Levi in Peter Burke - New Perspectives On Historical Writing
Levi in Peter Burke - New Perspectives On Historical Writing
Levi in Peter Burke - New Perspectives On Historical Writing
/3
1HZ3HUVSHFWLYHV RQ
+LVWRULFDO:ULWLQJ 2 ,0 0 1
6HFRQG(GLWLRQ
1HZSHUVSHFWLYHVRQKLVWRULFDOZULWLQJHGLWHGE\3HWHU%XUNH²QGHG
SFP
,QFOXGHVELEOLRJUDSKLFDOUHIHUHQFHVDQGLQGH[
,6%1DONSDSHU²,6%1 SEN DONSDSHU
+LVWRULRJUDSK\ , %XUNH 3HWHU
$OOULJKWVUHVHUYHG
7KLVERRNLVSULQWHGRQDFLGIUHHSDSHU
,WLVWKHSROLF\R I7KH3HQQV\OYDQLD6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVWRXVHDFLGIUHHSDSHUIRUWKHILUVW
SULQWLQJRIDOOFORWKERXQGERRNV 3XEOLFDWLRQVRQXQFRDWHGVWRFNVDWLVI\WKHPLQLPXP
UHTXLUHPHQWVRI$PHULFDQ1DWLRQDO6WDQGDUGIRU,QIRUPDWLRQ 6FLHQFHV²3HUPDQHQFHRI
3DSHUIRU3ULQWHG/LEUDU\0DWHULDOV $16,=
&RQWHQWV
/LVWRI&RQWULEXWRUV
3UHIDFH
2YHUWXUH7KH1HZ+LVWRU\,WV3DVWDQGLWV)XWXUH
Peter Burke
+LVWRU\IURP%HORZ
Jim Sharpe
:RPHQ¶V+LVWRU\
Joan W. Scott
4 2YHUVHDV+LVWRU\
Henk Wesseling
2Q0LFURKLVWRU\
Giovanni Levi
2UDO+LVWRU\
Gwyn Prins
1 +LVWRU\RI5HDGLQJ
Robert Darnton
9LVXDO+LVWRU\
Ivan Gaskell
9 +LVWRU\ RI3ROLWLFDO7KRXJKW
Richard Tuck
YL Contents
+LVWRU\RIWKH%RG\5HFRQVLGHUHG
Roy Porter
(QYLURQPHQWDO+LVWRU\
Richard H. Grove
+LVWRU\RI(YHQWVDQGWKH5HYLYDORI1DUUDWLYH
Peter Burke
,QGH[
/LVW RI&RQWULEXWRUV
Robert DarntonLV3URIHVVRURI+LVWRU\DW3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\
Ivan GaskellLV0DUJDUHW6:LQWKURS&XUDWRU'HSDUWPHQWRI3DLQWLQJV
6FXOSWXUHDQG 'HFRUDWLYH$UWV )RJJ$UW 0XVHXP +DUYDUG 8QLYHUVLW\
$UW0XVHXPV
Richard H. GroveLV6HQLRU5HVHDUFK)HOORZLQWKH,QVWLWXWHRI$GYDQFHG
6WXGLHV$XVWUDOLDQ1DWLRQDO8QLYHUVLW\&DQEHUUD
Giovanni LeviLV3URIHVVRURI+LVWRU\8QLYHUVLW\RI9HQLFH
Roy Porter LV 3URIHVVRU RI WKH 6RFLDO +LVWRU\ RI 0HGLFLQH :HOOFRPH
7UXVW&HQWUHIRUWKH+LVWRU\RI0HGLFLQH8QLYHUVLW\&ROOHJH/RQGRQ
Gwyn PrinsLV3ULQFLSDO5HVHDUFK)HOORZRIWKH(XURSHDQ,QVWLWXWHRIWKH
/RQGRQ 6FKRRO RI (FRQRPLFV 9LVLWLQJ 6HQLRU )HOORZ RI WKH 'HIHQFH
(YDOXDWLRQ DQG 5HVHDUFK $JHQF\ RIWKH 8. 0LQLVWU\ RI'HIHQFH DQG
6HQLRU)HOORZLQWKH2IILFHRIWKH6SHFLDO$GYLVHURQ&HQWUDODQG(DVWHUQ
(XURSHDQ$IIDLUVWRWKH6HFUHWDU\*HQHUDORI1$72
Joan W. ScottLV3URIHVVRURI6RFLDO6FLHQFHDWWKH,QVWLWXWHIRU$GYDQFHG
6WXG\3ULQFHWRQ
YLLL List o f Contributors
Jim SharpeLV3URIHVVRURI+LVWRU\DWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI<RUN
Richard TuckLV3URIHVVRURI*RYHUQPHQWDW+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\
Professor Henk Wesseling LV 5HFWRU RI WKH 1HWKHUODQGV ,QVWLWXWH IRU
$GYDQFHG 6WXG\ 1,$6 LQ:DVVHQDDU DQG3URIHVVRU RI&RQWHPSRUDU\
+LVWRU\DW/HLGHQ8QLYHUVLW\
3UHIDFH
Peter Burke
,QWKHODVWJHQHUDWLRQRUVRWKHXQLYHUVHRIKLVWRULDQVKDVEHHQH[SDQGLQJ
DWDGL]]\LQJUDWH1DWLRQDOKLVWRU\ZKLFKZDVGRPLQDQWLQWKHQLQHWHHQWK
FHQWXU\ QRZKDV WR FRPSHWH IRU DWWHQWLRQZLWK ZRUOG KLVWRU\ DQG ZLWK
ORFDO KLVWRU\ RQFH OHIW WR DQWLTXDULDQV DQG DPDWHXUV 7KHUH DUH PDQ\
QHZ ILHOGV RIWHQ VXSSRUWHG E\ VSHFLDOL]HGMRXUQDOV 6RFLDO KLVWRU\ IRU
H[DPSOHEHFDPHLQGHSHQGHQWRIHFRQRPLFKLVWRU\RQO\WRIUDJPHQWOLNH
VRPH QHZQDWLRQ LQWR µKLVWRULFDO GHPRJUDSK\¶ µODERXU KLVWRU\¶ µXUEDQ
KLVWRU\¶ µUXUDOKLVWRU\¶DQGVRRQ
$JDLQ HFRQRPLFKLVWRU\KDV VSOLWLQWR µROG¶ DQG µQHZ¶ 7KH µQHZHFR
QRPLFKLVWRU\¶RIWKHVDQGVQRZPLGGOHDJHGLIQRWROGLVWRR
ZHOONQRZQWRQHHGGLVFXVVLRQKHUH 7KHUHKDVDOVREHHQ DVKLIWDPRQJ
HFRQRPLF KLVWRULDQV IURP D FRQFHUQ ZLWK SURGXFWLRQ WR D FRQFHUQ ZLWK
FRQVXPSWLRQ D VKLIW ZKLFK PDNHV LW LQFUHDVLQJO\ GLIILFXOW WR VHSDUDWH
HFRQRPLF IURP VRFLDO DQG FXOWXUDO KLVWRU\ 7KH KLVWRU\ RIPDQDJHPHQW
LVDQHZLQWHUHVWEXWRQHZKLFKEOXUVLILWGRHVQRWGLVVROYHWKHERXQGDULHV
EHWZHHQHFRQRPLFDQGDGPLQLVWUDWLYHKLVWRU\7RGD\HFRQRPLFKLVWRU\LV
WKUHDWHQHG E\ D WDNHRYHUELG IURPD \RXWKIXO EXW DPELWLRXV HQWHUSULVH
WKHKLVWRU\RIWKHHQYLURQPHQWRUµHFRKLVWRU\¶
3ROLWLFDOKLVWRU\ WRR LVGLYLGHG QRW RQO\LQWRWKHVRFDOOHG µKLJK¶ DQG
µORZ¶ VFKRROV EXW DOVR EHWZHHQ KLVWRULDQV FRQFHUQHG ZLWK FHQWUHV RI
JRYHUQPHQWDQGWKRVHLQWHUHVWHGLQSROLWLFVDWWKHJUDVVURRWV 7KHWHUULW
RU\ RIWKHSROLWLFDOKDVH[SDQGHG LQWKHVHQVHWKDWKLVWRULDQV IROORZLQJ
WKHRULVWVVXFKDV0LFKHO)RXFDXOWDUHLQFUHDVLQJO\LQFOLQHGWRGLVFXVVWKH
VWUXJJOH IRU SRZHU DW WKH OHYHO RIWKH IDFWRU\ WKH VFKRRO RU HYHQ WKH
IDPLO\7KHSULFHRIVXFKH[SDQVLRQKRZHYHULVDNLQGRILGHQWLW\FULVLV
,ISROLWLFVLVHYHU\ZKHUHLVWKHUHDQ\QHHGIRUSROLWLFDOKLVWRU\"$VLPLODU
Peter Burke
:KDWLVWKH1HZ+LVWRU\"
E\WKH$PHULFDQKLVWRULDQRIVFLHQFH7KRPDV.XKQ,WZLOOEHFRQYHQLHQW
WRGHVFULEHWKLVWUDGLWLRQDOSDUDGLJPDVµ5DQNHDQKLVWRU\¶DIWHUWKHJUHDW
*HUPDQKLVWRULDQ/HRSROGYRQ5DQNHDOWKRXJKKHZDVOHVV
FRQILQHGE\LWWKDQKLVIROORZHUVZHUHMXVWDV0DU[ZDVQRW D0DU[LVW
5DQNH ZDV QRW D 5DQNHDQ :H PLJKW DOVR FDOO WKLV SDUDGLJP WKH
µFRPPRQVHQVH¶ YLHZ RIKLVWRU\ QRW WR SUDLVH LW EXW WR PDNH WKH SRLQW
WKDW LW KDV RIWHQ WRR RIWHQ EHHQ DVVXPHG WR EH the ZD\ RIGRLQJ
KLVWRU\ UDWKHU WKDQ EHLQJ SHUFHLYHG DV RQH DPRQJ YDULRXV SRVVLEOH
DSSURDFKHVWRWKHSDVW)RUWKHVDNHRIVLPSOLFLW\DQGFODULW\WKHFRQWUDVW
EHWZHHQROGDQGQHZKLVWRU\PLJKWEHVXPPHGXSLQVHYHQSRLQWV
XQGHUPLQHVWKHWUDGLWLRQDOGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQZKDWLVµFHQWUDO¶LQKLVWRU\
DQGZKDWLVµSHULSKHUDO¶
,QWKHWKLUGSODFHWUDGLWLRQDOKLVWRU\RIIHUVDYLHZIURPDERYHLQWKH
