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Electric vehicles challenges and

opportunities: Lithuanian review
Brian Azzopardi, Martynas Starevičius, Laurencas Raslavicius

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Electric vehicles challenges and opportunities: Lithuanian review

Laurencas Raslavičius a,n, Brian Azzopardi b,1, Artūras Keršys a, Martynas Starevičius a,
Žilvinas Bazaras a, Rolandas Makaras a
a
Department of Transport Engineering at Kaunas University of Technology, Studentų st. 56, 51424 Kaunas, Lithuania
b
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST), MCAST Main Campus,
Triq Kordin, Paola PLA 9032, Malta

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Electric vehicles (EVs) are reviewed in the context of policy and technical aspects taking into
Received 2 May 2013 consideration the Lithuanian national picture over the global and European Union developments within
Received in revised form this field. The paper presents also the best practices for deployment of EVs including the potential niche
13 October 2014
markets and the challenges and opportunities within the energy and power systems support. A critical
Accepted 22 October 2014
evaluation is also performed on the relevant research and developments in Lithuania. Finally, the paper
evaluates the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats through a developed SWOT analysis.
Keywords: This review will provide insight to the EVs challenges and opportunities within the Baltic Region. It is
Electric vehicles (EVs) expected this will inspire individuals, business and policy makers to allow and incentivise deployment of
Battery electric vehicle (BEV)
EVs to enhance efficiency in transport and consequently contribute towards GHG emissions reduction.
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
Internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV)
Lithuania

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
1.1. The European Union (EU) market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
1.2. The Lithuanian context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
1.3. Aim of this review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
2. Lithuanian electric transportation policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
2.1. Electric vehicle support schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
2.1.1. Direct or primary support schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
2.1.2. Indirect or secondary support schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
3. EV research and development in Lithuania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
3.1. Private sector partners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
3.2. Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
4. The Lithuanian current EV deployment status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
5. SWOT analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798

1. Introduction
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 370 37 300402/þ 370 682 36656.
E-mail address: laurencas.raslavicius@ktu.lt (L. Raslavičius). The global and local markets of electric vehicles (EVs) is still at
1
Other Affiliations: (i) Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mathema-
tical Sciences, Faculty of Technology, Design and Environment, Oxford Brookes
its infancy. There is a spectrum of technology such as battery
University, Wheatley Campus, Oxford, United Kingdom. (ii) Brian Azzopardi and electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)
Associates Consulting Firm, Birkirkara, Malta. and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). In addition developments in

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.076
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800 787

internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) is an ongoing process A spectrum of EU Framework 7 working programmes [50], such
with many manufacturers adopting technologies such as energy as “Green Cars Initiative” and “Green eMotion” have already
recovery systems [1]. inspired research and demonstration activities in transportation
However transport electrification is considered as the main across the continent. The IBM “SmartCloud Enterprise” [51] is a
technological alternative which has significant potential to reduce platform which allows the integration of electric power supply
pollution and energy dependence on fossil fuels [2–4], reach services to vehicles to respond more effectively to changes and
environmental objectives [5,6], allow smoothly the deployment plan their activities and create a market of services. Provision of
of alternative energy sources for electricity production [7–11], adequate grid capacity and appropriate grid operation tools in
enhance energy consumption efficiency [7,8,12], develop clean order to integrate EVs and become beneficial for power system
urban transport [7,12–15], low transport costs [13,16] and support operation are investigated and demonstrated [52]. The “Green
the electricity grid within a smart grid environment such as eMotion” EU-funded project aims to create European wide infra-
vehicle-to-grid (V2G) [17–19], vehicle-to-home (V2H) [20,21], structure for EVs by 2015. The viability of mass rollout of EVs and
vehicle-to-building (V2B) [20,21], vehicle-to-load (V2L) [21], PHEVs across the EU-27 is assessed by a multi-criteria perspective
vehicle-to-premise (V2P) [21], and grid-to-vehicle (G2V) [21] involving techno-economic, and socio-environmental aspects to
concepts. understand the system-wide impact on European continent elec-
The potentials, trends, best practices, infrastructure and new tricity infrastructures [50].
technological discoveries in e-mobility have been widely discussed The current EVs infrastructure is developed within pilot pro-
as a viable option for the United States [22,23], China [24], Taiwan jects. Expansion of the EV market is largely funded by direct
[24], Japan [23,25,26], Australia [27,28], Spain [29], Italy [30], financial support from projects or financial incentive support
Romania [31], Denmark [32], Poland [33], Germany [34,35], schemes on initial capital, which is mainly driven by the public
Austria [36], Portugal [37], Malta [14,15], and elsewhere [38,39]. or semi-public institutions.
Examination of these issues and adaptation of best practices to the Furthermore, the deployment of EVs has integrated incentives
local context and integration into the global movement of electric in subsidies, tax rebates and various other direct and indirect
mobility is extremely relevant to Lithuania.
In 2012, the Baltic States have registered about two thousand
EVs each. However, the numbers of BEVs remained very low, for
example four in Lithuania. EVs annual global sales are expected to
reach nearly 4 million by 2020 [40]. By 2025 about 10% of global
new vehicle sales will be EVs from more than 80 different models
[40–42]. Major OEMs such as Audi, BMW, Nissan, Mitsubishi, Ford,
Renault, Volkswagen, and Citroen have already started production
of at least one EV model such as the Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi
i-MiEV, Ford Focus Electric, Renault Fluence Z.E., Volkswagen
e-Up!, Citroen C-ZERO [43–48] as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1.
Meanwhile, further manufacturers are in the pipeline of launching
their vehicles to market such as PSA Peugeot Citroen VeLV.

