UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT
STUDIES
MODULE FOUR
DS 112: DEMOCRACY, GOVERNANCE AND
DEVELOPMENT

Instructor: Dr. Peter Semiono (PhD)

 An Outline
• Introduction: Democracy and governance in
historical perspective
• Conceptual issues: meaning of democracy and
governance and their characteristics
• Actors/institutions in governance and their roles
• Contribution of democracy and governance in
national development
• Consequences of bad or undemocratic governance
in Africa.
 Democracy and Governance: Historical
Perspective
• Democracy, Governance and Development
have been issues of debates in human
civilization.
• Democracy and Governance in human society
can be traced back during the pre-historic
period, in hunting and gathering societies.

• The Pre-historic period-the time associated

with the appearance of human beings on the
earth.
• It is a period of stone age, prior to the
invention of writing.

• This period lasted with the invention of

writing-the period when documentation
started.
• Democracy and governance are as old as
human civilization (Robert Dahl, 1989)
Democracy and Its Critics.

• Early societies, such as Hunting and gathering

societies had their own form of democracy
and governance.

• They had their mechanisms of making

decisions and implementing them.
• Hunting and gathering societies lived in small
communities.

• They allowed participation of all the members

without interference from outside, while
observing equality, love and brotherhood.
• A more sophisticated form of governance and
democracy was witnessed in ancient Greece,
Roman empire, Africa, Asia etc
• Ancient Greece and Roman empire had their own
form of democracy and governance during the 500
BC
• Democracy and governance in ancient Greece was
based on popular participation (direct democracy).
• Democracy in Greece was characterized by few
intermediate structures between People and
Government (representatives)
• In the city states of Greece, the form of democracy
practiced was direct democracy.

• All the members were allowed to participate in

decision making.

• However, women, foreigners and slaves were

excluded in the making of decision.

• Democracy in the Roman empire was based on

Representative democracy through the Republics.
• Democracy, in Europe emerged in the city states in
Northern Italy in the 12th Century.

• However, the turning point in the emergence and

development of modern democracy and
governance systems was in the 18thC in Europe and
North America (Rousseau, Locke etc.) after
revolutions.
• Were there any form of democracy and governance
in pre-historic and pre-colonial Africa, Asia, and
Latin America?

• The answer is YES, certain forms of democracy and

governance existed in the pre-colonial period in
Asia, Africa and Latin America.

• In Africa, there existed empires like Ghana, Soghai,

Egypt, Hehe, Nyamwezi with their own system of
democracy and governance

• In Asia, Chinese empire and other empires and

kingdoms
• However, with the coming of imperialism and
colonial domination in Africa, the democracy and
governance systems were destructed.
• This is because colonial powers did not want to see
any organized system in order to contain resistance.
• The colonial power established their own
governance system.

• The centralized system of governance for fulfilling

their wishes and interests
 Democracy and Governance in TWCs
• After independence many African countries
adopted socialism and a single party democracy
and others adopted dictatorial regimes.
• Various internal and external factors contributed to
the failure of socialist democracy and governance
systems in the 1970s/1980s
• In the 1980s/1990s the World Bank, IMF and other
donors pushed African countries to adopt
Multiparty democracy
• Multiparty democracy was pushed through SAPs as
a condition to receive aid, grants and loans from
IMF, World Bank and other donors.
 The Breton Woods and Donors Arguments on
Democracy and Governance in TWCs
Third world countries are Corrupt, bureaucratic
undemocratic and inefficient in promoting development.

They are characterized by bad governance

This is despite the fact that they have implemented

multiparty democracy through SAPs.

This is a reason for the crisis experienced by these

countries-backwardness and underdevelopment

What is democracy and governance? What constitute

democracy and good governance?
 Lecture 2: What is Democracy?
The meaning of democracy and what constitutes it
is very debatable.

There is a serious debate among scholars and

development scholars about the meaning and what
constitute democracy in terms of the characteristics.

Moreover, the debate lies in the contribution of

democracy in development.
• Democracy has been defined differently by
different scholars.

• Etymology of the term “democracy”

• Democracy is derived from a Greek word,

“demokratia” which is made up of two words
namely “demos” which means people and
“kratos” which means rule.

• Thus, “the rule by the people” or “the rule of the

people”.
• According to Sorensen (2008) “the rule of people”
appers to be straightforward but it raises a number
of complex issues which makes it ambiguous.

• Who is considered the people-what actually

constitute the people for the purpose of
democracy?.

