KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CASE STUDY ON

SOLAR POND
MEEG 452

SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO
Sujan Adhikari (31150) Asst. Prof. Er. Malesh Shah
Ajaya K.C. (31162) (Department of Mechanical Engineering)
Dikshant Shrestha (016144)
Gaurav Timilsina (016149)

July 2021
 TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF CONTENT .......................................................................................................................... ii

List of figure .......................................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Solar pond ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Types of solar pond ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Convecting solar pond ........................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Non-Convecting solar pond ................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Working principle ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Heat Extraction system in solar pond ........................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2 CASE STUDY REGRADING SOLAR POND ..................................................................... 5
2.1 Solar Pond in Bhuj, Gujarat .................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Case study .............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Heat extracting system in Bhuj solar pond ......................................................................... 6
2.2 Solar Pond in Israel (Ormat) ......................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Working ................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3 Pyramid Hill Solar pond ......................................................................................................... 7
2.4 El Paso solar Pond .................................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 11
3.1 Solar Pond in context of Nepal ............................................................................................. 11
3.2 Potential in Nepal ........................................................................................................................ 11
3.2.1 Heating application .............................................................................................................. 11
3.2.2 Electricity generation ........................................................................................................... 11
3.2.3 Industrial Process heating .................................................................................................... 11
3.2.4 Drying of crops .................................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Advantages.................................................................................................................................. 12
3.3.1 As an established working technology ................................................................................. 12
3.3.2 Cost advantage ..................................................................................................................... 12
3.3.3 Thermal storage.................................................................................................................... 12
3.3.4 Simplicity ............................................................................................................................. 12
3.3.5 Rural area friendly ............................................................................................................... 12
3.4 Disadvantages ............................................................................................................................. 12
3.4.1 Environmental Factor ........................................................................................................... 12

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 3.4.2 Land area .............................................................................................................................. 12
3.4.3 Maintenance ......................................................................................................................... 13
3.5 Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 13
Chapter 4 CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION ............................................................................. 14
REFERENCE........................................................................................................................................ 15

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 List of figure
Figure 1 : Solar Pond [2] ......................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2 : Layer of solar pond [9] ........................................................................................................... 2
Figure 3 : Schematic figure of solar pond and it's working [13] ............................................................. 3
Figure 4 : Heat Extraction system [1] ..................................................................................................... 4
Figure 5 : Bhuj Solar Pond [11] .............................................................................................................. 6
Figure 6 : Heat Extraction system [10] ................................................................................................... 6
Figure 7: Pyramid Hill Solar Pond [12] .................................................................................................. 8
Figure 8 : Solar pond's parallel submerge and side perpendicular pipes [7] ........................................... 8
Figure 9 : El Paso solar pond [11]........................................................................................................... 9

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 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
The future of the globe is such that there will be a continuous increase in demand of energy. The
hydrocarbon fuels (such as oil, gas, and coal) will be the ones to fulfil the increasing need of the ever-
growing population. The utilisation of these carbon emitting fuels bring the negative impacts like CO 2
emissions and greenhouse effects) in around the globe. To mitigate these negative impacts, efforts are
being made to explore the alternative sources of energy options to replace the use of hydrocarbons. Out
of the different alternatives, solar power energy is the most feasible in the most parts of the world. One
way to tap solar energy is through the use of solar ponds. Solar ponds are large scale energy collectors
with the integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy. High outputs can be achieved through the
heat extraction system from the lower zone of solar pond which stores the maximum heat at high
temperature. Solar pond is one of the source of energy solution that is environmentally friendly (because
of negligible emissions), cost effective (offering low initial and maintenance expenses), and socially
acceptable (already operative in natural lakes). This solar pond system requires a shallow water body
with appropriative quantities of dissolved salts and an adequate amount of solar radiation prevalent at
the site.