1.1. The European Union (EU) market

In 2009, the average tailpipe CO2 emissions stood at 145.7

gCO2/km, while tailpipe emissions are targeted to reach below 130
and 95 gCO2/km by 2015 and 2020, respectively. The Ricardo-AEA
company reports a possible 75 gCO2/km by 2025 if sales ratio
between HEVs and ICEVs reached 22:78 down to 60 gCO2/km if
sales ratio of the ICEVs:HEVs:PHEVs:BEVs:FCEVs (Fuel Cell Electric Fig. 1. The best-selling electric vehicles in European countries (Germanyþ Franceþ
Vehicles) reached 52:24:15:7:2 [49]. Netherlands þNorway) in 2014.

Table 1
Technical characteristics of road cars with a top speed above 105 km/h.

Model Top speed/acceleration Charging time Nominal range Market release date

BMW i3 150 km/h 240 min with the 240 V charging unit 130–160 km Released in Europe in 2013
0–100 km/h in less than 8 s 30 min. at public DC charging stations
Citroën C-Zero 130 km/h 420 min. when charged from household 150 km Released in Europe in 2013
0–100 km/h in 15.9 s 30 min when charging from a quick charger system
Mitsubishi i-MiEV 130 km/h 420–840 min when charged from household 170 km Released in 2009
– 30 min when charging from a quick charger system
Renault Fluence Z.E. 135 km/h Battery replacement in 5 min 135–150 km Released in 2010
–
Nissan Leaf 150 km/h Up to 1200 min when charged from 110/120 V outlet 117–121 km Released in 2010
– 480 min when charged from 220/240 V outlet
30 min when charging from a quick charger system
Volkswagen e-Up! 130 km/h 540 min when charged from 220/240 V outlet
–
Ford Focus Electric 135 km/h 1080–1200 min when charged from 110/120 V outlet 122 km Released in USA in 2010
0–97 km/h in 10.2 s 180–240 min when charged from 220/240 V outlet Released in Europe in 2013
788 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800

financial support schemes. Many EU countries have introduced leading country in the EU by the relative number of EVs [53].
significant taxes on ICEVs while provided rebates on EVs, becom- Nevertheless, despite the many generous incentives for EVs, the
ing an effective deployment tool for EVs. For example, nowadays in number of EVs in many EU states remains low.
Norway, due to high ICEVs tax and EVs tax rebate, costs of EVs A review of the EU-27 existing legislative instruments and
property and maintenance are lower than ICEVs [40]. This has normative acts related to alternative energy sources in the trans-
caused a sudden growth in the EV sector making Norway the port sector is summarized in Table 2.

Table 2
List of legislative documents.

Documents of the official institutions of EU

 The Kyoto protocol to the United Nations framework convention on climate change [54]
 Green paper. Towards a new culture for urban mobility; COM (2007) 551 [55]
 Communication COM(2007) 541 to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: towards
Europe-wide safer, cleaner and efficient mobility: the first intelligent car report [56]
 Treaty of Lisbon amending the treaty on European Union and the treaty establishing the European Community, signed at Lisbon, 13 December 2007 [57]
 Communication COM(2008) 433 final to the European Parliament and the Council: greening transport [58]
 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009. On the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and
subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC [59]
 Communication COM(2009) 490 final to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: action
plan on urban mobility [60]
 Directive 2009/33/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009. On the promotion of clean and energy-efficient road transport vehicles [61]
 Regulation (EU) no. 443/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009. Setting emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of
the Community’s integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles [62]
 Communication COM(2010) 186 final to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee: a European strategy on clean and energy
efficient vehicles [63]
 Communication COM(2010) 2020 final from the Commission: Europe 2020—a strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth [64]
 Regulation (EU) No 510/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2011. Setting emission performance standards for new light commercial vehicles
as part of the Union’s integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles [65]
 Communication COM(2011) 112 final to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: a
roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050 [66]
 Regulation (EU) No 510/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2011. Setting emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of
the Community’s integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles [65]
 Communication COM(2012) 582 final to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions:
a stronger European Industry for Growth and Economic Recovery [67]
 Communication COM(2013) 17 final to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions:
clean power for transport: a European alternative fuels strategy [68]

Fig. 2. The Lithuania’s road network.

