What is Language?

A language is system of arbitrary, vocal symbols that permit all people in a given culture, or other people
who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro, in Ramelan
1984)

A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh, in
Ramelan, 1984)

A language is an arbitrary system of vocal sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of
carrying on the affairs of their society (Francis, in Ramelan, 1984)

A language is a set of rules enabling speakers to translate information from the outside world into sound
(Gumperz, 1972).

A language is a means of communication that uses speech sounds as a medium (Ramelan, 1984)

Linguistics: Linguistics is defined as the scientific study of language. From different viewpoints, as

science, linguistics can be divided into several branches, among others, descriptive linguistics and

historical/comparative linguistics (if it is based on its methodology), synchronic and diachronic

linguistics (it is based on its aspect of time), and phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and

semantics (if it is based on a language as a system).

Sociolinguistics: A term sociolinguistics is a derivational word. Two words that form it are sociology

and linguistics. Sociology refers to the science of society, and linguistics refers to the science of

language. A study of language from the perspective of society may be thought of as linguistics plus

sociology

Sociolinguistics is defined as

1. The study is concerned with the relationship between language and the context in which it is used.
In other words, it studies the relationship between language and society. It explains we people
speak differently in different social contexts. It discusses the social functions of language and the
ways it is used to convey social meaning. All of the topics provide a lot of information about the
language works, as well as about the social relationships in a community, and the way people
signal aspects of their social identity through their language (Jenet Holmes, 2001)
 2. The study is concerned with the interaction of language and setting (Carol M. Eastman, 1975;
113).
3. the study that is concerned with investigating the relationship between language and society with
the goal of a better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in
communication ( Ronald Wardhaugh, 1986: 12)

The Scope of Sociolinguistics

Definition:
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics is a
derivational word. Two words that form it are sociology and linguistics. Sociology refers to a science of
society (which is a grouping of individuals, which is characterized by common interests and may have
distinctive cultures and institutions), and linguistics refers to the science of language (which is a means of
communicating information, and a crucial means of establishing and maintaining relationships with other
people).
Micro and macro distinction:
1. Micro sociolinguistics: (sociolinguistics)
In social dimensions of language, the emphasis is on language. Micro sociolinguistics explores how
society influences how people talk, such as the creation of a variety of dialects; how they communicate
with different social factors, and how language varieties with social attributes such as class, sex, and age.
2. Macro sociolinguistics: (sociology of language)
In linguistics dimensions of society, the emphasis is on society. Macro sociolinguistics focuses more on
society as a whole in relation to language, that is, the study of language related to how society treats
language.
Langue and Parole: Saussure defined language as a system of signs that express ideas and suggests that
it may be divided into two components: Langue which is the whole system of language that leads and
makes the speech possible; while parole is the concrete (real) use of the language, the actual utterances.
Speech community: it is a group of people who speak a common dialect.
Mutually un/intelligibly: Any two varieties which mutually intelligibly mean they are two dialects of the
same language, if they are mutually unintelligibly, then they are separate languages.
Dialect, Accent, Idiolect
Dialect:Any variety of a language characterized by systematic differences in pronunciation, grammar,
and vocabulary from other varieties of the same language is called dialect.
Ex: New York City English vs. Appalachian English.
Accent: It is the phonology of a spoken dialect (the pronunciation of a language), which means a certain
form of a language spoken by a subgroup of speakers of a particular language. From an accent of an
individual, it can be identified by where the speaker is from regionally or socially.
Idiolect: It is a dialect spoken by one individual. Everyone has small differences between the way he
speaks and the way that his /her families speak. So idiolect is creating a minimal dialect.
Types of language variation:
1. Regional dialects:
It is a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a country. The differences can appear at all
levels:
Pronunciation: British English /ka/ -- Am Eng. /kar/
Lexis (vocabulary): Bri Eng. gas ---- Am Eng. petrol
Morphology (grammar): (‫ )غطس‬Am Eng. dove ----- Bri Eng. dived.
Syntax (‫ )استعمال عبارة في جملة‬Am Eng. I don’t have a book, Bri Eng. I haven’t a book.
2. Social Dialects:
It is a variety of a language spoken by a particular group based on social characteristics (wealth,
education, profession).
Ex: in the United States a variety of American English is called Black English, this variety is associated
with the lower class, and it is characterized by: - With becomes d -West End becomes Wes ‘en -He/ she
likes becomes he/ she like
It has been found that the lower we go in the social class scale, the more we find non-standard variants.
3. Dialect continuum:
It is a range of dialects that vary slightly by region, so that the further apart two regions are, the more the
language differs. (The more two regions are separated, the more the language differs)
4. Linguistic variable:
The linguistics variable is those where the meaning remains constant but the form varies. Ex: cat and
pussy, have the same social meaning but different forms.

Language and social classes

The term social class is used to clarify that society can be divided into different social classes. Different
people or groups may have very different ideas about what makes one "high" or "low" in the grading. In
general terms, they can be divided according to income, occupation, education, behavior, etc. It has been
asserted by some sociolinguists as Basil Bernstein that there are two varieties of language to its speakers
(an elaborated code and restricted code), and as William Labov’s research about how often the final or
pre-consonantal \r\ was sounded in words (the non- pronouncing the final or pre-consonantal \r\ is more
prestige than pronouncing it).
1. Elaborated Code and Restricted Code:
a) Elaborated Code:
The elaborated code is distinguished by the use of complex sentences, a high proportion of subordinate
clauses, a wide range of adjectives, and adverbs, frequent use of the pronoun I, and complex use of
prepositions and conjunctions. This code is tending to be used by the middle and the upper class.
b) Restricted Code:
The restricted code is characterized by the use of short and simple sentences, few conjunctions and little
subordination, frequent use of the pronoun WE which fosters greater solidarity than an emphasis on me,
and limited use of adjectives and adverbs. It is tending to be used by the lower class and it is less formal
than elaborated code.
2. William Labov’s Research:
He studied it above 4 levels of speech: casual speech, careful speech, reading, and word list. William
found out that people do not pronounce it in careful speech, which means that speakers want to acquire
high status by speaking in that way.
In short, the link between language and class is that the way in which any speaker speaks reflects the
class to which he/she belongs.

Language and Gender

The study of sociolinguistics has noticed that there are differences between the man’s and women’s use
of language. The words sex and gender are commonly used interchangeably. But many linguists argued
that their usage is quite distinct.
Sex:
Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics (boy or girl); it refers to male or female.
Gender:
Gender refers to behaviors, roles, expectations, and activities in society, that refer to masculine or
feminine.
The differences in the sexes do not vary throughout the world, while differences in gender do.
The differences are
1. Sexism in Language:
Words and phrases that demean ignore, or stereotype members of either sex or that needlessly call
attention to gender. It means specific words or expressions that reflect either man or woman which has
been historically prevalent.
Man: masculine charm, manly courage, policeman, doctor, worker.
Woman: feminine hands, women tears, nurse, typist.
The above examples show the sex differentiation patterns in our language are the result of sexism that
exists in our societies. With the change of attitudes that we have been seeing in recent times, many words
and expressions have changed as replacing the chairman with the chairperson, and policeman, with a
police officer.
2. Man Language and Woman Language: * Men /n/ and /t/ between vowels but women do not.
Men use taboo words (swear words, sexual vocabulary) but women do not. Women use color words such
as (mauve, beige, and lavender) but men do not. Women use tag questions more than men.
Women use standard language more than men do.
The explanation for those differences is that women want to acquire more status and men are more
socially secure. In short, they behave accordingly so as not to be socially unacceptable.
Traditional and modern soociolinguistics:

Traditional sociolinguistics Modern sociolinguistics

Since 19th century Since 1960s

Geographical Sociolinguistics Sociological Sociolinguistics

Focus on rural areas Focus on urban areas

Focus on regional variation/varieties: Focus on social variation/varieties: accent,

accent and lexicon lexicon and grammar

Focus on NORMS (Non-mobile Old Rural Less restricted focus: study of diverse
Male Speakers) social groups (age, class, male/female…)

Elicitation of information via questionnaires Plus corpora, modern statistical methods

and interviews (tape-recorded) for analysis of linguistic data

Result: creation of linguistic maps (dialect

maps) with isoglosses indicating dialectal
borders

Also: regional dialectology or dialect Also: social dialectology or urban

geography dialectology (see Sociolinguistic Patterns)

Code
A code is a system that is used by people to communicate with each other. When people want to talk to
each other, they have to choose a particular code to express their feeling.
According to Stockwell , a code is “a symbol of nationalism that is used by people to speak or
communicate in a particular language, or dialect, or register, or accent, or style on different occasions
and for different purposes.”
Ronald Wardhaugh also maintains that a code can be defined as “a system used for communication
between two or more parties used on any occasions.”
When two or more people communicate with each other in speech, we can call the system of
communication that they employ a code. Therefore, people are usually required to select a particular
code whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to
mix codes, sometimes in very short utterances and which means creating a code.
Poedjosoedarmo in Rahardi states that code can be defined as a speaker system and the application of
the language element which has specific characteristics in line with the speaker’s background, the
relationship between the speaker and interlocutor and the situation. He also adds that code can be said
not only as a language, but also as the varieties of a language including dialect, undha usuk, and style.
From those opinions of the code given by many linguists above, the writer can make a conclusion that a
code can be said to a language. The code is a form of language variation that is used by a society to
make communication with other people.
What Is Code Switching?
 Code-switching: This is when a speaker suddenly shifts from one language (language variation) or style
(stylistic variation) to another.
Code-switching is when a speaker alternates between two or more languages (or dialects or varieties of
language) in one conversation. This phenomenon can be observed in the following examples.
What Are Some Examples of Code Switching?
If you have an exam next week, şimdiden çalışmaya başlamalısın. (English + Turkish)
Gracias for the lovely gift. Está awesome! (Spanish + English)
Pwede ba tayo mag dinner sa Barney's Burgers later? I want protein! (Tagalog + English)
Are we eating chez ta mère demain? (English + French)
Saweyti l-homework tabaa’ik? (Arabic + English)
Nó còng đang celebrate cái sinh nhật. (Vietnamese + English)
Ní yào qù get pizza with me ma? (Mandarin + English)
Who Uses Code Switching?
Code-switching occurs mostly in bilingual communities. Speakers of more than one language are known
for their ability to code-switch or mix their language during their communication. As Aranoff and Miller
(2003:523) indicate, many linguists have stressed the point that switching between languages is a
communicative option available to a bilingual member of a speech community, just as switching between
styles or dialects is an option for the monolingual speaker.
Code-switching is when you combine two (or more) languages in one communication.
Reasons Speakers Use Code Switching
There are a number of possible reasons for switching from one language to another; three are described
below.
To Fulfill a Need. A speaker who may not be able to express him/herself in one language might switch
to another to compensate for the deficiency. As a result, the speaker may be triggered into speaking in the
other language for a while. This type of code-switching tends to occur when the speaker is upset, tired, or
distracted in some manner or when they are less fluent in one language.
To Express Solidarity. Switching also commonly occurs when an individual wishes to express solidarity
with a particular social group. Rapport is established between the speaker and the listener when the
listener responds with a similar switch.
To Exclude Others. Code-switching may also be used to exclude others from a conversation who do not
speak the second language. For example, if two people in an elevator in an English-speaking place spoke
Spanish, then not only would the others in that elevator who do not speak Spanish be excluded from the
conversation but also a degree of comfort and intimacy would be established between the Spanish-
speakers because not all those present in the elevator can listen to their conversation.
Types of Code Switching
1. Inter-Sentential:In inter-sentential code-switching, the language switch is done at sentence
boundaries—words or phrases at the beginning or end of a sentence. This type is seen most often in
fluent bilingual speakers. For example: If you are late for a job interview, işe alınmazsın.
2. Intra-Sentential: In intra-sentential code-switching, the shift is done in the middle of a sentence, with
no interruptions, hesitations, or pauses to indicate a shift. The speaker is usually unaware of the shift. For
example, You are sleepy coğu zaman because you spend a lot of salt in your bed. Different types of
switches occur within the clause level and the word level.
3. Extra-Sentential or Tag Switching:This is the switching of either a single word or a tag phrase (or
both) from one language to another. This type is common in intra-sentential switches. It involves the
insertion of a tag from one language into an utterance in another language. For example: "Él es de
Oaxaca y así Los criterion a ellos, if you know what I mean." Another example is how Turkish students
use some boundary words like ama (but) or yani (I mean) while speaking English.
Code Mixing: Code mixing is a mixing of two codes or languages, usually without a change of topic.
Code mixing often occurs within one sentence, one element is spoken in language A and the rest in
language B. In addition, Nababan (1984) said that code-mixing is found mainly in informal interactions.
In a formal situation, the speaker tends to mix it because there is no exact idiom in that language, so it is
necessary to use words or idioms from another language.
The Types of Code Mixing
1. Intra-sentential code mixing This kind of code mixing occurs within a phrase, a clause, or a sentence
boundary, as when a French-English bilingual says: “I started going like this. Y luego decla (and then he
said), look at the smoke coming out my fingers.” Another example is from Wardaugh's (2006)
“Estabatraining para polar”: “He was training to fight.”
2. Intra-lexical code mixing This kind of code mixing occurs within a word boundary, such as in
shoppã (English shop with the Panjabi plural ending) or enjoy (English enjoy with the Swahili prefix ku,
meaning ‘to’).
3. Involving a change of pronunciation This kind of code mixing occurs at the phonological level, as
when Indonesian people say an English word, but modify it to Indonesian phonological structure. For
instance, the word ‘strawberry’ is said to be ‘stroberi’ by Indonesian people.
TYPES
Type of Code Mixing
According to Suwito (1983:76), code mixing is divided into two types:
a) Inner code mixing, in which happens because elements insertion from original language with all its
variation.
b) Outer code mixing, in which occurs because of elements insertion stemming from foreign language.
It means that the first language of the speaker in this case, national language is inserted with his or her
own language (original language) or inserted with a foreign language from the speaker background.
The Reasons of Code Switching and Code Mixing occurred in conversation
When code switching or code mixing occurs, the motivation or reasons of the speaker is an important
consideration in the process. According to Hoffman (1991:116), there are a number of reasons for
bilingual or multilingual person to switch or mix their languages. Those are:
1. Talking About a Particular Topic People sometimes prefer to talk about a particular topic in one
language rather than in another. Sometimes, a speaker feels free and more comfortable to express his/her
emotional feelings in a language that is not his/her everyday language. The case can be found in
Singapore, in which English language is used to discuss trade or a business matter, Mandarin for
international “Chinese” language, Malay as the language of the region, and Tamil as the language of one
of the important ethnic groups in the republic. \
2. Quoting Somebody Else A speaker switches code to quote a famous expression, proverb, or saying of
some well-known figures. The switch involves just the words that the speaker is claiming the quoted
person said. The switch like a set of quotation marks. In Indonesian, those well known figures are mostly
from some English-speaking countries.
3. Being Emphatic About Something (Express Solidarity) As usual, when someone who is talking
using a language that is not his native language suddenly wants to be emphatic about something, he either
intentionally or unintentionally, will switch from his second language to his first language. Or, on the
other hand, he switches from his second language to his first language because he feels more convenient
to be emphatic in his second language rather that in his first language.
4. Interjection (Inserting Sentence Fillers or Sentence Connectors) Interjection is words or expressions,
which are inserted into a sentence to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjection is
a short exclamation like: Darn!, Hey!, Well!, Look!, etc. They have no grammatical value, but speaker
uses them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. Language switching and language
mixing among bilingual or multilingual people can sometimes mark an interjection or sentence
connector. It may happen unintentionally.
5. Repetition Used for Clarification When a bilingual or multilingual person wants to clarify his speech
so that it will be understood better by listener, he can sometimes use both of the languages (codes) that he
masters to say the same message. Frequently, a message in one code is repeated in the other code
literally. A repetition is not only served to clarify what is said, but also to amplify or emphasize a
message. For example: English_Hindi (Gumperz, 1982:78) Father calling his small son while walking
through a train compartment, “Keep straight. Sidha jao” (keep straight).
6. Intention of Clarifying the Speech Content for Interlocutor When bilingual or multilingual person
talks to another bilingual/multilingual, there will be lots of code switching and code mixing occurs. It
means to make the content of his speech runs smoothly and can be understood by the listener. A message
in one code is repeated in the other code in somewhat modified form.
7. Expressing Group Identity Code switching and code mixing can also be used to express group
identity. The way of communication of academic people in their disciplinary groupings, are obviously
different from the other groups. In other words, the way of communication of one community is different
from the people who are out of the community.
8. To Soften or Strengthen Request or Command Code mixing and code switching can also strengthen
a command since the speaker can feel more powerful than the listener because he can use a language that
everybody cannot.
9. Because of Real Lexical Need The most common reason for bilingual/multilingual person to switch
or mix their languages is due to the lack of equivalent lexicon in the languages.
10. To Exclude Other People When a Comment is Intended for only a Limited Audience Sometimes
people want to communicate only to certain people or community they belong to. To avoid the other
community or interference objected to their communication by people, they may try to exclude those
people by using the language that no everybody knows.
Dialects and Accents:The word dialect—which contains "lect" within the term—derives from the
Greek words dia- meaning "across, between" and legein "speak." A dialect is a regional or social variety
of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary.
Dialects are a variety of languages distinguished from other varieties of the same language by features of

phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and its use by a group of speakers who are set off from others

geographical or socially. Although accents are part of a dialect, it is notable to mention that it only refers

to one’s style word pronunciation.

Types of Dialects and Examples

● Regional Dialect: This type of dialect is associated with speakers living in a particular
geographic location. The evolution of languages into various dialects is influenced by factors

including time, place, and socio-culture. Even within France itself, there are multiple dialects

based on geographic location as seen below:

On the map, we can see all the different dialects spoken in the country. Each dialect has unique features,

and while French is spoken in each region, it is quite possible to find two individuals within France who

speak French fluently, but cannot understand each other entirely due to the differences within the

dialects. Some words are not translatable as they refer to things only a person from that particular region

can understand, but existing words could also have a different meaning.

● Social Dialect / Sociolect: This is a type of dialect that is associated with speakers belonging to a
given demographic group, whether it is gender, age group, religion, ethnicity, and socioeconomic

class. For example, individuals who attend different educational institutions have learned different

ways of speaking, including grammar, words, formality, and syntax. In addition, various

professions have their own expressions, including technical terminology and other casual words

that might be difficult for someone to understand if they do not work in the same field.
 Languages are beautiful as they are created and assembled through events shaped by experiences

and historical moments, and they are constantly evolving through time! Dialects are a part of our

culture and make us unique and stand out from others around us. Our traditions, history, words,

voices, and everyday life are all embedded in our language and reflect who we are.

Sociolect:

Sociolect is the dialect of a particular social group.

In linguistics, a sociolect is a language variety spoken by a particular social group or social class. The
term sociolect is a combination of the words 'social' and 'dialect'.
Sociolects typically develop among groups of people who share the same social environments or
backgrounds.
An example of different sociolects is how a younger person might say lit, whereas an older person would
probably say cool.
Social factors that influence sociolects include socioeconomic status, age, occupation, and gender.
Socioeconomic status
This typically refers to a person's class. According to a recent survey, there are now seven social classes
in the UK:

● Precariat (precarious proletariat)

● Emergency service workers

● Traditional working class

● New affluent workers

● Technical middle class

● Established middle class

● Elite
The language someone uses will likely differ greatly depending on their socioeconomic status. This can
all be linked to the education they received, the people they choose to spend time with (or can afford to
spend time with), the job they do, and the income they make.
Age
New words are added to the dictionary every year, and many words that were once common fall out of
use. This is because language is constantly changing. These changes are often apparent when we
examine the different sociolects across ages. Think about your grandparents or someone significantly
older than you. Do you think they would understand if you told them that the email they received looked
suss (suspect/suspicious)? What do you think they would say if you said their outfit was cheugy?

Occupation:This factor is about the jobs we do. As we learn and develop skills for specific jobs, we also
pick up lots of new vocabulary along the way. Take a computer programmer, for example. They probably
know and use a lot of technical 'jargon' that a neurosurgeon wouldn't understand, and vice-versa.
Consider the term 'garbage collection': for most people, this makes us think of the day our rubbish is
collected. However, for a computer programmer, this refers to a form of online automatic memory
management.

Jargon - Specialised terminology that is unique to a specific field or activity, usually used in a
professional context.
Gender
This factor is a little more controversial than the others as there is a lot of conflicting research around the
differences in men and women's speech. Some researchers suggest that it is due to genetics, whereas
others state that women's lower status in society has impacted their speech. However, some studies have
found that women tend to be more polite and expressive, and men tend to be more direct. Further studies
have shown that men use more swear words, and women are more likely to use 'caretaker speech' as they
are often the primary caregivers.

Ideolect:

1)The term idiolect refers to the language of an individual. It is etymologically related to the Greek
 prefix idio- (meaning own, personal, private, peculiar, separate, distinct) and a back-formation of
dialect. Its specific meanings predominantly fall in two categories!
-The sumtotal of language of one person, including all possile utterances.
-The linguistic output of one person (i.e., only what that person says and not the internal knowledge
in the mind). "or some scholars, emphasis here is on the constellation of language variation patterns,
which distinguish an individual from other speakers of the same dialect
Functions of Language in society
In order to understand the function of a language, one way is to look behind the literal, formal meaning
of what is said or written, and to consider what the sender of a message intends to achieve with it.
Language has
1. Macro Function, and
2. Micro Function
The Classification of Macro function:
The macro functions of a language were formulated by the linguist ROMAN JAKOBSON and further
developed by DELL HYMES. In order to understand the macro functions of a language, many linguists
have identified elements of communication. However, the scheme proceeds by first identifying the
elements of communication, as follows:
1. The Addresser:The addresser is the person who originates the message.
2. The Addressee:The addressee is the person to whom the message is addressed.
3.The Channel :It is the medium through which the message travels: sound waves, marks on paper,
telephone wires etc.
4. The Message Form:These are the particular grammatical and lexical choices of the message.
5.The Topic:The topic is the information carried in the message.
6.The Code:It’s the language or dialect.
7.The Setting:The setting is the social or physical context.
Macro functions are then established, each focusing attention upon one element. Roman Jakobson has
defined six macro functions of language, according to which an effective act of verbal communication
can be described. Each of the functions has an associated factor.
1.The Emotive Function:The emotive function is defined as communicating the inner states and
emotions of the addresser such as Fantastic! Oh no! Ugh!
2.The Directive Function:The directive function is seeking to affect the behaviour of the addressee. For
example, ‘Please help me’, ‘Shut up’, ‘I’m warning you’
3.The Phatic Function:It is opening the channel or checking that it is working either for social reasons
(‘Hello’, ‘Do you come here often?’, ‘Lovely weather’) or for practical reasons (‘Can you hear me?’,
‘Are you stillthere?’)
4. The Poetic Function :It is that function in which the particular form chosen is the essence of the
message.For example, The advertising slogan ‘BEANZ MEANZ HEINZ’ would lose its point if it were
paraphrased as ‘If you are buying beans, you will naturally buy Heinz’
5. The Referential Function:It is carrying information.
6. The Metalinguistic Function:It is focusing attention upon the code itself in order to clarify it.
7. The Contextual Function:The contextual function is defined as creating a particular kind of
communication e.g. ‘Right, let’s start the lecture’ , ‘it’s just a game’.
Micro Functions of Language
There are seven micro functions of language.
1.Physiological Functions:Curse words are used to serve this purpose, as they rarely convey any
meaning and are only to make the speaker feel better e.g. fans of sports
2. Phatic function:The phatic use of language is characterized mainly of speech. The use of phrases such
as nice day today, or how do you do is characterized by lack of any informative context and is intended to
link people and make the coexistence peaceful and pleasant. For example, the letters begin with Dear Sir,
Madam and ends with Yours faithfully serve that purpose.
3. Recording function:This function denotes using language to make a durable record of things that
ought to be remember. First writing systems developed in Middle East as 4000 BC. Writing took forms
of pictures representing the things they referred to, then gradually into the alphabets in their present
forms.
4. Identifying function:Language is used to identify the objects and events in the world we live in. We
use names to classify different types of things whether we call a car an automobile, a lorry, a van or a
truck makes a big difference.
5. Reasoning function :It’s the instrument of thought. Before we say something we think and to do that
we necessarily use language.
6. Communicating function:This function would probably be pointed by most language users without
major considerations. Requesting, apologizing, informing, ordering as well as promising and refusing are
all reasons for communicating our ideas.
7. Pleasure functions:Language often gives pleasure both to the speakers and listeners and is not
supported by the frequent use of assonance, alliteration, and onomatopoeia in poetry. Depending on the
sounds of language, some are perceived as being mild as English.
Domains of language use.
Domains.
In sociolinguistics, the term domain is usually used to denote the “social context ofinteraction”. Domain
is an area of human activity in which one particular speech variety or acombination of several varieties is
regularly used. A domain can be considered as a group relatedto social situations. Speech communities
are made up of a number of domains which organizeand define social life.
Domains of language.
The first person who proposed domains is Schmidt Rohr in 1932 . It is developed by Fishman.Barber
and Barker formulated domains at level of socio-psychological analysis. These are:
Informal.
Formal.
Intimate.
Intergroup.
In informal domain,we are very closely related to others and are emotionally attached.Therefore, we use
informal type of language, for example family, friends and siblings. In formal domain , we are not
closely attached in relation, for example teacher and student relation. In intimate domain, there is less
intimacy in formal relationships and high intimacy in informal relations or groups. Intergroup are
related to informal group relations as in class groups.
Factors.
Fishman states that the factors which influence the concept of domain are topic, role-relation and place
and these three factors together make up a set of typical domain.
For example, a common domain is home which is place. The role relationship ( the people involved in
speech events) associated with home includes family members (mother, father and siblings etc). There is
a suitable set of topics (depending upon the cultural patterns) such as activities of family, news about
family members, the meal and the household
Domains of language.
There are five domains suggested by Schmidt Rohr in 1932.
These are as follows: Family, religion, employment, friendship, and educational domain. However,
other linguists added more domains such as workplace and playground domains.Each domain has a
distinctive addressee, setting, and topic.
1. Family Domain.
The language used in this domain is informal and it is typical one that is spoken at home. It is the
language that someone is most comfortable with.Family members are obviously the main addressee or
role relations in the family domain. The home location would be The setting and everyday family
matters would be the topics. Role can be changed, mother speaks to father, father speaks to son, sister
speaks to brother. Topics can also be different but the place remains the same. In multilingual
community different languages may well be considered appropriate for different role relationships in a
domain. For instance, in a Pakistani community husband and wife may speak in Punjabi but they will
speak in Urdu with their children.
2.Religious Domain.
In this domain, the language used is mostly formal.The addressee and the topics will be changed
according to the situation. The place will be usually a mosque or madrissa. The
Topic will be related to religion and the addressee will be ‘Qari saab’ or a religious scholar.
3.Educational Domain.
In this domain the language is usually formal . The language is used according to the role. The setting
can be a school or any other educational institution. The topic can be math problem or any other
lecture delivered by the teacher.
4.Employment Domain.
In this domain, the setting will be any workplace, andtopic can be related to marketing Or applying
for a job.The use of language will be formal and change according to the Role.
5.Friendship Domain.
In this domain, the setting will be school, college or any other place. The topic can be a
conversation, a game or any other friendly activity. The language used is usually informal
Principles of language use.
Politeness.
Wardaugh says that “politeness seems to be very important principle in language use”. It indicates that
people must consider others feelings while they are speaking. Since politeness becomes very important in
speaking people will be very careful in their speech. It is called as language awareness shown through
the general “politeness”, determined
socially
Formality.
Geerts says that social relationship between speaker and listener affect the language style. Wardaugh
states that speaker apply different style of speaking, for instance, formal and informal style. Both styles
were used in different conditions. In ceremonial
occasions, speakers use very formal speech whereas informal speech is used in conversation between
inmates.

Speech Community:
Definition:
Term speech community is derived from the German Sprachgemeinschaft.
‘Speech community is a group of people who share a set of linguistic norms and expectations with regard
to how their language should be used.
“All the people who use given language/dialect is called speech community.”(Lyons,1970)
“A speech community is a group of people who interact by means of speech.”(Bloomfield.1933)
“A speech community is any human aggregate characterized by regular and frequent interaction by
means of a shared body of verbal signs and set off from similar aggregates by significant differences in
language usage”(Gumperz,1971)
Explanation:
Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a distinct group of people who use
language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves.Speech communities can be
members of a profession with a specialized jargon.Member of speech communities often develop slang
and jargon to serve the groups special purposes and priorities.
A speech community must meet three criteria:
a) It is any group within a society which has anything significant in common (including religion,
race , ethnicity, age, occupation)
b) It is a physically bounded unit of people having range of role-oppertunities(a politically organized
tribe or nation)
c) It is a collection of similarly situated entities that something in common (such as the western
world , European common market)
Fctors influencing language use in a given speech community:
The following are the four dominant factor influencing someone’s language use in a given speech
community
a) The participants: who speaks, and to whom he speaks?
b) The setting: where does he speak ?
c) The Topic: What does he speak about?4
d) The Function: What and why does he speak?
Communicative Competence:
To be considered part of a speech community ,one must have a coomunicative competence.That is, the
speaker has the ability to use language in a way that is appropriate in the given situation. It is possible for
a speaker to be communicatively competent in more than one language.
Community of Practice:
Community of practice allows sociolinguistics to examine the relationship between socialization,
competence, and identity. Since identity is a very complex structure,studying language socialization is a
means to examine the micro-interactiona level of practical activity. The learning of a language is greatly
influenced by family but it is supported by the large local surroundings, such as school, sports team , or
religion.speech communities may exist within a larger community of practice.
Types of community:
"hard-shelled" communities, which tend to be insular and intimate, like a family or religious sect, and
"soft-shelled" communities where there is a lot of interaction.
Characteristics of speech community:
❖ Group of people using same language, dialect, words, grammatical rule as standard.
❖ Share a specific set of norms for language use through living and interacting together.
❖ Face to face contact is not necessary
❖ Monolingual and multilingual group held together by frequency of social interaction and set off
from surroundings due to their linguistics norms.
Examples:
All English speakers in the world belong to the same speech community
Speaking same language by the group of people does not mean belonging to the same community.For
instance,speakers of South Asian English in India and Pakistan shared a language with the British or
American English speakers without sharing their communitues.
Style
In linguistic refers to the ways the person uses language in a particular way is called as style in linguistic.
in other words, style is a person’s speech behaviour which changes as per the speech situation such as
place, person, time.
For example: A person may speak in a national standard at one moment but he may speak regional
dialect the very next moment. It has much importance in literature. It varies from author to aothor. The
components of style are generally words which are being used words, phrases, language, person, place
and time. style is the variation of speech in contextual morphology. Syntax and phonology these tells us
about the relationship between speaker and listener.
Types of style in linguistics
1.Formal style and
2. Informal style
But linguists confirm the fact that there are five language stlyles which are put forth by Martin Joos.
There are in the folloing-
1.Consultative style:This style is also known as sharing style. When a person starts a conversation with
a stranger is a consultative style. This is a two way communication. Speaker and listener exchange
information and also a roles. Here instruptions are available on the part of the speaker and listeners.there
is a mutual understanding between the speaker and the listeners. This kind of conversation we found in
doctors and patients, teachers and students, lawyer and a client. Etc.
2. Casual style:Casual style is a conversation or a language used with friends, family members and
others people who know us casually. Intruption is the common feature of casual style. Here the speaker
and the listeners share views . in the language which is very informal and the vocabulary, phrases are
informal in mannar. Some times slang Is also use in casual style.
3.Formal style: Formal way of communication/style shows distal relationship between the speaker and
the listener. In this style speaker is alone before the audience so it is often a one way communication. In
this type of style the vocabulary, structures of sentences, and phrases have fixed structures. This type of
conversation generally takes place between the strangers or in the situation like boss and subordinators
etc.
4.Intimate style: Intimate style it is very private or non-public discourse. It generally takes place
between very close and intimate friends. There are no limited structures of sentences.here in intimate
style sigms and gestures play an important role. This type of style found in private talk, serious discourse
of close conversation.
5.Frozen style: Frozen style used in ritualistic communication where the speaker shares his views in a
monotono. In frozen style we have limited number of vocabulary items phrases, and stuctures. This type
of style use in instruction or in ritualistic conversation.
Thus register and styles are typical concepts in the field of language. Both help us to know more about
language variation.
Register:
In linguistics, the register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different
circumstances. Think about the words you choose, your tone of voice, even your body language. These
variations in formality, also called stylistic variation, are known as registers in linguistics.

Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms and the
use of jargon, and a difference in intonation and pace.

Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed. Depending on
grammar, syntax, and tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate. You don't even need to
use an actual word to communicate effectively.
The concept of register refers to variations in language determined by function, medium and formality or
style. An examination of the registers of verb forms and noun phrases yielded results important to the
writer of English language courses.
Language Registers range on a scale from most formal to most informal. The five levels identified have
been given specialized names by Linguists; frozen, formal, consultative, casual and intimate.
Origin of register
The term register was first used by the linguist T.B.W. Reid in 1956 (Agha, 2008), and brought into
general currency in the 1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to distinguish among variations in
language according to the user (defined by variables such as social background, geography, sex and age),
and variations according to use, "in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and choices
between them at different times" (Halliday et al., 1964). The focus is on the way language is used in
particular situations, such as legalese or motherese, the language of a biology research lab, of a news
report, or of the bedroom.
Types of Linguistic Register
Some linguists say there are just two types of register: formal and informal. This isn't incorrect, but it is
an oversimplification. Instead, most who study language say there are five distinct registers.
 1. Frozen: This form is sometimes called the static register because it refers to historic language
or communication that is intended to remain unchanged, like a constitution or prayer.
Examples: The Bible, the United States Constitution, the Bhagavad Gita, "Romeo and Juliet."
2. Formal: Less rigid but still constrained, the formal register is used in professional, academic,
or legal settings where communication is expected to be respectful, uninterrupted, and
restrained. Slang is never used, and contractions are rare. Examples: a TED talk, a business
presentation, the Encyclopaedia Brittanica, "Gray's Anatomy," by Henry Gray.
3. Consultative: People use this register often in conversation when they're speaking with
someone who has specialized knowledge or who is offering advice. Tone is often respectful
(use of courtesy titles) but may be more casual if the relationship is longstanding or friendly (a
family doctor.) Slang is sometimes used, people may pause or interrupt one another. Examples:
the local TV news broadcast, an annual physical, a service provider like a plumber.
4. Casual: This is the register people use when they're with friends, close acquaintances and co-
workers, and family. It's probably the one you think of when you consider how you talk with
other people, often in a group setting. Use of slang, contractions, and vernacular grammar is all
common, and people may also use expletives or off-color language in some settings. Examples:
a birthday party, a backyard barbecue.
5. Intimate: Linguists say this register is reserved for special occasions, usually between only
two people and often in private. Intimate language may be something as simple as an inside
joke between two college friends or a word whispered in a lover's ear.

Jargon
Definition of Jargon
Jargon is a literary term that is defined as the use of specific phrases and words in a particular
situation, profession, or trade.
These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings accepted and understood in that field.
Jargon is a certain language that is usually used by a group of society.
Jargon is a language variety that contains a set of unique vocabulary that is used by people who have the
same interest, class (social status), or same position in a certain area for instance in a working are.
Example:
● I need a script to pick up the medicine.(medical jargon for prescription)
● Your objection is overruled (legal jargon)
● We need to take data points to determine if there has been a response to the intervention
(educational jargon)
Social significance of Jargon:
In social term jargon helps to creat and maintaine the connections among those who sees themselves as
insiders in some way and to exclude outsiders.
Insider
Outsider
Types of Jargon:
Political Jargon:
There is alot of political jargon being used in 24 hours news outlets.
Battleground state-a state that has an equal chance won by a bemocratic or republican condidate.
Blue state- jargona state that vote primarily for Democrats or librals.
Military Jargon
Among much of the common vocabularyin the military, there is certainly no shortage of shorthand and
military acronyms too.
Anti-guerrilla operation-operation conducted aginst guerrilla forces.
Clandestine-military activites intended to be kept secret or concealed.
Workplace Jargon
Many offices use common workpalce jargon to describe everything from the office environment to
specific business practices.
Hardcopy-a physical printout of a document rather than an electronic version.
Heavy lifting- handling the most difficult aspects of a project
win -win scenario-a solution in which all parties are fully satisfied with the results

Other types of jargon are Social,Professional , Regional , Technological jaron.

