SYJC

Psych Ch 1. Notes

SCIENCE
Science comes from the word – “Scientia” – which means “knowledge”
Definition of science – Science is a body of systematic knowledge that is gathered by carefully measuring
and observing events.

Objectivity – Science is objective. There is no scope for subjectivity in its findings. As such, it helps to
explore the facts as they are. Psychology also does the same thing. It studies behaviour from empirical
perspective. For this purpose, it uses scientific methods to gather information and test ideas. It acquires new
information through carefully controlled methods of observation. The use of standardised psychological
tests, observation, experimental method, and sophisticated instruments leave hardly any margin for personal
biases and human error.

RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

1) Experimental Method
Definition given by Snodgrass:- It is the formal process of making systematic observations of responses
(given to manipulated factors under controlled conditions)

Key Words/Terminologies in Experimental Method

I. Variables – any measurable attribute of object, thing or being OR any event or condition which can have
different values and can vary by the experimenter according to his convenience.
Types of Variables:-
(1) Independent Variable (IV) – a variable which is manipulated by the experimenter in order to study its
influence upon the behavioral aspects under study.
(2) Dependent Variable (DV) – A behaviour which the experimenter wants to understand, explain and
predict. It is the effect of the IV.
(3) Constant Variable (CV) – The variable which influences the Dependent Variable, but the researcher
may not be interested.
(4) Intervening/Confounding Variable (ICV) – A variable which can interfere with the results.
(5) Extraneous Variables (EV) – A variable which can interfere with the results, but is not considered by
the experimenter.
II. Hypothesis – A statement about cause-and-effect that can be tested by the experimenter.
III. Experimental Group – A group of subjects who are exposed to the IV or treatment, that the
experimenter wants to know.
IV. Control Group – A group that is similar to experimental group and is used for the purpose of
comparison.
V. Random Assignment – Assigning subjects without considering any factor for the experiment.
VI. Confederate – A person who is sent by the experimenter to instigate his experimental hypothesis.

Advantages:-
1) Possible to Manipulate and control variables – hence, cause-and-effect relationships can be established
in this manner.
2) Experiment can be repeated for verification.
3) It is the most objective method (meaning – one can conduct the experiment again and again, and the
results would not differ)
4) It is the most reliable and valid method.
Limitations:-
1) Artificiality – An artificial environment is to be created (in order to conduct an experiment), where all
the variables (except the IV) are strictly controlled. This situation is far different from the day-to-day
situations the person faces.
2) The Experimental Effect – The Experimenter’s characteristics like sex, age, communication style does
affect the subjects’ performance.
3) The Experimenter’s Bias – The experimenter’s biases, prejudices are likely to affect his observation,
recording of responses and interpretations of the results.
4) Demand Characteristics – These are the cues in the experimental situation, that the subject interprets as
indicating the purpose of the study, and what is expected of them. The subjects uses them to
hypothesise as to what the experiment is about, and what is expected of them. This indirectly affects
their performance in the experiment.
5) Subjects Deception – The experimental method is an unethical method. As in, some details of the
experiment are hidden, or are misinformed to the participants.
6) The Confounding Variables – In some experiments, while the experimenter manipulates the IV, some
other variables also get changed. This is known as “The Confounding Effect”. In Hawthorne’s study at
Chicago, the experimenter manipulated some of the environmental variables, to study their effect on the
workers’ performance. Workers’ opinions about the work condition were taken. The worker’s
interpreted this as a special treatment been given by the management to them, and hence, gave their
optimum performance even under adverse conditions. This came to be known as “The Hawthorne
Effect”.
7) Experiments are not always possible to conduct.
8) It is not possible to keep control on all the variables in the experiment.

2) Survey Method
Definition given by Smith:- “A survey is a device use to assist & predict the views, reactions or standings
of a large number of a people on a limited topic.”

Advantages:-
1) Surveys which are online, or survey which use questionaries can be completed more quickly and are
less expensive than interviews.
2) Public opinion on new issue can be obtained, almost as soon as the issue arises.

Limitations:-
1) Interviews are expensive.
2) Subjects may provide inaccurate information; or the subjects may give incorrect information due to
faulty memory, or a desire to please the interviewer.
3) Subjects may have a tendency to present themselves in a good light called “The Social Desirability
Response”, or they may even deliberately attempt to mislead the researcher.