 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800 789

1.2. The Lithuanian context transportation development. This study analyzed the require-
ments and opportunities for EV infrastructure development. It
Lithuania is the southernmost, largest and most populous state of assessed the potential economic and environmental benefits,
the three Baltic States, located in north-central Europe, on the eastern identified problems and obstacles, and based on foreign practices
edge of the Baltic Sea. Together with Estonia and Latvia, the other two it made recommendations on how to expand electric transporta-
Baltic States, Lithuania is a member of both the European Union and tion and its related infrastructure nationwide. The boundaries of
the NATO. Lithuania has an exclusive market of second hand vehicles, the feasibility study were eight driving usage patterns with less
which serves as a centre of attraction for buyers from Belarus, Poland, than 3.5 t. The study considered in priority order BEVs, PHEVs and
Latvia, Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and other countries. However, range-extender electric vehicles (REVs). The conclusion was that
this ever growing second hand fleet vehicle market have created these types of EVs bring the greatest benefits for environment
highly unbalanced system between new and second hand vehicles protection and fuel efficiency. However, lack of policies and
sales and is contributing negatively to the environmental effects [69]. conservative approaches derived from recent studies as well as
The Lithuanian public road network, including state, local roads absence of initiatives from both Municipalities and the Govern-
and urban streets, amounts to about 82,131 km [69], including ment to support infrastructure have put on hold OEMs to market
21,313 km of state roads which are under the responsibility of Lithu- new EVs in Lithuania. It was established, that EVs are not a
anian Road Administration. The majority of roads, 87% or 72,048 km “priority number one” at this time for Government due to budget
are surfaced, while the rest are gravel roads [70]. The density of the issues. In addition, the lack of customer knowledge and the
road network is 125.8 km/100 km2. Since 2000, there were 6600 km uncertainty of EVs residual value have a negative impact on the
increase in total network length of all roads. The Lithuania’s road market integration [40].
network is shown in Fig. 2. The distribution of the type of network is Although representatives of Ministry of Transport recognize
as follows: 17,385 km of highways, including 309 km of motorways that the comments made in this study are right, a detailed EVs
(Vilnius–Kaunas–Klaipeda and Vilnius–Panevezys) [70], 4939 km of Development Strategy will be available in 2015. This will leave a
national roads [70], and 14,590 km of regional roads [70]. gap of at least four years between solving a problem and
Thus Lithuania, when compared with economic stronger states, verifying the solution once it is found. Since currently both
has a fairly well-developed road network. One of the main stimuli within the context of the European Union and the global
to develop the road network is that Lithuania is a transit country importance for alternative fuels, it is likely that the working
with a number of roads crossing it from West to East and from group of Ministry of Transport of the Republic of Lithuania will
North to South. There are 6 European motorways crossing the also be offered to develop an Alternative Fuel Strategy by 2014
country [71]: (i) E67 Via Baltica: Helsinki–Tallinn–Riga–Paneve- which would include not only EVs, but also other clean alter-
zys–Kaunas–Warsaw–Wroclaw–Prague; (ii) E28: Berlin–Gdansk– natives such as fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). Legislative instruments
Kaliningrad–Marijampole–Prienai–Vilnius–Minsk; (iii) E77: and regulations currently valid in Lithuania regulating the use of
Pskov–Riga–Siauliai–Kaliningrad–Warsaw–Krakow–Budapest; alternative energy sources in the country’s transport sector are
(iv) E85: Klaipeda–Kaunas–Vilnius–Lida–Cernovcy–Bucharest– given in Table 3.
Alexandroupoli; (v) E262: Kaunas–Utena–Daugavpils–Rezekne– It is expected that quantitative Lithuanian contribution to the
Ostrov; and (vi) E272: Klaipeda–Palanga–Siauliai–Panevezys– expansion of the EVs market will be provided in the EVs Devel-
Vilnius. The Lithuanian city-names are shown in bold. opment Strategy and forthcoming plans for implementation.
In Lithuania, 88.6% of all motorized road transport vehicles are However, it is also dependent on the current government political
domestic or commercial vehicles, 7.1% are freight vehicles, 1.6% are views towards green transport, EU policy, and the existing public
motorcycles, 0.8% are busses and 2% are others (supporting and funds. One of the EVs initiatives by public bodies is Sustainable
auxiliary means of transport) [69]. By 2020, it is expected to notice procurement (or Green procurement) in the public sector. This
every fifth car EV and in areas such as city old towns, the Curonian initiative, based on a number of already existing initiatives for
Spit and other resorts only EVs will be allowed [72,73]. decades in the EU, is suggested in this feasibility study. The target
group of public authorities, enterprises and EVs enthusiasts may
1.3. Aim of this review join together on tender purchase or hire of EVs which could well
have some additional preferential conditions such as in parking,
The aim of this paper is to provide the reader with an extensive insurance and registration tax. It is a well-known and popular tool
review of the Lithuanian e-mobility. Special attention is given to the for the EV promotion [40]. In 2012, local travel agency “Smart
policy and technical aspects which provide details for a SWOT analysis Travel” initiated a long-term demonstrational project, briefly
within this paper to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities entitled as “Smart Taxi”. The outcome of the activity during its
and threats involved in this area. This review will provide insight to early stage—several HEVs (currently only Toyota Prius) found their
the EVs potential within the Baltic Region. It is expected, this will first commercial application in Lithuania’s taxi fleet. To achieve the
inspire individuals, business and policy makers to allow and incenti- necessary progress towards improved air quality, the prospects of
vize deployment of EVs to enhance efficiency in transport and establishing Low Emission Zones (LEZ) are under consideration as
consequently contribute towards GHG emissions reduction. The paper well. It is expected, the new Mobility Ordinance will limit access of
is structured as follows. In Section 2, the Lithuanian electric transpor- freight vehicles to the LEZ by 2020 (the vehicles will have to
tation policy is discussed extensively. E-mobility research and devel- comply with Euro 6 standards) whereas the Taxi Ordinance will
opment in Lithuania is summarized, in Section 3. A summary of the not allow circulating of taxis emitting more than 160 gCO2/km,
Lithuanian current EV deployment status is provided in Section 4. creating a label for “Ecotaxis” that currently complies with these
Then, in Section 5, a SWOT analysis is developed and described. Finally, limits [83].
in Section 6, the main conclusions are presented. The feasibility study [40] also mentions that drivers in Lithua-
nia lack eco-driving awareness and culture. Also current prices of
EVs are unaffordable when compared to the average salary of the
2. Lithuanian electric transportation policy country as shown in Table 4. In addition, replacement of EVs
battery system is still hampered by high costs during the lifetime
In 2011, the Ministries of Transport, Economy and Energy of the vehicle. In view of the country specifics, the feasibility study
jointly commissioned the feasibility study of electric proposes for EVs to apply Value Added Tax (VAT) preferences and
790 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800

Table 3
List of legislative documents.

Documents of the official institutions of the Republic of Lithuania

 Law on renewable energy resources. Approved by resolution no. XI-1375 of 12 May, 2011 of the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania [74].
 Lithuanian innovation strategy (LIS) for the year 2010–2020. Approved by resolution no. 163 of 17 February, 2010 of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania [75].
 LIS Action Plan for 2010–2013 [75].
 The long-term (until 2025) development strategy of the Lithuanian transport system. Approved by resolution no. 692 of 23 June, 2005 of the Government of the Republic
of Lithuania [76].
 Operational Programme for promotion of Cohesion for 2007–2013. CCI no. 2007LT161PO001. Managing authority: Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Lithuania. Final
approval date: 30 July, 2007.
 National Energy Strategy. Approved by resolution no. X-1046 of 18 January, 2007 of the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania [77].
 The National Strategy for the Development of Renewable Energy Sources. Approved by resolution no. 789 of 10 June, 2010 of the Government of the Republic of
Lithuania [78].
 Energy Efficiency Action Plan. Approved by order no. 4-270 of 2 July 2007 of the Minister of Economy of the Republic of Lithuania [79].
 National Strategy for the implementation of the United Nations framework convention on climate change until 2012. Approved by resolution no. 94 of 23 January, 2008
of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania [80].
 Document for forecast of the use of renewable energy sources for 2010–2020 [in Lithuanian] [81].
 Lithuania’s National allocation plan for greenhouse gas emission allowances for the period 2008 to 2012 [82].

