Zgourides Developmental Psychology
Zgourides Developmental Psychology
Zgourides Developmental Psychology
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Developmental
Psychology
By George Zgourides, Psy.D.
CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW Developmental Psychology Note: If you purchased this book without a cover, you should
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CONTENTS
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Brain development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Motor skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Cognitive Development in Early Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
CHAPTER 7: EARLY CHILDHOOD: PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Personality Development in Early Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Family Relationships in Early Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Parenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Siblings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Family circumstances and social class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Friends and Playmates in Early Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Sexuality in Early Childhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Fear and Aggression in Early Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
CHAPTER 8: MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: PHYSICAL
AND CONGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Physical Development in Middle Childhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Physical changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Brain and nervous system development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Motor skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Childhood intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
CHAPTER 9: MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Self-Concept in Middle Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Social Cognition in Middle Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Family Relationships in Middle Childhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Friendships in Middle Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Peer Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Sexuality in Middle Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
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Figure 1-1
Biological Perspectives
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CHAPTER 2
RESEARCH METHODS IN DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
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RESEARCH
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Case-study research
In case-study research, an investigator studies an individual who has
a rare or unusual condition or who has responded favorably to a new
treatment. Case studies are typically clinical in scope. The investi-
gator—often a physician, psychologist, social worker, counselor, or
educator—interviews the subject, obtains background records, and
administers questionnaires to acquire quantifiable data on the subject.
A comprehensive case study can last months or years. Throughout the
duration of the case study, the researcher documents the condition,
treatment, and effects in relation to each patient and summarizes all of
this information in individual case reports. A typical case report
follows this format:
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Survey research
Survey research involves interviewing or administering question-
naires or written surveys to large numbers of people. The investigator
analyzes the data obtained from surveys to learn about similarities, dif-
ferences, and trends, and then makes predictions about the population
being studied. Advantages of survey research include the great amount
of information the researcher can obtain from the large number of
respondents, the convenience for respondents of taking a written
survey, and the low cost of acquiring and processing data. Mail-in
surveys have the added advantage of ensuring anonymity and thus
prompting respondents to answer questions truthfully.
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Observational research
Because distortion can be a serious limitation of survey research,
scientists may choose to observe subjects’ behavior directly through
observational research. Observational research takes place in either a
laboratory (laboratory observation) or a natural setting (naturalistic
observation). In either research method, observers record participants’
behavior within an environment. Observational research reduces the
possibility of subjects giving misleading accounts of their experiences,
not taking the study seriously, being unable to remember details, or
feeling too embarrassed to disclose everything that happened.
Correlational research
A developmentalist may also conduct correlational research. A corre-
lation is a relationship between two variables (factors that change).
Variables may include characteristics, attitudes, behaviors, or events.
The goal of correlational research is to determine whether or not a
relationship exists between two variables, and if a relationship does
exist, the number of commonalities in that relationship. A researcher
may use case-study methods, surveys, interviews, and observational
research to discover correlations. Correlations are either positive (to
+1.0), negative (to–1.0), or nonexistent (0.0). In a positive correlation,
the values of the variables increase or decrease (co-vary) together. In a
negative correlation, one variable increases as the other variable
decreases. In a nonexistent correlation, there is no relationship
between variables.
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reflect changes in the value of the other. The correlation does not imply
that one variable causes the other variable, only that both variables
are somehow related. To study the effects that variables have on each
other, an investigator must conduct an experiment.
Experimental research
Experimental research is concerned with how and why something
happens. The goal of experimental research is to test the effect that
an independent variable, which the scientist manipulates, has on a
dependent variable, which the scientist observes. In other words,
experimental research leads to conclusions regarding causation.
Cross-cultural research
Western cultural standards do not necessarily apply to other societies,
and what may be normal or acceptable for one group may be abnormal
or unacceptable for another group. Sensitivity to others’ norms,
folkways, values, mores, attitudes, customs, and practices necessitates
knowledge of other societies and cultures. Developmentalists may
conduct cross-cultural research, research designed to reveal varia-
tions existing across different groups of people. Most cross-cultural
research involves survey, direct observation, and participant observa-
tion methods of research. The challenge of this type of research is to
avoid experimenter bias and the tendency to compare dissimilar
characteristics as if they were somehow related.
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Participant observation
Participant observation requires an observer to become a member of
his or her subjects’ community. An advantage of this method of
research is the opportunity to study what actually occurs within a com-
munity and then consider that information within the political,
economic, social, and religious systems of that community. A disad-
vantage of participant observation is the problem of subjects altering
their behavior because, as subjects of the observation, the participants
know that they are being watched.
Research Ethics
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expected roles in the study, the potential risks of participating, and their
freedom to withdraw from the study at any time without consequences.
Agreeing to participate in a study based on disclosure of personal infor-
mation is known as informed consent. After the study is concluded,
the researcher should debrief the subjects by providing the volunteers
with the complete details of the study.
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CHAPTER 3
CONCEPTION, PREGNANCY, AND BIRTH
Stages of Pregnancy
Figure 3-1
Weeks
Lunar months
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Conception
Around day 14 of a 28-day menstrual cycle, the average woman ovu-
lates and releases an egg, or ovum, from one of her ovaries. The ovum
is then picked up by fingerlike structures called fimbriae and is swept
into the nearby fallopian tube. If conception occurs and a sperm and
ovum unite, the newly formed zygote, or conceptus, travels down the
fallopian tube and attaches to the uterine wall. If conception does not
occur, the ovum dissolves in approximately 48 hours.
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Sperm usually reach the egg in the portion of the fallopian tube
closest to the ovary within 90 minutes after ejaculation. Mitochondria
(tiny energy sources for cells) in the midpiece of sperm cause the tail
of the sperm to lash about. This flagellation, or lashing out, propels the
sperm through the woman’s vagina and into her tubes. Of the average
300 million sperm present in each ejaculation, an estimated 2,000 even-
tually reach the fallopian tube containing the ovum. Only 50 sperm
may actually reach the egg. The remaining sperm are either killed by
the acidic environment of the vagina or by entering the wrong fallop-
ian tube. Only one sperm penetrates and fertilizes the ovum. The
others surround the egg and secrete the enzyme hyaluronidase to
soften the gelatinous covering of the egg, the zona pellucida. Once
penetrated, the ovum’s surrounding membrane thickens to prevent
other sperm from entering.