Figure 1 : Solar Pond [2]

1.2 Solar pond

Solar pond is a simple pool consist of saltwater which is used to store thermal energy by utilizing solar
radiation. Later on that stored thermal energy could be used for different purpose according to
requirement. The saltwater that used in a pool generally create a vertical gradient known as “halocline”
in which low salinity water floats over high salinity water. The concentration of layer of salt solution
increase with depth. Generally, there are 3 types of layer exist in the solar pond, upper convection zone

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(UCZ), lower convection zone(LCZ), intermediate zone. The top layer is known as upper convection
zone. The concentration of salt is low and have a small depth. The solar layer is party captivated and
transferred to the underneath layer. This layer consists of water having 2-3% saltiness and temperature
is almost near to ambient temperature. Intermediate zone known as gradient layer have a high salt
concentration compare to UCZ and low salt concentration compare to LCZ. The main function of this
layer is to keep the heat convection from the peak thickness as transparent insulation of this pond create
high ability to trap the energy with heat keeping inside the pond. Also related concentration gradient
helps to resist heat loss from pond due to natural convection. The lower part of solar pond is lower
convection zone. The concentration of salt is high compare to other zones. This zone includes uniform
salinity water which helps to receive heat from solar irradiation on the pond. This zone is also as a
storage zone because the heat penetrates from UCZ and intermediate zone is saved in this zone[9].

Figure 2 : Layer of solar pond [9]

1.3 Types of solar pond

Depending upon the convection behaviour of saline solution, there are two types of solar pond
Convection solar pond and Non-convection solar pond.

1.3.1 Convecting solar pond

Convection solar pond is a horizontal solar collector which have a fresh pure water kept inside a larger
bag that allow convection but resist evaporation. The water is heated inside the bag with the help of sun
in the day time and at night time the heated water is pumped in to the storage tank to minimise heat
loss. Also there exist a transparent cover on the pond’s surface which help to reduce heat loss due to
blocking evaporation and conduction. One of the best example of convection solar pond is shallow solar
pond [10].

1.3.2 Non-Convecting solar pond

Non convection zone is a type of solar pond which have non convective zone in between heat storage
zone and upper convective zone. This type of pond does not allow developing of convection current in
the liquid body so that heat loss is prevented. It has three type of saline water layer in which low salt

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concentration is in the upper surface and high salt concentration is in bottom layer [10]. This type of
solar pond contains a transparent plastic between layers to maintain stability [11]. Salt gradient ponds
are the example of non-convecting pond.

1.4 Working principle

When the bottom layer of the shallow pool comes in contact with the sun's rays then the water at the
bottom gets heated. The heated water at the bottom becomes less dense than water at the surface as the
convection begins. The solar pond helps to heat the water by resisting convection. This entire process
takes place in the storage zone. The high salinity water in the bottom layer does not mix with the low
salinity water in the surface layer. As a result, when the bottom layer of water is heated, convection
occurs separately in both layers, and only mild mixing occurs between them. This helps to reduce heat
loss in the system when the high salinity water gets up to 900C while maintaining low salinity water at
300C. finally, hot and salt water is pumped up for different purposes like electricity generation, salt
production, pure water production, and many more[3].

Figure 3 : Schematic figure of solar pond and it's working [12]

1.5 Heat Extraction system in solar pond

The heat stored in the lower convective zone of the pond for the application purpose is to be extracted
from the bottom layer of the pond. The heat from the bottom layer is removed by the process of pumping
the brine i.e. saturated hot salt water through an external heat exchanger or an evaporator. In a heat
exchanger there is an inlet of cold water and outlet from hot water. This hot water is then used for
various applications such as thermal power plant, dairy plants, etc.

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Figure 4 : Heat Extraction system [1]

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 Chapter 2 CASE STUDY REGRADING SOLAR POND

Different solar ponds were constructed in different times and places of the world for generating the
energy through the solar pond. Some of the solar ponds around the globe are explained here in the form
of the case study.

2.1 Solar Pond in Bhuj, Gujarat

Established: 1985

Power Generated: 150 KW

Area: 6000 square meters with top surface (revised construction)

Depth: 3.5 meters

Location: Bhuj, State of Gujarat in western India

Max temperature: 99.88 °C attained in May 1991

Total construction Cost: 90,000 dollars

2.1.1 Case study

The first trace of solar pond in India dated back to 1971 with the construction of solar pond in
Bhavnagar, Pondicherry and Bangalore. Following these construction of solar pond, a proposal for
National solar pond program was submitted to Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources for the
establishment of 5000m2 salinity gradient solar pond for supplying process heat to a dairy in 1985. The
purpose of its construction was to demonstrate the technical and economic viability of solar pond
technology in the context of India. Then in the year 1987, an area of 6000m2 with the top surface of the
pond revised, the construction of the solar pond got started at Kutch Dairy in the state of Gujarat in
Western India. This project began its construction with the collaborative hand between Gujarat Energy
Development Agency (GEDA), Tata Energy Development Institute (TERI) and Gujarat Dairy
Development Corporation Ltd. (GDDC)[10].