3) Observation Method
Definition given by Lewin:- “Observation refers to systematic viewing, coupled with consideration of the
seen phenomenon.”

Types of Observations:-
1) Naturalistic Observation – The method in which the behavioural aspect to be studied is observed in its
natural setting, w/o any manipulation involved in it. This method is largely used in case of small
children and animals, who cannot be subjected to experimental manipulations.
 Limitations:
→ This method has scope for personal bias. The observer’s attitudes, biases, prejudices and
expectations are likely to interfere with the results.
→ The observer has to wait for the event to occur naturally. Hence it is time consuming and
expensive.
→ The researcher has no control over variables. Hence it is not easy to establish a “cause and
effect” relationship.

2) Controlled/Systematic Observation (Laboratory Setting) – In this method, the researcher decides in

advanced, what is to be observed, how it is to be observed and what is to be done to enhance the
accuracy of the observation. All this helps the researcher to overcome the limitations of the
“Naturalistic Observation”. This gives a specific direction to the observation which the researcher is
conducting.

3) Participant Observation – In this method, the observer participates as one of the members, without
disclosing his identity.

4) Non-Participant Observation – In this method, the observer doesn’t participate as one of the members.
It is a situation in which only the observer can observe them, and they cant see the observer

4) Case-Study Method
Definition given by Smith:- “A case study is an in-depth analysis of the behaviour of a single person,
whose thoughts, emotions, personality, attitudes and the life-history are subjected to careful, detailed
scrutiny”. It is the scientific biography of an individual. This method is used in clinical settings to trace the
development of behavioural problems. Hence this method is also known as “Clinical Method”. The present
and past history of the person is explored on the basis of the available information. Interviews of the person
has to be taken to find the root cause of the problem. This method is generally used to treat patients. Medical
examination is also a part of this method, to check the medical history of the person.

Advantages:-
1) It allows a lot of detail to be collected that would not normally be easily obtained, by other research
designs. The data obtained is normally rich and of greater depth, that cannot be found through other
methods.
2) Case studies tend to be conducted on rare cases, where large samples of similar participants are not
available. Eg. case of brain damage – it is extremely rare to find people with the exact same part of
brain affected.
3) It can help experimenters to adapt ideas, and produce novel hypotheses, which can be used for later
testing

Limitations:-
1) The data collected cannot be necessarily generalized to the wider population. This leads to data being
collected over longitudinal (for one person) case studies, not always being relevant or particularly
useful.
2) Some case studies are not scientific.
3) Generally, case studies are conducted on one person, by one experimenter/psychologist – which can
lead to interference of biases in data collection, which can influence the results.
4) It is also difficult to draw relationship between cause and effect.
5) Co-relation Studies
Definition given by Smith:- “It is a statistical tool, used to understand the relation between variables.”

Advantages:-
1. It can be conducted on variables, that can be measured and not manipulated; when an experimental
method would be impractical or unethical to conduct.
2. A co-relation can demonstrate the presence or absence of a relationship between two factors, so it is
good for indicating areas where experimental research could take place and show further results. Eg.
brain injury patients where experiments cannot be conducted.

Limitations:-
1. Extraneous Variables might interfere with the results.
2. This method can be a time-consuming process.
3. It will not determine which variables have the most influence.

WHY PSYCHOLOGY CAN NOT BE A SCIENCE?

→ Psychology is still in the “formulation of ideas, concepts, beliefs, etc. Phase”. Hence it is a “Pre-
Paradigmatic” Science
→ It is an upcoming field. Therefore, it is not a pure science.
→ Psychology cannot depict objectivity and validity.
→ They rely on ‘soft’ research methods.
→ Most research methods are very subjective.
→ It is not a fool-proof system.
→ It is not easy to predict human behaviour. Whereas in pure sciences, we can predict what can be result.
Eg. Carbon and Oxygen will always combine and form Carbon Dioxide. It is not the same to predict
Human behaviour.
→ It is not easy to replicate the same behaviour in the same environment/situation.
→ Psychology dehumaises humans. Psychology makes humans as object.
→ It is an unethical science, in some respects.

IMPORTANCE OF RATIONALITY
The main goal of psychology is to make people happy and for them to live a happy life

Values of a Rationally Healthy Person:-

1.Understanding self-interest and social interest
2.Self-Direction
3.Tolerance
4.Flexibility
5.Self-acceptance and Self-responsibility.