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Implantation
Within a week after conception, the zygote becomes a blastocyst, or
a hollow ball of about 100 cells, no larger than it was before cell divi-
sion began. After floating in the uterus for about 3 days, the blasto-
cyst attaches to the endometrium, or inner lining of the uterus. The
outer cells of the blastocyst, or the trophoblasts (which form the tro-
phectoderm), secrete enzymes that dissolve layers of uterine lining,
allowing the blastocyst to firmly attach to the endometrium. This
implantation occurs about a week after conception. After implanta-
tion, and for the first 8 weeks of gestation, the zygote is referred to as
an embryo. (See Figure 3-2 for illustration of the early development
of the embryo.) Following the first 8 weeks until birth, it is referred
to as a fetus.
Figure 3-2
Uterus
Ovary
Ovulation
Fertilization Endometrium
Fertilized
egg
Trophoblast
Zygote Fallopian (Day 6)
(24 hour) tube
Inner cell mass
Blastocyst
(Days 4-5)
Morula
Two-cell stage (Day 3)
Implantation Inner cell
(30 hour)
Four-cell stage of blastocyst mass
(Day 2) (Day 7)
Endometrium
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After the first trimester, the placenta also secretes large amounts
of progesterone and estrogen. Many of the physical symptoms of
pregnancy can be traced to the actions of these two hormones.
Estrogen and progesterone stimulate enlargement of the reproductive
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By month 8, the fetus weighs about 5 pounds and gains 1⁄2 pound
each week thereafter. The fetus’s skin becomes less reddish in color,
and its wrinkles slowly disappear. A waxy material covers the fetus’s
skin to protect it during delivery.
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Prenatal Care
Birthing alternatives
A woman has several choices regarding health care during her preg-
nancy. A new mother should decide as soon as possible whether or not
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Stages of Childbirth
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The baby is delivered head and neck first, sometimes with the help
of forceps. Upon delivery, the infant’s mouth and nose are suctioned to
prepare the baby’s lungs to receive oxygen, and the umbilical cord is
clamped and severed. Some physicians then gently pat the baby on the
buttocks to initiate a breathing response. Drops of silver nitrate are
administered to the newborn’s eyes to prevent potential infection trans-
mitted by the mother during birth.
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may also cause chloasma, or dark patches on the skin, which vanish
early in postpartum. The stretch marks that appear on a woman’s
abdomen during pregnancy do not completely vanish but may turn
lighter with time. Many pregnant women also suffer from stressed
veins of the anus, or hemorrhoids. Hemorrhoids become uncomfort-
able as they itch, swell, or bleed.
Premature birth
A premature, or preterm birth, a birth that occurs before a gestation of
37 weeks, differs from a stillbirth or a miscarriage in that the fetus is
born viable (able to live outside of the uterus). Although many prema-
ture births are unexplained, some seem to be related to poor diet and
alcohol or drug use during pregnancy, lack of prenatal care, and a his-
tory of premature births. The less an infant weighs at birth, the less
chance it has of surviving.
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Infertility
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CHAPTER 4
INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD: PHYSICAL AND
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Infants and toddlers grow quickly; bodily changes are rapid and pro-
found. Physical development refers to biological changes that chil-
dren undergo as they age. Important aspects that determine the
progress of physical development in infancy and toddlerhood include
physical and brain changes; development of reflexes, motor skills,
sensations, perceptions, and learning skills; and health issues.
The first 4 weeks of life are termed the neonatal period. Most
babies weigh between 5 1/2 and 10 pounds, and are between 18 and
22 inches long. Male babies are generally slightly heavier and longer
than female babies. Neonates born weighing less than 5 1/2 pounds
are of low birthweight. Infants who arrive before their due date are
preterm or premature, and these babies may or may not have a low
birthweight. Babies who arrive on or shortly after their due date are
full-term. Infants who arrive 2 or more weeks after their due date are
postmature. Both premature and postmature babies are at higher risk
of complications such as sickness, brain damage, or death, than are
full-term babies.
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Fetal and neonatal brain developments are also rapid. The lower,
or subcortical, areas of the brain (responsible for basic life functions,
like breathing) develop first, followed by the higher areas, or corti-
cal areas (responsible for thinking and planning). Most brain changes
occur prenatally and soon after birth. At birth, the neonate’s brain
weighs only 25 percent of that of an adult brain. By the end of the
second year, the brain weighs about 80 percent; by puberty, it weighs
nearly 100 percent of that of an adult brain.
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Reflex Stimulus/Action
Rooting In response to stroking its cheek, the
infant turns its head toward the touch
and attempts to suck.
Stepping In response to holding the infant so
that its feet barely touch a surface,
the infant “walks.”
Sucking In response to inserting a finger or
nipple into its mouth, the infant
begins rhythmically sucking.
Babkin In response to stroking its forehead,
the infant turns its head and opens its
mouth.
Plantar In response to touching the ball of the
foot, the infant curls its toes under.
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Learning
Learning is the process that results in relatively permanent change in
behavior based on experience. Infants learn in a variety of ways. In
classical conditioning (Pavlovian), learning occurs by association
when a stimulus that evokes a certain response becomes associated
with a different stimulus that originally did not cause that response.
After the two stimuli associate in the subject’s brain, the new stimulus
then elicits the same response as the original. For instance, in psychol-
ogist John B. Watson’s experiments with 11-month-old “Little Albert”
in the 1920s, Watson classically conditioned Albert to fear a small white
rat by pairing the sight of the rat with a loud, frightening noise. The once-
neutral white rat then became a feared stimulus through associative
learning. Babies younger than age 3 months generally do not learn well
through classical conditioning.
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Health
Normal functioning of the newborn’s various body systems is vital to
its short-term and long-term health. Less than 1 percent of babies expe-
rience birth trauma, or injury incurred during birth. Longitudinal
studies have shown that birth trauma, low birth weight, and early
sickness can affect later physical and mental health but usually only if
these children grow up in impoverished environments. Most babies
tend to be rather hardy and are able to compensate for less-than-ideal
situations early in life.
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Infants then repeat the behavior to obtain the same effect. An exam-
ple is the infant’s learning to suck on a pacifier following a series of
trial-and-error attempts to use the new object. In stage 3 (months 4
through 8), infants begin to explore the impact of their behaviors on
the environment. In stage 4 (months 8 through 12), infants purpose-
fully carry out goal-directed behaviors.
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Critics also suggest that toddlers and preschoolers are not as ego-
centric or as easily deceived as Piaget believed. Preschoolers may
empathize with others, or put themselves into another person’s shoes,
and young children may make inferences and use logic. Preschoolers
also develop cognitive abilities in relation to particular social and
cultural contexts. These abilities may develop differently within
enriched or deprived cultural environments. In other words, children
who grow up in middle and upper-class families may have more
opportunities to develop cognitive skills than those who grow up in
lower-class families.
