linked to the question of their scale and
proportions; in particular the link is to the human scale as defined by the dimensions of the
human body and the scales which are in turn influenced by this. One of the most important if not
the most obvious of these anthropometric dimensions is the angle of vision. The vertical angle of
vision in particular is what influences the sense of enclosure we experience in spaces of different
size and proportion. The critical dimensions are the ratio of the height of the enclosing elements
of a space, taking into account eye level, and the distance away from them the viewer is standing.
At a ratio of 1:1 the enclosing elements completely fill the vertical field of view of the observer,
and the sense of enclosure is complete, if not oppressive. The greater the distance of the viewer
from the elements defining the edges of a space the less they will fill the vertical field of view
resulting in a decreasing experience of spatial enclosure. On the basis of this dimensions for the
size of spaces can be calculated, but variables – such as the position of the viewer within the
space – remain (Stiles et al, 2009).

The factors defining the ease of movement through a space will include the presence of obstacles
and floor surface – we will tend to avoid going up and down when an equally attractive
alternative route on the level is available. Spatial experience can also be manipulated by taking
the observer through a defined series of spaces in a particular sequence. Thus a space can be
made to seem larger and lighter than it otherwise would do if one is first taken through a small,
dark and cramped space. Views can also be orchestrated by the way in which routes are defined,
such that they are discovered, framed in a manner orchestrated by the designer (Stiles et al,
2009).

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