• The ambiguity in the meaning of the term

democracy has resulted into two main types of
democracy.
• Direct democracy or Pure Democracy. This is a type
or form of governance in which all the citizens
exercise political power.
Example is ancient Greece

• Representative or indirect democracy. This is a type

of democracy in which supreme power is held by
the people and exercised indirectly or through
elected representatives.
Example are modern states
 Apart from the meaning that we get from the
etymology of the term democracy from its Greek
word, different scholars define democracy
differently .
 Democracy is a mechanism of choosing political
leaders.
 Democracy is a system of government in which
power is vested in the people and is exercised
through the people.
 Democracy is a set of ideas and principles about
freedom. It is the institutionalization of freedom
• The most popular one is provided by the former US
president, Abraham Lincoln
 According to Abraham Lincoln, Democracy is the
rule or government of the people, by the people
and for the people.
 Government of the people: they put the
government in power.
 Government by the people: the supreme power is
vested in the people and exercised directly or
indirectly by elected representatives through free
& fair election
 Government for the people: the government to
serve the wishes of the people
 Characteristics of Democracy
 Sovereignty of the people
 Rule of Law-No one should be above the law
 Respect and guarantee of Human Right
 Regular free, fair and credible elections
 Transparency and accountability
 Freedom of expression and public
opinion(speech)
 Free and autonomous mass media
 Majority Rule and Minority Rights
 Government based on consent of the people
 Religious Freedom and Tolerance
 Citizen Participation and Responsibilities
 Clear separation of power: The executive,
judiciary and the parliament
 Free medias- that is not controlled by the
state
 Free and autonomous Civil Society
 National Constitution-constitutional limit on
government
 What is Governance?
Government versus Governance
Government is different from governance
• While government-the body/group of people that
govern a day today affairs of the country E.g.
President, PM, Ministers, RCs, DCs etc.
• They conduct the policy and affairs of a state on
daily basis as well as controlling or influencing
affairs of a state.
• In this way government can be good or bad,
democratic or undemocratic.
 What is governance?
• Governance is the manner in which
power/authority is exercised in the management of
a country’s economy and resources for
development.
• Governance denotes the use of political
power/authority in the management of its
resources for social and economic development.
• Governance refers to the manner in which decisions
are made and implemented in the management of
country’s socio-economic and political affairs.
• Governance, like government can also be good/bad
or democratic/undemocratic
• Depending on how decisions are made and
implemented or authority is exercised; governance
can be qualified as “Good Governance” or “Bad
Governance”

Levels of Governance
• National Governance
• Local Governance
• Corporate Governance
• Global Governance
 What is good governance?
 Essentially, good governance has two sets of meanings:
(i) World Bank
(ii)Western governments
 World Bank (1989): Good governance is understood as
primarily administrative and managerial processes i.e.
“… the exercise of political power to administer and
manage public affairs”
 It refers to the structures, processes and organizational
traditions that are put in place to ensure that
administrative and managerial processes achieve
objectives in effective and efficiency.
• It is all about improving the performance of the
administrative and managerial processes for them
to achieve objectives effectively and efficiently.

NB:

It is all about the effectiveness and efficiency of the

administrative/managerial system
• The goal/objective is to improve development
outcomes/impact-improving delivery of
services
• Thus, good governance in this context (WB)
underscores the institutional, economic and
legal conditions for effectiveness and
efficiency of the administrative and
managerial system
• NB: Good governance in this context can even
take place in undemocratic states.
• All you need is effective and efficient
administrative and managerial systems with the
following features:
1. Not corrupt
2. Effective and efficient system
3. Responsible and responsive to public needs
4. Equitable in distribution of goods and services
5. Transparency in allocation of goods and services
6. Accountability
7. Strategic and visionary
 Western Governments Conception of
Governance
 Western governments conceptualize Good
Governance as more of a “political process”
 It is concerned with administrative improvements
but more emphasis is in ensuring competitive
democratic politics.

 As a political process it focuses on the exercise of

political authority in maintaining social order and
exercise of administrative power in the
management of public affairs.
• Western countries conceptualize good governance
in the context of liberalism (liberal democracy).
• This conception emphasizes administrative and
managerial improvement while ensuring
democratic politics/processes.
A governance system embedded with democratic
values
• It is all about a political system that is responsive to
the principles of democracy.
• It emphasizes institutional, legal and political
conditions for liberal democracy in the public
sector.
Good governance is an inevitable consequences of
democratization process.

It can be achieved in a free and democratic political

system because it cannot emerge without political
freedom and democracy.