VHQVH WKDW LW KDV DOZD\V FRQFHQWUDWHG RQ WKH JUHDW GHHGV RIJUHDW PHQ
VWDWHVPHQJHQHUDOVRURFFDVLRQDOO\FKXUFKPHQ7KHUHVWRIKXPDQLW\ZDV
DOORFDWHGDPLQRUUROHLQWKHGUDPDRIKLVWRU\7KHH[LVWHQFHRIWKLVUXOHLV
UHYHDOHGE\UHDFWLRQVWRLWVWUDQVJUHVVLRQ :KHQWKHJUHDW5XVVLDQZULWHU
$OH[DQGHU3XVKNLQZDVZRUNLQJRQDQDFFRXQWRIDSHDVDQWUHYROWDQGLWV
OHDGHU3XJDFKHY 7VDU1LFKRODV¶VFRPPHQWZDVWKDWµVXFKDPDQKDVQR
KLVWRU\¶ ,Q WKH V ZKHQ D %ULWLVK KLVWRULDQ ZURWH D WKHVLV DERXW D
SRSXODUPRYHPHQWLQWKH)UHQFK5HYROXWLRQ RQHRIKLVH[DPLQHUVDVNHG
KLP µ:K\GR\RXERWKHUZLWKWKHVHEDQGLWV"¶
2QWKHRWKHUKDQGDV-LP6KDUSHVKRZVLQFKDSWHUDQXPEHURIWKH
QHZKLVWRULDQV DUHFRQFHUQHGZLWK µKLVWRU\IURPEHORZ¶ LQ RWKHUZRUGV
ZLWK WKH YLHZV RI RUGLQDU\ SHRSOH DQG ZLWK WKHLU H[SHULHQFH RI VRFLDO
FKDQJH 7KH KLVWRU\ RI SRSXODU FXOWXUH KDV UHFHLYHG D JUHDW GHDO RI
DWWHQWLRQ +LVWRULDQV RIWKH&KXUFKDUHEHJLQQLQJWRH[DPLQHLWVKLVWRU\
IURP EHORZ DV ZHOO DV IURP DERYH ,QWHOOHFWXDO KLVWRULDQV WRR KDYH
VKLIWHGWKHLUDWWHQWLRQIURPJUHDWERRNVRUJUHDWLGHDVWKHLUHTXLYDOHQWRI
JUHDW PHQ WR WKH KLVWRU\ RIFROOHFWLYH PHQWDOLWLHV RU WKH KLVWRU\ RIGLV
FRXUVHVRUµODQJXDJHV¶WKHODQJXDJHRIVFKRODVWLFLVPIRUH[DPSOHRUWKH
ODQJXDJHRIWKHFRPPRQODZVHHFKDSWHU
,Q WKH IRXUWK SODFH DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH WUDGLWLRQDO SDUDGLJP KLVWRU\
VKRXOG EH EDVHG RQ µWKH GRFXPHQWV¶ 2QH RI5DQNH¶V JUHDWHVW DFKLHYH
PHQWVZDVKLVH[SRVXUHRIWKHOLPLWDWLRQVRIQDUUDWLYHVRXUFHV OHWXVFDOO
WKHP µFKURQLFOHV¶ DQGKLVVWUHVV RQ WKHQHHGWREDVHZULWWHQKLVWRU\ RQ
RIILFLDOUHFRUGVHPDQDWLQJIURPJRYHUQPHQWVDQGSUHVHUYHGLQDUFKLYHV
The New History: Its Past and its Future
7KHSULFHRIWKLVDFKLHYHPHQWZDVWKHQHJOHFWRIRWKHUNLQGVRIHYLGHQFH
7KHSHULRGEHIRUHWKHLQYHQWLRQRIZULWLQJZDVGLVPLVVHGDVµSUHKLVWRU\¶
+RZHYHUWKHµKLVWRU\IURPEHORZ¶PRYHPHQWKDVLQLWVWXUQH[SRVHGWKH
OLPLWDWLRQVRIWKLVNLQGRIGRFXPHQW2IILFLDOUHFRUGVJHQHUDOO\H[SUHVVWKH
RIILFLDOSRLQWRIYLHZ7RUHFRQVWUXFWWKHDWWLWXGHVRIKHUHWLFVDQGUHEHOV
VXFKUHFRUGVQHHGWREHVXSSOHPHQWHGE\RWKHUNLQGVRIVRXUFH
,QDQ\FDVHLIKLVWRULDQVDUHFRQFHUQHGZLWKDJUHDWHUYDULHW\RIKXPDQ
DFWLYLWLHVWKDQWKHLUSUHGHFHVVRUV WKH\PXVWH[DPLQHDJUHDWHUYDULHW\RI
HYLGHQFH6RPHRIWKLVHYLGHQFHLVRUDOVRPHRILWYLVXDO*Z\Q3ULQVDQG
,YDQ*DVNHOOLQFKDSWHUVDQG7KHUHLVDOVRVWDWLVWLFDOHYLGHQFHWUDGH
ILJXUHV SRSXODWLRQ ILJXUHV YRWLQJ ILJXUHV DQG VR RQ 7KH KH\GD\ RI
TXDQWLWDWLYH KLVWRU\ ZDV SUREDEO\ WKH V DQG V ZKHQ VRPH
HQWKXVLDVWV FODLPHG WKDW RQO\ TXDQWLWDWLYHPHWKRGV ZHUH UHOLDEOH 7KHUH
KDV EHHQ DUHDFWLRQDJDLQVW VXFKFODLPV DQGWR VRPHH[WHQW DJDLQVW WKH
PHWKRGV DV ZHOO EXW LQWHUHVW LQ D PRUH PRGHVW TXDQWLWDWLYH KLVWRU\
FRQWLQXHV WR JURZ ,Q %ULWDLQ IRUH[DPSOH DQ $VVRFLDWLRQ IRU +LVWRU\
DQG&RPSXWLQJZDVIRXQGHGLQ
$FFRUGLQJWRWKHWUDGLWLRQDOSDUDGLJPPHPRUDEO\DUWLFXODWHGE\WKH
SKLORVRSKHUKLVWRULDQ5*&ROOLQJZRRGµ:KHQDQKLVWRULDQDVNV³:K\
GLG%UXWXVVWDE&DHVDU"´KHPHDQV³:KDWGLG%UXWXVWKLQNZKLFKPDGH
KLP GHFLGHWR VWDE&DHVDU"´ ¶7KLVPRGHORIKLVWRULFDOH[SODQDWLRQKDV
EHHQFULWLFL]HGE\PRUHUHFHQWKLVWRULDQVRQDQXPEHURIJURXQGVSULQFL
SDOO\EHFDXVH LW IDLOV WR WDNH DFFRXQW RIWKH YDULHW\ RIKLVWRULDQV¶ TXHV
WLRQV RIWHQ FRQFHUQHG ZLWK FROOHFWLYH PRYHPHQWV DV ZHOO DV LQGLYLGXDO
DFWLRQVZLWKWUHQGVDVZHOODVHYHQWV
:K\IRUH[DPSOHGLGSULFHVULVHLQVL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\6SDLQ"(FRQRPLF
KLVWRULDQVGRQRWDJUHHLQWKHLUDQVZHUWRWKLVTXHVWLRQEXWWKHLUYDULRXV
UHVSRQVHV LQWHUPVRIVLOYHULPSRUWV SRSXODWLRQJURZWK DQGVRRQ DUH
YHU\IDUIURP&ROOLQJZRRG¶VPRGHO,Q)HUQDQG%UDXGHO¶VIDPRXVVWXG\
RIWKHVL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\0HGLWHUUDQHDQ ILUVWSXEOLVKHGLQ RQO\WKH
WKLUG DQG ODVW SDUW GHYRWHG WR WKH KLVWRU\ RI HYHQWV DVNV TXHVWLRQV
UHPRWHO\ OLNH &ROOLQJZRRG¶V DQG HYHQ KHUH WKH DXWKRU RIIHUV D YHU\
GLIIHUHQWNLQGRIDQVZHU HPSKDVL]LQJWKHFRQVWUDLQWVRQKLVSURWDJRQLVW
.LQJ3KLOLS,,DQGWKHNLQJ¶VODFNRILQIOXHQFHRQWKHKLVWRU\RIKLVWLPH
RQZDUGV LWV HGLWRU /RUG $FWRQ XUJHG WKHP WKDW µRXU :DWHUORR
PXVWEHRQHWKDWVDWLVILHV)UHQFKDQG(QJOLVK*HUPDQVDQG'XWFKDOLNH¶
DQGWKDWUHDGHUVVKRXOGEHXQDEOHWRWHOOZKHUHRQHFRQWULEXWRUODLGGRZQ
KLVSHQDQGDQRWKHUWRRNLWXS
7RGD\WKLVLGHDOLVJHQHUDOO\FRQVLGHUHGWREHXQUHDOLVWLF+RZHYHUKDUG
ZHVWUXJJOHWRDYRLGWKHSUHMXGLFHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKFRORXUFUHHGFODVVRU
JHQGHUZHFDQQRWDYRLGORRNLQJDWWKHSDVWIURPDSDUWLFXODUSRLQWRIYLHZ
&XOWXUDO UHODWLYLVP DSSOLHVWRKLVWRULFDOZULWLQJLWVHOI 2XUPLQGVGR QRW
UHIOHFWUHDOLW\GLUHFWO\ZHSHUFHLYHWKHZRUOGRQO\WKURXJKDJULGRIFRQ
YHQWLRQVVFKHPDWDDQGVWHUHRW\SHV*LYHQWKLVVLWXDWLRQRXUXQGHUVWDQG
LQJRIFRQIOLFWVLVHQKDQFHGE\DSUHVHQWDWLRQRIRSSRVLWHYLHZSRLQWVUDWKHU
WKDQE\DQDWWHPSWOLNH$FWRQ¶VWRDUWLFXODWHDFRQVHQVXV:HKDYHPRYHG
IURPWKHLGHDORIWKH9RLFHRI+LVWRU\WRWKDWR IµKHWHURJORVVLD¶GHILQHGDV
µYDULHGDQGRSSRVLQJYRLFHV¶EHORZS,WLVWKHUHIRUHTXLWHDSSUR
SULDWHWKDWWKLVYROXPHVKRXOGLWVHOIWDNHWKHIRUPRIDFROOHFWLYHZRUNDQG
WKDWLWVFRQWULEXWRUVVKRXOGVSHDNGLIIHUHQWPRWKHUWRQJXHV
+RZ1HZLVWKH1HZ+LVWRU\"
$WWHPSWVWRZULWHDZLGHUKLVWRU\WKDQWKDWRISROLWLFDOHYHQWVDOVRJR
EDFN D ORQJ ZD\ ,W ZDV LQ WKH ODWHU QLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ WKDW HFRQRPLF
KLVWRU\ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQ*HUPDQ\ %ULWDLQDQGHOVHZKHUHDVDQDOWHUQ