Memory
Central to early cognitive development is memory development.
Memory is the ability to encode, retain, and recall information over
time. Researchers generally refer to sensory (less than 1 second),
short-term (less than 30 seconds), and long-term (indefinite) mem-
ory stores. Children are not able to habituate or learn if they are unable
to encode objects, people, and places and eventually recall them from
long-term memory.
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Language
Language skills begin to emerge during the first 2 years.
Psycholinguists, specialists in the study of language, indicate that lan-
guage is an outgrowth of children’s ability to use symbols. Physical
development determines the timing of language development. As the
brains develop, preschoolers acquire the capacity for representational
thinking, which lays the foundation for language. In this way, cogni-
tive development also determines the timing of language development.
Observational learning (imitation) and operant conditioning (rein-
forcement) play important roles in the early acquisition of language.
Children are reinforced to speak meaningfully and reasonably by
imitating the language of their caregivers; in turn caregivers are
prompted to respond meaningfully and reasonably to the children.
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Why the phrase “object-relations”? Why did Klein use the word
“object” rather than “human”? Following intensive observation and
the study of many children, Klein surmised that the infant bonds to
an object rather than a person, because the infant is unable to under-
stand fully what a person is. The infant’s limited perspective may
process only an evolving perception of what a person is.
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healthy child is then able to separate good and bad, and self and
object. If all does not go well, the child is then unable to accept the
good and bad sides of the self and of the mother; the child may be
unable to separate the concept of a bad mother from a good self.
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Attachment
Attachment is the process whereby one individual seeks nearness to
another individual. In parent-child interactions, attachment is gener-
ally mutual and reciprocal. The infant looks and smiles at the parents,
who look and smile at the infant. Indeed, communication between
child and parents is basic at this level, but it is also profound.
Psychologist John Bowlby suggests that infants are born prepro-
grammed for certain behaviors that guarantee bonding with their
caregivers. Infants’ crying, clinging, smiling, and cooing are designed
to prompt parental feeding, holding, cuddling, and vocalizing.
Parents may help instill trust in their infants as their infant children
form attachments. Eye contact, touching, and timely feedings are per-
haps the most important ways. These actions, of course, are also
expressions of the love and affection parents have for their children.
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Parenting
Cultural and community standards, the social environment, and their
children’s behaviors determine parents’ child-raising practices. Hence,
different parents have different ideas regarding the raising of their chil-
dren; the differences are seen in their communication methods or even
in their decisions about the placement of their children in daycare.
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Because the first few months and years of life are so critical to chil-
dren’s future psychosocial development, some parents worry about
having to place their infants and toddlers in daycares and preschools.
Research suggests, however, that children who attend daycares are not
at a disadvantage regarding development of self, prosocial behavior, or
cognitive functioning. In fact, daycares and preschools offer children
enriched social environments, with structured opportunities to interact
with diverse groups of youngsters. Many authorities argue that daycare
placement, coupled with quality time with the parents whenever possi-
ble, provides for better and earlier socialization than may otherwise
occur.
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Co-sleeping
A common concern among family members is the issue of co-sleeping,
or children sleeping in the same bed as their parents. Does co-sleeping
lead to blurred sexual boundaries? Are children who sleep in the same
bed as their parents more prone to later emotional problems than those
children who do not? Does co-sleeping lead to a higher occurrence of
sexual abuse of children? While classical Freudians have traditionally
argued against co-sleeping on the grounds that it interferes with the
resolution of the Oedipal and Electra conflicts, the answer to all these
questions seems to be no. Current research indicates that children who
co-sleep with their parents are just as physically and emotionally healthy
as those who do not. The age at which children stop sleeping with their
parents is not predetermined; the age depends on when the parents
believe the right time has come.
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Gender Development
Gender identity
Gender identity appears to form very early in life and is most likely
irreversible by age 4. Although the exact cause of gender identity
remains unknown, biological, psychological, and social variables
clearly influence the process. Genetics, prenatal and postnatal
hormones, differences in the brain and the reproductive organs, and
socialization all interact to mold a toddler’s gender identity. The differ-
ences brought about by physiological processes ultimately interact with
social-learning influences to establish clear gender identity.
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Gender roles
Gender roles are both cultural and personal. These roles determine how
males and females think, speak, dress, and interact within the context
of society. Learning plays a role in this process of shaping gender roles.
These gender schemas are deeply embedded cognitive frameworks
regarding what defines masculine and feminine. While various social-
izing agents—educators, peers, movies, television, music, books, and
religion—teach and reinforce gender roles throughout a child’s life
span, parents probably exert the greatest influence, especially when
their children are very young.
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Physical changes
Children begin to lose their baby fat, or chubbiness, around age 3.
Toddlers soon acquire the leaner, more athletic look associated with
childhood. The child’s trunk and limbs grow longer, and the abdomi-
nal muscles form, tightening the appearance of the stomach. Even at
this early stage of life, boys tend to have more muscle mass than girls.
The preschoolers’ physical proportions also continue to change, with
their heads still being disproportionately large, but less so than in
toddlerhood.
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Brain development
Brain and nervous system developments during early childhood also
continue to be dramatic. The better developed the brain and nervous
systems are, the more complex behavioral and cognitive abilities chil-
dren are capable of.
The brain is comprised of two halves, the right and left cerebral
hemispheres. Lateralization refers to the localization of assorted
functions, competencies, and skills in either or both hemispheres.
Specifically, language, writing, logic, and mathematical skills seem
to be located in the left hemisphere, while creativity, fantasy, artistic,
and musical skills seem to be located in the right hemisphere.
Although the hemispheres may have separate functions, these brain
masses almost always coordinate their functions and work together.
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Motor skills
Motor skills are physical abilities or capacities. Gross motor skills,
which include running, jumping, hopping, turning, skipping, throwing,
balancing, and dancing, involve the use of large bodily movements.
Fine motor skills, which include drawing, writing, and tying
shoelaces, involve the use of small bodily movements. Both gross and
fine motor skills develop and are refined during early childhood;
however, fine motor skills develop more slowly in preschoolers. If you
compare the running abilities of a 2-year-old and a 6-year-old, for
example, you may notice the limited running skills of the 2-year-old.
But the differences are even more striking when comparing a 2-year-
old and 6-year-old who are tying shoelaces. The 2-year-old has
difficulty grasping the concept before ever attempting or completing
the task.