In other words, in autocratic/undemocratic

systems, it is possible to have good government
(efficient and effective public system) but
impossible to have good governance.
 What Makes Governance Good or
Bad? (Principles/Elements of Good
Governance)
(1) Participation: it is a cornerstone of good
governance
 It requires that all the segments of the population
participate in decision making and implementation
This include men, women, disabled, youth, the
poor, the marginalized etc.
 It can be either directly or indirectly through
representatives.
 (2). Rule of Law
• Law is a supreme principle in public systems that
need to be observed by officials and citizens
• Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced
impartially, particularly the laws on human rights.
• Equality before the law
• it should regulate the behaviour of all citizens,
manage socio-economic and political affairs,
• It should also maintain order, protect social,
economic, political, cultural rights
 (3). Transparency
• It underscores that decisions and their
implementation to follow rules and regulations.
 It is all about the extent to which decision making and
reporting are open and free (the public is entitled to info).
• It also means that information is freely available
accessible to those who will be affected by the
decisions.
• Transparency is built on the free flow of
information.
• Meaning that enough infomation is provided in
easily understandable and forms and media.
 (4). Accountability
• Accountability is a cornerstone/key element
of good governance.
• It requires the public and private sector as
well as the CSOs to account for their actions
and inactions to their stakeholders.
• These institutions are required to
account/explain to the stakeholders who will
be affected by the policies/decisions made.
• Accountability requires transparency and the
rule of law
 (5). Responsiveness
 Good governance requires public
administrators/officials to respond to the
demands/needs of the citizens they serve
 They respond timely and in a responsible
manner
 They are not expected to make delays without
genuine reason and leave an issue unresolved
without response
 Public institutions and processes should serve
all the citizens.
 (6). Strategic and Visionary
• Good governance requires a public sector to
be strategic and visionary.

• It should have the ability for long term

planning for betterment of communities

i.e. To ensure that it is able to meet the needs

of the community on long term basis
 (7). Consensus Oriented
• There exist various actors in governance with
various points of views, opinions, interests.
• It is about mediation of different interests of people
to reach a broad consensus
i.e. what represent the best interest of the whole
community
• Thus, the political, social and economic priorities in
a society are based on broad consensus in society
The voice of different segments of the population
must be heard so that every segment has a stake
 (8). Equity and Inclusiveness
• Good governance requires a society that
guarantees all its people to feel that they have
a stake in public affairs.

• No segment of the population should feel

excluded in the decision making and
management of public affairs.

• All the segment of the pop. Should have

chances to improve or maintain their well
being.
 (9). Effectiveness and efficiency
 Effectiveness requires that governance
systems, institutions and processes produce
results that meet needs.
In other words, the administrative and
managerial system or political system should
achieve the goals and objectives
 Efficiency is about making the best of
resources.
It is all about value for money when attaining
objectives.
 (10). Fighting and Combating Corruption
• It is an important cornerstone of good
governance.

• The state should take a leading role in

ensuring that the public sector is free from
corruption.

• All stakeholders must work in teams to

alleviate corruption as it the obstacle for
community welfare.
 Something to Note
• These core characteristics which make Good
Governance represent the ideal system of
governance.
• Good governance is an IDEAL that is hard to achieve
in its totality.
• No country can claim to have attained all the
elements of good governance
• Developed countries are close to this ideal
• There is no one characteristic which can stand
alone. Thus all of them are interrelated and
interdependent.
• Without active participation among the
various actors in governance there would be
no responsiveness.

• Without transparency in decision making,

there would be no participation,
accountability and consensus orientation.

NB: These principles of good governance are to

be understood in the context of good
democratic governance.
• Democracy is mainly political; concerning with how
power is acquired.

• Governance (democratic governance) is political,

economic and social as it is about how
power/authority is exercised in economic, political
and social affairs.

• Thus governance is a multidimensional concepts:

covering political, economic and social dimensions.
 Lecture 3: Actors in Governance
• Various actors or institutions are involved in
governance. These include:
1.The State
 Central government
 Local government
2. Private sector: the business sector
3. Civil society: These include a range of non-state
actors such as CSOs, NGOs, FBOs, CBOs etc
4. Communities: the people at the local level
 Actors

