Causes of Absenteeism Organisational Factors Job Satisfaction Employees are considered one of

the most important assets in an organisation. One can then deduce that job satisfaction is a
crucial factor to the success of an organisation. Motivation is a key component of the behaviour
and the performance of an employee, which has a direct effect on whether an organisation is
successful or not. Job satisfaction has been defined as the attitude that employees may have
towards their jobs and the organisations in which they work. Though there are various factors
that affect job satisfaction, the level of job satisfaction will differ from individual to individual
(Chen, 2008:107). Managers must strive to maintain an acceptable or high level of job
satisfaction amongst the workforce, as job dissatisfaction may increase the rate of absenteeism,
and may then negatively impact on the organisation’s ability to perform in order to successfully
meet its organisational goals (Cohen and Golan, 2007:427). Low morale and hindered
productivity may result from the increased pressure, increased workload, and frustration from a
shortage of staff. However, Goldberg and Waldman (2000:673) find no correlation between job
satisfaction and absenteeism. Instead, it remains the responsibility of management to motivate
the workforce. Therefore, managers need to determine how to achieve the level of motivation
they wish to see in their employees. According to Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene theory, a lack of
extrinsic factors (hygiene factors) such as company policy, supervision, physical working
conditions, salary, and job security may affect an employee’s attitude towards work. Herzberg
suggests that although hygiene factors are needed to ensure job satisfaction, they do not
necessarily lead to increased motivation. Nevertheless, hygiene factors are essential to ensure
motivation when pursuing the goals of the organisation. The presence of intrinsic factors
(motivation factors), such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, and growth spur an
employee to deliver better performance. Against this background, satisfied employees inevitably
have low absenteeism rates and vice versa (Netshidzati, 2012:17). If employees are highly
motivated, they are more likely to be satisfied with their jobs and deliver higher quality services,
which may lead to lower rates of absenteeism (Friday and Friday, 2003:427). Nel et al.
(2004:549) linked performance to absenteeism by giving meaning to the levels of motivation.
When not managed appropriately and effectively, lower levels of motivation may cause
employees to behave in an unacceptable manner. However, it is also the expectation of the job,
which is an additional factor to be taken into consideration. SINGAPOREAN JOuRNAl Of
buSINESS EcONOmIcS, ANd mANAGEmENt StudIES Vol.4, No. 11, 2016 108 Employees tend to
remain motivated if their expectations relating to equal treatment, receiving respect or enjoying
satisfactory working conditions, and the opportunities to apply their skills and abilities are met
and their needs satisfied. Nel et al. (2004:549) further assert that employees commence
employment with expectations based on earlier experiences, and, when these expectations are
not met, employees become dissatisfied, possibly resulting in absenteeism. To prevent
employees’ dissatisfaction with unmet expectations, upon recruitment, managers should
carefully match employees’ values and job characteristics to enhance job satisfaction. This can
be achieved by carefully recruiting and selecting employees who best fit into the organisation
and have realistic expectations of what the job has to offer (Snipes, Oswald, LaTour, and
Armenakis, 2005:1337). If these matches are done well, higher morale, commitment,
productivity, job satisfaction, quality performance, and lower absenteeism can be achieved
(Netshidzati, 2012:18). While guards and companies must comply with the registration
regulations of the Private Security Industry Regulatory Authority (PSIRA), many prospective
employees do not seek employment in the security industry because of passion and skill. It is
simply a job to satisfy basic needs that the security guard may require to be met. Furthermore,
the working conditions are generally sub-standard, with few companies paying above minimum
wage requirements. When personality and skills do not match the job, an employee may
become bored or stressed, therefore withdrawing from an unsatisfactory situation by being
absent. This occurs when security guards with higher-ranking grades, who are desperate for
employment, accept a job requiring a lower ranking grade, rendering the job boring and
monotonous. If there is a good match between the job characteristics and the skill level of the
employee, the employee is more likely to stay committed to the job and attend work regularly
(Chaucer, 2007:26-27). Morale Rosenblatt and Shirom (2005:209) assert that absenteeism may
lead to low morale within the organisation, particularly amongst the employees who do
regularly attend work, as they are then faced with taking over the workload of the employee
who is regularly absent. Morale determines the spirit of a person or group, and, as such, low
employee morale is likely to have a negative impact on the delivery of the service provided
(Netshidzati, 2012:19). Makawatsakul and Kleiner (2003:55) suggest that low employee morale
can be destructive in the organisation and lead to dissatisfaction, poor productivity, and
absenteeism. Security guards who may have worked a 12- hour shift and require rest may then
be called to work a double shift in order to cover a particular post or site that the absent
employee was required to cover in terms of his/her duty. Work overload may lead to inefficient
service delivery, which may result in the occurrence of on-site theft. If an employee gets paid
overtime for extra hours worked, this is an extra cost to the company. Poor management could
also leave employees feeling undervalued, and this in turn could affect employee morale and
lead to excessive absenteeism (Gill and Smith, 2007:35). Employee involvement in the decision-
making process and the commitment of the organisation to the training and development of its
employees are considered to have a positive effect on employee morale (McHugh, 2001:54).
Therefore, it is imperative to make employees aware of the causes of absenteeism and its
resultant negative impact on the employee, the organisation, and the client. Failure to do so
may result in aggravating the problem of absenteeism, which may contribute to the business
failing to meet its organisational goals. Organisational Culture and Leadership Robbins et al.