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Health
Preschoolers are generally quite healthy, but may develop medical
problems. Typical minor illnesses, which usually last no more than 14
days, include colds, coughs, and stomachaches. Respiratory ailments
are the most common illnesses among children at this age because
preschoolers’ lungs have not yet fully developed. Most childhood
illnesses usually do not require a physician’s or nurse’s attention.
Additionally, minor illnesses may help children to learn coping skills,
particularly how to deal with physical discomfort and distress. Minor
illnesses may also help children learn empathy, or how to understand
someone else’s discomfort and distress.
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(more family members increase the risk that someone may get sick
and pass along the illness to other family members) is correlated with
increased risk of illness in the preschooler age group.
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Memory
As defined in Chapter 4, memory is the ability to encode, retain, and
recall information over time. Children must learn to encode objects,
people, and places and later be able to recall them from long-term
memory.
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may become frustrated when learning does not come about as quickly
or remembering as efficiently as older children. When learning situa-
tions are structured so that children may succeed—setting reasonably
attainable goals and providing guidance and support—children can be
exceptionally mature in their ability to process information.
Language
Language skills also continue to improve during early childhood. As
noted in Chapter 4, language is an outgrowth of a child’s ability to use
symbols. Thus, as their brains develop and acquire the capacity for rep-
resentational thinking, children also acquire and refine language skills.
Around the world and in the United States, some young children
are bilingual, or able to speak more than one language. These children
learn two languages simultaneously, usually as a result of growing up
with bilingual parents who speak both languages at home. Many of
these bilingual children may fluently speak both languages by age 4.
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Parenting
Different parents employ different parenting techniques. The tech-
niques parents choose depend on cultural and community standards,
the situation, and the children’s behavior at the time. The techniques
that parents use to relate to their children are characterized by degrees
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Siblings
Siblings are children’s first and foremost peer group. Preschoolers
may learn as much or more from their siblings as from their parents.
Regardless of age differences, sibling relationships mirror other
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Early family attachments may determine the ease with which chil-
dren form friendships and other relationships. Children who have lov-
ing, stable, and accepting relationships with their parents and siblings
are generally more likely to form similar relationships with friends
and playmates.
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Physical changes
By the beginning of middle childhood, children typically have
acquired a leaner, more athletic appearance. Girls and boys still have
similar body shapes and proportions until both sexes reach puberty,
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Girls and boys grow about 2 to 3 inches and gain about 7 pounds
per year until puberty. Skeletal bones and muscles broaden and
lengthen, which may cause children (and adolescents) to experience
growing pains. Skeletal growth in middle childhood is also associ-
ated with losing the deciduous teeth, or baby teeth.
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Motor skills
As defined in Chapter 6, motor skills are behavioral abilities or capac-
ities. Gross motor skills involve the use of large bodily movements,
and fine motor skills involve the use of small bodily movements. Both
gross and fine motor skills continue to refine during middle childhood.
Children love to run, jump, leap, throw, catch, climb, and bal-
ance. Children play baseball, ride bikes, roller skate, take karate
lessons, take ballet lessons, and participate in gymnastics. As school-
age children grow physically, they become faster, stronger, and bet-
ter coordinated. Consequently, during middle childhood, children
become more adept at gross motor activities.
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Health
Middle childhood tends to be a very healthy period of life in Western
societies. The typical minor illnesses of early childhood—colds,
coughs, and stomachaches—are likely to lessen in frequency in
middle childhood. This improved resistance to common illnesses is
probably due to a combination of increased immunity from previous
exposures and improved hygiene and nutritional practices. Minor
illnesses occur, but most illnesses do not require medical attention. As
noted in Chapter 6, minor illnesses may help children learn psycholog-
ical coping skills and strategies for dealing with physical discomforts.
Major illnesses for school-age children are the same as major ill-
nesses for younger children: influenza, pneumonia, cancer, human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and acquired immunodeficiency syn-
drome (AIDS). But obesity, or being 20 percent or more above one’s
ideal weight, is a special health problem that occurs during the school
years. About 25 percent of school-age children in the United States
today are obese, and the majority of these children go on to become
obese adults. Obesity in adulthood is related to heart problems, high
blood pressure, and diabetes. Although obese children are not at the
same medical risks as obese adults, these children should master
effective eating and exercise habits as early as possible to decrease
the risk of later obesity- and health-related problems.
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Memory
School-age children are better at the skill of remembering than are
younger children. Experiencing more of the world, older children have
more to draw upon when encoding and recalling information. In
school, older children also learn how to use mnemonic devices, or
memory strategies. Creating humorous lyrics, devising acronyms,
chunking facts (breaking long lists of items into groups of three’s and
four’s), and rehearsing facts (repeating them many times) help children
memorize increasingly complicated amounts and types of information.
Childhood intelligence
Psychologists and other authorities are keenly interested in childhood
intelligence. Intelligence is an inferred cognitive capacity that relates
to a person’s knowledge, adaptation, and ability to reason and act pur-
posefully. Around the beginning of the twentieth century, Alfred Binet
and Theophile Simon measured perception, memory, and vocabulary
in children. These researchers divided a child’s mental age, or level
of intellectual attainment, by his or her chronological age, or actual
age, to yield the child’s intelligence quotient (IQ). Years later, the
average IQ for a child was set at 100. Today, the two most famous IQ
tests for children are the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), both of which
have been updated numerous times.
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Although school-age children spend more time away from home than
they did as younger children, their most important relationships con-
tinue to be established at home. Children’s family relationships nor-
mally include their parents, grandparents, siblings, and extended
family members.
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Peer Pressure
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Boys and girls in the grade-school years are not immune to the stres-
sors of their worlds. Homework, difficulties making friends, chang-
ing neighborhoods and schools, working parents—these stressors and
more are normal and expected during the course of growing up.
Unfortunately, some children are exposed to more severe stressors,
including divorce, physical abuse, and sexual abuse.
Divorce
Currently half of all marriages in the United States end in divorce;
most of these marriages end within the first 10 years. Over 1 million
children under age 18 are involved in divorces each year in the United
States. As may be expected, the breaking up of the family unit is very
stressful on the involved children, who may in turn feel depressed,
guilty, angry, irritable, defiant, or anxious.
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Every state in the United States has laws against a specific type
of child abuse known as incest, which is sexual activity between
closely related persons of any age. Child sexual abuse is incest when
the abuser is a relative. Incest occurs whether or not the relative is
blood-related, which explains why stepparents can be arrested for
molesting their stepchildren. Not all states have laws forbidding sex-
ual activity among first cousins.