DWLYHWR WKHKLVWRU\RIWKHVWDWH ,Q WKH 6ZLVV VFKRODU-DFRE %XUFN
KDUGW SXEOLVKHG The Civilisation o f the Renaissance in Italy, D VWXG\
FRQFHQWUDWLQJRQFXOWXUDOKLVWRU\ DQGGHVFULELQJWUHQGVUDWKHUWKDQQDU
UDWLQJHYHQWV7KHVRFLRORJLVWVRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\VXFKDV$XJXVWH
&RPWHDQG+HUEHUW6SHQFHU QRWWRPHQWLRQ.DUO0DU[ ZHUHH[WUHPHO\
LQWHUHVWHGLQKLVWRU\EXWUDWKHUFRQWHPSWXRXVRISURIHVVLRQDOKLVWRULDQV
7KH\ZHUHLQWHUHVWHGLQVWUXFWXUHVQRWHYHQWVDQGWKHµQHZKLVWRU\¶RZHV
DGHEWWRWKHPZKLFKLVQRW RIWHQDFNQRZOHGJHG
7KH\LQWXUQRZHDGHEWWRSUHGHFHVVRUVWKH\GLGQRWRIWHQUHFRJQL]H
WKH KLVWRULDQV RIWKH (QOLJKWHQPHQW DPRQJ WKHP WR 9ROWDLUH *LEERQ
5REHUWVRQ9LFR0|VHUDQGRWKHUV ,QWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\WKHUHZDV
DQ LQWHUQDWLRQDO PRYHPHQW IRU WKH ZULWLQJ RID NLQG RIKLVWRU\ ZKLFK
ZRXOGQRWEHFRQILQHGWRPLOLWDU\DQGSROLWLFDOHYHQWVEXWZDVFRQFHUQHG
ZLWKODZVZLWKWUDGHZLWKWKHmaniére de penserRIDJLYHQVRFLHW\ZLWK
LWV PDQQHUV DQG FXVWRPV ZLWK WKH µVSLULW RI WKH DJH¶ ,Q *HUPDQ\ LQ
SDUWLFXODU WKHUH ZDV D OLYHO\ LQWHUHVW LQ ZRUOG KLVWRU\ 6WXGLHV RIWKH
KLVWRU\ RIZRPHQ ZHUH SXEOLVKHG E\ WKH 6FRWVPDQ :LOOLDP $OH[DQGHU
DQG E\ &KULVWRSK 0HLQHUV SURIHVVRUDW WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI*RWWLQJHQ D
FHQWUHRIWKHQHZVRFLDOKLVWRU\LQWKHODWHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\
7KXVWKHDOWHUQDWLYHKLVWRU\GLVFXVVHGLQWKLVYROXPHKDVDUHDVRQDEO\
ORQJ DQFHVWU\ HYHQ LIWKH JUHDWJUHDWJUDQGSDUHQWV PLJKW QRW UHFRJQL]H
WKHLU GHVFHQGDQWV :KDW LV QHZLV QRWLWV H[LVWHQFH VR PXFK DV WKH IDFW
WKDWLWVSUDFWLWLRQHUVDUHQRZH[WUHPHO\QXPHURXVDQGWKDWWKH\UHIXVHWR
EHPDUJLQDOL]HG
3UREOHPVRI'HILQLWLRQ
7KHSXUSRVHRIWKLVYROXPHLVQRWWRFHOHEUDWHWKHQHZKLVWRU\GHVSLWHWKH
DJUHHPHQWRIWKHFRQWULEXWRUVWKDWDWOHDVWVRPHNLQGVRILWDUHZRUWKZKLOH
LQGHHGQHFHVVDU\ EXW UDWKHUWR DVVHVVLWVVWUHQJWKVDQGZHDNQHVVHV 7KH
PRYHPHQWIRUFKDQJHKDVDULVHQIURPDZLGHVSUHDGVHQVHRIWKHLQDGHTXDF\
RIWKH WUDGLWLRQDO SDUDGLJP 7KLV VHQVH RILQDGHTXDF\ FDQQRW EH XQGHU
VWRRGXQOHVVZHORRNEH\RQGWKHKLVWRULDQ¶VFUDIWDWFKDQJHVLQWKHZLGHU
ZRUOG 'HFRORQL]DWLRQ DQG IHPLQLVP IRU H[DPSOH DUH WZR PRYHPHQWV
ZKLFK KDYH REYLRXVO\ KDG D JUHDW LPSDFW RQ UHFHQW KLVWRULFDO ZULWLQJ
DVFKDSWHUVDQGPDNHFOHDU ,QWKHIXWXUHWKHHFRORJLFDOPRYHPHQWLV
OLNHO\ WR KDYH PRUH DQG PRUH LQIOXHQFH RQ WKH ZD\ LQ ZKLFK KLVWRU\ LV
ZULWWHQ
The New History: Its Past and its Future
7KH SKUDVH µKLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ¶ VHHPV WR RIIHU DQ HVFDSH IURPWKHVH
GLIILFXOWLHVEXWLWJHQHUDWHVSUREOHPVRILWVRZQ,WFKDQJHVLWVPHDQLQJLQ
GLIIHUHQWFRQWH[WV6KRXOGDSROLWLFDOKLVWRU\IURPEHORZGLVFXVVWKHYLHZV
DQG DFWLRQV RIHYHU\RQHZKR LV H[FOXGHG IURP SRZHU RU VKRXOG LW GHDO
ZLWK SROLWLFV DW D ORFDO RU µJUDVVURRWV¶ OHYHO" 6KRXOG D KLVWRU\ RI WKH
&KXUFKIURP EHORZORRNDWUHOLJLRQ IURPWKH SRLQWRIYLHZ RIWKHODLW\
ZKDWHYHU WKHLU VRFLDO VWDWXV" 6KRXOG D KLVWRU\ RIPHGLFLQH IURP EHORZ
FRQFHUQ LWVHOIZLWK IRONKHDOHUV DV RSSRVHG WR SURIHVVLRQDO SK\VLFLDQV
RU ZLWK WKH SDWLHQWV¶ H[SHULHQFHV DQG GLDJQRVHV RI LOOQHVV" 6KRXOG D
PLOLWDU\ KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ GHDO ZLWK WKH RUGLQDU\ VROGLHU¶V $JLQFRXUW
RU:DWHUORRRUFRQFHQWUDWHRQWKHFLYLOLDQH[SHULHQFHRIZDU"6KRXOGD
KLVWRU\RIHGXFDWLRQIURPEHORZWXUQIURPWKHPLQLVWHUVDQGWKHRULVWVRI
HGXFDWLRQWRWKHRUGLQDU\WHDFKHUV RUVKRXOGLWSUHVHQWVFKRROVIURPWKH
SRLQW RIYLHZ RIWKH SXSLOV" 6KRXOG DQ HFRQRPLF KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ
IRFXVRQWKHVPDOOWUDGHURUWKHVPDOOFRQVXPHU"
$QRWKHU H[DPSOH RIDQHZ DSSURDFKZKLFKKDVUXQ LQWR SUREOHPV RI
GHILQLWLRQ LV WKH KLVWRU\ RIHYHU\GD\ OLIH Alltagsgeschichte, DV WKH *HU
PDQV FDOO LW 7KH SKUDVH LWVHOI LV QRW QHZ la vie quotidienne ZDV IRU
H[DPSOHWKHWLWOHRIDVHULHVODXQFKHGE\WKH)UHQFKSXEOLVKHUV+DFKHWWH
LQ WKH V :KDW LV QHZ LV WKH LPSRUWDQFH JLYHQ WR HYHU\GD\ OLIH LQ
FRQWHPSRUDU\KLVWRULFDOZULWLQJHVSHFLDOO\VLQFHWKHSXEOLFDWLRQRI%UDX
GHO¶VIDPRXVVWXG\LQ 2QFHGLVPLVVHGDVWULYLDO LWLVQRZVHHQE\
VRPHKLVWRULDQVDVWKHRQO\µUHDO¶KLVWRU\ WKHFHQWUHWRZKLFKHYHU\WKLQJ
HOVH PXVW EH UHODWHG 7KH HYHU\GD\ LV DOVR DW WKH FURVVURDGV RI UHFHQW
DSSURDFKHV LQ VRFLRORJ\ IURP 0LFKHO GH &HUWHDX WR (UYLQJ *RIIPDQ
DQGSKLORVRSK\ZKHWKHU0DU[LVWRUSKHQRPHQRORJLFDO
:KDWWKHVHDSSURDFKHVKDYHLQFRPPRQLVWKHLUFRQFHUQZLWKWKHZRUOG
RIHYHU\GD\H[SHULHQFHUDWKHUWKDQµ6RFLHW\¶LQWKHDEVWUDFWDVWKHLUSRLQW
RIGHSDUWXUHWRJHWKHUZLWKDQDWWHPSWWRYLHZGDLO\OLIHDVSUREOHPDWLFLQ
WKHVHQVHRIVKRZLQJWKDWEHKDYLRXURUYDOXHVZKLFKDUHWDNHQIRUJUDQWHG
LQ RQH VRFLHW\ DUH GLVPLVVHG DV VHOIHYLGHQWO\ DEVXUG LQ DQRWKHU 6RFLDO
KLVWRULDQVOLNHVRFLDODQWKURSRORJLVWVKDYHWRXQFRYHUWKHODWHQWUXOHVRI
GDLO\ OLIH WKH µSRHWLFV¶ RIWKH HYHU\GD\ DV WKH 5XVVLDQ VHPLRWLFLDQ -XUL
/RWPDQ SXWV LW DQG WR VKRZ WKHLU UHDGHUV KRZ WR EH D IDWKHU RU D
GDXJKWHU DUXOHU RU DVDLQW LQ DJLYHQ FXOWXUH 7KHLPSDFWRIFXOWXUDO
UHODWLYLVPRQKLVWRULFDOZULWLQJVHHPVLQHVFDSDEOH
+RZHYHUDVWKHVRFLRORJLVW1RUEHUW(OLDVKDVSRLQWHGRXWLQDQLPSRUW
DQWHVVD\WKHQRWLRQRIWKHHYHU\GD\LVOHVVSUHFLVHDQGPRUHFRPSOLFDWHG
WKDQLWORRNV(OLDVGLVWLQJXLVKHVHLJKWFXUUHQWPHDQLQJVRIWKHWHUPIURP
SULYDWH OLIH WR WKH ZRUOG RI RUGLQDU\ SHRSOH 7KH HYHU\GD\ LQFOXGHV