(2009:424) define organisational culture as a system of shared meaning across organisational
members and are different between organisations. It include the values, norms, customs, and
beliefs commonly held among a group of people that guide the behaviour of the particular
group of people, giving the group its unique characteristics. Furthermore, Robbins
SINGAPOREAN JOuRNAl Of buSINESS EcONOmIcS, ANd mANAGEmENt StudIES Vol.4, No. 11,
2016 109 (2003:3) sees organisational culture as a social phenomenon, which has to be
impacted into the minds of workers so that they melt into the culture of the organisation with a
commitment that will minimise absenteeism and increase performance. Leadership is a critical
component in the pursuit of organisational goals and leaders convey the organisation’s culture
through their actions and behaviour (Kefela, 2010:1). A leadership style can be viewed as the
ability of a leader to influence employees to accomplish an objective and direct the organisation
in a way that makes it efficient. Therefore, leaders can play an important role in shaping and
maintaining a specific culture in an organisation (Sharma and Sharma, 2010:97). When the
workforce has a good relationship with their supervisors or managers and receives support from
them, they become more satisfied with their jobs, and, as a result, are more likely to attend
work regularly. The organisational culture and style of leadership play a crucial role in the
management of absenteeism. Some organisations have what is deemed to be a permissive
culture, and, if this exists, employees will consider sick leave as a benefit that needs to be
utilised regularly. However, if unnecessary absenteeism is managed appropriately and
effectively, employees will think twice before being absent regularly and for inappropriate
reasoning. An organisational culture that lacks focus is considered the most significant reason
for increased employee absenteeism (Netshidzati, 2012:20). A strong productive organisational
culture allows for high financial performance, employee satisfaction, and the achievement of
organisational goals (Netshidzati, 2012:20). This can result in lower absenteeism. Organisational
culture is influenced by the extent to which a leader is supportive of employees and includes
them in decision-making processes. Poor leadership skills may negatively impact employee
functioning and organisational performance, possibly resulting in absenteeism. Managers with
poor management skills could create a dysfunctional organisational culture by failing to address
incidents of absenteeism effectively (Sheikha and Younis, 2006:83). Managers should
communicate the reasoning behind the implementation of absenteeism policies. If employees
observe the behaviour displayed by other employees who are regularly absent from work
without any repercussions, they will more than likely follow such behaviour because
management fails to take action (Kwantes and Boglarsky, 2007:206). When there is high
tolerance within an organisation towards absenteeism, employees will regard absenteeism as
being acceptable, resulting in a high absenteeism rates and a failure to meet organisational
goals (Rosenblatt and Shirom, 2005:218). Working Conditions Employers must strive to ensure
that working conditions are satisfactory so that the physical and mental health of employees is
assured (Cronje, 1995:381-382). Poor health conditions at the workplace can lead to
absenteeism, low productivity, loss of income, loss of contracts, and, in extreme cases, the loss
of employees who are difficult to replace due to their skills, experience, and expertise. Chauke
(2007:27) states that the health of employees and job satisfaction may be affected by a number
of factors related to working conditions, such as:  The number of working hours per day; 
Sufficient paid leave entitlements;  Medical benefits;  Clean rest rooms and recreational
facilities;  The provision of a working atmosphere in which stress, conflict, and strain are
reduced;  The provision of a healthy workplace with sufficient fresh air and space; and  Being
paid minimum wages with few benefits may lead to frustration and higher levels of absenteeism
(Chauke, 2007:27). SINGAPOREAN JOuRNAl Of buSINESS EcONOmIcS, ANd mANAGEmENt
StudIES Vol.4, No. 11, 2016 110 Basner et al. (2008:1251-1259) and Gerber (2001:306) highlight
that poor employee health, caused by working night shifts for long periods of time, result in
security guards failing to get sufficient sleep, which could lead to high absenteeism. Security
guards are often posted at sites that do not have guard “huts”, requiring the security officer to
perform their duties under unsatisfactory conditions. Management, to a great extent, can
protect the company against the losses caused by poor and/or unhealthy working conditions by
regularly investigating the wellbeing of employees, changing or improving working conditions, or
limiting the length of consecutive night shift duties (Chauke, 2007:28). Suitable uniforms may be
provided to protect employees from inclement weather that may cause illness or dissatisfaction
with working conditions. Stress Erkutlu and Chafra (2006:287) state that stress occurs when an
employee feels that the demand imposed exceeds his/her ability to function. Stress is an
inevitable part of our lives, and, therefore, cannot be avoided. However, one can attempt to
control and minimise stress. Conti, Angelis, Cooper, Faragher, and Gill (2006:1015) assert that
stress is a cause for concern in an organisation, as it can have varying effects on individuals, and
the resulting absenteeism can impact on the organisation’s performance. However, Nel et al.
(2004:289) state that stress is not necessarily bad because a modest amount of stress is needed
to be productive and creative in the workplace. Stress is caused by both personal and work-
related factors, such as work overload, irregular work hours, boredom, and lack of autonomy,
conflict, and unrealistic objectives. These factors can have an impact on each other, and,
together, can lead to absenteeism (Subbulaxmi, 2002:27). Employees may experience stress at
home due to financial problems, personal circumstances, and other family-related problems.
Employees tend to carry this stress to work, which impacts on their work performance and
results in low productivity and absenteeism (Netshidzati, 2012:20). In the workplace, demands
relating to changes and transformation, such as new technologies, company mergers, and the
impact of downsizing create stress in the workplace, as the level of job security decreases
(Conner and Douglas, 2005:210-224). Change in the workplace may lead to an increased number
of working hours and greater demands, as there is increasing pressure on organisations to
remain competitive in order to survive and satisfy the demands of customers (De Klerk and
Mostert, 2010:1). Long working hours can also be a result of employees having to compensate
for time lost by their absent co-workers. Due to a lack of resources, support, and increased
demands, stress levels are aggravated, which may lead to burnout, and, therefore absenteeism.
This, in turn, affects service delivery and impacts on the organisational performance of the
business. The nature of private security services requires long working hours from security
guards. Furthermore, the duties required from security guards often involve dealing with
criminal activity, which could be dangerous and extremely stressful. When co-workers are
absent, this places more pressure on the employee who has attended work and who is,
therefore, required to provide effective security services with limited capabilities. Personal
Factors Illness Genuine illness is regarded as one of the main reasons for employee absenteeism
in the workplace. Illness is very costly as it increases the rate of absenteeism with the
accompanying financial cost to the company, whereby employees are paid for not being
productive (Lokke, Eskildsen, and Jensen, 2007:16). Sick leave is a right afforded to employees,
which allows them to recover from illness. Unfortunately, having sick leave available can
increase the absenteeism SINGAPOREAN JOuRNAl Of buSINESS EcONOmIcS, ANd mANAGEmENt
StudIES Vol.4, No. 11, 2016 111 rate when employees tend to abuse their sick leave
entitlements. Employees may believe that sick leave is a right that they are entitled to use,
irrespective of whether illness is genuine or feigned (Chauke, 2007:18). Taking sick leave has a
negative impact on the organisation, as the organisation cannot function efficiently if employees
do not report for duty. However, if the organisation wishes to reduce work-related illnesses, it
can provide a safe and healthy workplace that will reduce absenteeism, thereby enhancing job
satisfaction and productivity (Josias, 2005:28). Company policy should clearly state the rules
regarding sick leave and the requirement of medical certificates so that there can be no
confusion on the part of the employee (Paul, 2008:24). According to Schultz and Schultz
(2006:242), absenteeism is higher in a company that does not require proof of illness. Therefore,
the abuse of sick leave is costly to an organisation, as employers have to hire additional staff to
fill in for absent colleagues. Failing to manage absenteeism in this manner is likely to hinder the
ability of the company to perform efficiently and effectively, thereby having a negative impact
on service delivery and client retention. HIV/AIDS The Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
pandemic poses a significant social challenge and has a detrimental effect on businesses in
South Africa (Werner, 2005:55). Employees affected by this disease have both personal and
professional problems to contend with. Employees receiving treatment need to take time away
from work in order to collect medication or recuperate from treatment. Productivity is affected,
as employees are not able to function optimally, which subsequently affects service delivery.