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ADOLESCENCE: PHYSICAL AND
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Eating disorders
Eating disorders involve a preoccupation with food. The most com-
mon of these among teenagers is obesity, which is defined as a skin-
fold measurement in the 85th percentile for one’s height. Obesity
carries with it the potential for social stigma, psychological distress,
and chronic health problems. Approximately 15 to 20 percent of ado-
lescents are obese.
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Both anorexia and bulimia are far more common among females
than males. They also cross all levels of society. The exact causes of
these eating disorders are unknown.
Depression
As many as 40 percent of adolescents have periods of depression, a
type of mood disorder characterized by feelings of low self-esteem
and worthlessness, loss of interest in life activities, and changes in
eating and sleeping patterns. Adolescent depression is often due to
hormonal changes, life challenges, and/or concerns about appear-
ance. More teenage females than males suffer from depression.
Substance abuse
Some adolescents abuse substances to escape the pains of growing
up, to cope with daily stresses, or to befriend peers who are part of a
particular crowd. As alluring symbols of adulthood, alcohol and
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Cognitive maturity occurs as the brain matures and the social net-
work expands, which offers more opportunities for experimenting
with life. Because this worldly experience plays a large role in attain-
ing formal operations, not all adolescents enter this stage of cogni-
tive development. Studies indicate, however, that abstract and critical
reasoning skills are teachable. For example, everyday reasoning
improves between the first and last years of college, which suggests
the value of education in cognitive maturation.
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Intellectual development
According to Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory, intelligence is
comprised of three aspects: componential (the critical aspect), expe-
riential (the insightful aspect), and contextual (the practical aspect).
Most intelligence tests only measure componential intelligence,
although all three are needed to predict a person’s eventual success
in life. Ultimately, adolescents must learn to use these three types of
intelligence.
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In the 1940s and 1950s, Alfred Kinsey and his associates discov-
ered that sexual orientation exists along a continuum. Prior to Kinsey’s
research into the sexual habits of United States residents, experts
generally believed that most individuals were either heterosexual
or homosexual. Kinsey speculated that the categories of sexual
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Biological theories
Attempts to identify the specific physiological causes of homosexu-
ality have been inconclusive. Traditional physiological theories
include too little testosterone in males, too much testosterone in
females, prenatal hormonal imbalances, prenatal biological errors
due to maternal stress, differences in brain structures, and genetic dif-
ferences and influences.
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Interactional theories
Proponents of the interactional theory of homosexuality allege that
sexual orientation develops from a complex interaction of biologi-
cal, psychological, and social factors. John Money explains that pre-
natal hormones first act on the embryo’s and fetus’s brain, which
creates a physiological predisposition toward a particular sexual ori-
entation. During early childhood, social-learning factors influence
the child, either facilitating or inhibiting the predisposition.
Sexuality in Adolescence
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According to U.S. statistics, which may vary, the average age for
a first sexual intercourse is between 16 and 17. Complicating matters
is the fact that sexually active adolescents either use contraception on
an irregular basis, or they do not use it all. They also do not consis-
tently take precautions against sexually transmitted diseases, even in
this day of HIV and AIDS.
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CHAPTER 12
EARLY ADULTHOOD: PHYSICAL
AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The young adult years are often referred to as the peak years. Young
adults experience excellent health, vigor, and physical functioning.
Young adults have not yet been subjected to age-related physical
deterioration, such as wrinkles, weakened body systems, and reduced
lung and heart capacities. Their strength, coordination, reaction time,
sensation (sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch), fine motor skills, and
sexual response are at a maximum.
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With good looks, great health, and plenty of energy, young adults
dream and plan. Adults in their 20s and 30s set many goals that they
intend to accomplish—from finishing graduate school, to getting
married and raising children, to becoming a millionaire before age
30. Young adulthood is a time when nothing seems impossible; with
the right attitude and enough persistence and energy, anything can be
achieved.
Lest the picture seem too rosy, young adults are not completely
immune to the effects of aging. The closer they get to age 40, the more
physical limitations they begin to notice. In fact, many young adults
detect a significant decrease in energy and increase in health concerns
after 40. However, with proper diet and exercise, the physical and
psychological vitality that accompanies young adulthood can be
maintained well into the 40s and beyond.
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Disabilities
A physical disability is any physical defect, change, difficulty, or
condition that has the potential to disrupt daily living. It may be pre-
sent from birth, result from disease or injury, or develop later. A phys-
ical disability, for example, may be the absence of a vital organ from
birth, deafness that develops in childhood, a spinal cord injury from
a motorcycle accident, or a chronic condition like multiple sclerosis.
The most common physical disabilities in adults are cerebral palsy,
blindness, deafness, spinal cord injuries, and a number of chronic
medical conditions, such as diabetes.
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Thinking patterns
Young adult thinking, especially in a person’s early 20s, resembles
adolescent thinking in many ways. Many young people see life from
an idealistic point of view, in which marriage is a fairy tale where
lovers live happily ever after, political leaders never lie or distort the
truth, and salespeople always have consumers’ best interests in mind.
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People in their 20s have not always had the benefit of multiple life
experiences, so they may still view the world from a naively trusting
and black-or-white perspective. This is not to say that young adults
do not question their world, challenge rules, or handle conflicts.
These, and more, are normal developmental tasks that lead to realis-
tic thinking and recognition of life’s ambiguities. But until young
adults reach that level of thinking, they may want absolute answers
from absolute authorities.
As young adults confront and work through the gray areas of life,
some may go on to develop postformal thinking, or practical street
smarts. Developing the wisdom associated with postformal thinking
is a lifelong process, which begins in the teenage years and is fully
realized in the older adult years.
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CHAPTER 13
EARLY ADULTHOOD:
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
By age 22, young adults have attained at least some level of atti-
tudinal, emotional, and physical independence. They are ready for
Levinson’s entering the adult world (ages 22–28) stage of early
adulthood, during which relationships take center stage. Moreover,
dating and marriage are natural extensions of the eventual separating
from the family of origin—a key process in becoming an adult. Early
bonding and separation experiences, then, set the stage for later inde-
pendence from the family and the ability to form healthy attachments.
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Singlehood
Today, many people are choosing singlehood, or remaining single,
over marriage or other long-term committed relationships. Many sin-
gles clearly lead satisfying and rewarding lives, whatever their reasons
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for not marrying. Many claim that singlehood gives them freedom
from interpersonal obligations, as well as personal control over their
living space. As of the late 1990s, 26 percent of men and 19 percent
of women in the United States were single adults.
Most singles date; many are sexually active. Typical sexual activ-
ities for singles are the same as those for other adults. Some singles
are celibate, abstaining from sexual relationships.