DFWLRQV %UDXGHO GHILQHV LW DV WKH UHDOP RI URXWLQH DQG DWWLWXGHV
ZKLFK ZH PLJKW FDOO PHQWDO KDELWV 7KH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH HYHU\GD\
DQGULWXDOLVQRWHDV\WRGHVFULEH ,WLVWHPSWLQJWRGHILQHULWXDODPDUNHU
The New History: Its Past and its Future
RIVSHFLDORFFDVLRQVLQWKHOLIHRILQGLYLGXDOVDQGFRPPXQLWLHVLQRSSRVL
WLRQWRWKHHYHU\GD\ 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGIRUHLJQYLVLWRUVIUHTXHQWO\QRWLFH
HYHU\GD\ ULWXDOV LQ WKH OLIH RIHYHU\ VRFLHW\ ZD\V RIHDWLQJ IRUPV RI
JUHHWLQJ DQGVRRQ ZKLFKWKHORFDOVIDLOWRSHUFHLYHDVULWXDOVDWDOO
(TXDOO\GLIILFXOWWRGHVFULEHRUDQDO\VHLVWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQHYHU\GD\
VWUXFWXUHV DQG FKDQJH )URP ZLWKLQ WKH HYHU\GD\ VHHPV WLPHOHVV 7KH
FKDOOHQJH IRU WKH VRFLDO KLVWRULDQ LV WR VKRZ KRZ LW LV LQ IDFW SDUW RI
KLVWRU\ WR UHODWH HYHU\GD\ OLIH WR JUHDW HYHQWV OLNH WKH 5HIRUPDWLRQ RU
WKH)UHQFK5HYROXWLRQ RUWRORQJWHUPWUHQGVOLNHZHVWHUQL]DWLRQRUWKH
ULVH RI FDSLWDOLVP 7KH VRFLRORJLVW 0D[ :HEHU FRLQHG D IDPRXV WHUP
ZKLFKPD\EHXVHIXOKHUH µURXWLQL]DWLRQ¶>VeralltaglichungOLWHUDOO\µTXR
WLGLDQL]DWLRQ¶@ 2QH IRFXV RIDWWHQWLRQ IRUVRFLDOKLVWRULDQVPLJKW EHWKH
SURFHVV RILQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQPDMRUHYHQWVDQGWUHQGVRQRQHVLGH DQG
WKH VWUXFWXUHV RI HYHU\GD\ OLIH RQ WKH RWKHU 7R ZKDW H[WHQW E\ ZKDW
PHDQV DQGRYHUZKDWSHULRGGLGWKH )UHQFKRUWKH 5XVVLDQ 5HYROXWLRQ
VD\SHQHWUDWHWKHGDLO\OLIHRIGLIIHUHQWVRFLDOJURXSVWRZKDWH[WHQWDQG
KRZVXFFHVVIXOO\ZDVLWUHVLVWHG"
3UREOHPVRI6RXUFHV
7KHJUHDWHVWSUREOHPVIRUWKHQHZKLVWRULDQVKRZHYHUDUHVXUHO\WKRVHRI
VRXUFHVDQGPHWKRGV ,WKDVDOUHDG\EHHQVXJJHVWHGWKDWZKHQKLVWRULDQV
EHJDQ WR DVN QHZ NLQGV RI TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKH SDVW WR FKRRVH QHZ
µREMHFWV¶ RIUHVHDUFKWKH\KDGWRORRNIRUQHZNLQGVRIVRXUFHWRVXSSOH
PHQWRIILFLDOGRFXPHQWV 6RPHWXUQHGWRRUDOKLVWRU\GLVFXVVHGLQFKDS
WHU RWKHUVWRWKHHYLGHQFH RILPDJHVFKDSWHU RWKHUVWRVWDWLVWLFV ,W
KDVDOVRSURYHGSRVVLEOHWRUHUHDGFHUWDLQNLQGVRIRIILFLDOUHFRUGLQQHZ
ZD\V+LVWRULDQVRISRSXODUFXOWXUHIRUH[DPSOHKDYHPDGHJUHDWXVHRI
MXGLFLDOUHFRUGVHVSHFLDOO\WKHLQWHUURJDWLRQVRIVXVSHFWV7ZRRIWKHPRVW
IDPRXVVWXGLHVRIKLVWRU\IURPEHORZDUHEDVHGRQ,QTXLVLWLRQUHFRUGV/H
5R\/DGXULH¶VMontaillouGLVFXVVHGLQFKDSWHUDQG*LQ]EXUJ¶V
The Cheese and the Worms
+RZHYHU DOO WKHVH VRXUFHV UDLVH DZNZDUG SUREOHPV +LVWRULDQV RI
SRSXODU FXOWXUH IRU H[DPSOH WU\ WR UHFRQVWUXFW RUGLQDU\ HYHU\GD\
DVVXPSWLRQVRQWKHEDVLVRIWKHUHFRUGVRIZKDWZHUHH[WUDRUGLQDU\HYHQWV
LQ WKH OLYHVRIWKH DFFXVHGLQWHUURJDWLRQV DQGWULDOV 7KH\ WU\ WR UHFRQ
VWUXFW ZKDW RUGLQDU\ SHRSOH WKRXJKW RQ WKH EDVLV RIZKDW WKH DFFXVHG
ZKR PD\ QRW KDYH EHHQ D W\SLFDO JURXS ZHUH SUHSDUHG WR VD\ LQ WKH
XQXVXDOQRWWRVD\ WHUULI\LQJ VLWXDWLRQLQZKLFKWKH\IRXQGWKHPVHOYHV
,WLVWKHUHIRUHQHFHVVDU\WRUHDGWKHGRFXPHQWVEHWZHHQWKHOLQHV7KHUHLV
QRWKLQJZURQJZLWKWU\LQJWRUHDGEHWZHHQWKHOLQHVSDUWLFXODUO\ZKHQWKH
Peter Burke
DWWHPSWLVPDGHE\KLVWRULDQVZLWKWKHILQHVVHRID*LQ]EXUJRUD/H5R\
/DGXULH
$OO WKH VDPH WKH SULQFLSOHV XQGHUO\LQJ VXFK UHDGLQJ DUH QRW DOZD\V
FOHDU,WLVRQO\IDLUWRDGPLWWKDWWRSRUWUD\WKHVRFLDOO\µLQYLVLEOH¶ZRUN
LQJZRPHQIRUH[DPSOHRUWROLVWHQWRWKHLQDUWLFXODWHWKHVLOHQWPDMRULW\
RIWKHGHDGKRZHYHUQHFHVVDU\ DVSDUW RIWRWDOKLVWRU\ LV DQ HQWHUSULVH
PRUH KD]DUGRXV WKDQ LV XVXDOO\ WKH FDVH ZLWK WUDGLWLRQDO KLVWRU\ 1RW
DOZD\V WKHSROLWLFDO KLVWRU\ RIWKH DJH RI&KDUOHPDJQH IRU H[DPSOH LV
EDVHG RQ VRXUFHV DW OHDVW DV VSDUVH DQG DV XQUHOLDEOH DV WKH KLVWRU\ RI
SRSXODUFXOWXUHLQWKHVL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\
$ JRRGGHDO RIDWWHQWLRQ KDV EHHQ JLYHQ WR RUDO HYLGHQFH VRPH RILW
E\ KLVWRULDQV RI $IULFD VXFK DV -DQ 9DQVLQD FRQFHUQHG ZLWK WKH
UHOLDELOLW\RIRUDOWUDGLWLRQVRYHUFHQWXULHVDQGVRPHRILWE\FRQWHPSRU
DU\KLVWRULDQV VXFK DV3DXO7KRPSVRQ UHFRQVWUXFWLQJWKHH[SHULHQFH RI
OLIHLQWKH(GZDUGLDQHUD 7KHSUREOHPRIWKHLQIOXHQFHRIWKHKLVWRULDQ
LQWHUYLHZHUDQGRIWKHLQWHUYLHZVLWXDWLRQRQWKHWHVWLPRQ\RIWKHZLWQHVV
KDV EHHQ GLVFXVVHG <HW LW PXVW EH DGPLWWHG WKDW WKH FULWLFLVP RIRUDO
WHVWLPRQLHV KDV QRW \HW UHDFKHG WKH VRSKLVWLFDWLRQ RI WKH FULWLTXH RI
GRFXPHQWV ZKLFK KLVWRULDQV KDYH EHHQ SUDFWLVLQJ IRU FHQWXULHV 6RPH
LGHDRIWKHGLVWDQFHWUDYHOOHGLQDTXDUWHURIDFHQWXU\ DQGRIWKHORQJ
ZD\VWLOOWRJR PD\EHJDLQHGE\FRPSDULQJWKHILUVWHGLWLRQRI9DQVLQD¶V
VWXG\RIRUDO WUDGLWLRQSXEOLVKHGLQ ZLWKWKHFRPSOHWHO\UHZULWWHQ
YHUVLRQRI
7KHVLWXDWLRQ LVUDWKHUVLPLODULQWKHFDVHRISKRWRJUDSKV LPDJHV DQG
PRUH JHQHUDOO\WKHHYLGHQFH RIPDWHULDOFXOWXUH 5HFHQWZRUN RQSKRWR
JUDSK\LQFOXGLQJILOPKDVXQPDVNHGWKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWWKHFDPHUDLV
DQREMHFWLYHUHFRUGRIUHDOLW\HPSKDVL]LQJQRWRQO\WKHVHOHFWLRQPDGHE\
SKRWRJUDSKHUVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLULQWHUHVWVEHOLHIVYDOXHVSUHMXGLFHVDQG
VRRQEXWDOVRWKHLUGHEWFRQVFLRXVRUXQFRQVFLRXVWRSLFWRULDOFRQYHQ
WLRQV ,IVRPH9LFWRULDQ SKRWRJUDSKV RIUXUDOOLIHUHVHPEOHVHYHQWHHQWK
FHQWXU\ 'XWFK ODQGVFDSHV WKLV PD\ ZHOO EH EHFDXVH WKH SKRWRJUDSKHUV
NQHZWKHSDLQWLQJV DQG SRVHG WKHLUILJXUHVDFFRUGLQJO\ LQ RUGHUWRSUR
GXFH DV7KRPDV+DUG\SXWLWLQWKHVXEWLWOHWRKLV Under the Greenwood
Tree, µD SDLQWLQJ RIWKH 'XWFK VFKRRO¶ /LNH KLVWRULDQV SKRWRJUDSKHUV