Johnson (2004:1074) indicates that people living with HIV/AIDS are absent three times more
often than people who are not HIV positive. Uninfected employees take additional days off to
take care for infected family members or to attend the funerals of co-workers or loved ones,
resulting in their absence (Netshidzati, 2012:32). Clients tend to request consistency in terms of
guards posted at their properties, and, when there is no consistency, they question the ability of
the company to perform in terms of service delivery. This type of social challenge requires
management to be proactive to ensure effective service delivery in spite of challenging
circumstances. Personal Problems and Uncontrollable Events Personal problems may be
encountered by security officers, which hinder them from reporting to work (Levy and
Associates, 2004:16). These problems may range from a sick child who has to be taken to a
hospital, an urgent financial crisis where a security officer does not have money for transport to
go to work, or the death of a close relative or domestic crisis whereby the security officer has to
stay at home to address the situation. Uncontrollable events, as identified by Levy and
Associates (2004:16), are events in which a security officer fails to go to work due to heavy rain
and/or the road to work might have been washed away, family matters, and a lack of transport
to get to work, such as taxi drivers being on strike or train cables that have been stolen (Levy
and Associates, 2004:13). Level of Education Langenhoff (2011:15) asserts that employees with
tertiary qualifications, or at least secondary level education, have less chance of being absent
than employees with a lower level of education. Cristofoli, Turrini, and Valotti (2011:77) argue
that educated employees are more involved in their jobs and experience more job satisfaction.
However, Lam, Zhang, and Baum (2001:159) state that employees with higher education are
more likely to experience job dissatisfaction, as they have higher expectations of salaries,
incentives, and recognition (Netshidzati, 2012:35). According to Silman (2011:1), an individual
with a degree tends to earn more income over the lifespan of their career because of post-
secondary qualifications, which shape individuals into being more ambitious, motivated, and
self-confident, as compared to their associates who may be SINGAPOREAN JOuRNAl Of
buSINESS EcONOmIcS, ANd mANAGEmENt StudIES Vol.4, No. 11, 2016 112 less qualified. Most
security officers do not have the resources to pursue tertiary education. As the security industry
is a considerable source of employment, many underprivileged individuals seek employment in
this sector without completing secondary level education. Age Cohen and Golan (2007:419)
state that age is one of the most studied demographic factors relating to absenteeism. It has
been found that young employees tend to take short periods of sick leave when compared to
those periods of sick leave taken by older employees (Lau et al., 2003:92). This can be due to the
fact that older employees are usually in responsible positions, have greater work ethic, and are
more committed to their work. They, therefore, are less likely to be absent. Younger employees
have greater family responsibilities, and, therefore, may be absent from work more often.
However, Lambert, Edwards, Camp, and Saylor (2005:173) conclude that older employees are
absent more often due to illness. Older employees tend to have higher levels of commitment to
their organisations and identify with their organisations to a greater extent than younger
employees. Older employees also have more favourable attitudes towards their jobs.
Furthermore, older employees also tend to have better attitudes toward co-employees in the
workplace and are less likely to engage in conflict. Tenure Length of service may be a
contributing factor to the rate of employee absenteeism (Sheikha and Younis, 2006:70). Josias
(2005:32) states that longer periods of service with an organisation may result in less
absenteeism, as the loyalty of employees to an organisation may strengthen over time. Barmby,
Ercolani, and Treble (2002:323) report that employees with longer tenure have high
absenteeism rates. These employees believe that their jobs are secure. Lambert et al.
(2005:173) add that this can also be due to boredom, emotional problems, and burnout.
Substance Abuse Absenteeism, as a result of excessive intake of alcohol, is a common
occurrence in the security industry. Alcohol abuse is a major contributing factor in the area of
absenteeism (Fisher, 1994:18). High alcohol consumption can manifest in absenteeism, with
cost implications and a negative impact on productivity (Osilla et al., 2010:194). Often, security
guards are required to undergo random breathalyser tests and drug testing as part of site
requirements. Security guards test positive, and, as a result, clients insist on their removal from
a site. This may bring the company name into disrepute or result in the termination of the
contract with the client. Business is lost, which has a ripple effect on the sustainability of the
company. General Causes of Absenteeism in the Security Industry According to Cortese
(2003:19), security officers gave the following reasons for being absent from work and poor
service delivery:  Poor working conditions - night work, isolation, poor safety;  Serious
accidents and illness;  Few opportunities for promotion;  Unattractive salaries;  Lack of job
satisfaction and low morale;  Inadequate leadership and poor supervision;  Personal problems
(financial, marital, substance abuse, and child care problems);  Transportation problems; and 
Stress and workload

5. Causes of Absenteeism Once a program to track absenteeism has been put into use, it will be
time to track the data and determine the major causes of absenteeism in the specific workplace.
This section will analyze seven major causes of absenteeism that companies will more than likely
discover and specific ways to battle each cause. 5.1 Illness and Injury 5.1.1 Effects on
Productivity, Efficiency, and Profitability The Integrated Benefits Institute, which represents
major U.S. employers and business coalitions, says poor health costs the U.S. economy $576
billion a year, according to new research. Of that amount, 39 percent, or $227 billion is from
“lost productivity,” employee absenteeism due to illness or “presenteeism.” Wage replacement
costs $117 billion from absence due to illness as well as workers compensation and both short-
and long-term disability. Meanwhile, another $232 billion of poor health costs come from
medical treatment and pharmacy related costs. In 2003, an estimated 18 million adults aged 19
to 64 were not working and had a disability or chronic disease, or were not working because of
health reasons. Sixty-nine million workers reported missing days due to illness, for a total of 407
million days of lost time at work. Fifty-five million workers reported a time when they were
unable to concentrate at work because of their own illness or that of a family member,
accounting for another 478 million days (Collins, Davis, Doty, Ho, and Holmgren, 2005). Business
and Economic Research ISSN 2162-4860 2018, Vol. 8, No. 1 122 http://ber.macrothink.org 5.1.2
Specific Cures A number of methods have been put into place in order to possibly find a cure for
absenteeism related to illness. The most popular of these methods is to require proof of illness
by employees. However, the extent to which an employer may inquire into the nature of and
reasons for an employee’s absence from the workplace is a delicate issue. The concepts of an
employee's privacy and an employer's need for information affecting the workplace often come
into conflict. In addition, unions will often strongly object to any efforts by management to
inquire more deeply into the nature of an employee's illness (Benefits Interface, 2014). While
requiring proof of illness could curb incidents of employees abusing sick days, this does not
solve the issue of the inability of employees to perform substantially due to actual sickness.
