Chap6Motivation

MOTIVATION

• Motivating and rewarding employees – one of

most challenging activities for managers
• What is motivation?
• The willingness to exert high levels of effort to
reach organizational goals, conditioned by the
effort’s ability to satisfy individual needs
• Motivation is the result of the interaction
between person and situation

3 main elements
1) Effort
2) Organizational Goals
3) Needs satisfying
• Need refers to some internal state that makes
certain outcome attractive
• Unsatisfied need creates tension stimulate
drives within individual

Unsatisfied Tension Drives Search Satisfied Reduction

Need Behavior need of tension

The Motivation Process

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EARLY MOTIVATION THEORIES

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Within every person is a hierarchy of 5 needs.
Human beings are motivated to fulfill lower-
order needs before moving to higher-order
needs

Self
actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological

Hierarchy of Needs - Maslow

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Needs

Physiological : Food, drink, shelter, sexual

satisfaction, etc.

Safety needs : security and protection from

physical and emotional harm,
and assurance that physical
needs will continue to be met
(job security, safety of family
members)

Social needs : Affection, belonginess,

acceptance and friendship

Esteem needs : Self-respect, autonomy,

achievement, (internal factors)
status, recognition, attention
(external factors)

Self-actualization : growth, achieving one’s

potential, self-fulfillment, the
drive to become what one is
capable of becoming

To motivate others and ourselves:

look at what level the person is and

focus on fulfilling the needs at that level before
going for higher levels

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Theory X and Theory Y

• Douglas McGregor
• Two sets of assumptions on human nature
• Theory X – negative view which assume that
workers have little ambition, dislike work, want
to avoid responsibility and need close control to
work effectively
• Theory Y – positive view – workers can
exercise self-direction, accept and seek out
responsibility, consider work as natural activity
• McGregor believed Theory Y capture true
nature of workers and should guide
management practices
• Proposed participation in decision-making,
responsible and challenging jobs, good group
relations

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Herzberg Motivation–Hygiene Theory

• Proposes that intrinsic factors (inside) related

to job satisfaction and motivation
• Whereas, extrinsic factors associated with job
dissatisfaction
• Herzberg investigate
• “What do people want from their jobs?”

Motivators Hygience Factors’

• Achievement • Supervision
• Recognition • Company policy
• Work itself • Relationship with
• Responsibility Supervisor
• Advancement • Working conditions
• Growth • Salary
• Personal Life
• Security

Extremely Neutral Extremely

Satisfied Dissatisfied

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• Eliminate factors create job dissatisfaction for

workplace harmony, not necessarily motivation
– hygiene

• To motivate people on their job

Herzberg suggests emphasize motivators,
i.e. factors that increase job satisfaction.

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Three-needs theory

• Proposed by David McClelland

• 3 needs which are major motives at work

1) Need for Achievement (nAch)

2) Need for Power (nPow)
3) Need for Affiliation (nAff)

nAch • Drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set

of stds. And strive to succeed

High achievers – want to do better, like

challenges, not risk
takers.

nPow • Desire to make others behave and

influence their actions, to be in control of
things

nAff
• Desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships

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DESIGNING MOTIVATING JOBS

• Managers interested in ‘how’ to

motivate individuals on the job
• Need to look at ways to design
motivating jobs
• Job design – the way tasks are
combined to form a complete job
• Jobs not evolve by chance
• Managers should deliberately design
jobs – reflect demands changing
environment, as well as org
technology, skills, abilities, preferences
of employees
• Ways in which we can design
motivating jobs – enlargement,
enrichment, etc

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Job Enlargement

• Historically-make jobs smaller & specialized

• Challenge how to motivate
• Horizontal expansion of a job; increase job
scope (mail sorter + deliver)
• Improve diversity of things to do: e.g.
cleaning, checking m/c, oiling hand tools, etc.

Job Enrichment
• Vertical expansion
of a job – add planning and evaluating
responsibilities
• Increase job depth
• Empowered assume some tasks previously
by supervisor or managers, writing report,
follow up progress, etc.

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Job Characteristics Model (JCM)

• JCM is a framework for analyzing and

designing jobs; identifies 5 job
characteristics, their interrelationships impact
on employee productivity motivation and
satisfaction.
• According to JCM, any job can be described
in terms of 5 core dimensions.
1. Skill variety degree to which a job requires a
variety of activities so that an
employee can use a number of
different skills and talents.
2. Task identity degree to which job requires
completion of a whole or
identifiable piece of work.
3. Task Degree to which job has
significance substantial impact on lives or
work of others
4. Autonomy Degree to which job provides
freedom, independence, and
discretion in scheduling work
and determining procedures to
be used in carrying it out
5. Feedback Degree of getting direct & clear
info. about effectiveness of
performance.

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JCM - intrinsic (internal) rewards are

obtained when an employee learns
(knowledge of results on feedback)
that she/he personally (autonomy)
performed well on a task that
she/he cares (meaningful through
sill variety, task identity and/or task
significance).

Job Characteristics Model (Hackman, J.R. and Suttle, J.L., 1977)

CORE JOB CRITICAL PERSONAL &

DIMENSIONS PSYCHOLOGICAL WORK
STATES OUTCOMES
Skill variety Experienced High internal
Task ident. • Meaningfulness work
Task Sig. of work motivation
Autonomy • Responsibility High-quality
Feedback for outcomes of work
the work performance
• Knowledge of High
actual results of satisfaction
activities with the
work
Low
absenteeism
& turnover

Strength of Employee
Growth needs

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Model shows links between job dimensions

and outcomes are moderated by strength of
individual’s growth needs.
• JCM provides specific guidance for job
design which can lead to improvement in
core job dimensions.
1. Combine tasks – put existing
fragmented tasks together to form a
new, larger module of work (job
enlargement) skill variety, Task Identity
will improve (increase).
2. Create natural work units – design tasks
that form meaningful whole, will increase
“employee ownership”
3. Establish client relationship – user or
internal org. unit, ext. customer increase
skill variety, autonomy, feedback.
4. Expand jobs vertically – responsibilities
and control given autonomy.
5. Open feedback channels – receive
direct/immediate feedback – know
performance.