Table 4 for ICEVs. However, financial incentives are not the only promotion
Price of hybrid vehicle and purchasing capacity of residents in different countries
(data of 2010) [84].
measures for EVs uptake, free parking for electric vehicles which is
already in place in the Capital City, Vilnius, and the most popular Cities
Country Price of Toyota The average Number of salaries to purchase of Kaunas, and Klaipeda as well as the opening of the line A (bus lane)
Prius, EUR salary, EUR an electric car, Pcs. came into force since 19 January, 2013 as shown in Fig. 3 [85].
Germany 21,739  2.900 7.5
Lithuania 28,986 0.499 58.1 2.1. Electric vehicle support schemes

The EV support schemes are targeted incentives and induce-

ment mechanisms which are an essential component of the early
market development of e-mobility. Direct or Primary as well as
Indirect or Secondary Support Schemes may be applied to all
phases of the EV value chain. Support schemes may target
different sectors such as battery research and development,
infrastructure development, purchasing and usage phase. Sus-
tained governmental financial backing is critical to the successful
introduction of a disruptive technology such as e-mobility [86].
Fig. 4 shows an illustration of electric mobility support schemes.

2.1.1. Direct or primary support schemes

The charging incentive in Lithuania is one support scheme for
EVs such as in parking and city incentives. This scheme is adopted
by most countries. It is simple to administer, and easy to explain.
Other non-operative support schemes that are considered as good
Fig. 3. Amendments to the existing road traffic rules in Lithuania (January 19, 2013) practices to stimulate EVs deployment include tax credits as well
[85]: 1—The traffic lane reserved for public service vehicles marked “4þ ” may also
be used by cars carrying four or more people. This symbol is used together with
as public tenders for EVs projects. These are all based on capital
letter A; 2—where the traffic lane reserved for public service vehicles is marked incentives. The investment cost for an EV in Lithuania is still
with the “Electrical vehicle” symbol, it may be used by electrical cars. The electrical unaffordable. Without any financial direct incentives EVs deploy-
vehicle symbol is used together with letter A; 3—lane reserved for public service, ment would go very slowly. Direct incentives may include VAT
except for electrical vehicles (will be repealed as of 1 January 2017); 4—electrical
relief, exemption from road tax, subsidies, and provision of EVs
vehicles (Annex 1. Road signs: Tables (information); Position No 854); 5—electro-
mobiles charging point (Annex 1. Road signs: Service signs; Position No 735); under the Green Investment Scheme rechargeable hybrids using
6—indicates that the road signs do not apply to electrical vehicles (Annex 1. Road green investment scheme. The latter refers to a plan for achieving
signs: Tables (information); Position No. 855). environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances. The
majority of EU countries have already adopted these schemes,
some even for over a decade. However the market growth was low
subsidies, and the necessary funds to collect taxes on ICE high due to many other indirect issues such as infrastructure and
polluting vehicles. absence of OEM vehicles on the market.
So far the government has been extremely sceptical about tax Due to variations in cost of the advanced electric drives as a
incentives and subsidies on EVs. The perception is that EVs are core technology on the road to sustainable mobility coupled with
only whim of richer part of society, so there is no need to promote the local policies and country’s potential, a single support instru-
their acquisition from the state budget. It seems that in the public ment is hardly feasible to cover widespread use in Lithuania. The
institutions this conservative approach is still alive, but the European Commission (EC) suggests that operative support
taxation proposal for vehicles with the ICEs may slightly mitigate schemes can contribute more effectively to increase consumption
it. Subsidies for EVs would be a very big step forward, but the of renewable energy sources. Furthermore different support
funds have not yet been identified. As one of the means of schemes are accompanied by several types of renewable energy
subsidies basket, the feasibility study suggested an annual taxation systems (RESs) for grid interconnection schemes. Countries try to
 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800 791

perform the most feasible renewable energy policy for both the targets and fuel efficiency but also to welfare of the people, the
growth of RES share as well as the countries present and future socio-economic development and development of export. So far,
economic scenarios. LESTO has analyzed EVs models present in the market, made
forecasts for the dynamics of development and energy consump-
tion, estimated income, infrastructure costs, and analyzed the best
2.1.2. Indirect or secondary support schemes foreign practices [91].
The sole Lithuanian Electricity Distribution System Operator Lithuania’s electric vehicles association (LEVA) wants to
(DSO), LESTO, is seeking to unite initiatives and to take advantage develop an autonomous vehicle. In 2012, LEVA introduced the
of the recent advanced in EVs technologies in terms of efficiency. vision of the car capable of driving without a driver (“autono-
In 2013, LESTO has publicly invited a wide spectrum of organiza- mous” car [92]), and possibilities of appearance of these cars on
tions in the EV sector including fleet owners to manufacturers as Lithuanian roads. The public was informed about the issues on the
well as infrastructure developers to support EVs infrastructure technical requirements for these vehicles, shared in best practices
development with multiple benefits. However presently there is of other countries where these cars have already been tested,
no responsible body for infrastructure development and therefore introduced the legal framework allowing such vehicles to take part
OEM manufacturers are only watching the situation to offer EVs on in public traffic. LEVA would like Lithuania to develop “autono-
the market, leaving the EVs deployment chaotic. mous” car concept, which would help to attract capital of the
It is well argued in many reviews [87–90] that EV market companies based in other countries. Such vehicles in would create
growth will not only be beneficial to the current environmental new jobs and exploit potential of local specialists.

