Silent design

Peter Gorb and Angela Dumas

London Business School, Sussex Place, London NW1 4SA, UK

This paper describes the outcomes of a one-year pilot research study and outlines the routes for the two-year wider study to follow. The research was prompted by the growing interest in the UK in design and its contribution to business performance, and the need to replace anecdote about 'best practice" in organizing and utilizing design, with information about more 'general' practice. After defining design as 'a course of action for the development of an artefact' and suggesting that design activity pervades organizations, the paper describes the methodology used to examine how design is organized. Using matrices to explore the interaction of design with other business functions the report suggests that 'silent design' (that is design by people who are not designers and are not aware that they are participating in design activity) goes on in all the organizations examined, even those which have formal design policies and open design activities. It is the scope and nature of "silent design', and its conflict and/or cooperation with formal design activity, which will form the basis for the hypothesis on which the wider investigation will be built. Keywords: design activity, methodology, interaction with non-designers

This is an interim report on a research investigation into the organizational place of design. The research, which is funded by the Leverhulme Trust, is expected to take three years to complete. For operating purposes it was divided into two parts: the first part, a pilot study over one year, was intended to develop propositions for examination in the wider part of the research. This interim report discusses the outcome of that study, which has just been completed. However, before discussing the pilot study, it is worth restating the overall objectives of the research, and describing the context in which it is taking place.

DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT

In the last decade, and particularly since 1982, there has been a growing interest in Britain in the contribution that design can make to business profitability. The government, through the Department of Trade and Industry, has given significant financial support to the promotion

of this proposition. Through the Design Council it has funded a design consultancy scheme designed to help smaller industries to use design more effectively. It has asked the larger industries formally to commit themselves to supporting the importance of design, and is conducting a national advertising campaign. A Government Minister is charged with the national responsibility for design. In the field of education the subject of design management has emerged as a new field of study in both design and business schools. The teaching of design at the MBA level was pioneered at London Business School in 1976 and is now firmly established here. In 1985 the Council for National Academic Awards published a report on design management which has led to initial work at a post graduate level in five polytechnic management studies departments 1. Inhouse training in the subject is beginning to happen in industry. In 1986 design appeared on the agenda of the conference of the European Foundation for Management Development, for the first time.

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Britain's leadership in promoting the importance of design is being watched and emulated both in Europe and the USA. An outcome of this growing interest has been a key discussion on how best to organize and utilize the design activity.

changing existing situations into preferred ones. The intellectual activity that produces material artefacts is no different fundamentally from the one that prescribes remedies for a sick patient or the one that devises a new sales plan for a company or a social welfare policy for a state. Design, so construed, is the core of all professional training: it is the principal mark that distinguishes the professions from the sciences' (Simon2) This quotation proposes a methodology of design which Herbert Simon differentiates from the methodology of science. He also points out the very wide-ranging nature of that methodology which has application well beyond his own concern with artefacts. His comment illuminates one main reason why confusion exists over the place of design in organizations, and why there is a need to identify and later specify some landmarks in the process that is design. Simon limits his definition of design to artefacts, that is, man-made things; although he is also concerned with systems of artefacts, and how the individual artefacts within such a system relate to each other. We have adopted that limitation. However we are also concerned with and how people in organizations understand and make various contributions to the planning, strategies and goals surrounding those artefacts and systems of artefacts. Our working definition of design is therefore: a course of action for the development of an artefact or a system of artefacts; including the series of organizational activities required to achieve that development It is important to point out that this definition is not so exclusive as to encompass merely the activities of the professional designer, a limitation which we abandoned at an early point in our investigation. If this definition seems narrow it is worth emphasizing that artefacts pervade industrial organizations. They comprise the products which a manufacturing organization makes and sells or a retailing organization buys in order to sell, or the products used by service business to provide its service. They also embrace those artefacts like buildings and equipment which go to make up the physical environment which constrains or enables the organization to achieve its purposes. In this context we include the work of the architects, engineers, interior designers and space and environmental planners. Finally they also cover the artefacts which make up the information systems through which the organization communicates its purposes to its various audiences (e.g. employees, shareholders, customers); and include everything from annual reports to advertising material. This means that although we begin with a simple definition, it has to span numerous activities usually planned and managed in different parts of the organisation in different functional departments.

THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

It is perhaps a natural outcome of the interest shown in a new subject that what has been published so far about the organization of design has been largely anecdotal and almost exclusively concerned with best practice. This information has proved of great value in motivating others and as a starting point for investigation. However, like all best practice it may be relevant only to the organization concerned and indeed may be only temporary. Our research objective is to discover what constitutes general practice. We have set out to examine all those aspects of the business where design is utilized and to identify how the enterprise organizes itself to make best use of design. We are also concerned to identify strategies surrounding the implementation of design if and where they exist. In order to achieve this, the general objectives of the research were to identify: the design understanding of managers: their view on the relevance and scope of design in their organizations the operational role of design: how it relates to problem solving and decision making the assignment of responsibility and accountability for the various aspects of design in organizations resource commitments by way of people and funds, and the ways in which the performance of these resources is measured. It was also hoped as an outcome of the research to establish a database which could be used by subsequent research into issues of design organization.

THE SCOPE OF DESIGN

Design is a process. It is perhaps necessary to affirm this rather obvious fact in view of the common confusion between process and product which takes place when definitions of design are attempted. Furthermore, in defming design, we also need to recognize that external appearance, style, colour and other asethetic and subjective considerations with which design is commonly associated constitute only part of the design process. Design is also concerned with use, with marketing and production considerations and a wide range of technical and engineering resources and requirements. However, above all it is concerned with a methodology. 'Everyone who designs devises a course of action aimed at

THE PILOT STUDY

Because of the inevitable complexity of identifying an activity which cuts across traditional organizational lines

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we decided on a pilot study which would, we hoped, not only throw up issues for wider study, but also alert us to any flaws in our method of enquiry. In addition, we decided to cover a number of industry sectors to see if comparisons between sectors could be made. Accordingly, the pilot study was undertaken within four industry sectors: electronics and apparel in the manufacturing sector and retail and transport in the service sector. Sixteen firms in total were investigated, four in each sector. Unstructured interviews were conducted with a range of people involved (as the organization saw it) with the design process. In some organizations, more people were interviewed to add greater depth to the pilot study. The method we used to undertake the investigation was the completion of a matrix. Along the horizontal axis of the matrix were placed the main areas of artefacts in which design operates and which have been outlined above. These are the 'products', the 'environments' and the 'information systems', each of them being subdivided into appropriate categories. Down the vertical axis were shown seven levels of involvement in detail from 'shallow to deep'. A description of each of these together with the original matrix is shown in the appendix (Figure 1). Using this matrix it was hoped to plot resources for a commitment to design within each organization, and thereby identify and characterize the various organizations and business sectors in terms of their management of design. DEVELOPING THE MATRIX From the information we received during our interview programme we realised that our original matrix could be expanded, as an analytical tool. Our task was to examine the integration and interaction of the design process, through the activities of individuals. However we also began to see a need to identify separately contributions by professional designers. Accordingly we developed two new matrices each dedicated to producing a clearer picture of one aspect of the data. The original matrix was retained, with one main modification, the ability to record 'professional' design activity. Now known as Design Matrix 1, it operates as a reference map for all design activity. Of the two new matrices, Design Matrix 2 concentrates upon interaction between functional areas and Design Matrix 3 on activity by individuals. All these matrices are shown in the appendix (Figures A1-A4).

Perhaps more significantly we were able to make a third statement. Design activity is frequently not classified as such within organizations, nor does there appear to be any consistency of classification. This statement was achieved in the course of the interview procedure during which it became apparent that we needed to interpret certain information in order to complete the matrices. The matrix development had led us to the realisation of a 'covert activity' in all the organizations we had investigated. This covert activity was clearly an important element in all transactions affecting both individual goals and motivation and ultimately, therefore, the central goals of the organization. We could also begin to see why organizations were experiencing difficulties implementing a design programme.

SILENT DESIGN - THE ARGUMENTS It can be argued that a great deal of design activity goes on in organizations which is not called design. It is carried out by individuals who are not called designers and who would not consider themselves to be designers. We have called this 'silent design'. The aims and intentions behind the design activity of an individual cannot simply be subsumed under 'design' if his job description, title and his own intentions are not perceived by him and others as having design as a central activity. To assume that if the job entails design, it should be undertaken by a professional designer is to adopt an over simplistic view. The individual undertaking the work, oblivious of its design content, may well be operating effectively. The 'design' part of this work will, in his terms, be classified differently and his motivation and approach toward the task is likely to be entirely different from that of the professional designer. Indeed within his particular business context his set of decisions might be more appropriate than those of the designers. The degree to which the 'silent designer' is aware of his design role needs to be understood better. It is also of great significance in the interaction between the 'silent designers' and the 'professional designers'. In our major investigation we plan to explore the 'silent' design issue. T o develop a framework for this investigation we have posed the following questions: How wide spread is 'silent design'? How does silent design relate to overt design where that function exists in an organization? o Is it p r o d u c t i v e - are there conflicts and how are they resolved. o Does the amount of each affect these issues? Should silent design be made overt? Is this even possible? If not is there an optimum balance?