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Equity Theory (J. Stacey Adams)

• Theory proposes that employees compares

his or her job’s inputs-outcomes ration with
that of other relevant and corrects the
inequity (ketidaksamaan)
• New graduate in same company
A gets RM 2,800
If B gets RM 2,400 (feel under rewarded)
• Inequity issue since it is unfair practice
• Equity relates to being fair and equal
treatment with other ‘referents’
• Injustice influence degree of effort that
employees exert in their work

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POSSIBLE BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE

• Employees might
(1) distort own or others input/or outcomes
(2) behave to induce others to change their
inputs or outcomes
(3) behave to change own puts or outcomes
(4) choose different comparison person
(5) quit their jobs

• motivation influence not only by absolute

reward but relative rewards
• act to correct situation by lowering
productivity, improving or reducing quality of
output, increased absenteeism, or voluntary
resignation
• Who/what do employee compare to?
• Called referent – 3 categories
1) “other” (people, sources)
2) system
3) self

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• “other” - other people similar jobs in same

organization, or different
companies. Can be friends,
neighbours, based on what they
hear, read in newspapers, trade
magazines.
• System - org. pay policies and procedures
administration of system
precedents regarding pay.
• Self - input-outcome ratio unique to the
individual reflects past
experience, contacts.

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Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

• ‘an individual tends to act in a certain way

based on the expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual’.
• 3 linkages
effort – performance linkage
A (expectancy) exert given effort will lead
to performance.

B Performance-reward linkage
(instrumentality)
- degree to which one believes that
performing at one level is
instrumental in leading to attaining
outcome.
C Attractiveness of reward (valence)
- importance placed on potential
reward valence considers goals and
needs of individual.

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Indv. Indv. Organiz. Indv.

A B C
effort Performent rewards Goals

Simplified Expectancy Model

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Expectancy Theory

Boils down to :
How hard do I have to work to achieve a certain
level of performance?

Can I actually achieve that level?

What reward will I get when performing at that

level?

How attractive is the reward to me?

Does it help me achieve my goals?

Whether you’re motivated to put effort at any

given time depends on your particular goals and
your perception of whether or not a certain level
of performance is needed to attain those goals.

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Summary of expectancy theory

• emphasizes rewards (payoffs) - have to believe

that rewards offered align with individual wants
• Manager must understand why employees
view certain outcomes as attractive or
unattractive, must rewards indvs. with those
things they value
• Expectancy emphasize expected behaviors –
Do employees know what expected of them
and how they’ll be evaluated
• Theory concerned with perceptions.
Individual’s own perception of performance,
reward and goal satisfaction outcomes, not
real outcome, will determine motivation
(level effort)

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Contemporary Issues in Motivation

• Continue to be one of most popular area

of management research
• Current studies influenced by several
significant issues at workplace

1) Motivating a diverse workforce

o Diverse – male, female young, old,
different races different countries.
o Need to think in terms of ‘flexibility’
o Flexible work schedule for women
o Compressed work week in US (4 days 40)
flexible work hours (align to indv. demand)
o Job sharing – (2 or more split 40 hr. job).
o Managers must also be aware of cultural
differences - theories may need to be
modified for different cultures.
o Capitalism self interest, individualism
o collectivist loyal to country/society
team based job design, group goals.
o What about Muslim culture???

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2) Pay for performance Programs

• Why work? pay us of money, allows us
satisfy needs and wants
• pay on basis of performance – e.g.
piece-rate pay plans ,wage incentive
plans, profit sharing, bonus
• performance measures – individual,
team, work group productivity, overall
organization’s profit.
• ExxonMobil – eligible for team-
performance-based incentives of as
much as 30% base pay

3) Motivating Minimum – Wage Employees

• If organization cannot afford to pay more
(i.e. low salary) How to motivate?
• People motivated only by money.
• TRUE ? FALSE?
• Money is important motivator, NOT only
‘reward’ people seek
• Mgrs. look for other rewards

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Employee Recognition Scheme (empl. of the

month, performance award ceremony.
Praise (pat on the backs) but must be sincere
and done for right reasons.
• Job design – empower front-line give
employees more authority to address
• Listen to their views.

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THEORY TO PRACTICE: SUGGESTIONS

FOR MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES

You are the Human Resource Manager of company

AZ. What recommendations can you give to
improve morale (motivation) which is at the lowest
due to the current economic situation? (use the
theories learned).

Some suggestions to consider:

1) Recognize individual differences -
all theory recognizes this, different need
behaviors.
2) Match People to Jobs
high achievers autonomous unit
high affiliation social charity
3) Use Goals - hard specific goals with feedback
4) Ensure That Goals Perceived As Attainable.

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5) Individualize Rewards

individualize those rewards which managers

have control eg. pay promotion, autonomy.

6) Link rewards to Performance

make rewards contingent (depend) on

performance eg. Pay rise, promotions from
specific goals achieved.

7) Check system for equity

employees should perceive rewards or

outcomes equal to inputs given.

experience, ability, effort and other inputs must

explain differences in pay, bonus, increment,
responsibility, and other outputs.

8) Don’t Ignore Money

if money removed as an incentive people aren’t

going to show up for work.

Money major reason people work

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