Fig. 4. Electric mobility support schemes for Lithuania.

Table 5
We must and can do it in Lithuania.

Description Existing situation Strengths Weaknesses

Production of electric drives for Electric drive being developed since 2004 and  Technology equivalent The company is newly created and is in a phase of
electric and hybrid vehicles continuously being improved (in 2012 fourth- to the one used in the development. Currently, this company could not
generation drive was tested) series electric vehicles participate in the public procurement process
 Preparation for mass because of the low levels of authorized capital
production

Conversion of conventional ICE  The first version of “Lithuania-made electric  EVs could contribute a  Regulations for ICE replacement (including
engines to-electric ones car” hit the roads in early 2006 remarkable share of the engine modification) have been officially
 Business proposal regarding a new partnership annual renewal of public adopted in Lithuania only in 2011
and some other commercial matter have been car fleet  Since 1st December 2012, state road transport
received  New opportunities for inspectorate have tightened these requirements
creating jobs for cars designed and built by car enthusiasts
 Niche markets available
to small businesses
 Reduction of
environmental threats
 Efforts to enhance
country’s energy
independence

Implementation of electric In 2006, the protocol of intent between local energy  Significantly lower fuel High initial investments
vehicles in business company and KTU has been ratified. Because of the prices (particularly for
companies whose daily travel complex procedure of legalization the contract was electricity producers,
distance not exceeding not signed traders and suppliers)
100 km  Absence of fuel
mismanagement and/or
embezzlement cases in
public sector

Implementation of electric Energy intensity studies of passenger microbus are Results will be announced Results will be announced officially after the
drives in urban public performed in 2012–2013 (contractor: business officially after the research research trial is completed
transport company) trial is completed
792 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800

Main directions in development of separate segments of EV In 2012, LESTO organized business mission of the concern
market are identified in Table 5 [84]. Hitachi Ltd. in Lithuania which gave positive results in addres-
The use of indirect incentives such as the emission trading sing issues of development of EVs. Representatives of the
scheme (ETS) enacted in the EU in 2005 is one of the environ- company and the members of the governing body of a Neringa
mental policies to give flexibility in meeting emission targets. municipality discussed the possibility of signing the Letter of
Intent to invest in the project of EVs infrastructure in the town
of Neringa. The municipality, the city and the Curonian Spit
3. EV research and development in Lithuania residents, tourists, and business companies are expected to be
the potential beneficiaries of this initiative. It is expected that in
3.1. Private sector partners Neringa town may have 20 EVs for sharing purposes and several
vehicles to rent. In addition, the project would also include
EVs may come soon to Neringa, a seaside resort town. Neringa infrastructure of high-speed charging stations where EVs may
town is connecting five settlements—Alksnynė, Juodkrantė, Nida, be recharged in 20 min and slow charging stations in 4 h. One of
Pervalka and Preila. The entire town is located within the Curonian the possible ways of financing of the project is sale of surplus
Spit National Park, which is included on the UNESCO World pollution permits, in line with The Kyoto Protocol. Using the
Heritage List. Neringa municipality is located in the narrow Green investment scheme seeks to attract investment in EVs
peninsula, separating the Curonian Lagoon from the Baltic Sea. projects. Hitachi Ltd. has experience with a similar project in
It is the longest (about 50 km) and the most western town of Okinawa Island, a popular Japanese resort. Accordingly, com-
Lithuania. Forests make up as much as 83.9%, roads—1.7%, built-up pany introduced successful solution of infrastructure of opera-
area—0.7%, water bodies—0.01%, agricultural land—0.2%, other tion for EVs and presented it as a model of an equivalent
land—13.5% of the municipality [69]. in Lithuania.

Table 6
Participantsn in electric vehicles market in Lithuania [40].

Nos. Participant in the Short description of company activities Initiatives

market

Electric vehicle conversion; manufacturers of EV components and parts

1 JSC Elinta  Production of controllers and sensors for EVs  3 EV charging stations in Kaunas
 EV conversion  Conversion of Toyota Aygo to electric drive
 Charging stations

2 JSC Autoelinta  Car service center  Potential provider of electric vehicles services
3 J. Navickas  EV conversion  JonElis system (converter, battery monitoring and control system, batteries,
Individual  Manufacturer of electric actuators for different motor controller, three phase AC induction motor)
Enterprise vehicles types  Toyota Prius plug-in features and standard equipment

4 JSC Elektromotus  Battery management system  EV management system developed for mass production
 Interface with existent automobile electric systems  The first EV charging station in Vilnius (in cooperation with The Energy and
 EV and scooter conversion Technology Museum)
 Designing works and production of electric
actuators for different vehicles types
 Production and export of parts for electric vehicles

5 JSC Transmitto  The official IVECO distributor in Lithuania  Trade, service and maintenance of EVs Tazzari
6 JSC Arginta  Water management and renewable energy  Conversion of Fiat Panda to electric drive
development
7 JSC Lietkabelis  Production of electric wire and cable  Electric motor manufacturing.
 Electrical measurements
 Repair of electric motors

8 JSC Bukrita  Design and manufacture of different electronic and  Participation in Fiat Panda conversion activity
radio-electronic devices

Providers and manufacturers of electric scooters, bicycle cars, electric bicycles and their parts
9 JSC Ekomobility  The official GOVECS distributor in Lithuania  Trade of electric scooters GOVECS
10 JSC Electrify  The official ZERO and VELIMOTOR distributor in  Trade of electric motorcycles ZERO in Lithuania
Lithuania  Trade of electric scooters (2 models) VELIMOTOR in Lithuania

11 JSC Miromax  Renewable energy development  Trade of electric bicycles, their accessories, electric motors, and batteries
 Other innovations (electric engines, EKO
transport, etc.)

