MODULE 1

ENG 122- READING AND WRITING SUBJECT

Core Subject

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At the end of the period, students should be able to:
a. Describes a written text as connected discourse
b. Differentiate the techniques in selecting and organizing information(brainstorming list, graphic organizer, topic
outline, sentence outline)
c. Practice brainstorming techniques

Introduction
If we speak of Text as Connected Discourse, we will be dragging in two interrelated concepts – the text and the
discourse. The understanding of the text requires an understanding of the discourse.
As defined, discourse is the expression of ideas that a person can think of. I want that pair of shoes as a sample
sentence gives us an idea that someone wants a particular pair of shoes; this idea is considered a discourse. In addition, the
ideas in discourse may spark responses or may provoke an action.
In terms of text, it refers to the sum of the discourses. When we link the discourses together, it makes up a large unit of
written language we call a text. A text shall have the following characteristics (M. Jorgensen & L. Phillips, 2002):
1. Cohesion – the connection of ideas at the sentence level.
2. Coherence – the connection of ideas at the paragraph level.
3. Intentionality – dwells into the purpose of the author/writer.
4. Informativity – the quantity of new information in the text.
5. Acceptability – how factual the pieces of information are.
6. Situationality – the socio-cultural appropriateness of the text. Is it appropriate or acceptable to the target reader?
7. Intertextuality – the connection of the succeeding discourse to the previous one. It also talks about the existence
of the succeeding text because of the previous one.
COHESION
It is focused on how the ideas are being connected in a certain phrase or sentence. Whatever idea the writer tries to
express shall be distinguished by the use of words. For example, if the writer wants to express a cause and effect in a
sentence, he might use the word because.
COHERENCE
It is concerned with how the sentences and paragraphs are linked together that they would express a single idea. This is
achieved when the writer uses cohesive devices to link the ideas together or to signal whether he is continuing, opposing,
or moving on from the idea of the previous sentence or paragraph. Cohesive devices such as furthermore, in addition,
secondly, moreover, and etc. connote that the writer is supporting or continuing the previous claim or idea.
INTENTIONALITY
Intentionality as a characteristic of a text answers the question: What is the purpose of the writer in writing the text? A
text must be written with a purpose whether that is to inform, persuade, or entertain. In some cases, a text is written to
criticize or just to express one’s opinion. When a text has a purpose, intentionality is achieved.

INFORMATIVITY
This quality of the text focuses on the amount of new information embedded on it. A text is written to provide new
information or perspective not a duplication of an already-known concept. A writer shall make sure that what he/she is
writing is not common knowledge to all.
ACCEPTABILITY
Are the things you are writing acceptable? Acceptability refers to the veracity of the information provided. How true the
information or ideas expressed? The text shall be accepted by a group or a number of people especially that of the
academic community. It is achieved when it underwent rigorous vetting.
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SITUATIONALITY
This simply refers to the socio-cultural appropriateness of the text. The content of the text shall not be offensive to any
race, sex, religion, etc. A text shall always conform to the situation.

INTERTEXTUALITY
Why an answer exists? Intertextuality refers to the way you understand the succeeding discourse because of the way you
interpret the preceding one. Intertextuality is the idea that a text exists because of another text or an event. For example,
you cannot write an editorial about COVID-19 if when, in the first place, COVID-19 does not exist. In poetry, the The
Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd would have not been written without the The Passionate Shepher to His Love since it is
the reply to the latter. You cannot reply to something that doesn’t exist, right? The final example, a movie adaptation of a
novel is a perfect example of intertextuality.
Written text is also described as written discourse, especially when simple analysis of it reveals that is connected
discourse.
Written text acquires the characteristics of connected discourse when:
1.Its ideas are linked logically.
Here are some steps to make a logical division of idea paragraph:
a. Begin a logical division paragraph with a topic sentence.
b. In the supporting sentences, discuss each point one after the other.
c. Introduce each new point with a signal word or phrase.
d. In addition, support each point with a convincing detail such as an example or statistic (numbers, amounts, percentages,
etc).
e. Finally, end a logical division paragraph with a concluding sentence.