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 Figure 5 : Bhuj Solar Pond [11]
The Bhuj solar pond
has a dimension 100*60*3.5 in length, breadth and depth respectively. To make it dense, pond was
first filled with the water and 4000 tons of common salt was added into the pond. The solar pond
project provided and supplied 15 million liters of hot water to the dairy at an average temperature
of 75ºC between September 1993 and April 1995. An inexpensive lining scheme, consisting layers
of clay and low density polyethylene (LPDE) combination was used for lining the pond. The pond
gain a total temperature of 99.88ºC under stagnation in May 1991. It developed a leakage then
after. A report that was finalized by failure analysis suggested that the leakage was due to the
combination of high stagnation temperature and large air pockets below the liner. This lining
scheme was redesigned and pond reestablished in June 1993. Hot water supply to the dairy started
in September 1993 and continued until April 1995. After an interruption of nearly one year, hot
water was resumed in August 1996. The total cost of construction for the entire solar pond was
about 90,000 dollars[10].
2.1.2 Heat extracting system in Bhuj solar pond
It consists of a brine suction and discharge diffusors, a brine pump, associated piping, controls and
instrumentation. To avoid the effect of fouling and smell, the heat extraction system in this solar
system use shell and tube type heat exchanger. The suction and discharge diffusors are at the same
side of the solar pond. This pond has a capacity of delivering 80,000 liters of hot water daily, at 70
degrees or above.

Figure 6 : Heat Extraction system [10]

2.2 Solar Pond in Israel (Ormat)

Established: 1980

Power Generated: 150 KW

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Area: 7000 square meters

Depth: 2.5 meters

Location: En Boqeq, Dead Sea, Israel

Max temperature (Bottom layer): 90 °C

Year round working temperature range: 70-80 °C

Cost: 2000$ per KW

2.2.1 Working
The pond contains a dense salt solution which naturally separates to gradient layers, being a solar pond.
The topmost layer is freshwater itself. Heat is stored in the salt gradient pool and the heat is utilized in
three cycles, evaporation, drive and condensation. The hot salt water is first pumped through a heat
exchanger, which is surrounded by a container filled with a substance similar to Freon. Then this is
connected to a turbine that is specially designed which is to be driven by a much lower-temperature
propellant than that used in a conventional steam turbine. The medium changes from liquid to gas at a
relatively low heat. So, the sun warmed water instantly flashes the fluid into a pressurized vapour and
this in turn, drives the turbine and eventually its 150-kilowatt AC generator [14].

2.3 Pyramid Hill Solar pond

Established year: 2001

Power Generation: 300 KWh

Size: 3000 m2 in Area and 3m in Depth

Location: Pyramid Hill, Victoria, Australia

Max temperature (Bottom layer): 80°C in the summer

Year round working temperature range: 35-50 °C

A Salinity Gradient Solar Pond (SGSP) is a type of solar collector that absorbs the irradiance of the sun
continuously and store it for a long time in the lower depths as thermal energy. The one in this case
study is also a SGSP where concentration of salt solution increases as we go deeper. Compared to a thin
body of water with the same size, SGSP is able to store more heat because of the salinity gradient which
prevents natural convection.

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 Figure 7: Pyramid Hill Solar Pond [12]

This SGSP project is built on Pyramid Salt Pty. Ltd in the north of Victoria, Australia via the help of
A$550,500 Australian Greenhouse Office grant through the Renewable Energy Commercialization
Program [8]. It has a rectangular shape being 3000m2 area and 3 meters deep. The base and walls of
the pond are lined with 1mm thick High-density Polyethylene Nylex Millennium. The water depth is
maintained at 2.2m from the bottom using an overflow system. Heat is extracted from the solar pond
by 50 parallel pipes submerged into the pond in the lowest layer as heat exchanger. The lowest layer is
called the Lower Convective Zone and the temperature varies between 35-50 °C. This is connected to
a CO2 heat pump via those pipes. The CO2 heat pump then supplies hot air from ambient temperature
up to 120°C. by coupling it with the solar pond.