12 JSC Baltik vairas  Production and export of bicycles  In 2012, production of electric bicycles is planned (Pedlec electric concept
holding bicycles)

Potential participants in electric vehicles market

13 JSC Sirijus  Production of battery elements (zinc, carbon-zinc, –
lithium)

n
In the process of EVs development may take part much more companies already have been acting in areas of engineering, information technology and others. Most of
them may specialize in different production chains independently or being members of consortiums.
 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800 793

If Green investment scheme is successfully used and is agreed forces for a project in 2012, businessmen and scientists hope to
with the potential buyers of allowances, green transport project in create electric buses, which will be attractive to private and
the town of Neringa could be implemented by the end of 2014. municipal enterprises providing public communication services.
Neringa municipality is situated in human impact sensitive area, The ability to turn traditional buses into electric-powered buses
so this project may result in a positive impact within the devel- has already been discussed with representatives of Vilnius, Kaunas
oping resort. According to specialists in the field of tourism, and Klaipėda Municipalities. It should be noted that due to the
Neringa resort is the most suitable for development of eco- evolution of technology, electric buses are becoming cheaper and
tourism services in Lithuania. Perhaps, in the future eco-tourism prices are close to the prices of hybrid buses; in terms of life-cycle
could be one of the resort’s directions. Undoubtedly, the search for their operational costs are almost twice cheaper than of diesel-
new opportunities for the development of EVs infrastructure in powered ones. It is expected, that the first 50 buses will be
this town and starting cooperation will have a positive impact on presented in the end of 2014. The first electrically-powered buses
both Neringa residents and its visitors, and unique environment of is expected to be tested in Klaipeda, because it is expected that the
the Curonian Spit. The idea is that drivers of eco-friendly vehicles energy source for these buses will come from the potential wind
are not subjected to the ferry fares and to the local fee for the energy in the region. Most of wind turbines are concentrated in
entrance to Neringa. the western part, especially coastal region of Lithuania, as this
The private sector have intentions to bring together stake- region stands out with the best wind conditions [93].
holders around a common aim in the hope that incorporating all KTU has already carried out tests to develop other EVs and
potential interests and perspectives in the planning process which hybrid cars [94,95]. Projects and other scientific-research activities
may lead to more sustainable outcomes. A list of the main performed by University scientists in the field of EVs deployment
Lithuanian participants in EVs market is shown in Table 6. are provided in Table 7.
Early, in 1997, in the exhibition TECHNORAMA, a prototype HEV
3.2. Universities was launched by KTU students Martynas Starevičius and Ovidijus
Putnynas of Mechanical and Mechatronics Faculty. The design of
Kauno Technologijos Universitetas (KTU—Kaunas University of the concept car is shown in Fig. 5. It can reach 150 km per hour in
Technology), Klaipėda University (KU) and private company “Wind straight track and accelerates up to 100 km/h in 7.3 s.
Projects” are developing battery electric buses, which will be The prototype HEV was a parallel hybrid in which the front
offered to public transport companies in Lithuania. By joining wheels of a car are driven by an ICE and the rear wheels by an

Table 7
E-mobility development activities in Kaunas University of Technology (Department of Transport Engineering) and collaboration between University and public/private sector
partners.

Problem/idea Experience in the field of research Possible outcomes in solving transportation problems/
Private and public sector interests

Evaluation of electric vehicle operating costs. The KTU developed the assessment formulas to analyze EVs  Economic assessment of electric-drive vehicle
purpose of conventional car drivers education is to costs which consider variable operating costs of fuel, operation
provide them with the knowledge of EV operating maintenance and repair in their methodology. A unique  Assessment entails the identification and evaluation
costs opportunity to include EV service history in the of end-use energy demands and needs for additional
assessment program has been foreseen infrastructure
 Model provides financial indicators for improvement
and development of transport infrastructure
 Optimization of the road infrastructure financing
schemes

Introduction of Intelligent Transportation Systems Observations of transport flows in Lithuanian roads of  Providing collection, systematization and
(ITS) technologies in an urban context, focusing on national significance carried out since 1993 generalization of accumulated data from traffic
urban transportation monitoring in urban areas by using real-time traffic
flow meters
 Assessment of losses incurred due to the negative
impact of transport in urban areas
 Short-term traffic flow forecasting

Several Lithuanian companies produce electric drive Electric drive systems were manufactured and tested in  EVs designed for Lithuania could be equipped with
systems. It is necessary to promote their prototype EVs (converted by their owners) electric drive systems provided by local manufacturers
trademark through design, production, or other
resources
Electrification of public transport infrastructure Research study taken by KTU on possibilities to convert  Electrified public transport infrastructure should
ICE vehicles with daily mileage of about 100 km to plug- serve as a backbone providing charging facilities for
in EVs electric road vehicles, while also facilitating seamless
multimodal travel
 Research into urban microbuses energy consumption
under real-world driving conditions and possibilities
of their conversion to plug-in EVs (private finance
initiative)
 Research into urban microbuses energy consumption
under standardized UN ECE R101 test conditions
(urban cycle þ extra-urban cycle)

Graduate level training in a specialty area of EVs Lecturers and scientific workers scientific workers  New modules in Transport engineering course
(Transport engineering) participating in EVs development activities  Bachelor’s, Master’s and Doctoral degree studies in
the field of EVs at the KTU
794 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800

Fig. 5. HEV prototype developed at KTU: (a) common view, (b) electric motor compartment, (c) vehicle road tests, (d) vehicle management system.