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Extramarital relationships
Nonconsensual extramarital sexual activity (not agreed upon in
advance by both partners) is a violation of commitment and trust
between spouses. People express various reasons for engaging in
extramarital activities; in any case, such affairs can irreparably dam-
age a marriage. Marriages in which one or both partners are unfaith-
ful typically end in divorce. Some couples may choose to stay
together for monetary reasons or until the children are grown.
Divorce
When significant problems in a marital relationship arise, some
couples decide to divorce, or to legally terminate their marriage. About
50 percent of all marriages in the United States end in divorce, with the
average duration of these marriages being about 7 years.
Friends
Friends play an important role in the lives of young adults. Most
human relationships, including casual acquaintances, are nonloving
in that they do not involve true passion, commitment, or intimacy.
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deviate from it. On the contrary, more and more adults are switching
vocations, not just changing jobs within a field. For example, a psy-
chology professor may decide after years of teaching undergraduates
to become a church pastor.
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MIDDLE ADULTHOOD: PHYSICAL AND
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Perhaps the place where stress is most keenly felt during middle
age is at work. Middle adults may feel that their competence is in ques-
tion because of their age, or middle adults may feel pressured to com-
pete with younger workers. Research indicates that age has less to do
with predicting job success than do tests of physical and mental abili-
ties.
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Thinking patterns
Middle-age adult thinking differs significantly from that of adoles-
cents and young adults. Adults are typically more focused in specific
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Adult learners
Does intellectual development stop at age 22? Not at all. In fact, in
recent years, colleges and universities have reported an increased
enrollment of adult learners—students age 25 or older. Of course,
labeling this age group as adult learners is not to imply that the typical
college student is not also an adult. Academic institutions typically
identify those outside the 18–21 range as adults, because most have
been working and rearing families for some time before deciding to
enter or reenter college. Compared with younger students, adult learn-
ers may also have special needs: anxiety or low self-confidence about
taking classes with younger adults, feelings of academic isolation and
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CHAPTER 15
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD:
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Perhaps middle adulthood is best known for its infamous midlife cri-
sis: a time of reevaluation that leads to questioning long-held beliefs
and values. The midlife crisis may also result in a person divorcing
his or her spouse, changing jobs, or moving from the city to the sub-
urbs. Typically beginning in the early- or mid-40s, the crisis often
occurs in response to a sense of mortality, as middle adults realize
that their youth is limited and that they have not accomplished all of
their desired goals in life. Of course, not everyone experiences stress
or upset during middle age; instead they may simply undergo a
midlife transition, or change, rather than the emotional upheaval of
a midlife crisis. Other middle adults prefer to reframe their experi-
ence by thinking of themselves as being in the prime of their lives
rather than in their declining years.
During the male midlife crisis, men may try to reassert their
masculinity by engaging in more youthful male behaviors, such as
dressing in trendy clothes, taking up activities like scuba diving,
motorcycling, or skydiving.
During the female midlife crisis, women may try to reassert their
femininity by dressing in youthful styles, having cosmetic surgery,
or becoming more socially active. Some middle adult women try to
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look as young as their young adult children by dying their hair and
wearing more youthful clothing. Such actions may be a response to
feelings of isolation, loneliness, inferiority, uselessness, nonassertion,
or unattractiveness.
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Divorce
Middle adults are not immune to problems in relationships. As noted
in Chapter 13, about 50 percent of all marriages in United States end
in divorce, with the median duration of these marriages being about 7
years. Those marriages that do last are not always happy ones, how-
ever. Unfortunately, some marriages ultimately dissolve, even when
the spouses try to ensure that things work out.
The reasons for dissolving a relationship are many and varied, just
as relationships themselves differ in their make-up and dynamics. In
some cases, the couple cannot handle an extended crisis. In other cases,
the spouses change and grow in different directions. In still others, the
spouses are completely incompatible from the very start. However,
long-term relationships rarely end because of difficulties with just one
of the partners. Both parties are usually responsible for the factors that
may lead to a relationship’s end, such as conflicts, problems, growing
out of love, or empty-nest issues that arise after the last child leaves his
or her parent’s home.
Love changes over time, and such changes may become evident
by middle adulthood. The ideal form of love in adulthood involves
three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment—termed
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For others, the end of passion signals the end of the relationship.
Some people are so enamored with passion that they do not approach
their loving relationships realistically. This is especially true for those
whose relationship was based on infatuation or the assumption that
so-called true love takes care of all conflicts and problems. When the
flames of passion subside (which is inevitable in many cases) or times
get rough, these spouses decide to move on to new relationships.
Extramarital relationships are one consequence of marital unhappi-
ness and dissatisfaction.
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Friends
In all age groups, friends are a healthy alternative to family and
acquaintances. Friends offer support, direction, guidance, and a
change of pace from usual routines. Many young adults manage to
maintain at least some friendships in spite of the time constraints
caused by family, school, and work; however, finding time to main-
tain friendships becomes more difficult for middle adults. During this
period, life responsibilities are at an all-time high, so having extra
time for socializing is usually rare. For this reason, middle adults may
have less friends than their newlywed and retired counterparts. Yet
where quantity of friendships may be lacking, quality predominates.
Some of the closest ties between friends are formed and nourished
during middle adulthood.
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Children
As adults wait later to marry and start families, more and more mid-
dle adults find themselves rearing small children. This trend differs
from the traditional American pattern of the last 100 years in which
couples started their families in late adolescence or early adulthood.
Despite the rising number of later marriages and older first-time par-
ents, this traditional model of early marriage and parenthood still pre-
dominates, meaning that by the time most parents reach middle age,
their children are at least of adolescent age.
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Parents
Most middle adults characterize the relationship with their parents as
affectionate. Indeed, a strong bond is often present between related
middle and older adults. Although the majority of middle adults do
not live with their parents, contacts are usually frequent and positive.
And perhaps for the first time, middle adults are able to see their par-
ents as the fallible human beings that they are.
One issue facing middle adults is that of caring for their aging
parents. In some cases, adults, who expected to spend their middle-age
years traveling and enjoying their own children and grandchildren,
instead find themselves taking care of their ailing parents. Some
parents are completely independent of their adult children’s support,
while others are partially independent of their children; and still others
are completely dependent. Children of dependent parents may assist
them financially (paying their bills), physically (bringing them into
their homes and caring for them), and emotionally (as a source of
human contact as the parents’ social circle diminishes). Daughters and
daughters-in-law are the most common caretakers of aging parents
and in-laws.