Using both solar energy and heat pump, the project is able to provide heating for industrial processes
and reduce the electrical energy consumption by 1GWh/year[7].

Figure 8 : Solar pond's parallel submerge and side perpendicular pipes [7]

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2.4 El Paso solar Pond
Established year: 1985

Power generation: 350 -400 kW

Area: 3350 square meter

Location: El Paso, Texas, U.S

Max temperature (bottom surface): 800C

Year round working temperature range: 20-800C

In 1983, Researchers from university of Texas conducted a research, development and demonstration
project related to solar pond. Around 90 graduate and undergraduate student were involved in this plant
performing different task related to research and construction. After 3 years of hard work, they were
successfully able to produce heat, electricity and fresh water with the help of solar pond. They designed
the solar pond in the area of 3350 square meter and depth of 3m in the property of Bruce foods
incorporation. The power generated in the plant was used to full fill around 20% of total power demand
of Bruce Foods incorporation in the initial days[9].

 300kW of thermal energy as industrial process heat delivered in the Bruce food in 1986.
 Around 70kW of electricity produced using a Ormat organic Rankine-cycle engine to full fill
Bruce food electricity demand in 1986.
 17.3 m3/s of desalted water was generated using 24-stages falling fill low temperature desalting
unit in 1987[11].

Figure 9 : El Paso solar pond [11]

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In 1986 this plant was named as the first in the world to deliver industrial process heat to a commercial
manufacturer. In 1985 it named as the first solar pond to deliver electricity in the United States. Not
only was this, in 1986 it the nation first experimental solar pond powered water desalting facility.
Nowadays researcher working on desalination and brine management technologies so that they will be
able to reuse the brine concentrate rejected from desalting plant [9].

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 Chapter 3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Solar Pond in context of Nepal

Nepal is a high insolation country, and it has high solar energy potential as compared to other parts of
the world. Thus, solar farming in this country is strongly recommended to resolve the environmental,
economic, and energy issues [15]. Solar farming and the development of solar technology, therefore,
can hold much greater potential in Nepal. In this section, we will move through the potential of solar
pond in Nepal along with the advantages and disadvantages that come along with it.

3.2 Potential in Nepal

Solar ponds can be a very attractive way to harness the solar energy to meet energy demand in Nepal.
The general uses of solar pond vary from electricity or power generation to farming crop drying. Solar
ponds, therefore, have wide range of scopes and areas where the energy can be utilized [16]. Some of
the potential application in Nepal are mentioned in the following section.

3.2.1 Heating application

The mountainous region of Nepal is cold throughout the year on average. Since solar ponds have a good
storage potential for energy and can be used in heating applications, they hold scopes in the upper
mountainous region for heating applications.

3.2.2 Electricity generation

Solar ponds are the solar power harnessing technologies that are rural friendly. There are places in
Nepal which are still not connected to main supply grids because of the rural location. Such places can
use solar ponds for electricity generation.

3.2.3 Industrial Process heating

A good portion of energy produced in Nepal is utilized by industries. Solar ponds can be used in those
sector to reduce the consumption of main grid electricity. Industries like textile processing and dairy
industries can benefit from solar ponds. This can help a lot to manage the energy-demand in the country.

3.2.4 Drying of crops

Being an agricultural country, Nepal has a lot of places where the people residing there are just
dependent on agriculture itself. Proper storage, if not achieved, can lead to food wastage. A particular
way for conservation of foods would be drying which can be achieved by solar ponds in the areas where
it is required.

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3.3 Advantages
3.3.1 As an established working technology
As solar pond has been used in several countries and have been used as a source of energy generation,
they can be adapted in Nepal as well. Since the solar pond plants were successful and regarded as a
working technology in places like Bhuj, El Paso, Israel, and many other, it can be used in Nepal as well.

3.3.2 Cost advantage

Nepal, still being a developing country, is not economically sound when it comes to investments in new
energy technologies. Since solar ponds have lower capital costs on average, they can be adapted as a
new solar technology for energy production.