Fig. 6. HEV prototype design done in KTU.

electric motor. The car was assembled on a Honda Civic chassis. based on results of numerical simulation to choose the electric
Mass of parts and components of the experimental car were motor’s battery bank to ensure the power supply.
obtained by weighing the individual components or through the The conceptual hybrid vehicle power-train consists of drives of
technical documentation of components and parts used [84]. The 1.6-liter ICE (of the serial car Honda Civic) and electric 3-phase DC
car was specifically designed for road holding driving condition; motors Siemens 5105WS12 driving the front and rear wheels.
the centre of gravity was calculated by dividing the vehicle into 34 Transmissions of both engines consist of gearbox with main drive,
elements (see Fig. 6). semi-shafts and hubs of the car Honda Civic 5. Based on the
The test-HEV was the first parallel hybrid vehicle in Lithuania. analysis of hybrid cars and results of acceleration dynamics of the
Body design of the experimental vehicle allows to change the drive vehicle being tested traction batteries bank, which has to ensure a
train layout that is front and rear car parts (where suspensions, sufficient supply of energy during the test session, when the
drive train assemblies and transmission units are mounted) are internal combustion engine and electric motor are working simul-
identical, so power units can be changed or replaced, besides, taneously. The main results and conclusions have been empha-
it ensures the possibility of changing the body structure (coupe or sized: (i) independent systems of an ICE and electric motor and
body of cabriolet type). The objectives were identified to devel- their drives management have been developed, providing an
opment of the experimental HEV: (i) to create an experimental opportunity to explore transmission work of a conceptual HEV
vehicle, which front and rear wheels are driven by different when front and rear wheel drives are working at individual modes,
engines, (ii) to design an electric engine transmission, and (iii) (ii) in view of the fact that in Lithuania vehicle designing works
 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800 795

Fig. 7. BEV-Espace developed at KTU [13].

Fig. 9. Lotus super 7 EV developed at VGTU.

Fig. 8. Electric tricycle (18 kW) developed at KTU.
capacity lithium iron phosphate battery bank. Currently, the car is
have not been implemented, the most important achievement is being tested on a simulator and the road. The developed EV will be
that KTU has managed to bring together a team of students, who, use for various academic research.
in addition to engineering solutions, at beginning of production were Another EV was developed in collaboration with VGTU and JSC
able to predict accurately the project implementation costs and “Elektromotus”, where the management system was specifically
terms of implementation, (iii) comparing realization prices of the designed. The vehicle weighing just a half-ton reaches speed of
project studied fulfilled, funds for the experimental vehicle creation 40 km/h over 3.4 s. The EV can be charged from the home power
are about 6.6 times lower than price of the serial car Ford Mercury outlet in only 3–4 h, which would be enough to cover at least
conversion into the hybrid in the University of Wisconsin, which 50 km range.
reached 58,000 U.S. dollars (232,000 LTL by course of 1998) [95].
A more recent work by KTU is the electrically powered vehicle
created on the chassis of French car manufacturer Renault, model 4. The Lithuanian current EV deployment status
ESPACE (BEV-Espace) (see Fig. 7).
The students of KTU mounted the 50 kW power electric Representatives of Ministry of Transport and Communications
drivetrain in the nearly 20-year-old car. The spin-off EV of of the Republic of Lithuania allege that the largest contribution to
company “Emduro Engineering Solutions” established by former the popularity of EVs in Lithuania will be the development of
students of KTU is usually exhibiting in the specialized exhibition charging infrastructure for electric vehicles. It is planned that up to
of automobiles, motorcycles, service equipment, automotive parts 150 slow charging stations will be installed. Currently, only nine
and services over KAUNO AUTODIENOS’2008. The BEV-Espace has stations are across the country as shown in Table 8. An expansion
reached 110 km/h speed. Once charged, it can travel about 20 km, of the charging stations infrastructure for EVs is expected by
then it is necessary to recharge about 4 h. In the near future private initiative rather than public one. Currently, the government
developers of electric drives hope to improve this technology that is not going to invest in development of charging network for
an EVs could drive up to 150 km/h speed. electric vehicles in Lithuania.
In 2006–2007, students of KTU have developed the first The Lithuanian energy sector is very heavily dependent on
electric-powered tricycle (see Fig. 8). An original tricycle was imports from foreign countries such as Russia, Belarus and other.
integrated with an 18 kW power-train made in Lithuania and Lithuania’s electricity generation mix in 2010 is composed of
had properties intrinsic to recreational vehicles, reaching the mixed fossil fuels (64.7%), hydropower (25.5%), wind (4%), gas
maximum speed of 120 km/h. (3.5%), and renewables (2.2%) [96]. Hydro-power makes up more
In the TRANSBALTICA’2012 exhibition an EV developed by than 25% of country’s electricity generation, but most of it
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University (VGTU) was presented. generated in pumped storage power plant. Therefore, there is a
The EV is produced on “Lotus Super 7” chassis as shown in Fig. 9 relatively large amount of flexible generation capacity that can
with a 36 kW capacity engine of constant current having 40Ah help balancing variable renewables in the future [96]. High energy
796 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800

EV charging points in Lithuania.

Table 8
 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800 797

1% the roads by 2025. This scenario will have little impact on

250,000 electricity consumption and may not require significant additional
investment in electricity networks. However, in a report commis-
200,000 sioned by the EC, it was found that Lithuania, Latvia and Hungary
hosted the least capable electricity networks to support the mass
4% 1,50%
150,000 adoption of EVs. This suggests that up to 6000 EVs by 2020 may be
on the road, based upon industry projections. Some of the most
100,000 important questions remain unanswered, how exactly will the
policies reconcile 5–6000 of EVs with the EC Directive to host
50,000 41,000 charging stations by 2020. Moreover, Lithuanian grid is
well-developed on the Eastern part of the country’s territory,
0,000 although the Western part is problematic in terms of mass
introduction of EVs. However, it is to believe that EV fleet may
3,50% 2% not be too high all year round on the West and probably there
would be summer seasonal peaks.