RIIHUQRWUHIOHFWLRQVRIUHDOLW\EXWUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRILW 6RPHLPSRUWDQW
VWHSV KDYH EHHQ WDNHQ WRZDUGV WKH VRXUFHFULWLFLVP RI SKRWRJUDSKLF
LPDJHV EXWKHUHWRRWKHUHLVVWLOODORQJZD\WRJR
,QWKHFDVHRISLFWRULDOLPDJHV GLVFXVVHGLQFKDSWHUE\,YDQ*DVNHOO
WKH FOLPDWH RI HQWKXVLDVP IRU WKH GHFRGLQJ RI WKHLU µLFRQRJUDSK\¶ RU
µLFRQRORJ\¶ LQ WKH DJH RI DUW KLVWRULDQV VXFK DV (UZLQ 3DQRIVN\ DQG
(GJDU :LQG KDV EHHQ VXFFHHGHG E\ DQ LFH DJH RI UHODWLYH VFHSWLFLVP
7KH FULWHULD IRU WKH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RIODWHQW PHDQLQJV LQ SDUWLFXODU DUH
GLIILFXOW LQGHHG WR IRUPXODWH 7KH SUREOHPV RI LFRQRJUDSK\ EHFRPH
The New History: Its Past and its Future
HYHQPRUHDZNZDUGZKHQKLVWRULDQVRIRWKHUWRSLFVWU\WRXVHSLFWXUHVIRU
WKHLURZQSXUSRVHVDVHYLGHQFHRIUHOLJLRXVRUSROLWLFDODWWLWXGHV ,WLVDOO
WRRHDV\WRDUJXHLQDFLUFOHUHDGLQJDQLPDJHE\$OEUHFKW'LLUHUVD\DV
D V\PSWRP RI D VSLULWXDO FULVLV DQG WKHQ SUHVHQWLQJ WKH LPDJH DV DQ
DUJXPHQWIRUWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHFULVLV
0DWHULDO FXOWXUH LV RIFRXUVH WKH WUDGLWLRQDO SURYLQFH RIWKH DUFKDH
RORJLVWV VWXG\LQJ SHULRGV IRU ZKLFK QR ZULWWHQ UHFRUGV H[LVW +RZHYHU
WKHUHLVQRJRRGUHDVRQWRUHVWULFWDUFKDHRORJLFDOPHWKRGVWRµSUHKLVWRU\¶
DQGDUFKDHRORJLVWVKDYHLQIDFWPRYHGRQWRVWXG\WKH0LGGOH$JHV WKH
HDUO\,QGXVWULDO5HYROXWLRQ DQGPRUHUHFHQWO\DZLGHUUDQJHRISHULRGV
IURPFRORQLDO$PHULFDWRWKHFRQVXPHUVRFLHW\RIWRGD\
+LVWRULDQVDUHEHJLQQLQJWRHPXODWHWKHPLIQRWE\GLJJLQJXSWKHSDVW
9HUVDLOOHV DQG RWKHU PDMRU EXLOGLQJV RI WKH HDUO\ PRGHUQ SHULRG DUH
KDSSLO\LQQRQHHGRIH[FDYDWLRQWKHQDWOHDVWE\SD\LQJPRUHDWWHQWLRQ
WRSK\VLFDOREMHFWV$UJXPHQWVDERXWWKHULVHRILQGLYLGXDOLVPDQGSULY
DF\LQWKHHDUO\PRGHUQSHULRGDUHQRZEDVHGQRWRQO\RQWKHHYLGHQFHRI
GLDU\NHHSLQJEXWDOVRRQVXFKFKDQJHVDVWKHULVHRILQGLYLGXDOFXSVLQ
SODFHRIFRPPXQDOERZOVDQGFKDLUVLQSODFHRIFRPPXQDOEHQFKHVDQG
WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVSHFLDOL]HGEHGURRPV
,QWKLVLQVWDQFHKRZHYHULWLVGLIILFXOWQRWWRZRQGHUZKHWKHUPDWHULDO
FXOWXUHLV EHLQJXWLOL]HG WR GR DQ\WKLQJPRUH WKDQ FRQILUP DK\SRWKHVLV
IRXQGHGLQWKHILUVWLQVWDQFHRQOLWHUDU\HYLGHQFH&DQWKHDUFKDHRORJ\RI
WKHSHULRGVLQFH LQWKHZHVWDWOHDVWDVSLUHWR DQ\WKLQJPRUH"7KH
ODWH6LU0RVHV)LQOH\RQFHVXJJHVWHGWKDWµFHUWDLQNLQGVRIGRFXPHQWDWLRQ
UHQGHUDUFKDHRORJ\PRUHRUOHVVXQQHFHVVDU\¶VZHHSLQJLQGXVWULDODUFKDH
RORJ\LQWRWKHZDVWHEDVNHWLQDVLQJOHSKUDVH+LVFKDOOHQJHGHVHUYHVD
VHULRXVUHVSRQVH EXWDWKRURXJKDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHYDOXHRIWKHHYLGHQFH
RIPDWHULDOFXOWXUHIRUSRVWPHGLHYDOKLVWRU\UHPDLQVWREHPDGH
,URQLFDOO\ HQRXJK WKH KLVWRU\ RIPDWHULDO FXOWXUH DQ DUHDZKLFK KDV
DWWUDFWHGDJUHDWGHDORILQWHUHVWLQWKHODVWIHZ\HDUVLVEDVHGOHVVRQWKH
VWXG\ RI WKH DUWHIDFWV WKHPVHOYHV WKDQ RQ OLWHUDU\ VRXUFHV +LVWRULDQV
FRQFHUQHG ZLWK ZKDW KDV EHHQ FDOOHG µWKH VRFLDO OLIH RIWKLQJV¶ RU µWKH
ZRUOGRIJRRGV¶ RUPRUHH[DFWO\ZLWKWKHVRFLDOOLIHRIJURXSVDVUHYHDOHG
E\WKHLU XVHRIJRRGV UHO\KHDYLO\ RQVXFKHYLGHQFH DVGHVFULSWLRQV E\
WUDYHOOHUV ZKLFK WHOO XV PXFK DERXW WKH ORFDWLRQ DQG WKH IXQFWLRQV RI
SDUWLFXODU REMHFWV RULQYHQWRULHV RISRVVHVVLRQV ZKLFK DUH DPHQDEOH WR
DQDO\VLVE\TXDQWLWDWLYHPHWKRGV
7KHJUHDWHVW DQGWKHPRVWFRQWURYHUVLDO LQQRYDWLRQLQPHWKRGLQWKH
ODVW JHQHUDWLRQ KDV VXUHO\ EHHQ WKH ULVH DQG VSUHDG RI TXDQWLWDWLYH
PHWKRGV VRPHWLPHVGHVFULEHGLURQLFDOO\DVµ&OLRPHWULFV¶ LQRWKHUZRUGV
WKHYLWDOVWDWLVWLFVRIWKHPXVHRIKLVWRU\7KHDSSURDFKLVRIFRXUVHRQHRI
ORQJ VWDQGLQJ DPRQJ HFRQRPLF KLVWRULDQV DQGKLVWRULFDO GHPRJUDSKHUV
:KDWLVRUZDVQHZZDVLWVVSUHDGLQWKHVDQGVWRRWKHUNLQGVRI
Peter Burke
KLVWRU\,QWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVIRUH[DPSOHWKHUHLVDµQHZSROLWLFDOKLVWRU\¶
ZKRVH SUDFWLWLRQHUV FRXQW YRWHV ZKHWKHU FDVW LQ HOHFWLRQV RU LQ SDUOLD
PHQWV,Q)UDQFHµVHULDOKLVWRU\¶(histoire sérielle),VRFDOOHGEHFDXVHWKH
GDWDDUHDUUDQJHGLQVHULHV RYHUWLPH KDVJUDGXDOO\ EHHQH[WHQGHG IURP
WKHVWXG\RISULFHVLQWKH VWRWKHVWXG\RISRSXODWLRQLQWKHV
WRWKHVRFDOOHGµWKLUGOHYHO¶ RIWKHKLVWRU\RIUHOLJLRXV RUVHFXODUPHQWDO
LWLHV2QHIDPRXV VWXG\RIWKHVRFDOOHGµGHFKULVWLDQL]DWLRQ¶ RIPRGHUQ
)UDQFHGUDZVWKHEXONRILWVHYLGHQFHIURPWKHGHFOLQLQJILJXUHVIRU(DVWHU
FRPPXQLRQ $QRWKHU IRFXVHG RQ 3URYHQFH LQ WKH HLJKWHHQWK FHQWXU\
VWXGLHVFKDQJLQJ DWWLWXGHV WR GHDWK DV WKH\ DUHUHYHDOHG LQ WUHQGVLQWKH
IRUPXODV RI VRPH ZLOOV QRWLQJ WKH GHFOLQH LQ UHIHUHQFHV WR WKH
µFRXUWRIKHDYHQ¶RULQEHTXHVWVIRUHODERUDWHIXQHUDOV RUIRUPDVVHVIRU
WKHGHDG
$LGHGE\FRPSXWHUV VWDWLVWLFV KDYH HYHQ LQYDGHG WKHFLWDGHO RI5DQ
NHDQKLVWRU\WKHDUFKLYHV7KH$PHULFDQ1DWLRQDO$UFKLYHVIRUH[DPSOH
QRZKDYHDµ0DFKLQH5HDGDEOH'DWD'LYLVLRQ¶DQGDUFKLYLVWVDUHEHJLQ
QLQJ WR ZRUU\ DERXW WKH FRQVHUYDWLRQ DQG VWRUDJH RISXQFKHG WDSHV DV
ZHOODVPDQXVFULSWV$VDUHVXOWKLVWRULDQVDUHPRUHDQGPRUHLQFOLQHGWR
VHHHDUOLHUDUFKLYHVVXFKDVWKHDUFKLYHVRIWKH,QTXLVLWLRQDVµGDWDEDQNV¶
ZKLFKFDQEHH[SORLWHGE\TXDQWLWDWLYHPHWKRGV
7KHLQWURGXFWLRQLQWRKLVWRULFDOGLVFRXUVHRIODUJHQXPEHUVRIVWDWLVWLFV
KDV WHQGHG WR SRODUL]H WKH SURIHVVLRQ LQWR VXSSRUWHUV DQG RSSRQHQWV
%RWK VLGHVKDYHWHQGHGWRH[DJJHUDWHWKHQRYHOW\RIWKHSUREOHPVSRVHG
E\WKHXVHRIILJXUHV6WDWLVWLFVFDQEHIDNHGEXWVRFDQWH[WV6WDWLVWLFVDUH
HDV\WRPLVLQWHUSUHWEXWVRDUHWH[WV0DFKLQHUHDGDEOHGDWDDUHQRWXVHU