Many companies have recently taken it into their own hands to provide wellness programs that
encourage employee health. Research recently published by executive search firm Humanity
Search and Select states that a 5% increase in productivity through proper wellness programs
can determine success or failure (The Skills Portal, 2013). While wellness programs serve the
major purpose of bringing education and awareness to health issues, they can save costs largely
down the road by enabling faster recognition of medical symptoms, which can lead to quicker
recovery and lower company medical costs. Small steps can be taken along the way to prevent
the spread of diseases throughout the workplace as well. Hand washing is the most effective
way to prevent the spread of communicable disease, and elementary schools have recently
begun to recognize the benefits of including alcohol-free instant hand sanitizers throughout
classrooms. A recent study revealed that after just 5 weeks, students using the active product
were 33% less likely to have been absent because of illness (White, 2014). 5.2 Burnout: Work-
Related Stress, Low Morale, and Disengagement 5.2.1 Effects on Productivity, Efficiency, and
Profitability A recent study by Canada Life Group Insurance showed that one in six employees
who have falsely called in ill said that they had done so because they were tired. In addition, 12
percent stated that they needed time off due to work-related stress but did not want to admit it
(Pay and Benefits, 2014). The most widely accepted conceptualization of job burnout identifies it
as a multifaceted phenomenon with three primary components (Kulik & Parker, 1995): 
Emotional exhaustion, or the depletion of one’s emotional resources and feelings of being
overextended  Depersonalization, or when one develops negative or callous attitudes about
the clients or patients with whom one works and views or treats them as objects  Feelings of
low personal accomplishment, or the individual experiences a decline in his or her feelings of
competence and successful achievement in working with people Burnout adversely impacts the
financial performance of businesses by taking the “life” out of the “high flyers” of the company:
Business and Economic Research ISSN 2162-4860 2018, Vol. 8, No. 1 123
http://ber.macrothink.org  Reducing the engagement, commitment, and retention of high
flyers  Reducing the productivity, health, and well-being of high flyers  Presenting substantial
risk management issues for the brand, market image and public reputation of the organization 
Jeopardizing the talent pipeline and succession management A 2005 U.K. study showed
revealed that burnout is having a direct impact on the bottom line and the corporate reputation
of 15% of U.K. businesses, with more than a third of employers reporting a decline in
productivity and the majority seeing an increase in the number of sick days being taken
(Casserley & Megginson, 2009). 5.2.2 Specific Cures It appears that the best way to keep
employees motivated at work and in good spirits is to encompass a plan of communication,
motivation, and leadership. Communication with employees should be established by holding
regular staff meetings, emphasizing positives and downplaying negatives, recognizing and
acknowledging their work, and clarifying expectations and job requirements. Motivation should
be carried out by finding out what motivates employees, showing appreciation, encouraging
stress relievers, fresh air, and vacation days, and increasing compensation. Employees can be led
by improving leadership skills, sending employees to training, and assigning tasks accordingly
(Slide, 2015). Interestingly enough, in today’s age of technological closeness, a leading cause of
employee stress and burnout has been the incessant intertwining of work and home life through
technology. Devices have caused employees to become 24/7 intravenous hookups to their jobs,
with e-mails and phone calls buzzing in well after they have clocked out for the day. To keep
employees from becoming disengaged with the company’s goals, some employees are going the
extra mile to keep a safe distance between employee home and work life. For example,
Volkswagen company recently pledged to deactivate e-mails on German staff BlackBerries
during non-office hours. In a bid to combat employee burnout, staff at Volkswagen will be
limited to only receiving emails on their devices from half an hour before they start work until
half an hour after they leave for the day, and will be in blackout mode the rest of the time
(Knowledge Wharton, 2012). 5.3 Depression 5.3.1 Effects on Productivity, Efficiency, and
Profitability In a given year, 18.8 million Americans (9.5% of the adult population) will suffer
from a depressive illness (Boehm, Buttar, Valenstein, Vijan, & Zeber, 2001). Approximately 80%
of this population will suffer some level of functional impairment because of their illness (Brody
& Pratt, 2008). In a 3-month period, patients with depression miss an average of 4.8 workdays
and suffer 11.5 days of reduced productivity (Boehm, Buttar, Valenstein, Vijan, & Zeber, 2001).
Depression tops the list of health-related productivity costs in the workplace. The annual cost of
depression is estimated at $44 billion in lost productivity to American companies Business and
Economic Research ISSN 2162-4860 2018, Vol. 8, No. 1 124 http://ber.macrothink.org according
to the National Institute of Mental Health. It can thwart an employee’s ability to concentrate, be
effective, and stay healthy enough to hold down a job (Martin, 2012). In addition, research
shows that rates of depression vary by occupation and industry type. Among full-time workers
aged 18 to 64 years, the highest rates of workers experiencing a major depressive episode in
2007 were found in the personal care and service occupations and the food preparation and
serving related occupations. Occupations with the lowest rates of workers experiencing a major
depressive episode were engineering, architecture, and surveying; life, physical, and social
science; and installation, maintenance, and repair (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, Office of Applied Studies, 2007). 5.3.2 Specific Cures A number of studies of a
diverse group of occupations have identified several job stressors that may be associated with
depression, including high job demands, low job control, and lack of social support in the
workplace. However, depression is a complex condition, and changes in the workplace
environment will not necessarily decrease rates of depression drastically throughout the
workplace. In order to ensure that employees are receiving all of the care necessary regarding
this phenomenon, it is important for employers to both be proactive and reactive. Employers
should be proactive in creating a workplace that eliminates risks of depression caused by stress,
bullying or harassment, or other workplace issues. Employers should be reactive in responding
to employees already suffering from depression by providing assistance such as depression
recognition screenings, employee assistance programs, supervisors trained in depression
recognition, and ensuring workers’ access to needed psychiatric services (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2014). 5.4 Bullying and Harassment 5.4.1 Effects on Productivity,
Efficiency, and Profitability Recently much attention has been given to the concept of bullying in
absenteeism. While bullying has long been a reason for absenteeism regarding school children,
this phenomenon has been ignored as a cause for workplace absenteeism until recently. A
recent survey of 100,000 public servants in Australia found that 17 percent of employees
indicated that they had been subjected to harassment or bullying in their workplace in the last
12 months. A further 21 percent of employees said that they had witnessed another employee
being subjected to what they perceived as bullying or harassment in the same time period.
(Pianegonda, 2014). Why does this matter? Bullying and harassment affect productivity.
Employees who feel undermined at work are more likely to be stressed and to miss work for
health reasons. Employees are significantly less creative when they are bullied at work, and one
study even found that just watching someone get bullied at work is linked to depressive
symptoms (Lebowitz, 2013). Business and Economic Research ISSN 2162-4860 2018, Vol. 8, No.