CIVIL SOCIETY PRIVATE SECTOR

COMMUNITY

STATE
 The State
• Creating conducive environment for both Private
Sector and CSOs to operate-setting policies and the
legal framework
• Formulation of policies
• Developing infrastructures-transport, power, water
• Providing incentives in the form of subsidies
• Training labor force
• Providing subsidies e.g. to farmers etc.
• Providing incentives to producers to promote
development
• Ensuring security in the country
 The Private Sector
Private enterprises include:
Manufacturing, mining, construction,
Trade, fishing, agriculture, transportation
Banking and insurance, entertainment
Cooperatives and the informal sector.
 Creating jobs that provide enough income to
improve living standards
Providing services to the public, generate income
(tax)
Investing in key sectors
 Civil Society
Civil society is defined as all intermediary
organizations that lie between the primary units of
society (such as individuals, families, clans, ethnic
groups) and formal government agencies and
institutions.
An arena in which people associate voluntarily to
advance common interests.
A sphere of organizations, associations and
individuals located between the people and the
government
 They form a bridge between the people and the
 The common Denominator in the Definition of
Civil Society
1. Civil Society as associational life: it entails a space
for people to organize activities which are not
undertaken by the government or private (business)
sector.
• Associational life includes the formal and informal
associations or organizations.
2. Civil Society as the good society: represent the
kind of a society that people want to live because
Civil Society seeks to advance common interests.
• However, majority promote democracy, human
rights, equality etc.
3.Civil Society as arena for public deliberation: Civil
Society is an arena for public deliberation for
citizens to pursue common interest.
• It is a public space where public policy, government
action and matters of community and cultural
identity are developed and debated and consensus
reached.
• The agenda of Civil Society
1. Advocacy role (watchdog role and advocating for
various development issues
2. Service delivery: Providing a range of services
Civil Society includes (embraces) a diversity of:
1.Spaces (civil society dealing with political issues,
economic issues, environmental issues, religious
issues, human rights issues etc. Space may be
physical (community centers) or virtual such as
blogs.
2.Actors (professionals and non professionals) eg
UDASA, TAWLA (Tanzania Women Lawyers
Association “Umoja wa Madereva na Makondactor
Dar es salaam”, “Umoja wa Wabeba Mizigo Stend
Kuu Dar es Salaam”.
3. Institutional forms, (registered and unregistered
organizations, formal and informal organizations)
• Civil society includes organizations such as Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Community
Based Organizations (CBOs), Faith Based
Organizations (FBOs), trade unions, professional
associations (UDASA, TAWLA, TAMWA) and other
advocacy groups.
• Civil society is a necessary but not sufficient
condition for democracy and good governance.

• For democracy to prosper and good governance to

prevail, civil society institutions must be
autonomous of the state.
They comprise individuals and groups interacting
socially, politically and economically.
However, they do not include political parties
 They are regulated by formal and informal rules
and laws to achieve mutual goals.
 They make demands on the state
They hold the state officials accountable.
Watchdog Role: ensuring no abuse of power and
protection of Human Rights
• Express their interests, passions, demands,
preferences and ideas
• Exchange valuable information among themselves
• Achieve collective goals
• Make demands on the state e.g. health (Twaweza),
education (Hakielimu), land (Hakiardhi), better price
for the crops etc
• Improve the structure, system and functioning of
the state
• Hold state officials accountable.
 The Contribution of Democracy and
Governance in National Development
• They facilitate conflict resolution and peace
resolution (development can not take place in the
atmosphere of chaos and anarchy).
Conflicts and civil wars are a result of bad
governance
• Good governance leads to the responsive
government e.g. roads, water, health
• They promote civil and political and other types of
human rights which are critical for development to
occur.
• Good governance creates favorable
environment for private sector to thrive -
engine of economic growth-industrialization
(fighting corruption).

• Generally, democracy and good governance

are critical for attaining the various
development goals such as MDGs, SDGs,
NSGRP and Vision 2025)
• Participation in the decisions is fundamental human
rights: they are part of human development in their
own right.
• Democracies also contribute to political stability,
providing open space for political opposition and
handovers of power.
• Democratic governance empowers people to press
for policies that expand social and economic
opportunities and help communities shape their
priorities.
• Good governance is vital for inclusive and
sustainable development.
 What Happens in Africa
Elections are held periodically but rarely present
citizens with the freedom to choose who govern
them.

Elites tend to ascend to political power largely

through non-competitive or semi-competitive
elections (ridged election).
 What is Missing in Africa?
1. Lack of strong Institutions
 Lack of good policies or their implementation,
 Unfriendly legal framework that hinder the
flourishing of democratic governance
2. Weak Human Capital: Human resources lacking
knowledge and skills, lack of visionary & strategic
human resources
3. Lack of patriotic leaders with firm and
lasting commitment
 .They reproduce and perpetuate ethnicity,
corruption, and neoliberal interests,
Corruption.
4.Irresponsible and unpatriotic communities

5.Distorted socialization institutions

Families
Education
 Consequences of Bad/Undemocratic
Governance
• Development consequences of bad or
undemocratic governance are obvious in Africa.
• The obvious consequence is backwardness and
underdevelopment in general. These include
o Poor social services-water, health, education
o Unemployment
o Low per capita income, GDP/GNP
o Massive and widespread poverty
o Civil wars and conflict