IULHQGO\ EXW WKH VDPH JRHV IRU PDQ\ PDQXVFULSWV ZULWWHQ LQ DOPRVW
LOOHJLEOH KDQGV RU RQ WKH YHUJH RI GLVLQWHJUDWLRQ :KDW LV QHHGHG LV
DQ DLG WR GLVFULPLQDWLRQ WR GLVFRYHULQJZKDW VRUWV RIVWDWLVWLFV DUH UHOL
DEOH WR ZKDW H[WHQW DQG IRU ZKDW SXUSRVHV 7KH QRWLRQ RIWKH µVHULHV¶
IXQGDPHQWDO WR VHULDO KLVWRU\ QHHGV WR EH WUHDWHG DV SUREOHPDWLF HVSH
FLDOO\ZKHQFKDQJHVDUHVWXGLHGRYHUWKHORQJWHUP7KHORQJHUWKHSHULRG
WKH OHVV OLNHO\ LW LV WKDW WKH XQLWV LQ WKH VHULHV ZLOOV UHFRUGV RI
(DVWHU FRPPXQLRQV RU ZKDWHYHU DUH KRPRJHQHRXV %XW LI WKH\ DUH
VXEMHFW WR FKDQJH WKHPVHOYHV KRZ FDQ WKH\ EH XVHG DV PHDVXUHV RI
RWKHUFKDQJHV"
,Q RWKHU ZRUGV ZKDW LV UHTXLUHG DV LQ WKH FDVH RISKRWRJUDSKV DQG
RWKHUQHZVRXUFHVGLVFXVVHGDOUHDG\ LVDQHZµGLSORPDWLF¶ 7KLVZDVWKH
WHUPXVHGE\WKH%HQHGLFWLQHVFKRODU-HDQ0DELOORQLQKLVJXLGHWRWKHXVH
RIFKDUWHUVDWDWLPHWKHODWHVHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\ZKHQWKHDSSHDOWRWKLV
VRUWRIHYLGHQFHZDVQRYHODQGDURXVHGWKHVXVSLFLRQRIPRUHWUDGLWLRQDO
KLVWRULDQV:KRZLOOEHWKH0DELOORQ RIVWDWLVWLFV SKRWRJUDSKV RURUDO
KLVWRU\"
The New History: Its Past and its Future
3UREOHPVRI([SODQDWLRQ
WKH\KDYHEHHQDFFXVHGRIµVKULQNLQJKLVWRU\¶LQRWKHUZRUGVRIUHGXFLQJ
WKHFRPSOH[LWLHVRIDQ LQGLYLGXDO DGXOW RUDFRQIOLFW EHWZHHQDGXOWV WR
WKHUHODWLRQVKLSRIDQLQIDQWZLWKKLVSDUHQWV
7R LOOXVWUDWHFXUUHQW FRQWURYHUVLHV RYHUKLVWRULFDO H[SODQDWLRQ LWPD\
EHXVHIXO WRWDNH WKHH[DPSOHRI+LWOHU (DUOLHUGHEDWHV VXFKDVWKH RQH
EHWZHHQ + 5 7UHYRU5RSHU DQG $ - 3 7D\ORU DERXW WKH UHODWLYH
LPSRUWDQFHRI+LWOHU¶VORQJWHUPDQGVKRUWWHUPDLPVDVVXPHGWKHYDOLG
LW\RIWKHWUDGLWLRQDOPRGHORIKLVWRULFDOH[SODQDWLRQLQWHUPVRIFRQVFLRXV
LQWHQWLRQV 0RUH UHFHQWO\KRZHYHU WKH GHEDWHKDVZLGHQHG ,QWKHILUVW
SODFHDIHZKLVWRULDQVVXFKDV5REHUW:DLWHKDYHRIIHUHGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQV
RI+LWOHULQWHUPVRIXQFRQVFLRXVLQWHQWLRQVDQGHYHQRISV\FKRSDWKRORJ\
VWUHVVLQJKLVDEQRUPDO VH[XDOLW\WKHWUDXPDRIKLVPRWKHU¶VGHDWKDIWHU
WUHDWPHQWE\D-HZLVKGRFWRUDQGVRRQ
$QRWKHU JURXS RI KLVWRULDQV GLVPLVV ZKDW WKH\ FDOO µLQWHQWLRQDOLVP¶
DOWRJHWKHU LQ WKH VHQVH WKDW WKH\ WUHDW WKH SUREOHP RI+LWOHU¶V PRWLYHV
RU GULYHV DV UHODWLYHO\ PDUJLQDO $FFRUGLQJ WR WKHVH µIXQFWLRQDOLVWV¶ DV
WKH\ KDYH EHHQ FDOOHG RU µVWUXFWXUDO KLVWRULDQV¶ DV , ZRXOG SUHIHU WR
GHVFULEHWKHPKLVWRULFDOH[SODQDWLRQV RIWKHSROLFLHV RIWKH7KLUG5HLFK
QHHG WR FRQFHQWUDWH RQ WKH PHQ DURXQG +LWOHU RQ WKH PDFKLQHU\ RI
JRYHUQPHQWDQGWKHGHFLVLRQPDNLQJSURFHVVDQGRQ1D]LVPDVDVRFLDO
PRYHPHQW 7KHUH DUH DOVR KLVWRULDQV ZKR FRPELQH µVWUXFWXUDO¶ ZLWK
SV\FKRKLVWRULFDODSSURDFKHV DQG FRQFHQWUDWHRQ H[SODLQLQJZKDWLWZDV
LQWKH1D]LVZKLFKDWWUDFWHGWKHPWR+LWOHU
:KDWLVDW RQFHH[FLWLQJDQGFRQIXVLQJDERXWWKH+LWOHUGHEDWH OLNH
PDQ\ RWKHU KLVWRULFDO GHEDWHV LQ UHFHQW \HDUV LV WKDW LW LV QR ORQJHU
FRQGXFWHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHµUXOHV¶7KHWUDGLWLRQDODJUHHPHQWDERXWZKDW
FRQVWLWXWHV D µJRRG¶ KLVWRULFDO H[SODQDWLRQ KDV EURNHQ GRZQ ,V WKLV D
SDVVLQJSKDVHWREHUHSODFHGE\DQHZFRQVHQVXVRULVLWWKHZD\LQZKLFK
KLVWRULFDOGHEDWHVZLOOLQIXWXUHEHFRQGXFWHG"
,IWKHUHLVWREHVXFKDFRQVHQVXV WKHQWKHDUHDRIZKDWPD\EHFDOOHG
µKLVWRULFDOSV\FKRORJ\¶FROOHFWLYHSV\FKRORJ\LVOLNHO\WREHRISDUWLFXODU
LPSRUWDQFHOLQNLQJDVLWGRHVWKHGHEDWHVRQFRQVFLRXVDQGXQFRQVFLRXV
PRWLYDWLRQ ZLWK WKRVH RQ LQGLYLGXDO DQG FROOHFWLYH H[SODQDWLRQV ,W LV
HQFRXUDJLQJWRVHHDQLQFUHDVLQJLQWHUHVWLQWKLVDUHD $UHFHQWFOXVWHURI
PRQRJUDSKVFHQWUHVRQWKHKLVWRU\RIDPELWLRQDQJHUDQ[LHW\IHDUJXLOW
K\SRFULV\ ORYH SULGH VHFXULW\ DQG RWKHU HPRWLRQV $OO WKH VDPH WKH
SUREOHPV RIPHWKRG LQYROYHG LQ WKH SXUVXLW RIWKHVH HOXVLYH REMHFWV RI
VWXG\DUHIDUIURPKDYLQJEHHQUHVROYHG
)RU H[DPSOH LQ DWWHPSWLQJ WR DYRLG SV\FKRORJLFDO DQDFKURQLVP LQ
RWKHUZRUGVWKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWSHRSOHLQWKHSDVWWKRXJKWDQGIHOWMXVW
OLNH RXUVHOYHV WKHUH LV D GDQJHU RI JRLQJ WR WKH RWKHU H[WUHPH DQG
µGHIDPLOLDUL]LQJ¶ WKH SDVW VR WKRURXJKO\ WKDW LW EHFRPHV XQLQWHOOLJLEOH
+LVWRULDQVIDFHDGLOHPPD ,IWKH\H[SODLQGLIIHUHQFHVLQVRFLDOEHKDYLRXU
The New History: Its Past and its Future
LQGLIIHUHQWSHULRGVE\GLIIHUHQFHVLQFRQVFLRXVDWWLWXGHVRUVRFLDOFRQYHQ
WLRQV WKH\ ULVNVXSHUILFLDOLW\ 2Q WKH RWKHUKDQG LIWKH\ H[SODLQ GLIIHU
HQFHV LQ EHKDYLRXU E\ GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WKH µGHHS VWUXFWXUH¶ RI WKH VRFLDO
FKDUDFWHUWKH\UXQWKHULVNRIGHQ\LQJWKHIUHHGRPDQGWKHIOH[LELOLW\RI
LQGLYLGXDODFWRUVLQWKHSDVW
$SRVVLEOHZD\ RXW RIWKH GLIILFXOW\ LVWR XWLOL]H WKH VRFLRORJLVW 3LHUUH
%RXUGLHX¶V QRWLRQ RIWKH µKDELWXV¶ RID SDUWLFXODU VRFLDO JURXS %\ WKH
µKDELWXV¶ RIDJURXS %RXUGLHXPHDQV WKH SURSHQVLW\ RILWVPHPEHUV WR
VHOHFW UHVSRQVHV IURP D SDUWLFXODU FXOWXUDO UHSHUWRLUH DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH
GHPDQGV RI D SDUWLFXODU VLWXDWLRQ RU µILHOG¶ 8QOLNH WKH FRQFHSW RI
µUXOHV¶KDELWXVKDVWKHJUHDWDGYDQWDJHRIDOORZLQJLWVXVHUVWRUHFRJQL]H
WKHH[WHQWRILQGLYLGXDOIUHHGRPZLWKLQFHUWDLQOLPLWVVHWE\WKHFXOWXUH
3UREOHPVRI6\QWKHVLV
$OWKRXJK WKH H[SDQVLRQ RI WKH KLVWRULDQ¶V XQLYHUVH DQG WKH LQFUHDVLQJ
GLDORJXHZLWKRWKHUGLVFLSOLQHVDUHVXUHO\WREHZHOFRPHGWKH\KDYHWKHLU
SULFH7KHGLVFLSOLQHLVQRZPRUHIUDJPHQWHGWKDQHYHUEHIRUH(FRQRPLF