1 125 http://ber.macrothink.org 5.4.2 Specific Cures Proactive employers have addressed
behavioral issues through Code of Conduct policies intended to eradicate outrageous,
disrespectful, and bullish behavior toward coworkers. Nonetheless, evidence indicates that
these efforts have failed to produce the employer reaction and intervention expected by the
affected workforce (Employment Practices Solutions, 2011). Sharpe Health and Safety
Assessment & Prevention outlines the following employer initiatives that should be utilized to
help stop workplace bullying and harassment:  Educate all staff on the subtleties of bullying 
Ensure anti-bullying policy is current  Inform HR professionals how to deal with complaints of
bullying  Tutor managers how to recognize bullying  Provide information on support groups,
web sites, forums, etc.  Accept responsibility to act once alerted to bullying 5.5 Maternity Leave
and Childcare 5.5.1 Effects on Productivity, Efficiency, and Profitability A quarter of all women in
the U.S. return to work fewer than 10 days after giving birth, decreasing productivity by giving
them less time to bond with their children, making breast-feeding more difficult, and increasing
their risk of post-partum depression. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics,
suboptimal breast-feeding causes higher rates of infant illness and hospitalization that cost
billions of dollars annually (Wojcicki, 2014). Paid maternity leave is also good for business. After
California instituted paid medical leave, a survey in 2011 by the Center for Economic and Policy
Research found that 91% of employers said the policy either boosted profits or had no effect.
They also noted improved productivity, higher morale and reduced turnover. When Google
recently increased paid maternity leave to 18 from 12 weeks in 2007, the rate at which new
moms left Google fell by 50% (Wojcicki, 2014). The U.S. is one of just two countries from a
recent 185-country study where new mothers aren’t guaranteed paid leave. Right now, just 12%
of U.S. workers in private industry receive paid family leave benefits that allow them to take
time off after giving birth or to care for a sick family member without giving up a paycheck. In
the absence of formal maternity or family leave policies, the vast majority of women make do
with a combination of sick days, vacation time, and unpaid leave so they can spend some time at
home after having a baby (Elliot, 2015). While most would think that there must be some
underlying reason why the United States would deny so many women maternity leave, the
methodology is not wholesome. Most people believe that the U.S. has simply not made a
change due to the fact that the country deals with finance and parenthood individually, with
each family fending for themselves. This comes in direct correlation with the Reagan
administration’s right wing frightening of moderates by explaining that maternity leave simply
meant “more big taxes by big Business and Economic Research ISSN 2162-4860 2018, Vol. 8, No.
1 126 http://ber.macrothink.org government (Liebelson, 2014).” In fact, according to the
National Partnership for Women and Families, the payroll tax costs employees less than $2.25
per month (London, 2014) The birth of a child is just the start of absenteeism issues related to
children. A 2011 survey of nearly 1,500 households by the Academic Pediatric profession found
that nearly 46% reported that they had experienced childcare-related employment changes,
while many others reported absences from work and changes to the schedule as being
necessary to maintain their household. Single-parent households reported childcare needs at
nearly twice the level of typical two-parent households. In addition, having a child with
behavioral problems or a serious chronic health condition was associated with double to triple
odds of many childcare-related employment problems, signaling even more absenteeism issues
(Montes & Halterman, 2011). Childcare breakdowns leading to employee absences cost
businesses $3 billion annually in the United States (Friedman, 1986). In addition, drains on
productivity of not providing childcare can be immense. When employee reliability due to
childcare needs goes down the drain, so does company morale and efficiency. 5.5.2 Specific
Cures Maternity leave is a hot-button topic at the moment in the United States, and while it is
still not mandatory for U.S. corporations to provide maternity leave to workers, there is much
that can be done to help combat this issue right away. If a company does not have the assets to
simply offer paid maternity leave, they should consider other ways to make new parents
comfortable maneuvering between home and work life. That means small companies should
consider letting new parents work from home, complete tasks outside of normal working hours,
or even pool with other local businesses to offer childcare (Clark, 2014). The best way to keep
employees with children motivated while on the job is to provide child care for employees. That
can come from offering on-site childcare or daycare center scholarships, helping employees
arrange babysitter co-ops, offering flex-time or telecommuting programs, or starting
partnerships with child-care providers that give staff discounts on memberships and access to
nationwide databases of caregivers. One study reported substantial benefits from offering
childcare services (Marcelo, 2009):  62 percent of respondents reported higher morale  54
percent reported reduced absenteeism  52 percent reported increased productivity  37
percent reported lower turnover While some employers may feel that offering such benefits to
working mothers is extraneous, they should keep in mind that over 75% of women who are
employed have school-age children, and the average American mother misses nine days of work
tending to children. This totals up to nearly $3 billion in annual childcare costs in the United
States. Since socioeconomic forecasts predict that women will outnumber men in the workforce
within the next decade, it is more than necessary for today’s corporations to offer some form of
assistance for working moms (Programs for Parents, Inc., 2011). Business and Economic
Research ISSN 2162-4860 2018, Vol. 8, No. 1 127 http://ber.macrothink.org 5.6 Eldercare 5.6.1
Effects on Productivity, Efficiency, and Profitability Americans are living longer and the number
of older adults is steadily increasing. This phenomenon will largely impact the causes of
absenteeism, as one third of caregivers are now in the workforce (Cooper, 2010). Unfortunately,
social stigmas cause employers to typically associate eldercare as something quite different
from childcare--while employers are quick to check in regarding the well-being of employees’
children, they are not as adept at recognizing signs of stress in dealing with elder relatives. While
time away from work to care for elders is definitely needed by employees, the high costs of
eldercare is also beginning to place stress on employees that can affect workplace productivity.
Studies have shown that employees caring for older adults are 20% more likely to see a
physician than employees who are not obligated to care for their elderly (Woldt, 2015).
Eldercare can effect productivity specifically through its disallowance of employees to put their
all into their work. Nearly seven in ten (68 percent) of caregivers report making work
accommodations because of caregiving. These adjustment include arriving late/leaving early or
taking time off, cutting back on work hours, changing jobs, or stopping work entirely. From a
profitability standpoint, eldercare costs U.S. businesses up to an estimated $33.6 billion per year
in lost productivity from full-time working caregivers. In one study, employers found that they
paid about 8 percent more for the health care of caregiver employees compared to non-
caregivers (Choula and Feinberg, 2012). 5.6.2 Specific Cures To attempt to solve the growing
dilemma of eldercare absenteeism, employers are beginning to view eldercare as the “new”
childcare. Employees are finding many new opportunities in the workplace to find assistance,
including support groups held onsite for caregivers, expanded employee assistance programs,
referrals to organizations that provide assistance, and educational and informational programs
held onsite to care for loved ones. While all of these programs appear to be working in keeping
employee morale and attendance up in regards to eldercare, the most radical (and potentially
the most successful) of these cures is to provide access to eldercare managers as an employee
benefit. The costs to the company of providing these benefits are quite small if employees are
able to arrive at work and produce satisfactory outputs because they know that their elders are
in good hands (Roberts, 2015). 5.7 Employee Turnover and Job Hunting 5.7.1 Effects on
Productivity, Efficiency, and Profitability It is obvious that employee turnover can be a significant
cost to employees regarding both productivity and profitability. The Center for American
Progress (CAP) found that for all jobs earning less than $50,000 per year, or more than 40
percent of U.S. jobs, the average cost of replacing an employee amounts to fully 20 percent of
the person’s annual salary. Since the average man will hold 11.4 jobs and the average woman
will hold 10.7 jobs in their lifetime, this can amount to significant costs. In addition, employees
who leave the company can cause Business and Economic Research ISSN 2162-4860 2018, Vol.