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CHAPTER 16
LATE ADULTHOOD: PHYSICAL AND
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Daniel Levinson depicts the late adulthood period as those years that
encompass age 65 and beyond. Other developmental psychologists fur-
ther divide later adulthood into young-old (ages 65–85) and old-old
(ages 85 and beyond) stages.
Even so, the speed at which people age, as well as how aging affects
their outlook on life, varies from person to person. In older adulthood,
people experience both gains and losses. For instance, while energy
is lost, the ability to conserve energy is gained. Age also brings under-
standing, patience, experience, and wisdom—qualities that improve
life regardless of the physical changes that may occur.
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During late adulthood, the senses begin to dull. With age, the
lenses of the eye discolor and become rigid, interfering with the
perception of color and distance and the ability to read. Without
corrective glasses, nearly half the elderly population would be legally
blind. Hearing also diminishes, especially the ability to detect high-
pitched sounds. As a result, the elderly may develop suspiciousness
or even a mild form of paranoia—unfounded distrustfulness—in
response to not being able to hear well. They may attribute bad
intentions to those whom they believe are whispering or talking about
them, rather than correctly attributing their problems to bad hearing.
Hearing problems can be corrected with hearing aids, which are widely
available.
The sense of taste remains fairly intact into old age, even though
the elderly may have difficulty distinguishing tastes within blended
foods. By old age, however, the sense of smell shows a marked decline.
Both of these declines in sensation may be due to medications, such as
antihypertensives, as well as physical changes associated with old age.
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Aging also takes its toll on sexuality. Older women produce less
vaginal lubrication, and the vagina becomes less stretchable because
of reduced levels of female hormones. Older men are less able to
attain erections and orgasms than are younger men. This may be due
to reduced levels of testosterone and fewer secretions from the acces-
sory sex glands. Likewise, older men have less urge to ejaculate, and
their refractory periods, or the waiting time before they can regain
an erection, may last longer.
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those over age 85 live in nursing homes, foster care (where elderly
people live with a family licensed by the state to care for aging
adults), or other long-term care facilities. With medical advances and
continued improvements in health-care delivery, the older population
is expected to increase in its numbers and report better health.
Estimates are that within the next 30 years, one out of every five
Americans will be an older adult.
Although most older adults have at least one chronic health prob-
lem, such ailments need not pose limitations on activities well into the
adults’ 80s and beyond. The most common medical concerns during
older adulthood are arthritis and rheumatism, cancer, cataracts of the
eyes, dental problems, diabetes, hearing and vision problems, heart
disease, hypertension, and orthopedic injuries. Because the elderly are
at greater risk of losing their balance and falling, hip fractures and
breakages are particularly common and dangerous in this age group.
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People often fear that aging will cause their intellect to disappear,
giving way to cognitive impairment and irrationality. However, intel-
lectual decline is not an inevitable consequence of aging. Research
does not support the stereotypic notion of the elderly losing general
cognitive functioning or that such loss, when it does occur, is necessar-
ily disruptive. Older adults tend to learn more slowly and perform less
well on tasks involving imagination and memorization than do younger
adults, but what older adults may be lacking in terms of specific
mental tasks, they make up for in wisdom, or expert and practical
knowledge based on life experience.
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Older adults who have kept their minds active and fit continue to
learn and grow, but perhaps more gradually than their younger
colleagues. Patience and understanding (on the part of both the elderly
and their significant others), memory training, and continued educa-
tion are important for maintaining mental abilities and the quality of
life in the later years.
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LATE ADULTHOOD:
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson, who took a special interest in this final stage of life,
concluded that the primary psychosocial task of late adulthood (65
and beyond) is to maintain ego integrity (holding on to one’s sense
of wholeness), while avoiding despair (fearing there is too little time
to begin a new life course). Those who succeed at this final task also
develop wisdom, which includes accepting without major regrets the
life that one has lived, as well as the inescapability of death. However,
even older adults who achieve a high degree of integrity may feel
some despair at this stage as they contemplate their past. No one
makes it through life without wondering if another path may have
been happier and more productive.
Theories of Aging
As older adults approach the end of their life span, they are more
apt to conduct a life review. The elderly may reminisce for hours on
end, take trips to favorite childhood places, or muse over photo
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younger members of society can see what joys these later years can
hold for loving, healthy adults.
Elderly abuse
One particularly disturbing aspect of older adulthood is the potential
for elderly abuse, or the neglect and/or physical and emotional abuse
of dependent elderly persons. Neglect may take the form of care-
givers withholding food or medications, not changing bed linens, or
failing to provide proper hygienic conditions. Physical abuse may
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Friendships
Having close friends in later life, like any other period, is consistently
associated with happiness and satisfaction. Friends provide support,
companionship, and acceptance, conditions that are crucial to most
older adults’ sense of self-esteem and self-worth. Friendships provide
opportunities to trust, confide, and share mutually enjoyed activities.
They also seem to protect against stress, physical and mental prob-
lems, and premature death.
Because older men are more likely to rely on their wives for com-
panionship, older women typically enjoy a wider circle of close
friends. Older men, however, develop more other-gender friendships.
On the other hand, when older women can find available men with
whom to be friends, they may be hesitant to become too close. These
women may worry about what others are thinking, as they do not
want to appear improper or forward.
Older adults who are still working are typically committed to their
work, are productive, report high job satisfaction, and rarely change
jobs. However, fewer older adults are working today than were in the
1950s. In fact, only a small portion of adults age 70 and older are in the
work force. With Social Security benefits beginning as early as age 62,
some companies have opted to offer early retirement incentives that
permit employees to leave their positions without penalizing them
before the regular retirement age. Then the companies can hire
less-experienced and less-expensive employees. Other companies
encourage their older workers to continue working part-time. While
many older adults continue to work for pay, most retire between the
ages of 65 and 70.
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People who are in good health, are better educated, have few or
no financial worries, have adequate family and social networks, and
are satisfied with life usually look forward to retirement. Retirees
may choose to spend their free time volunteering for charities, trav-
eling, taking classes, or engaging in hobbies. The least satisfied
retirees are those who never planned for retirement, have limited
income, have few or no extracurricular activities, and who stay home
day after day with nothing substantial to occupy their time.
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CHAPTER 18
DEATH AND DYING
About Thanatology
At the end of the human life span, people face the issues of dying and
death (the permanent cessation of all life functions). North American
society in recent years has witnessed an increased interest in the thana-
tology, or the study of death and dying. Thanatologists examine all
aspects of death, including biological (the cessation of physiological
processes), psychological (cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
responses), and social (historical, cultural, and legal issues).