OUTCOMES As an outcome of our work with the matrices, we were able to make the following two statements. Design activity appears to be widely dispersed throughout the organization. Design is very interactive, and cuts through many traditional functional areas.

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T H E MAJOR I N V E S T I G A T I O N
With the establishment of a focus for the major investigation the authors plan to modify the form of the questionnaire as it was set out in their original research proposal. They plan to reduce slightly the number of organizations to be investigated on a broad front in order to make room for a few in-depth and more detailed studies. These in-depth studies will deal with the problems involved in asking direct questions about 'silent design'. They also expect the in-depth studies to uncover some customs and habits of the silent designer and the wider questionnaire to provide an organizational context in which these customs and habits exist.

for more knowledge on the interaction between 'covert' and 'overt' design activity is clearly vital. Without it one could postulate that a rush toward the introduction of design policies and practices might inadvertently demolish long-standing and successful 'silent design' activities. The need for caution is clear. One must be careful not to hamper success in utilizing design to increase profits.

APPENDIX
The methodological approach for the pilot study originated from a working paper written for the general manager who had little background in design. Embodied in the paper is a conceptual framework with which to consider design activity within an organization. A simple matrix accompanied the paper and provided a device to explore the scope and depth of commitment to design within an organization. The matrix is illustrated in Table A1. Scope for design is allocated to the horizontal axis under three areas of activity: products, environments and information. Depth of commitment is on the vertical axis. The working paper describes the vertical axis 'as a guide to establishing the level of involvement at all design stages'. Seven stages make up a scale which starts 'shallow' with an 'auditing' process where direct involvement is limited to evaluation, and finishing 'deep' where an organization directly implements design (probably by manufacturing). The stages are described from the paper as follows.

CONCLUSION The pilot study has indicated that design activity pervades organizations and that it is dispersed, interactive and frequently undertaken by people who would not recognize that their job involves design. For the time being we are naming this phenomenon 'silent design'. During the major investigation, the authors will look at organizations with and without formal design policies and resources. Whilst most of the organizations already studied do have formal design policies, the initial study has found that 'silent design' exists in these organizations as well as those that do not. In the organizations that do have a formal and declared design policy, it is interesting to note words and phrases used to describe aspects of maintaining them. The words 'discipline' and 'control' and phrases 'top management commitment is vital' and 'custodian of design' were all used by most of them more than once. This suggests a degree of unease, not surprising in a relationship as ambiguous and unclear as the design and management relationship appears to be. It is likely that the increasing promotion of design by government and other agencies will persuade more organizations to take on board a policy toward design. In identifying the existence of 'silent design' the need
Table A1. The original matrix

An attempt should be made to audit every product with the view to ensuring that it adheres as closely as possible to the design principles of the organization. to A d v i s e . It will certainly be useful prior to or during an audit procedure to offer advice on design modifications which will help this happen. to P l a n . Better still, as part of the general planning process for all products, attempts should be made to establish design planning guidelines.
to A u d i t .

A design implementation matrix Audit Advise Plan Specify Supervise Demonstrate Implement

Products Environments Information Finished products Components Buildings Machines Equipment Internal External Promotion Advertising

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Specify. As a more rigorous planning procedure for certain products it will be desirable to establish actual specifications for the design of those products. to Demonstrate. As a way of demonstrating the effectiveness of a specification, it is sometimes useful to design directly and make either a model of the product, or the first of a production run, or a fully completed detail. (An example might be the first of a chain of shops for which a specification has been established). to Implement. The deepest level of involvement: actually undertaking the implementation yourself.
to

Employed as an analytical tool, the original matrix was our first formal step in developing a picture of the use of design in organizations. It also permitted those organizations who were considering developing strategies for design to understand how broad the scope for design could be. In dealing with the operational and organizational issues as they interact with the design process, the literature on complex and developing organizations has provided some useful definitions which have assisted in clarifying our task. One such is a working guideline of the roles and purposes of people within an organization, taken from Lawrence and Lorsch3: An organization is the coordination of different activities of individual contributors to carry out planned transactions with the environment.
[

Lawrence and Lorsch also describe an organization as ~a system of differentiated units which require integration and the view of the individual contributor as a complex problem solving system himselff. This in particular is appropriate to the issues that emerged in the organizations that were talked to during the pilot study. In all cases the authors asked the organizations to direct them to those people they considered to be the most active participants in design projects. This was to enable the authors to gain insight into the way the organization and the individual conceptualized their activity over design. On analysing the data received by using the original matrix, the authors discovered that the matrix itself needed development. The two issues they found themselves unable to cover with the original matrix were firstly, the activity of the individual as a contributor to the design process, and secondly, the integration of the various design activities. This resulted in the development of three new matrices. In using these the authors did not attempt to alter significantly the terminology or the structure, merely to arrive at a working tool to record and analyse the two issues described above. These three matrices are shown. The inclusion in Matrices 1 and 2 of a separate category for 'input by professional designer' was one of the final amendments and reflected the growing awareness of the need to differentiate between activity by 'professional designers' and all other design activity. The word design can be, and often is, utilised
-Artefact]