8, No. 1 128 http://ber.macrothink.org a trail of unrest in their wake. Remaining employees
often have to absorb additional duties and grow increasingly insecure about their own jobs
(Moran, 2013). Employee absenteeism due to job hunting may be a more difficult issue to
address, as employees will typically be much more conservative regarding information about
their job search process. Employees will not be quick to volunteer information that they are
seeking employment elsewhere, and most will not consider resignation until another position
has been secured. However, there are some obvious signs that can help alert employers to
unhappy employees seeking greener pastures. Is an employee demonstrating a noticeable
change in attitude, with less communication to management? Are they taking longer lunch
breaks and an abundance of personal phone calls? Are they showing up at the office dressed to
the nines with portfolio in hand? If these factors are causing increased rates of absence, action
must be taken to find the root of the issue and convince the employee to stay on board (Robert
Half, 2015). All of these behaviors can, of course, lead to excessive losses in company
productivity. If employees are using work time to take personal phone calls or are cutting out
early to attend interviews, this can of course affect profit margins. The American Management
Association found that declining employee loyalty is thought to cause low morale (84%), high
turnover (80%), disengagement (80%), growing distrust (76%), and lack of team spirit (73%). All
of this will no doubt effect productivity and efficiency throughout the workplace. 5.7.2 Specific
Cures The first mistake that many employers make in trying to keep employees on board is to
implement programs that make employees happy. Employers try to add lifestyle-improving
perks such as more flexible scheduling and small gifts or cash prizes in order to keep key
employees in check. Interestingly enough, however, most employees are job hunting not
because they are unhappy at work. As a matter of fact, a recent study found that while people
were 8% more likely to job hunt in 2014 than they were in 2013, they were actually 23% happier
with their current jobs than they had been in 2013 (Stillman, 2014). Strauss & Howe’s The
Fourth Turning and Dr. Gustavo Grodnitzky’s “Ready or Not, Here They Come!” both try to seek
to understand these strange behaviors in job hunting by understanding the four recurring
generational types: Civic, Adaptive, Idealist, and Reactive. These four generational types have
continued to rotate for hundreds of years. Table 2. Years Era Type Generation Type Generation
1901-1924 Unraveling Civic G.I. 1925-1945 Crisis Adaptive Silent 1946-1964 High Idealist Boomer
1965-1981 Awakening Reactive Gen X 1982-2000 Unraveling Civic Gen Y 2001-200?? Crisis
Adaptive Gen Z? Business and Economic Research ISSN 2162-4860 2018, Vol. 8, No. 1 129
http://ber.macrothink.org Grodnitsky, G.: Ready or Not, Here They Come! Personal
Communication by D. Goodman, 2015 The forthcoming generation, the Millennials (1982 –
2000), is a civic generation. While the current generation of Boomers are interested in money
and controlling time at work, Millennials are interested in relationships, causes, and blended
life. While Boomers don’t chat, Millennials want constant feedback. While Boomers are stoic,
Millennials need a strong bond with their boss (D. Goodman, personal communication, March
16, 2015). So how can an employer keep employees from job hunting on company time, or
ultimately leaving the company empty-handed? They can attack this issue by trying to create
bonds with Millennials by creating a culture that makes employees feel like home. This culture
can be created through providing high levels of praise to staff accomplishments, and recognizing
birthdays, anniversaries, and special occasions. With the gap in interests between Boomers and
Millennials, some employers are finding it more cost-efficient and effective to have employees
teach each other. The bonds that employees will share with each other will help keep them
focused on where they are and enable them to establish clear career paths that benefit all
parties (Marker, 2004).

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5. CAUSES OF ABSENCE AND WORKPLACE ATTENDANCE:

There has been a considerable amount of investigation of the causes of workplace attendance
and absenteeism. Much of this takes the form of exploring associations between various factors
and individual or group behaviour. The following section is an attempt to describe some of the
associations and determinants as individual, workplace and societal factors. Subsequently
discussion of some of the predominant theoretical models of absenteeism occurs in Appendix
Two. Where possible reference has been made to the Australian experience. Sickness absence
has as its main attribution a work incapacity related to illness or injury. A significant proportion
of the leave taken however, relates to factors other than inability or inappropriateness for work.
In order to explore this distinction researchers have attempted to define and investigate two
types of absenteeism:9 involuntary absence (unavoidable) and voluntary absence (avoidable).
The selection of such terms is somewhat regrettable since they have often been interpreted in a
concrete fashion suggesting that absences or attendance is a function of freely expressed
choice. They represent constructs, which describe the subtle interplay between disease,
disability, social, personal, and workplace factors (Figure 2) which cannot be readily
dichotomized. None of these factors is univocal.

5.1 Individual Factors

Illness, disease and workplace attendance.

Many individual factors appear linked to absenteeism: past absence history, education,
personality and the abuse of drugs and alcohol. The largest single component of sickness
absenteeism is associated with genuine incapacity attributable to illness and injury. Surprisingly,
health status is only a minor contributor although this depends upon definition. Health status
(by self-report) was not found to influence absenteeism significantly.10 This, in part, supports
the hypothesis that sick leave use also has non-medical determinants. Disease and illness are
rarely discussed in most models of workplace absenteeism, yet they form the bulk of the cause
and provide a legitimate explanation for much of its occurrence. Many of these factors are
prevalent in society and are open to interventions in the public arena as well as the workplace.
For example the workplace can be a vehicle for the amplification of public health messages
dealing with cigarette smoking, drug and alcohol use, diabetes and influenza for mutual benefit.