Jargon are found in literary and non-literary pieces of writing.
The use of jargon becomes essential in prose or verse or some technical pieces of writing,
when the writer intends to convey something only to the readers who are aware of these terms.
Therefore, jargon was taken in early times as a trade language, or as a language of a specific
profession, as it is somewhat unintelligible for other people who do not belong to that particular
profession.
In fact, specific terms were developed to meet the needs of the group of people working within the
same field or occupation.
Jargon and Slang
Jargon is sometimes wrongly confused with slang, and people often take it in the same sense but a
difference is always there.
Slang is a type of informal category of language developed within a certain community, and consists
of words or phrases whose literal meanings are different than the actual meanings. Hence, it is not
understood by people outside of that community or circle. Slang is more common in spoken
language than written.
Jargon, on the other hand, is broadly associated with a subject, occupation, or business that makes
use of standard words or phrases, and frequently comprised of abbreviations, such as LOC (loss of
consciousness), or TRO (temporary restraining order). However, unlike slang, its terms are
developed and composed deliberately for the convenience of a specific profession, or section of
society. We can see the difference in the two sentences given below.
• Did you hook up with him? (Slang)
• Getting on a soapbox (Jargon)
Function of Jargon
• The use of jargon is significant in prose and verse. It seems unintelligible to the people who
do not know the meanings of the specialized terms.
• Jargon in literature is used to emphasize a situation, or to refer to something exotic.
• In fact, the use of jargon in literature shows the dexterity of the writer, of having knowledge
of other spheres.
• Writers use jargon to make a certain character seem real in fiction, as well as in plays and
poetry.
Examples of Jargon in Literature
Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)
Historical Legal Jargon
Hamlet to HORATIO:
Pidgin:
A pidgin language is a grammatically simplified communication method. It usually develops when two
or more groups have to develop a system of communication when a common language doesn’t exist. It is
common when communities come together for trade and they are not considered complete languages.
Pidgins are not native to any speech community. It is built from the words and sounds from a number of
languages with a limited core vocabulary.
● Crystal defines a pidgin language as a simplified version of one language that combines the
vocabulary of different languages.
A pidgin is a form of language that has typically evolved using simplified grammar and structures from
an external language combined with features of local languages. Pidgins are born out of the need for
people to communicate without speaking a common language.
Pidginization:
● the process when a language becomes made up of elements of two or more other languages and
used for contacts, esp trading contacts, between the speakers of other languages.
● Pidginization is a linguistic process that occurs when people who do not speak the same language
come into contact.
Characteristics of pidgins
● Generally have limited vocabulary
● Simplified grammar
● Use many onomatopoeias (words that sound like the thing they are referring to, e.g., 'bang', 'slap',
'woosh', 'sizzle')
● Consonant clusters often get simplified (e.g., instead of pronouncing all the sounds in the phrase
'best player', the pidgin pronunciation might be 'bes player' where the /t/ is dropped from the '-st'
consonant cluster)
● Not typically a native language of any country, but spoken as a second language
● Commonly seen as being low prestige language varieties
● Simplified sentence and phrase structures
● Linguistic characteristics such as gender and number (singular and plural forms) are often non-
existent.
● Their morphology is usually isolating
● They tend not to have complicated phrase structures
● Syllables tend to be simple and often lack codas
 ● Consonant clusters are simplified
● Linguistic characteristics such as gender and number (singular and plural) are excluded

As Canada has a long history of contact between various language communities, it has had a large share
of pidgins developing over the centuries.

PIDGIN LANGUAGES: Pidgins are simplified languages that occur from two or more languages.

Pidgins are developed by people who do not have a common language to communicate in the same
geographical area. Pidgins can turn into creoles when they have been used for a long time. As a result of
being used for a long time the structure starts to evolve and become more complex. Children who are
born to an area where a pidgin is used acquire it as their first language, in this case the pidgin becomes a
creole .

An example for such a case is Tok Pisin which was a creole in Papua New Guinea and afterwards
became a National Language when children started to acquire it as their first language.
pidgin is nobody’s first language/mother tongue, it doesn’t have any native speakers, it is just used as a
contact language for communication purposes. It is claimed that the reason for pidginization might also
be because of the power of the language when the speakers dominate the other language speakers
economically and socially.
Pidgin languages do not have high status or prestige and to those who who do not speak them they often
seem them rediculus.
Pidgin often have a short life.If they develop for a restricted function, they disappear when the function
disappears.
Wardhaugh points out that at least two languages have to battle for dominance in pidginazation and a
good example for this is the battle between English and French in England after 1066. On the other hand
when three languages are involved in this process, one language should be dominant and more powerful
over the others and the people who use them should not only understand and accept the dominant
language but also each other as less dominants. Therefore, it can be claimed that a pidgin arises when
people from different languages simplify the dominant language to communicate. A very common
pidginized variety of language is the Nigerian Pidgin English which is referred to as bad English because
the people learn this variety without paying attention to accuracy.

The reasons for pidgins to occur are generally for trade matters when different cultures do not share a
common language and when they feel forced to find a way to communicate. It is stated that members of
the same population rarely use a lingua franca to communicate with each other and that pidgins are
simplified versions of different languages and they generally have no native speakers.
Creoles:
A pidgin which has acquired native speakers is called a CREOLE
A creole is defined as an extended pidgin that becomes the first language of a new generation. As we
mentioned, pidgin arises because there is a need for lingua francs. But if the language survives and
becomes the native language of the next generation then it becomes a creole language,e.g., slaves from
several different countries of the world are working together on a plantation, they have no common
language. They develop their pidgin and rapidly becomes the expanded pidgin; the language they use for
all everyday purpose. When their kids grow up in that environment in which that pidgin is used, it slowly
becomes their native language. This is now called a creole language.
Creolization:
The process whereby a pidgin turns into a Creole is called 'creolisation'.

Decreolization is the purposeful transformation of a creole language into a superstrate language and can
cause the destruction/loss of a creole.

DECREOLISATION first, this is what happens when a Creole is spoken in a country where other people
speak the Creole's lexical source-language (for example, English). Since the latter has so much more
prestige than the Creole, Creole speakers tend to shift towards it, producing a range of intermediate
varieties. Sociolinguists call the Creole the BASILECT and the prestige language the ACROLECT, with
the intermediate varieties lumped together as MESOLECTS. This range of varieties spanning the gap
between basilect and acrolect is called a 'POST-CREOLE CONTINUUM'.
Characteristics of creoles

● Fully developed grammar

● Extensive vocabulary
● Full, native languages that have derived from pidgins
● Most commonly viewed as vernacular languages, although in countries where they are widely
used, they are viewed as having higher prestige
● Most creoles are born of contact between European and native languages, and creoles might
include some words and structures from European languages (such as French and Portuguese).
That said, not all creoles are based on European languages. For example, Betawi is a Malay-based
creole with no European influence.

Lingua Franca
A lingua franca /ˌlɪŋɡwə ˈfræŋkə/ also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language or
vehicular language, is a language or dialect systematically (as opposed to occasionally, or casually) used
to make communication possible between people who do not share a native language or dialect,
particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from both native languages.
Lingua francas have developed around the world throughout human history, sometimes for commercial
reasons (so-called "trade languages") but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic and administrative
convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different
nationalities. The term originates with one such language, Mediterranean Lingua Franca.
National Language:
Meaning:
That language which is used in a nation in a country known as national language.
A language is used for communication.
Definition:
A language in which a large number of population speak.
A national language is often used to unite the people.

Example: 1.The national language of Pakistan is Urdu. 2.Japanese in Japan, 3.French in France,

Uses:
● Political people use this language for the connection for people.
● The national language is also a symbol of united in country
● This language is used in a specific region of a country
Process:The process of developing a national language involves four steps which are…

● Selection
● Codification
● Elaboration
● Acceptance

Selection:Selecting a language to serve as the national language is a political process. Picking the wrong
language could rip a nation a part. Different countries have approached this in different ways.
Codification:Codification involves standardizing the language. This involves the development of
grammar rules and dictionaries.

Elaboration :Elaboration is the process of extending the language into new domains such as academics,
medicine, or some other field. Many languages, pidgins, and or creoles, do not have ways of
communicating highly abstract terms. In order to serve as an official language, terms need to be
developed to handle any form of communication.
Acceptance:After developing a language in order for it to become the national language, steps must be
taken to convince the people to use it. This is often done through a combination of propaganda and
follows the leader. When government officials use the language locals often begin to follow.

Conclusion:The use of a language by a nation has a complex process that involves several steps. Every
country has some story behind the development of its language. This rarely does not happen by chance.

Standard Language:

Definition:The official variety of a language is said to be its standard form.

The language is one that is used in education by government and media, and in other official language
proceeding of that language.

A standard language is a particular dialect of a language that has received legal or quasi- legal status in

Examples:

● In European country mostly spoken standard language is French.

● The standard language of Pakistan is English.

Properties:They are divided into structural and cultural . The former are intrinsic to the language

system and the latter are focused on their external social repercussions.