5. SWOT analysis

The SWOT analysis is developed and summarized in Table 10

3% 2,50% taking into consideration national market drivers such strong
Fig. 10. Dependence of power demand as % of Lithuania’s energy consumption in
science and business positions in EVs as well as the integration
2025 on the different projected amount of electric vehicles (precondition: charging of EVs into the market. However, it may not cover fast charging
to 100% at a maximum power output of 3.5 kW) [40]. infrastructure for EVs and other developments that are also
driving the market forward. However, the SWOT analysis covers
research in Lithuania, national legislative acts and documents,
national studies, to provide a new level of transparency and detail
Table 9 to the ongoing public discussion on the EVs market integration in
Lithuanian electric power distribution network characteristics in 2011. Lithuania.
Should policies become technology-specific such as focusing on
Description Parameter
the technology of BEVs, or Carbon neutral? In fact, in Lithuania
Transformers 35,913
incentives such as subsidies, tax exemptions, free parking, imple-
Transformers disconnected from its power source 68% mentation of charging or/and refuelling infrastructure exist but
Total installed transformers capacity (10/0.4 kV) 9186 MV A may become unfair. However, the Baltic States have generally
Highest peak demand 1470 MW adopted policies that oppose EV uptake where the extremely low
The average load of the installed transformers (10/0.4 kV)  11–15%
road tax virtually encourages ICEVs ownership. For example, the
limits for purchasing of government vehicles is based purely on
the capital cost, not on the running costs or total cost of ownership
dependence reduces country’s energy security and competitive- (TCO). This means that no government departments is able to
ness, so it is trying to reduce this dependence by various means. purchase EVs, no matter how high their usage millage is. On the
EVs using electric power produced from RESs would be able to other hand, Denmark is taxing ICEVs between 140 to 180%, making
reduce consumption of imported oil products in transport sector. EVs the economic choice overall. Danish government policies also
By 2025, EVs may consume from 0.1% to 4.0% of annual electric mandate EV purchases by municipalities. The fact that Lithuania,
power consumption of all country as shown in Fig. 10 [40]. The Latvia, Poland and Bulgaria and others have failed to implement
increment will not have significant effect on total electric power such policies was the key reason for the EU to set mandatory
consumption both in electric power distribution and transmission targets in both emissions and EV charging infrastructure.
networks. It is believed that the increased need for electric power
in Lithuania will be satisfied by the new Visaginas nuclear electric
station and increasing production of electric power from renew- 6. Conclusion
able energy sources. With increase of energy production from RES,
part of the electric energy could be used also in transport sector, In this comprehensive review, the most relevant policy and
for example, for charging of electric vehicles. 0.1–4.0% is a small technical aspects for EVs in Lithuania taking the EU and global
enough amount of electricity for the country because for compar- context were analyzed. A SWOT analysis was developed to
ison only Kruonis Hydro Power Plant (HPP) in 2011 consumed evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
more electricity to boot the operating (0.8 TW h). The purpose of involved in this area. Although, the Lithuanian government has
Kruonis HPP is balancing of daily curve of electricity production, embarked on a far more cautious wait-and-see approach and no
and to achieve this goal development of EVs would help indirectly. clear strategy related on the EVs deployment, the results from this
In fact, EVs may be charged through the night, when consumption SWOT analysis found that the breakthrough impact on the local
of imported electric power and electricity prices are the lowest. EVs market can be created.
Demand of electric power in Lithuania having increased due to Lithuania may attract OEM companies invest in plants for
development of EVs will be possible to meet by electrical distribu- example producing battery packs or power trains for EVs as well
tion network of current capacity. In 2011 electrical distribution as support the adaptation of nationwide charging infrastructure
network had sufficient power reserves – only approximately 11– including fast-charging stations. However, incentives such as tax
15% of installed capacity has been used as shown in Table 9. reliefs or rebates, income tax relief for purchasing an EV and free
Lithuania’s feasibility Study [40] recommends the most con- EV charging points may still be required for a national deployment
servative scenario of 15,000 to 16,000 EVs, PHEVs and ER EVs on of EVs.
798 L. Raslavičius et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 786–800

Table 10
Overview of analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT).

Strengths Opportunities

 Strong positions of businesses and science in IT and other specialised areas  Reduction of environmental pollution and noise in the transport sector
 Strong science positions in transport and EVs related areas  Reduction of dependence on petroleum products
 Competence in production of components of EVs and conversion of EVs  Opportunity for businesses and science to engage in development of new market
 Active business actors are already in the field of EVs  Possibility to facilitate the development of e-mobility through collective
 High amount of cars in LTU and population habit to ride cars (see Section 1.2) municipal actions including providing and coordinating monetary and non-
monetary incentives and mobilizing demand for electric vehicles in city fleets,
streamlining permitting processes associated with charging infrastructure,
planning and deployment of charging infrastructure (if competitiveness of
electric vehicles increases), etc.
 Fixing contamination levels for ICE vehicles at 95 g CO2/km (cars) and 147 g CO2/
km (vans) by 2020 would result in a competitive upgrading for EVs, thus
increasing market penetration

Weaknesses Threats
 Not strong representation of OEM manufacturers and EV manufacturing parts  Conservative approach by political agendas
companies  Large state investments are necessary for development of EVs infrastructure
 Prevailing secondary market of old vehicles  Still evolving EVs market and the uncertainty of its future (standards, other
 Low purchasing power of residents technical parameters, costs to users)
 High global prices of EVs and their batteries  Nationwide, technicians and mechanics of automotive services inspect, maintain,
 There is no state registration tax for automobiles in Lithuania, but separate fees and repair exclusively ICEs but not EVs
are charged for registration of vehicles and number plates. However, registration  Uncertainty of retrofitting of the used EVs market because of threat that the used
fees are held at very low levels and they do not give real opportunities for electric cars will remain more expensive than ICE cars
vehicles to compete with ICEs  The lack of public information may lead to rejection of EVs
 Slight taxation of vehicles  Existing in the world alternative propulsion technologies of vehicles such as
 The lack of competences and initiatives in substantial part of common biofuels (biodiesel, bioalcohol, vegetable oil), hydrogen, non-fossil methane
municipalities because of absence of common electric vehicles policy and (biogas), etc.
strategy at the State level

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