Connectives for listing arguments

Firstly -This can be used for the first supporting argument.
Secondly- furthermore, moreover, in addition These can be used for any further supporting arguments
(except, of course, for “Secondly”
which can only be used for the second.
Finally- This can be used for the last supporting argument.
Concluding Connectives
Three common concluding connectives are:
In conclusion/In summary/Thus- These all carry roughly the same meaning. They should be used to indicate that you
are making final statements that cover all the supporting arguments in a very general way.

In fact/Indeed These two connectives have almost the same meaning and both can be used in the following situations:
1. To connect a more detailed statement with a preceding general statement Example: Today is very warm.
In fact (or Indeed)
it is 35 degrees Celsius.
2. To connect a statement which is more factual and exact with a preceding statement that is more debatable and general.
Example: The internet is very popular in Australia.

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Indeed (or In fact)
,Australia has the highest proportion of Internet users per head of population of any country in the world.

Nowadays, we are bombarded with different kinds of information from books, newspapers, magazines, and of course, the
Internet. Going through this amount of information is not the only challenge; we also have to come up with effective ways
of processing them. Hence, one important ingredient to successful reading and writing is our ability to generate, select,
and organize ideas. These can be done through brainstorming, making a graphic organizer, and outlining.

Brainstorming
Read the following

Patrick’s class was tackled with the opening presentation during their school’s Foundation Day. The school has
already decided on a theme, and the class was simply required to decide its own concept for the performance. Although
Patrick facilitated the discussion, all of his classmates were involved because they all shared their own ideas. After
everyone has contributed an idea, they evaluated the suggestions and decided to use Gabriel’s idea to do a musical skit.

What Patrick’s group did is called brainstorming. It is perhaps the most popular tool in generating creative and
rich ideas. It helps people establish patterns of ideas, develop new ways of thinking, active background knowledge, and
overcome mental block.
Methods in Brainstorming
You can brainstorm effectively either by creating an idea list or by making an idea map.
Creating an idea list simply involves listing ideas about particular topic. It also helps you find the main idea and
supporting details from the numerous ideas listed.
How to make an idea list: This strategy is especially appropriate to textual people, or those who are more comfortable in
processing words than visuals. It simply requires you to write the main topic and then write down all related concepts
below it. Here is an example of an idea list.

Topic- Unemployment

1. Jobs
2. Poverty
3. Salary
4. Lack of education
5. Lack of jobs
6. Low salary
7. Lack of money
8. Fresh graduates

Another brainstorming method is making an idea map. It is a visual representation of ideas and their connections with
one another. Unlike the idea list, an idea map is more structured; thus, it is able to show how one idea subordinates
another idea.

How to make an idea map: Put the big idea or question at the center. Then, add a related idea by writing it down in a
circle near the big idea, and drawing a line between the two to show how the ideas are connected. Continue this process of
connecting ideas until you have generated enough concepts.

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Graphic organizers
These visuals representations of concepts that help us structure information into organizational patterns. They present
essential information and connect these pieces of information into a coherent framework.
They are helpful tools for brainstorming, facilitating reading and writing, promoting active learning, and accessing
previous knowledge and experiences. Trough graphic organizers, you can focus your attention on key elements and help
you integrate new knowledge into your current knowledge.

Types of Graphic Organizers

1. Venn-diagram- is used to compare and contrast ideas and events. This diagram uses two or more overlapping
circles to show similar and different attributes.

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 2. Network Tree- is used to represent hierarchy, classification, and branching. It is useful in showing the
relationships of scientific categories, family trees, and even lineages.

Highest level/
starting point

Branches

3.Spider Map (also known as semantic map)- is used to investigate and enumerate various aspects of a central
idea, which could be a concept, topic, or theme. This central idea is placed at the center of the map. The main idea
is placed along its diagonal line, while details of the main idea are placed on the sides of the diagonals.