Thus illness related leave might be unfairly considered unavoidable from a workplace or medical
perspective. Various estimates have indicated that disease accounts for 50-75% of work
absences, “colds and flu’s” are most likely to account for short absences of 1-2 days. The results
of the 1983 Australian Health Survey indicated that 61.9% of all employed persons experienced
some illness in the preceding fortnight. Taking into account the incidence of various illnesses the
“flu” accounted for 18.5 % of absences, injuries 13%, musculoskeletal disorders 12%, digestive
disorders 10.6% and “colds” 6.6%. Whilst the incidence of illness increased with age, the
incidence of absence that resulted from illness did not.11 Age appears to have opposite effects
upon the incidence and length of sickness absence. This further illustrates a disconnection of the
effect of health status on sickness absence but also is an expression of the healthy worker effect
as well as likely differences of norms between cohorts. When absence does occur it is usually for
longer periods. The National Health Survey in 1989/1990 reported that 4% of the population
above the age of 15 experienced migraine as a chronic condition. Other sources have suggested
that a further 4-8% of non-chronic sufferers exist. The costs of lost time at work were placed at
$139.14 million and of lost productivity $112.3 million.12 The presence of chronic conditions is
often poorly predictive of attendance behaviour. For example, no clear picture or pattern has
arisen in research on absenteeism and diabetes13 although many with severe and complicated
disease opt out of the workforce through forced and self-selection mechanisms. Many workers
with chronic diseases show little impairment for their occupation.14 Certification and Cause
Problems with certification for work incapacity by medical practitioners occur because of the
inconstant relationship between illness, fitness for work and the frequent presence of medical
conditions without necessary or essential clinical signs. Medical certificates provide a guide, but
have an inherent unreliability for these reasons. Many authors have stated that medically
certified absence is more likely to reflect “unavoidable” absence due to medical conditions and
uncertified absence is more likely to reflect “avoidable or attitudinal” absence less strongly
related to the presence of a medical condition.15 The difficulty here is the inconsistent effect
that disease has on incapacity, the presence of moderating factors, and the potential of
individuals to adjust their perceptions providing self-justification for relative incapacity. Long
term absence is more likely to be illness and disease related. What is more difficult to quantify is
the wide variability amongst employees of their criteria for remaining at work or reporting sick.
Individual and Lifestyle Factors There appears to be a significant relationship between lifestyle
and behavioural factors such as smoking and excessive alcohol intake.16 10 Alcohol involvement
has an adverse association with workplace attendance either as a consequence of abuse or as an
inappropriate coping mechanism to intrinsic and extrinsic stressors. Workers with a diagnosis of
alcohol dependence were found to have a sixfold increase in absence frequency and seven
times the days lost when non-work absences of more then five days were assessed.17 In a study
of Telecom absence records attributing causal fractions for certified absences, alcohol and
smoking were felt to account for 25% of sick leave.18

Motivation This is a difficult and problematic concept to define and measure. It is a normative
belief in the value and importance of work and is influenced by work ethic19. This may include
loyalty to fellow workers, organisation or the work task itself. Work attendance motivation is
subject to the complex and dynamic relationship between the value of work and non-work
alternatives. Motivation is a construct, which is dependent upon external as well as internal
factors.
External responsibilities Those with family responsibilities in general and in particular working
adults with young children experience higher rates of workplace absence. This may in part
account for gender based differences in absenteeism, though occupations held by women, and
factors such as job satisfaction and job meaning may be equally significant.20 Gender appears as
a moderating factor in the relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism with different
strengths of association evident between the sexes.77

Distance from work Distance from work21 80 also appears to influence likelihood of sickness
absence because of distance or transport difficulties, which may be magnified by illness or by
presenting additional barriers or disincentives. Generally a minority of workers account for the
majority of leave taken. Some 30% of employees accounted for 70% of leave taken in a study of
Telecom employees.22 The authors felt that this was attributable to a sizeable minority of
chronically ill employees who take long absence spells. In a model involving a measure of
“avoidable” absence just over 25% of workers accounted for all the “avoidable” leave taken.39
Past absence history23 is moderately predictive of future absences, with absence frequency
rather than duration being the key indicator. Most studies seem to review absence history
within an organisation and it is uncertain whether the pattern of behaviour is transferable to
new work situations. The residual leave available appears to influence the probability of
absenteeism.24

5.2 Organisational and Workplace Factors:

Organisational factors describe the effect of workplace absence culture, group norms and the
influence of the physical and social work environment. Nature of the work. The intrinsic nature
of the work including repetitive tasks, monotony, routinisation, danger and role ambiguity
(uncertain job responsibilities are a form of job stress which may lead to job dissatisfaction) can
influence absenteeism. Persons who work in dangerous jobs report between 1.4 and 1.6 days
more absence per year than those in safe work. 80 A positive association between workloads
and absenteeism has been observed.25 Job Person Fit Interactions between degree of control
and autonomy, worker skills and workload are suggested as being influential in psychological
models of attendance behaviour. Work organisation Workplace autonomy, control, the latitude
permitting independent decision making, participatory vs centralised workplace hierarchies can
all influence absenteeism. Organisational climate The presence of co-worker support,
supervisory support, “fairness” and discrimination are also potential factors. Job satisfaction
Self-perception of job characteristics is also important. This has become a key variable in
psychological models of worker absence through which a number of other factors exert an
indirect effect. Work stress Absenteeism shows significant correlation with job stress26 27 with
many of the component factors described within this section. Size and type of workplace
Generally absenteeism is higher in large organisations presumably due to reduced workforce
cohesion, hierarchical management strategies and relative anonymity. Prospectively, increased
absenteeism has been documented as company size increases.28 Absence culture Workgroup
belief in the legitimacy of absence taking19 also influences absenteeism. Each profession and/or
department within an organisation may have its own absence culture. Group level absenteeism
can be a significant future predictor of absence behaviour, beyond that predicted by individual
past behaviour.29 Workgroup absence cultures may develop as strong determinants of absence
behaviour by workers. These factors are determined by a number of interrelated factors
including management permissiveness, organisational commitment and trust in the operation of
the sick leave system. Work hours Increased absenteeism occurs with increased working hours
and overtime. Shift work has an inconsistent relationship with attendance30 even though good
evidence exists for an increased association with adverse health effects. This probably depends
upon the degree of self-selection of the workforce involved and the operation of other
incentives. Decreasing absenteeism has been associated with flexible working hours and the
converse with inflexible hours.80 Organisational Absence Management Policy Organisational
policies can have an important effect in rewarding or discouraging absenteeism31 either actively
or through ambivalence. Organisational permissiveness refers to the degree that absenteeism is
tolerated by an organisation and refers to the created perception of being able to take time off
work without discouragement from management or supervisor. Employees whose supervision is
more tolerant of unscheduled non-attendance tend to be absent more frequently. A delicate
interaction exists between trust and control mechanisms in defining individual and
organisational absence behaviour. Factors relevant to sick leave policies include incentives,
penalties, sick pay systems monitoring and checks. 5.3 Social and Societal Influences Societal
factors also influence leave taking by reinforcing community norms, opportunities and priorities.