KLVWRULDQV DUH DEOH WR VSHDN WKH ODQJXDJH RI HFRQRPLVWV LQWHOOHFWXDO
KLVWRULDQVWKHODQJXDJHRISKLORVRSKHUVDQGVRFLDOKLVWRULDQVWKHGLDOHFWV
RI VRFLRORJLVWV DQG VRFLDO DQWKURSRORJLVWV 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG WKHVH
JURXSV RI KLVWRULDQV DUH ILQGLQJ LW KDUGHU DQG KDUGHU WR WDON WR RQH
DQRWKHU 'R ZH KDYH WR HQGXUH WKLV VLWXDWLRQ RU LV WKHUH KRSH IRU D
V\QWKHVLV"
,W LV LPSRVVLEOH WR RIIHU PRUH WKDQ D SDUWLDO SHUVRQDO YLHZ RI WKH
SUREOHP 0\RZQFDQEHVXPPHGXSLQWR WZRRSSRVLWHSRLQWVFRPSOH
PHQWDU\UDWKHUWKDQFRQWUDGLFWRU\,QWKHILUVWSODFH WKHSUROLIHUDWLRQRI
VXEGLVFLSOLQHV LV YLUWXDOO\ LQHYLWDEOH 7KLV PRYHPHQWLVQRWFRQILQHG WR
KLVWRU\7KHKLVWRULFDOSURIHVVLRQVLPSO\RIIHUVRQHH[DPSOHDPRQJPDQ\
RIWKH LQFUHDVLQJ GLYLVLRQ RIODERXULQ RXUODWH LQGXVWULDO RUSRVWLQGXV
WULDO VRFLHW\ 7KH SUROLIHUDWLRQ KDV LWV DGYDQWDJHV LW DGGV WR KXPDQ
NQRZOHGJH DQGLWHQFRXUDJHVPRUHULJRURXVPHWKRGVPRUHSURIHVVLRQDO
VWDQGDUGV
7KHUHDUHFRVWVDVZHOODVEHQHILWVEXWVRPHWKLQJFDQEHGRQHWRNHHS
WKRVHLQWHOOHFWXDOFRVWVDVORZDV SRVVLEOH 1RQFRPPXQLFDWLRQ EHWZHHQ
GLVFLSOLQHV RU VXEGLVFLSOLQHV LV QRW LQHYLWDEOH ,Q WKH VSHFLILF FDVH RI
KLVWRU\ WKHUH DUH VRPH HQFRXUDJLQJ VLJQV RIUDSSURFKHPHQW LIQRW RI
V\QWKHVLV
,WLVWUXHWKDWLQWKHILUVWIOXVKRIHQWKXVLDVPIRUVWUXFWXUDOKLVWRU\WKH
KLVWRU\RIHYHQWVZDVYHU\QHDUO\WKURZQRYHUERDUG,QDVLPLODUZD\WKH
GLVFRYHU\RIVRFLDOKLVWRU\ZDVVRPHWLPHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDFRQWHPSWIRU
Peter Burke
SROLWLFDO KLVWRU\ DQ LQYHUVLRQ RI WKH SUHMXGLFH RI WUDGLWLRQDO SROLWLFDO
KLVWRULDQV1HZILHOGVVXFKDVZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\DQGWKHKLVWRU\RISRSXODU
FXOWXUHZHUHVRPHWLPHVWUHDWHGDVLIWKH\ZHUHLQGHSHQGHQWIURPRUHYHQ
RSSRVHGWRWKHKLVWRU\RIOHDUQHGFXOWXUHDQGWKHKLVWRU\RIPHQ0LFUR
KLVWRU\DQGWKHKLVWRU\RIHYHU\GD\OLIHZHUHUHDFWLRQVDJDLQVWWKHVWXG\RI
JUDQGVRFLDOWUHQGV VRFLHW\ZLWKRXWDKXPDQIDFH
,QDOOWKHFDVHV ,KDYHTXRWHG LWLVQRZSRVVLEOHWR REVHUYHDUHDFWLRQ
DJDLQVWWKLVUHDFWLRQDVHDUFKIRUWKHFHQWUH+LVWRULDQVRISRSXODUFXOWXUH
DUHLQFUHDVLQJO\FRQFHUQHGWRGHVFULEHDQGDQDO\VHWKHFKDQJLQJUHODWLRQV
EHWZHHQWKHKLJKDQGWKHORZµWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQRISRSXODUFXOWXUHDQGWKH
FXOWXUH RIHGXFDWHG SHRSOH¶ +LVWRULDQV RIZRPHQ KDYH ZLGHQHG WKHLU
LQWHUHVWVWRLQFOXGHJHQGHUUHODWLRQVLQJHQHUDODQGWKHKLVWRULFDOFRQVWUXF
WLRQ RIPDVFXOLQLW\ DV ZHOO DV IHPLQLQLW\ 7KH WUDGLWLRQDO RSSRVLWLRQ
EHWZHHQ HYHQWV DQG VWUXFWXUHV LV EHLQJ UHSODFHG E\ D FRQFHUQ IRU WKHLU
LQWHUUHODWLRQDQGDIHZKLVWRULDQVDUHH[SHULPHQWLQJZLWKQDUUDWLYHIRUPV
RIDQDO\VLVRUDQDO\WLFDOIRUPVRIQDUUDWLYHEHORZ SS
0RVWLPSRUWDQWRIDOOSHUKDSVWKHORQJVWDQGLQJRSSRVLWLRQEHWZHHQ
SROLWLFDO DQGQRQSROLWLFDO KLVWRULDQV LV ILQDOO\ GLVVROYLQJ * 0 7UHYH
O\DQ¶V QRWRULRXV GHILQLWLRQ RIVRFLDO KLVWRU\ DV µKLVWRU\ ZLWKWKH SROLWLFV
OHIWRXW¶LVQRZUHMHFWHGE\DOPRVWHYHU\RQH,QVWHDGZHILQGFRQFHUQZLWK
WKHVRFLDOHOHPHQWLQSROLWLFVDQGWKHSROLWLFDOHOHPHQWLQVRFLHW\ 2QRQH
VLGHSROLWLFDOKLVWRULDQVQRORQJHUFRQILQHWKHPVHOYHVWRµKLJK¶SROLWLFVWR
OHDGHUV WR HOLWHV 7KH\ GLVFXVV WKHJHRJUDSK\ DQG VRFLRORJ\ RIHOHFWLRQV
DQG µWKH UHSXEOLF LQ WKH YLOODJH¶7KH\ H[DPLQH µSROLWLFDO FXOWXUHV¶ WKH
DVVXPSWLRQV DERXW SROLWLFV ZKLFK IRUP SDUW RIHYHU\GD\ OLIH EXW GLIIHU
ZLGHO\ IURPRQHSHULRGRUUHJLRQ WR DQRWKHU 2Q WKH RWKHUVLGH VRFLHW\
DQGFXOWXUHDUHQRZYLHZHGDVDUHQDVIRUGHFLVLRQPDNLQJDQGKLVWRULDQV
GLVFXVVµWKHSROLWLFVRIWKHIDPLO\¶µWKHSROLWLFVRIODQJXDJH¶RUWKHZD\VLQ
ZKLFKULWXDOFDQH[SUHVVRUHYHQLQVRPHVHQVHFUHDWHSRZHU:HDUHVWLOO
DORQJZD\DZD\IURPWKHµWRWDOKLVWRU\¶DGYRFDWHGE\%UDXGHO,QGHHGLW
ZRXOGEHXQUHDOLVWLFWREHOLHYHWKDWWKLVJRDOFRXOGHYHUEHDWWDLQHG EXWD
IHZPRUHVWHSVKDYHEHHQWDNHQWRZDUGVLW
3RVWVFULSW
7HQ\HDUVKDYHHODSVHGVLQFHWKLVFROOHFWLRQRIHVVD\VZDVVHQWWRWKHSUHVV
,QWKDWGHFDGHVRPHRIWKHILHOGVRUDSSURDFKHVGLVFXVVHGLQWKLVYROXPH
VXFK DV RUDO KLVWRU\ RUZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ KDYH UHPDLQHG IXQGDPHQWDOO\
VWDEOH DVWKHDXWKRUV RIWKHVHFKDSWHUVDUJXH GHVSLWH WKHSXEOLFDWLRQ RI
PDQ\ QHZ VXEVWDQWLYH VWXGLHV 2WKHU ILHOGV KDYH FKDQJHG LQ LPSRUWDQW
ZD\VLQWKHFRXUVHRIWKHLUUDSLGH[SDQVLRQDVLQWKHFDVHRIWKHKLVWRU\RI
The New History: Its Past and its Future
+LVWRU\DQG3RVWPRGHUQLVP
([SHULPHQWV ZLWK VFDOH DQG H[SHULPHQWV ZLWK QDUUDWLYH RI WKH NLQG
GHVFULEHG LQ WKLV YROXPH DUH RIWHQ WDNHQ WR EH IHDWXUHV RIWKH FXOWXUDO
PRYHPHQWNQRZQ DV µSRVWPRGHUQLVP¶ +LVWRULDQV HVSHFLDOO\ LQ %ULWDLQ
ZHUHVORZHUWKDQSUDFWLWLRQHUVRIPDQ\RWKHUGLVFLSOLQHV IURPOLWHUDWXUH
WR DUFKLWHFWXUH WR HQJDJH ZLWK WKLV WUHQG ,QGHHG WKHUH ZDV QR LQGH[
HQWU\ XQGHU µSRVWPRGHUQLVP¶ LQ WKH ILUVW HGLWLRQ RIWKLV ERRN WKRXJK
VRPH RIWKHPDLQ LVVXHV ZHUH GLVFXVVHG E\ -LP 6KDUSH LQ FKDSWHU E\
-RDQ: 6FRWWLQFKDSWHUDQGE\P\VHOILQWKHILQDOFKDSWHU
,QWKHODVW GHFDGH KRZHYHU LWKDVEHHQGLIILFXOWWR DYRLGWDNLQJXSD
SRVLWLRQLQZKDWPLJKWEHFDOOHGWKHµSRVWPRGHUQGHEDWH¶LQZKLFKFULWLFV
KDYH GLVPLVVHG WKH ZRUN RIWUDGLWLRQDO KLVWRULDQV VXFK DV /HRSROG YRQ
5DQNHRQWKHJURXQGVWKDWKLV LGHDO RIUHFRYHULQJDQGGHVFULELQJµZKDW
DFWXDOO\KDSSHQHG¶LVLPSRVVLEOH$VLQWKHFDVHRIWKHVRFDOOHGµUHYLYDORI
QDUUDWLYH¶ EHORZ S WKH DWWHQWLRQ RIPDQ\ %ULWLVK KLVWRULDQV DQG
VWXGHQWV ZDV GUDZQWRWKLV GHEDWHE\ /DZUHQFH6WRQH WKLV WLPH LQPast