● Intellectualization : the standard variety should serve as a vehicle for complex communications

and express ideas effectively. For that it has to be lexically and grammatically equipped. The

official languages must be standard languages.

● Flexible stability : a balance must be maintained between what makes this variety recognized as

such (stability) and those innovations that allow its adaptation to the new communication needs
 that arise among its speakers (flexibility)whose spelling and grammar rules follow most of the

texts written in that language

Functions/Uses:
● Unifying : it serves as a link between speakers of different varieties of the same language and

helps to unite them in a single linguistic community.

● Separatist : it is a powerful symbol of national identity. Thus, the identification of the individual

with his linguistic community instead of being indifferent acquires a high emotional charge.

● Prestige : the possession of a standard language is linked to a certain prestige.

● Reference framework : the standard variety serves as a reference framework for speech use,

providing a coded standard that serves as a correction point.

● This language is used by educated people while writing books, lecturing and for the formal

conversation.

● This language is used in a domains of power such as Judiciary, adminstration,armed forces and

politics.

● Every language have different varieties and then we select on variety which is known as standard.
● Use in Decent way of conversation.
● All modern languages have a standard language.
● We use standard language for the official purpose.
● Most of the dictionaries are based on the standard language
● It is used in works of ficton, in scientific and other technical articales.

Characteristics of standard language:

● It is an idealized variety of language.
● It has no specific region.
● It is well document.
● A dictionary that unifies a standardized vocabulary and spelling.
● A recognized grammar that records the forms, rules and structures of language and that
recommends certain forms and punishes others.
● A standard pronunciation system , which is considered “polite” or “adequate” by speakers and is
considered free of regional markers.
 ● An institution that promotes the use of language and that has certain authority, formal or informal,
in the definition of its rules of use, such as the Royal Spanish Academy.
● A statute or constitution that gives it an official status in the legal system of a country.
● The use of language in public life , for example in the judiciary and the legislative branch.
● The schooling of standardized spelling and grammar
Multilingualism

Definition:

➢ Multilingualism is the ability of an individual speaker or a community of speaker to coomunicate

effectively in three or more languuages.
➢ “The use of more than one language” or “competence in more than one language”

Mulltilingualism can also occur as a result of a political union among different groups.

Example:Switzerland incorporates German , Italian, French population ;Belgium unities French and
Flemish speakers; Canada has English and French charter group.

Types of Multilingualism:
Compound Multilingualism:
These speakers are fluent in both or all the languages in which he/she speakes.
Coordinate Multilingualism:
Usually the first language or mother tongue is more dominant than the other and the first language may
be used to think through the second language.
Receptive Multilingualism:
Receptive Multilingualism are those who can understand a second language but do not speak it.
Contextual Factors for Multilingualism :Factors that create societal multilingualism might be the
following ((Nurse and Bernd, 2000):
 ● Migration: societies migrate in large or small numbers. Such a kind of community usually tends
to be able to speak the language of others.
● Colonialism: is a situation in which relatively large numbers of people from a given nationality
move into a certain geographical area and take control of them. This social situation leads the
colonized nation and individuals to multilingualism.
● International borders: There are diversified language situations within borders. The members of
the same speech community might live in different countries at borders with different speech
communities. This situation leads individuals and both adjacent countries to be multilingual.
● Sprachinseln (ethnolinguistic enclaves): When the speakers of a certain language are enslaved
by another speech community, the community might go to be multilingual by acquiring the
language of the other community.
● The spread of international languages In this globalization era knowing international languages
like English is very vital. Such kind of spread leads individuals and nations to multilingualism.
● Federation: It is the unity of diverse ethnic groups or nationalities under the political control of
one state, particularly in forced federation countries that become colonies of other countries had
not the same socio-cultural and linguistic groups as each other. Therefore when they become
independent they made a federation with others. Therefore when they become independent they
made a federation with a common language.

Some more factors for Multilingualism are:

● Historical political movements such as imperialism or colonialism; for example, the spread of
Spanish to Latin America
● Increasing communications among different parts of the world and the need to be competent in
languages of wider communication.
● Social and cultural identity and the interest in maintenance and revival of minority languages.
● Education: Second and foreign languages are part of the curriculum in many countries.
● Religion movements that result in people moving to a new country.

What is Bilingualism?

Bilingualism is the existence of two different languages within the speech

Definition:
A person who can easily speak and understand two languages. The ability to speak two
languages. The frequent use (as by a community) of two languages.
● “Bilingualism is an ability of an individual of speaking two or more languages. (Peter)
 ● “He takes bilingualism as the practice of alternatively using two languages”.(Weinreich)
● “He describes bilingualism as “the regular use of two or more languages (or direct), and
bilinguals are those people who use two or more languages (or dialects) in their everyday lives”.
(Grosiean)
● “Native-like control over two languages and equal mastery of two languages”. (Bloomfield)

Bilingualism is defined as the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of
speakers.
Bilingualism is the norm in most countries of the world. Ambi-bilingualism is a term in bilingualism that
is defined as the capability and aptitude to function equally well in two or more languages across a wide
range of domains.

Bilinguals and Bilingualism: Bilingual is a person who uses at least two languages with some degree of
proficiency. Although a bilingual in everyday use is usually considered as an individual who can speak,
interact, read or understand two languages equally well (which in this case it is called a balanced
bilingual), a bilingual person usually has a better knowledge of one language than another.

Forms of BilingualismThere are basically two forms of bilingualism. These are societal bilingualism
and individual bilingualism.

Societal Bilingualism: When a society has two different languages existing within it and the two
languages are assigned similar or different functions within it, then there is societal bilingualism or we
can say such society is bilingual.

Examples of Bilingual Societies

Canada

The Canadian society, which acknowledges and uses French and English, assigns functions to the two
languages. It uses both, French and English as official languages and languages of interaction. That is,
society uses both languages as lingua franca and national languages.

Nigeria
Nigeria is also an example of a bilingual society which assigns different roles to both the official
language and the regional languages. English has the role of official language while the regional
languages have the roles of interaction.

Individual Bilingualism

An individual is bilingual when they have two languages in their repertoire.

Types of Bilingualism

There are three forms of individual bilingualism. These are coordinate, subordinate, and incipient
bilingualism. Let us see what each form represents…

Coordinate Bilingualism

Coordinate bilingualism occurs when an individual has or possesses the ability to use or speak the two
languages proficiently. Such an individual is a coordinated bilingual.

Subordinate Bilingualism

An individual is a subordinate bilingual when they are proficient in one of the two languages. This
language in which they are proficient is usually the mother tongue; then they can speak the other
language, but not with great proficiency as the other language.

Incipient Bilingualism

An incipient bilingual is just able to use one of the two languages proficiently and this is usually the
mother tongue, but with a partial understanding of the other language.

Characteristics of Bilingualism:

Passive Bilingual: A person who is a native speaker of one and is capable of understanding (reading) but
not speaking another language.

Balanced Bilingual: Someone who is more or less fluent and proficient in both languages but will not
necessarily pass for a native speaker of the L2.

Ambi Bilingual (Equilingual): Passes in any situation in both languages for a native speaker. It usually
arises from early acquisition (from birth) and can be referred to as ‘Simultaneous Bilingual’ where both
languages are acquired simultaneously.

Sequential Bilingual: The second language (L2) was acquired after the one (L1)(from 3 years on).

Late Bilingual(after 12 years of age): Someone who is more or less fluent and proficient in both
languages, but will not necessarily pass for a native speaker L2.
Additive Bilingual: When learning a second language does not interfere with the learning of a first
language. Both languages are developed aims towards achieving Functional Bilingualism: the end-goal of
CLIL.

Simultaneous Bilingual: It is the process of learning two languages as “first languages”. That is, a
person who is simultaneously bilingual goes from speaking no languages at all directly to speaking two
languages. Infants who are exposed to two languages from birth will become simultaneous bilinguals.