PRODUCTS Input by designer

ENVIRONMENTS Sourcing Building Space Equipment Operational

INFORMATION Product Corporate

Research and development

Engineering

Process

EVALUATE irtefact= in ~elationship to

)rinciples and )bjectives

ADVISE co provide :~tofes$ional 3dvlce following evaluation

PLAN strategy for artefact

development
SPECIFYas part of

development] roduction
rOt:e~S

SUPERVISEmonitor and evaluate day today decisions

DEMONSTRATEto test and/or

refine with a sample

IMPLEMENT-full or part )roduction of artefact

Subject organization ...................................

Date
........................................

Figure A 1.

Design Matrix 1: involvement of steps within artefacts

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legitimately in many different activities. Consequently, the word 'designer' cannot refer solely t o those groups of individuals whose education and training overtly equips them to operate as professional designers. With a separate category one can record in matrices 1 and 2 the activity of an individual who by education and training is qualified to produce design work. This differentiates between professional designers and all those individuals who are found to be active agents operationally in the design process irrespective of the degree of cognisance of their activity. Design Matrix 1, 'Involvement of steps within artefacts' (Figure A1), is the closest to the original matrix. It allows activity to be recorded in the seven steps of involvement across the 11 artefact categories. It is important that it is not used to make comparisons and it operates as a map for the design activity recorded in the other matrices. The second matrix was employed to record relationships at or between activity points. This is a very complex matrix as its lengthy title implies, 'Interaction between artefacts - involvement of steps'. Each of the seven steps on the vertical axis of the first matrix uses one of these matrices. Taken together they can be used as a 3-dimensional model on the contour map principle, with cumulatively high spots of end activity forming the peaks of the map. Figure A2 shows the basic matrix. However, each of the seven steps of this matrix must first be considered separately. This allows design activity to be considered in relationship to the eleven artefact categories. Figure A3 shows an example of the step 'specify' in an apparel manufacturing organization. Each square on the matrix is subdivided into two triangles. In

certain squares both sides of the square are filled in; others only on one side. This is done t o suggest the likely direction of the activity. 'Research and development' have an activity with 'sourcing', since R&D will test a fabric that has been sourced and only if the test is successful will the source be utilized. The major responsibility in the (specify) activity resides in R&D. However, it can also be seen that there is an 'input by professional designer' activity which also has responsibility toward 'sourcing'. With 'process' (under the product category) and 'equipment' (under the environment category)the direction of activity is shown as more balanced. In this instance there is also activity toward the 'input by professional designer' column suggesting that he would be affected by activity in the two categories rather more than he would directly affect them. This matrix series allows us to look at the relationship of design activities. However, the activity of the individual as a contributor is only implied. The third matrix 'involvement of personnel within steps' allows one to record an individual's activity and is illustrated in Figure A4. Here each of the seven steps is represented, while the 11 artefact areas are not. Each square on the grid is subdivided into twelve rectangles. By referring to the personnel key one has a layout of the people involved. What the matrix does not in its present form illustrate is whether individuals operate as part of a team or singly or whether the activity is constant or sporadic. Further adaptations of the matrix would enable us to quantify this and much other information about the design activities of individuals and groups. For example one may wish to know the rate at which they work, whether the design activity is continuous or intermittent.
Artefacts

PRODUCTS

ENVIRONMENTS

INFORMATION

I I

Subject organization
FigureA2. Design Matrix 2: involvement of steps within interaction between artefacts

............................................................ Date ......................................................

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f PRODUCTS I

.Artefacts ENVIRONMENTS INFORMATION

Subject organization ........................................................... Date .....................................................

Figure A3.

Design Matrix 2: involvement of steps within interaction between artefacts: ( ~ ) specify as part of development~production process

However, before attempting to extend the matrix it would be clearly advisable to determine which kinds of design activities have priority in the eyes of the people participating in the design process. The questionnaire (to which the main text refers) is intended to provide priorities of this kind in our explanations of the place that design occupies in organizations.

REFERENCES
Managing Design, An Initiative in Management Education

Report of a projected sponsored jointly by CNAA, Depart. Trade Indus. and The Design Council (1985) 2 Simon, Herbert A The Sciences of the Artificial The MIT Press (1982) 3 Lorsch, Lawrence Developing Organizations, Diagnosis and Action Addison Wesley (1969)

Figure A4. steps

Design Matrix 3: involvement of personnel within

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