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 2. Problem-Solution Map- displays the nature of the problem and how it can be solved. This map usually contains
the problem’s description, its causes and effects, and logical solutions.

3. Timeline- is used to show how events occurred chronologically through a long bar labeled with dates and specific
events. Timelines can be linear or comparative. A linear timeline shows how events happened within one period
while a comparative timeline shows two sets of events that happened within the same period.

Linear Timeline
Set of event

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 Comparative Timeline
Set of Events A

Set of Events B

4. Plot diagram- is a tool used map events in a story. It is used to analyze the major parts of a plot. The major
events to be placed in the plot diagram are:
a. Exposition- the initial part where the characters, settings, and relationships are established.
b. Inciting moment- the part which brings about the change or the conflict.
c. Rising action- the selection where the conflict and the characters are developed.
d. Climax- the highest point of the story where the major events are confronted
e. Falling action- the events immediately following the climax which lead to the closure of the conflict.
f. Resolution- the conclusion or closure of the story.

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 5. Series of Events Chain- is used to show the logical sequence of events.

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 6. Fishbone Map- is used to better understand the causal relationship of a complex phenomenon. It shows the
factors that cause a specific event or problem, as well as details of each cause.

7. Cycle- describes how a series of events interact to produce a set of results repeatedly. Some examples of events
that require a cycle are water cycle, metamorphosis, and poverty cycle.

8. Persuasion Map- is used to map out arguments and evidence that prove a viewpoint. This map is especially
useful when processing persuasive or argumentative texts.

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 Outline
An outline is a tool for organizing ideas. it used not only as a pre-writing strategy but also as a post-reading activity.
When preparing an outline, you can use either a decimal outline or an alphanumeric outline. A decimal outline only
uses numbers as labels while an alphanumeric outline uses both letters and numbers as labels.

Decimal Outline Alphanumeric Outline

1. I.
1.1 A.
1.2 B.
C.
1.3
II.
A.
2. 1.
2.1 a.
2.2 b.
2.2.1 2.
2.2.2 B.
1.
2.3
2.
a.
3. b.
3.1 C.
3.2 1.
2.
III.
A.
B.
C.

There are four principles that need to be followed in making an effective outline.
These principles are coordination, subordination, division, and parallel construction. The principle of coordination
requires ideas pf the same relevance to be labeled in the same way (see I and II in both sample outlines that follow). The
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principle of subordination shows that minor details have to be placed under their respective major details (see I and A in
both sample outlines).

The principle of division requires that no cluster should contain only one item. In short, if you have subheading 1,
there should be subheading 2. Lastly, the principle of parallel construction requires all entries in each cluster to use the
same structure and format. For example, the word promotes and improves in sample topic outline below use the simple
present tense.

Kinds of Outline According to Structure

1. A topic outline uses words and phrases as its entries. Generally , a topic outline is used if the ideas being
discussed can be arranged in a number of ways.

I. Positive effects of uniform policy

A. Promotes school identity
B. Improves school security
II. Negative effects of uniform policy
A. Inhibits learning
B. Curtails individuality

2. A sentence outline uses complete sentences as its entries. You use a sentence outline when the topic being
discussed is complicated and required details.

I. Students should not be mandated to wear uniforms because wearing a uniform does not improve behavior
nor does it facilitate learning.
II. When wearing a uniform does not improve behavior.
A. Van der Laan confirms that wearing a uniform does not have direct impact on behavior.
B. Dr. Wallin confirms that the perceived positive impact of uniforms on students’ behavior is just a halo
effect.
III. Wearing a uniform does not facilitate learning.
A. A study by Seamon (1995) shows that there is a weak connection between academic performance and
uniform policy.
B. Dr. Badger (2008) claims that a standardized uniform policy does not improve school performance.
C. Dr. Brunsma (2006) confirms that there is no positive correlation between wearing a uniform and
academic achievement.
IV. On top of being insensitive to the individuality of students implementing a uniform policy does not have
useful advantages as well, as it does not present sufficient evidence that links it to positive influence on
students’ behavior and academic performance.

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