3.3.3 Thermal storage

The quantity of thermal storage in solar pond is measured not in hours or days, but in weeks. A solar
pond can contain 20 weeks of thermal storage [17]. Nepal being a country with variable weather
conditions, can adapt this because the energy stored can be used even when the pond is not working by
direct sunlight. No backup storage is required for space heating, hot water, and industrial process heat
application. This can be a very significant advantage over most renewable technologies to be adapted
in Nepal.

3.3.4 Simplicity
The construction of solar pond is neither material intensive nor energy intensive. Earth serves as the
support structure, water as collector, heat transfer medium and the storage medium [17]. They are also
simple to build and maintain. This can be a good factor to be considered for installation in Nepal.

3.3.5 Rural area friendly

Nepal, being a country with varying geographical conditions, contains places that are very rural. Solar
pond can be a good energy source in such places because they require less backup, have relatively low
technology production and less maintenance requirements [17].

3.4 Disadvantages
3.4.1 Environmental Factor
The water in solar pond should be still so as to maintain the layers of water. Nepal being a country with
varying weather conditions, will have differences in weather conditions. Snowing, Hailstorms, heavy
rainfall may affect the solar pond and mix up the gradient layers. Wind is also another factor to be
considered as heavy storms also may result in the mixing of the gradient layers.

3.4.2 Land area

Nepal, being a country with varying geography, contains hilly and mountainous regions. Solar pond
requires a good area which is flat and where the pond can be made. The terrain of places of hilly and
the mountainous region may not agree with this.

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3.4.3 Maintenance
Solar ponds need a good maintenance when it comes to changing the saltwater (because the saltwater
should be changed more often to increase the effectiveness) and this may be a disadvantage because the
changing process can be a bit complicated when not monitored properly.

3.5 Discussion
From the above case studies, it is clear that solar pond is a huge prospect for generating energy power
in the developing country like Nepal. In Nepal, sun shines about 300 days a year and the global solar
radiation is nearly perfect to extract the solar power for different applications. The case studies above
show that the average working temperature range for the solar pond is 30-50ºC which is similar to the
average temperature recorded throughout the year in Nepal i.e. maximum 45ºC. Nepal having
topographical differences, the mountain regions receive highest solar radiation than the Hilly and Terai.
It makes the mountain region perfect land to install the solar pond. The terai has a flat land which too
suits for the construction of solar pond technology. The people of the country who have agriculture as
the main occupation can borrow their barren land to organization or own themselves a solar pond. Doing
this, they can sell the electricity power to the small grid or use to run the different factories. People of
Nepal can make the solar pond a source of income too. Religiously, the people of Nepal serves the
ponds as the form of gods and goddesses to worship. This also help in promotion of solar pond in
country.’

Nepal in the past has faced different blockades ‘Nakbandi’ in different time from India. It led us to the
shortage of energy sources like LPG gas, petroleum products, and cutoff in electricity. So, the
installation of solar pond in the near future can make us independent in some sort and import much less
from the India. The national level big solar pond projects if installed will be a matter of pride for the
Nepalese. There are some rural areas in Nepal which have tourism potential but has no access of energy
sources to give different facilities and services for homestay like lighting, cooking, hot water bathe, etc.
In these type of places, the solar pond can act as the main source of energy supplement. Many small
and cottage industries have come to halt due to their inability to purchase energy to run their factories
during the period like Lockdown due to Covid-19. If nearby industries can jointly install the solar pond,
they can be benefitted from the installed solar pond. Therefore, the above explained case studies have
promoted the necessity of the solar pond in the country like Nepal which has huge solar power potential.

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 Chapter 4 CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION

An accurate data base of solar radiation at particular places and selected sites are required for the
development, simulations and designing of solar ponds and the establishment of such plants. The main
factors to be considered are the solar intensity and the land circumstances to start the study in the
particular area where the construction of solar pond is desired.

Solar pond has wide range of uses or the areas where they can be used. So, it is important to know about
the application and the end-use energy necessity before the ponds can be constructed. The ponds for
energy production might differ from the ponds made for crops drying or other heating applications. If
the use can be pinpointed, the solar ponds can be designed accordingly.

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