Consecutive Bilingual: It is a process of learning one language while already knowing another. This is
the situation for all those who become bilingual as adults, as well as for many who became bilingual
earlier in life. Sometimes also called successive.

Receptive Bilingual: Being able to understand two languages but express oneself in only one. This is
generally not considered “true” bilingualism but is a fairly common situation.

Semi Bilingual: A pejorative term is used to describe bilingual individuals who display the following
characteristics in both languages: a small vocabulary, incorrect grammar, must consciously think about
language production, stilted and uncreative with each language and difficulty and expressing emotions in
both languages.

Subtractive Bilingual (replaceable): When learning a second language interferes with the learning of a
first language. The second language replaces the first language. This is commonly found in children who
immigrate to a foreign country when they are young, especially in cases of orphans who are deprived of
their first language input.

Dominant Bilingual: Languages and uses it significantly more than the other language.

The misconception of Bilingualism:

● True bilinguals never mix their languages; people who mix their languages can be considered
only ‘semi-lingual’ since they can speak neither language like a native speaker.
● A child needs to be fluent in one language before it should be thought a second language. But
only very young children can became maximally bilingual (i.e. close to native speaker proficiency
in both languages) after a certain age this is no longer possible.
● Two languages confuse a child and growing up bilingual leads to lower intelligence.
● There is no need to teach immigrant children their “new” language; they will pick it up easily on
the play ground.
● A real bilingualism knows both languages perfectly.
● Bilingualism is an exception.
● Mixing language is the sign of fake bilingualism and is used to show off.
Causes of Bilingualism and Multilingualism:
A multilingual situation can develop for reasons which may be difficult to disentangle because of their
obscure historical origins. Often the situation is of the people's own choosing, but it may also be forced
upon them by other circumstances
Politics: Annexation, resettlement, and other political or military acts can have immediate linguistic
effects. People may become refugees and have to learn the language of their new homes. After a
successful military invasion, the indigenous population may have to learn the invader's language in order
to prosper.
Religion: People may wish to live in a country because of its religious significance, or to leave a country
because of its religious oppression. In either case, a new language may have to be learned.
Culture: A desire to identify with a particular ethnic culture or social group usually means learning the
language of that group. Nationalistic factors are particularly important
Education: Learning another language may be the only means of obtaining access to knowledge. This
factor led to the universal use of Latin in the Middle Ages, and today is one of the motivating factors
behind the international use of English
Migration: this is one of the strongest causes of both: migration of a children’s parent to another
country, the result of which the child learns two: one at home and the other from the community.
Geographical: in border areas, it is common that citizens of one country become members of
socioculture group based in another country.
Economy: Very large numbers of people have migrated to find work and to improve their standard of
living. This factor alone accounts for most of the linguistic diversity of the USA, and an increasing
proportion of the bilingualism in present-day Europe
Natural disasters: Floods, volcanic eruptions, famine, and other such events can be the cause of major
movements of population. New language contact situations then emerge as people are resettled. (Crystal:
2006)

Effects of Bilingualism/Multilingualism:

Effects of Multilingualism:

1. Sharpens the mind: Multilingual people are better at observing their surroundings. They can easily
detect anything that is irrelevant or deceptive. They’re also better than their monolingual peers at
identifying misleading information. While learning a new language sharpens the mind, it’s also causing it
to literally grow.

2. Enhances decision-making: The decision-making process is easier for multilingual people. While a
language learner has to learn a new language’s rules and vocabulary, they also have to learn its nuances
and regional expressions. The language learner must constantly be judging for appropriateness and
hidden meanings. As a result of this practice, multilinguals are more confident in their decision-making
choices in not only their language use, but throughout all areas of their lives.

3. Improves the first language

As Geoffrey Willans said, “You can never understand one language until you understand at least two.”
Learning a new language actually sharpens your knowledge of your primary language by making you
more conscious of its rules and subtleties. When terms such as conjugation, grammar, and sentence
structure become everyday phrases while learning a new language, we begin to apply these terms to our
primary language and think about our language’s underlying structure.

4. Enhances the ability to multitask

Multitasking is an extremely stressful task for those who don’t have practice doing it or have never
learned how to do it well. It requires disengaging from one activity, switching to a new mindset, and then
fully engaging in a different activity. Multilingual people who are proficient at slipping from one
language to another are practiced at multitasking. Those who have developed the ability to think in
different languages and can move from one to the other become much better multitaskers compared to
monolingual people, thereby reducing stress levels.

5. Improves memory
It’s undeniable: the more you use your brain, the better it performs. Learning a new language not only
requires familiarity with an unfamiliar set of vocabulary and rules, but also the ability to recall this
information. Absorbing and retaining more information can significantly shorten your learning curve
because you can spend more time learning new information instead of re-teaching yourself.

Effects of BilingualismBilingualism has some effects which can either be positive or negative.

Let us begin with the positive effects…

● It facilitates tourism
● It helps in job acquisition
● Bilingualism enriches the individual’s speech repertoire
● It aids participation in democracy
● It helps sporting activities

The negative effects of bilingualism include the following:

● It erodes the culture of the people; a bilingual is also bicultural.

● Interference and transference. Interference can occur at lexical (borrowing), semantic, and
phonological levels
● Linguistic Incompetence. It makes people subordinate or incipient bilinguals.
Manifestation of Bilingualism:

Code Switching:Code-switching refers to the change of languages by the speakers in different

situations. The term code-switching is the inviolable consequence of bilingualism. A speaker who knows
more than one language chooses between them according to circumstances. It is the process in which
bilingual are by dialectical speaker switches back and code between one languages are dialect and
another within the same conversation. It may be that one language is typically associated one set of
domain and another language with another domain.

Code Mixing:
It is the process in which the speaker shift back and forth between two languages with such rapidly and
even within a sentences and phrases that it is not possible to say at anytime which language they are
speaking.
The change of codes within simple a utterance without any associative topic change.
The language codes are used intra sentential.
In code-mixing there is a base code that is used and has its own function and autonomy where as the
other codes involves are not more than pieces without having function autonomy code,
It refers to linguistic behavior of a bilingual speaker to imports words and phrases from one language to
another.
Borrowing:
The process by which bilingual and multilingual introduce words from one language and these words
eventually accepted and the intregred parts of second language. It involves adapting words to fit the
language that you’re speaking including sound and grammar making the borrowed words part of your
language. For certain purpose intentially, selection of new word in language.
For example;
Pizza Italian
Piano Italian
Restaurant French
The Benefits of being multilingual/ bilingual
Being multilingual/ bilingual person is something beneficial , not the contrary, as many researchers
conclude, so a multilingual/ bilingual person have an advantage in comparison with monolingual person ,
many aspect of person life may developed through multilingualism/ bilingualism this paper listed few of
them and there is a lot of other benefit this paper cannot list them all .
● A globe perspective or awareness about other countries and group of people.
● Creates opportunities for travel.
● Knowing two or more languages opens the door to the information presented in all of them:
literature in the original language and cultural heritage.
● To speak two or more languages increase your employment option.
● Ability to translate abstract concepts from one language to another.
● Your interactions with people of different cultures go deeper.
● To speak two or more languages people have an easier time for understanding math concept and
solving word problems more easily, developing strong thinking skill.
● Focusing, remembering, and making decisions.
● Have improved critical thinking ability.
● Be-better in problem solver gaining multiple perspectives on issues at hand.
● Better understand and appreciate people of other countries.
● Develop not only better verbal, but also spatial abilities.
● Better metalinguistic awareness ( ability to identify and describe characteristics and features of
language)
● Better communication skills.
● Better concept formation.
● Better analogical reasoning.
● Better visual-spatial skills
● Better storytelling skills.
● Better semantic development.