Although most young and middle adults have gained a more real-
istic view of death through the death of some family members or
friends, anxiety about death may be more likely to peak in middle
adulthood. As people continue aging, they gradually learn to accept
the eventual deaths of loved ones, as well as their own deaths. By
later adulthood, most people come to accept—perhaps with some
tranquility if they feel they have lived meaningfully—the inevitability
of their own demise, which prompts them to live day by day and make
the most of whatever time remains. If they do not feel they have lived
meaningfully, older adults may react to impending death with feel-
ings of bitterness or even passivity.
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Kubler-Ross pointed out that although the above five stages are
typical, they are not absolute. Not all people progress predictably
through all the stages, nor do people experience the stages in one
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Widowhood
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Suicide
The majority of Americans view suicide, the deliberate termination
of one’s own life, as highly unfortunate, if not immoral. One conser-
vative estimate is that 300,000 people attempt to kill themselves in
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the United States each year. Exact figures are hard to determine, and
many presumed accidents may actually be disguised suicides or
attempted suicides. Women outnumber men 3 to 1 in the number of
attempted suicides, but men outnumber women 4 to 1 in the number
of actual suicides. Men tend to use more lethal methods than women
use when attempting suicide (for instance, guns instead of sleeping
pills). The highest suicide rates are among older adult males.
Euthanasia
A very controversial issue, euthanasia (literally meaning, easy death
or mercy killing) involves actively or passively assisting the death of a
suffering person. Active euthanasia is the deliberate termination of
life to eliminate pain. Passive euthanasia is the deliberate withdrawal
or withholding of life-sustaining treatment (often termed, extraordi-
nary measures) that may otherwise prolong the life of the dying
person. Those individuals who want to avoid having extraordinary
measures taken to keep them alive may draw up a living will that
outlines their wishes in the case of terminal illness.
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The issues of euthanasia in the United States have a long but espe-
cially complicated history due to modern advances in medicine. In
1828, New York enacted the first laws explicitly prohibiting assisted
suicide; many states followed New York’s precedent shortly thereafter.
While deeply rooted in the law, states’ rules against assisted suicide
have, in recent decades, been reexamined and typically reaffirmed.
Because so many North Americans today are likely to die from chronic
illnesses in hospitals, nursing facilities, and other long-term care insti-
tutions, the public has been particularly concerned with how best to
protect independence and dignity at the end of life.
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age clock the internal sense of timing of physical and social events
that determines the various life stages through which adults pass.
amniotic fluid the watery fluid that fills the amniotic sac and cush-
ions the developing fetus against injury and shock and provides
constant temperature in the amniotic sac.
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anticipatory grief feelings of loss and guilt while the dying person
is still alive.
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attachment the bond between a mother and child; also, the process
whereby one individual seeks nearness to another individual.
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corpus callosum the bands of neural fibers connecting the two cere-
bral hemispheres.
cortex the higher areas of the brain, which are responsible for think-
ing and planning.
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crowning the point during labor when the baby’s head can be seen at
the vaginal orifice.
culture-fair IQ tests tests that are fair for all members in a culture.
deciduous teeth baby teeth; teeth that fall out at a certain stage of
growth.
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despair a loss of hope; Erik Erikson believed that those in late adult-
hood struggled with the fear that there is too little time to begin a new
life course.
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early phase of labor the phase of labor that consists of mild, minute-
long contractions that occur every 15 minutes.
ectoderm the outer layer of cells of an embryo from which the ner-
vous system, skin, hair, teeth, and so on are developed.
ego that part of the psyche that experiences the external world, or
reality, through the senses, organizes the thought processes rationally,
and governs action; it mediates between the impulses of the id, the
demands of the environment, and the standards of the superego.
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endoderm the inner layer of cells of the embryo, from which the lin-
ing of the digestive tract, other internal organs, and certain glands are
formed.
entering the adult world a stage in the novice phase of early adult-
hood, ranging from ages 22 to 28.
estrogen any of several female sex hormones that cause estrus; estro-
gen helps to stimulate enlargement of the reproductive organs and
relaxation of associated ligaments, stimulate development of the
uterine lining and mammary glands, and prevent contractions of the
uterus.
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fallopian tube either of two slender tubes that carry ova from the
ovaries to the uterus.
family of origin the family one was born into or raised by.
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fetus the unborn young of an animal while still in the uterus or egg,
especially in its later stages and specifically, in humans, from about
the eighth week after conception until birth.
fine motor skills the use of small bodily movements, such as draw-
ing or writing.
fluid intelligence the ability to think abstractly and deal with novel
situations.
frontal lobes lobes located in the front of the brain just under the
skull, which are responsible for planning, reasoning, social judgment,
and ethical decision making, among other functions.
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gerontologists those who study the process of aging and of the prob-
lems of aged people.
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grief therapy treatment that helps individuals deal with their grief
and bereavement.
gross motor skills the use of large bodily movements, including run-
ning, jumping, hopping, turning, skipping, throwing, balancing, and
dancing.
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infant mortality the percentage of babies who die within the first
year of life.
initiative the ability to think and act without being urged; enterprise.
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living will a document, legal in some states, directing that all mea-
sures to support life be ended if the signer should be dying of an
incurable condition.
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low birthweight baby a baby born weighing less than 51⁄ 2 pounds.
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neurons the structural and functional unit of the nervous system, con-
sisting of the nerve cell body and all its processes, including an axon
and one or more dendrites.
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ovum a mature female germ cell which, only after fertilization, devel-
ops into a zygote and then a fetus.
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perineum the region of the body between the thighs, at the outlet of
the pelvis; specifically, the small area between the anus and the vulva
in the female or between the anus and the scrotum in the male.
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GLOSSARY
refractory periods the waiting time before men can regain an erec-
tion after they have ejaculated.
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size and shape constancy the consistent size and shape of objects.
social intimacy having the same friends and enjoying the same types
of recreation.
stable identity the concept that one’s self remains consistent even
when circumstances change.
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subcortical the lower areas of the brain, which are responsible for
basic life functions.
superego that part of the psyche that is critical of the self or ego and
enforces moral standards: at an unconscious level it blocks unaccept-
able impulses of the id.
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toddlerhood ages 1 to 2.
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widow a woman who has outlived the man to whom she was married
at the time of his death; especially, such a woman who has not
remarried.
widower a man who has outlived the woman to whom he was mar-
ried at the time of her death; especially, such a man who has not
remarried.
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zygote a cell formed by the union of male and female gametes; fer-
tilized egg cell before cleavage.
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