Cultural acceptance of non-illness absence may in part explain regional, group and national
variation. Regional variation can be surprisingly marked. The effects on the labour market and
economic recession are easily noticeable with low absence behaviour often seen in times of
poor economic performance. The combined effect of economic recession and organisational
downsizing can have a marked downward effect on absence rates as can the converse situation
on increased rates.32 Family issues and their relationship to work obligations have also seen a
change with increasing availability and use of leaves for the care of family. 5.4 Associated
Workplace Climate Factors · turnover · productivity · stress claims · industrial climate · workers
compensation claims rate · occupational health and safety performance · morale The links
between absenteeism and retention (turnover) are particularly strong. (Price Mueller causal
model of turnover)33 The intent to leave, reflecting the interaction between intent to stay with
job mobility, workplace factors, career and personal development opportunities, affects
absenteeism rates. Workplace climate factors share some causal factors and can be linked to
occupational health and safety factors in the workplace, productivity, absenteeism, work injury,
management practices, and the physical work environment. Whilst such relationships are
strong, each of these are separate constructs and can vary independently in causation and
outcome. Some view absenteeism as a withdrawal response from perceived or actual adverse
working environments.34 This may however represent a reaction at one end of a continuum of
responses which can affect work performance, concentration, safety and participation. “Quality
of Working Life” is a term, which has sought to emphasise the relationship between the working
environment and a broad definition of personal health. Programmes based on this premise
attempt to achieve gains with improved health and job satisfaction and thereby increased
organisational performance and productivity. The Comcare “Quality of Working Life Strategy”
suggests the following as key indicators: workers’ compensation rates, absenteeism rate, rates
of client aggression, rates of disciplinary procedures, rates of systems breakdown, staff
turnover, rates of grievance reporting, and measures of job satisfaction.35 Some of these factors
are more specific for the public sector work environment.

CAUSES The U.S. service sector alone loses 2.3% of all scheduled labor hours to unplanned
absences, but in some industries, the total cost of unplanned absences approaches 20% of
payroll expense. The principal reasons for unscheduled absences (personal illness and family
issues) are unlikely to abate anytime soon. (Easton & Goodale 2005). In 2002 personal illness
accounted for 33 percent of unscheduled absences. The remainder of missed days was due to
family issues (24%), personal needs (21%), stress (12%), and entitlement mentality (10%)
(Truman, 2003). While personal illness is certainly a given reason for not coming to work,
companies are now attempting to determine whether the employee is actually sick when they
call in. Certainly if an employee is physically ill and unable to perform his job, the employee
should not be at work. It is not uncommon though for an employee to miss work due to minor
aches and pains. Family issues also play a crucial role in absenteeism. Balancing work and family
life can be a struggle. Childcare is often a major issue. With the cost of childcare rising we will
see more individuals that are unable to pay higher rates. Many workers already send their
children to private residences or to a small day care to reduce costs. But, what happens when
the person who owns and operates this day care falls sick? It is quite inconvenient for an
employee to be on their way out the door with the child or children only to have the phone ring
with a person on the other end of the line informing them that they are going to have to send
their child to another place for the day and perhaps tomorrow because the caregiver is ill. Often,
the employee then has to either be late for work after the problem is resolved or take the day
off in order to care for their child. Another commonality among family issues is the responsibility
that adult children have to care for their elderly parents. A recent study by the National Alliance
for Caregiving and AARP indicated that more than 44 million Americans provide some sort of
care for a family member or friend 18 years or older. Many of these individuals are caring for
elderly parents at home rather than sending them to a nursing care facility. When this happens,
it adds additional responsibility and time constraints to the working individual in order that their
parents’ needs are met. These needs could include doctor/medical testing appointments,
hospitalizations, et cetera, all of which take time to complete. In addition, the ugly word divorce
can play a huge role in time needed off from work. Divorces are common and often take a toll
on the entire family. Sometimes the divorce proceedings can take years, which equates to
multiple court appearances. Each court appearance will mean a half or whole day off from work.
Furthermore, the rollover effect of a divorce can be emotional issues that may cause an
individual to need additional time off from work.

PERSONAL NEEDS As with any valuable tangible property, maintenance is critical to retaining
and improving the worth of the item. The same holds true for the human body. It is critical that
individuals seek periodic medical attention, including regularly scheduled “healthy” checkups.
Doctor offices have gotten better about keeping longer hours in the past few years but could still
use improvement. It is often difficult for individuals to work a full day and be able to schedule a
needed doctor’s appointment that does not interfere with their scheduled work day. This costs
both the worker and the employer much needed time, which can never be recovered. STRESS
Although stress accounts for only 12 percent of absenteeism a year, the monetary costs that
stress imposes on a company are significant. The Health and Safety Executive claims 6.5 million
sick days are taken every year as a result International Business & Economics Research Journal –
May/June 2016 Volume 15, Number 3 Copyright by author(s); CC-BY 91 The Clute Institute of
stress alone (Haswell, 2003). In the United States, job stress has been estimated to cost industry
about $200 billion annually, and in the UK stress has led to the loss of 10 percent of the GNP
(Bradford). As many as one in five people suffer from high levels of work-related stress.
According to Shepell-fgi Research Group, the annual cost of depression in Canada is estimated
to be $33 billion with depression accounting for higher employee absenteeism than back pain,
cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes and other mental conditions. The U.S. Census
Bureau's 2005 American Community Survey estimated that on average Americans commute to
and from work an average of 100 hours per year. Not only can this lead to stress related health
problems but may also cause increased rates of tardiness and absenteeism as well as increased
resentment towards their jobs. (Jackson, 2008). Depression and antidepressant prescriptions are
major contributing factors to employer health care costs, which are rising by 15% a year.
(Canada News Wire 2008) Furthermore, a 2006 Canadian review indicates that another major
issue for employees with depression and anxiety disorders is ‘presenteeism,’ or lost productivity
while at work. The causes of stress, or the stressors, are numerous and can be found anywhere
in the workplace. Stressors can include dangerous working conditions, long working hours, job
security worries and job monotony (Bradford). This stress can lead to poor mental health, heart
disease, back pain, and gastrointestinal disturbances. It can also lead to unaccommodating
behaviors such as drinking too much alcohol and smoking. Stress can cause accidents. One
investigation stated that of all factors related to the cause of accidents, only one emerged as a
common denominator- -a high level of stress at the time the accident occurred (Bradford). All of
this culminates to lowering morale among employees and lowering productivity because of poor
performance (Haswell, 2003). The end result can be job burnout where the worker has no
energy left to put forth, is dissatisfied, pessimistic, and has very low resistance to illness
(Bradford). What does this cycle mean for the employer? Stress can lead to seeking alternate
employees, which costs the employer money in the form of recruitment and training. What’s
more, stress can overburden co-workers with additional responsibilities while replacement
personnel are hired. This can lead to a heavier workload for already distraught employees,
which affects their health and eventually results in even more absenteeism (Haswell, 2003).

Causes of absenteeism: 1.Serious accidents 2.Low morale. 3.Lack of Job satisfaction 4.Boredom
of the job 5.Poor working conditions 6.Transportation problems 7.Stress 8.Lack of satisfaction
from present work. 9.Poor welfare facilities1 . While an employer may find that the overall
absenteeism rate and cost are within an acceptable range, it is still advisable to study the
statistics to determine whether there are patterns in the data. Rarely does absenteeism spread
itself evenly across an organization. It is very likely that employees in one area may have nearly
perfect attendance records, while others in a different area may be absent frequently2 .