and PresentDµQRWH¶ZKLFKSURYRNHGDQXPEHURIUHMRLQGHUV0RUH
UHFHQWO\ 5LFKDUG(YDQV¶VFKDUDFWHULVWLFDOO\SXJQDFLRXVHVVD\In Defence
o f HistoryRIIHUHGERWKDJXLGHWRWKHGHEDWHDQGDQLQWHUYHQWLRQLQ
LW
:KDWH[DFWO\LVDWLVVXHLQWKLVGHEDWH"7KHGLIILFXOW\RIDQVZHULQJWKH
TXHVWLRQ PD\ EH LOOXVWUDWHG IURP WKH 'XWFK SKLORVRSKHU )UDQN $QNHU
VPLW¶VGHVFULSWLRQRI1DWDOLH'DYLVDQG&DUOR*LQ]EXUJGLVFXVVHGEHORZ
SS DV SRVWPRGHUQ RU SRVWPRGHUQLVW KLVWRULDQV D GHVFULSWLRQ
ZKLFKWKH\KDYHERWKUHMHFWHGZLWKVRPHYHKHPHQFH µ3RVWPRGHUQLVP¶LV
DQXPEUHOODFRYHULQJDJURXSRISHRSOH VRPH RIZKRP IROORZFXOWXUDO
WKHRULVWV VXFK DV 'HUULGD ZKLOH RWKHUV KDYH VLPSO\ UHDFWHG DJDLQVW HFR
QRPLFDQGVRFLDOGHWHUPLQLVPDQGVWUHVVWKHIUDJLOLW\DQGIOXLGLW\RIZKDW
XVHGWREHFDOOHGµVRFLDOUHDOLW\¶µUHDOLW\¶ LVDWHUPZKLFKJRRGSRVWPRG
HUQLVWV DYRLG OLNH WKH SODJXH ,W PD\ WKHUHIRUH EH XVHIXO WR GLVWLQJXLVK
Peter Burke
WKUHHLVVXHVRUWKUHHGHEDWHVRQHRIZKLFKFHQWUHVRQVHOHFWLRQDVHFRQG
RQH[SODQDWLRQDQGDWKLUGRQILFWLRQ
,Q WKH ILUVW SODFH WUDGLWLRQDO KLVWRULDQV KDYH EHHQ FULWLFL]HG RQ WKH
JURXQGV WKDW WKH\ KDYH EHHQ WHOOLQJ D VLPSOH µWULXPSKDOLVI VWRU\ D
µ*UDQG 1DUUDWLYH¶ RU µ0DVWHU 1DUUDWLYH¶ SULYLOHJLQJ WKH ZHVW DQG WKHLU
HOLWHVSDUWLFXODUO\PDOHHOLWHVE\IRFXVLQJDWWHQWLRQRQWKHLUDFKLHYHPHQWV
WKH5HQDLVVDQFH WKH5HIRUPDWLRQ WKH(QOLJKWHQPHQW WKH)UHQFKDQG
,QGXVWULDO 5HYROXWLRQV PRGHUQLW\ DQG DOO WKDW 7KH UHPHG\ RIIHUHGLVD
µGHFHQWUHG¶KLVWRU\ZLWKDSODFHIRURWKHUNLQGV RISHRSOHWKHRSSUHVVHG
VXERUGLQDWH RU µVXEDOWHUQ¶ JURXSV DQG WKHLU SRLQWV RIYLHZ +HQFH WKH
QHHG WR H[SHULPHQW ZLWK WKH PXOWLSOHYLHZSRLQW QDUUDWLYHV GLVFXVVHG LQ
FKDSWHU EHORZ ,QWKLVGHEDWH1DWDOLH'DYLVDQG&DUOR*LQ]EXUJDUH
RQWKH VLGHRIWKHFULWLFVZLWQHVVWKHLUFKRLFHRIRUGLQDU\SHRSOHVXFKDV
WKHSHDVDQW%HUWUDQGHGH5ROVDQGWKHPLOOHU0HQRFFKLR6FDQGHOODDVWKH
SURWDJRQLVWVRIWKHLUERRNV
,QWKHVHFRQGSODFHWUDGLWLRQDOKLVWRULFDOH[SODQDWLRQVKDYHEHHQFKDO
OHQJHGZKHWKHUJLYHQLQWHUPVRIWKHDLPVRIOHDGLQJLQGLYLGXDOVµ*UHDW
0HQ¶RULQWHUPVRIVRFLDOIRUFHV7KHQHZWUHQGIROORZLQJWKHH[DPSOH
RI(GZDUG7KRPSVRQLQWKHVLVWRVWUHVVWKHUROHRIRUGLQDU\SHRSOH
LQPDNLQJ WKHLURZQKLVWRU\ERWKLQGLYLGXDOO\DQGFROOHFWLYHO\DVSDUWL
FLSDQWVLQWKHFXOWXUDOµFRQVWUXFWLRQ¶ RUµLQYHQWLRQ¶ RIVRFLDOHQWLWLHVVXFK
DVQDWLRQV KHQFHWKHVSDWHRIUHFHQWERRNVRQWKHLQYHQWLRQRI$WKHQV
$IULFD $UJHQWLQD 6FRWODQG ,UHODQG (XURSH DQGVR RQ7KLVWUHQGLV
FOHDUO\ UHODWHG WR WKH LQFUHDVLQJ LQWHUHVW LQFXOWXUDO KLVWRU\PHQWLRQHGD
IHZSDUDJUDSKVEDFN
,QWKHWKLUGSODFHWKHFULWLFVIURP0LFKHO)RXFDXOWWR+D\GHQ:KLWH
KDYHDUJXHGWKDWZULWWHQKLVWRU\LVDNLQGRIILFWLRQ WKDWKLVWRULDQVOLNH
VFLHQWLVWV µFRQVWUXFW¶ WKH IDFWV WKH\ VWXG\ DQG WKDW WKHLU VWRULHV IROORZ
FODVVLF ILFWLRQDO SORWV VXFK DV WUDJHG\ RU WUDJLFRPHG\ ,Q WKLV GHEDWH
*LQ]EXUJDQG'DYLV ZKRFRQVWUXFWHGWKHLUVWRULHVIURPWKHFRQWHPSRU
DU\GRFXPHQWV SUHVHUYHGLQDUFKLYHVDUHRQWKHVLGH RIWKHKLVWRULDQV ,W
VKRXOGEHDGGHGKRZHYHU WKDWWKHUHDUHPRUHWKDQWZRSRVLWLRQVSRVV
LEOHLQWKLVGHEDWH1DWDOLH'DYLVZKRKDVZULWWHQDERRNHQWLWOHGFiction
in the Archives, LVZHOODZDUHWKDWGRFXPHQWV FDQQRWDOZD\VEHWDNHQ DW
WKHLUIDFHYDOXH
,QGHHGKLVWRULDQVKDYHORQJEHHQDZDUHRIWKHGLIILFXOW\RIGHILQLQJWKH
H[WHQWWRZKLFKHYLGHQFHFDQEHWUXVWHGDQGWKHH[WHQWWRZKLFKKLVWRULDQV
ILOOLQ WKHJDSVZLWKWKHKHOSRIWKHLULPDJLQDWLRQ 7KH\KDYHWDNHQXSD
QXPEHURISRVLWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHH[WUHPHVRIWUDGLWLRQDOLVPDQGSRVWPRG
HUQLVP )RU WKLV UHDVRQ LW PD\ KDYH EHHQ PLVOHDGLQJ WKRXJK LW LV RI
FRXUVH DQ HIIHFWLYH SROHPLFDO WDFWLF IRU 5LFKDUG (YDQV WR HQWLWOH KLV
ERRNIn Defence o f History,ZKHQZKDWLWLVGHIHQGLQJLVDSDUWLFXODUPRGH
The New History: Its Past and its Future
RIGRLQJKLVWRU\7KDWWKHUHDUHDQXPEHURIFRPSHWLQJPRGHVVKRXOGEH
FOHDUWRUHDGHUVRIWKHUHPDLQLQJFKDSWHUVRIWKLVERRN
1 2 7(6
7KLVHVVD\RZHVDJUHDWGHDOWRGLVFXVVLRQVZLWKWKHODWH5DSKDHO6DPXHORYHU
PDQ\\HDUVWR*Z\Q3ULQVDQGVHYHUDOJHQHUDWLRQVRIVWXGHQWV DW(PPDQXHO
&ROOHJH&DPEULGJHDQGWR1LOR2GiOLDDQGWKHOLYHO\DXGLHQFHDWP\OHFWXUHVDW
WKH8QLYHUVLGDGH(VWDGXDOGH6DR3DXORDW$UDUDTXDUDLQ
)RU D IDPRXV DQG GHEDWDEOH H[DPSOH VHH 5 : )RJHO DQG 6 (QJHUPDQ
Time on the Cross %RVWRQ 7KHUH LV D MXGLFLRXV DVVHVVPHQW RI WKH
SRVLWLRQ RIHFRQRPLF KLVWRU\ WRGD\ LQ ' & &ROHPDQ History and the Eco-
nomic Past2[IRUG
'-9LQFHQW The Formation o f the British Liberal Party/RQGRQ
/ +XQWHG The New Cultural History%HUNHOH\ 3 %XUNH Varieties
o f Cultural History&DPEULGJH
3 %XUNH µ7ZR&ULVHVRI+LVWRULFDO&RQVFLRXVQHVV¶ Storia della Storiografia,
SS
2WKHU YDULHWLHV DUH VXUYH\HG LQ - *DUGLQHU HG What is History Today?
/RQGRQ
- /H *RIIHG La nouvelle histoire 3DULV - /H *RIIDQG 3 1RUD
HGV Faire de Vhistoire YROV 3DULV 6RPH RI WKH HVVD\V LQ WKLV
FROOHFWLRQDUHDYDLODEOHLQ(QJOLVK -/H*RIIDQG3 1RUDHGV Constructing
the Past&DPEULGJH
- % 6 +DOGDQHEverything has a History/RQGRQ
3$ULHVCenturies o f Childhood(QJOLVKWUDQV /RQGRQ 3$ULHV
The Hour o f Our Death (QJOLVK WUDQV /RQGRQ 0 )RXFDXOW
Madness and Civilisation (QJOLVK WUDQV /RQGRQ ( /H 5R\
/DGXULH Times o f Feast, Times o f Famine (QJOLVK WUDQV 1HZ <RUN
$&RUELQThe Foul and the Fragrant(QJOLVKWUDQV/HDPLQJWRQ
09LJDUHOOR Concepts o f Cleanliness (QJOLVKWUDQV &DPEULGJH
-& 6FKPLWWHG Gestures,VSHFLDOLVVXHHistory and Anthropology,
5 %DXPDQ Let Your Words be Few &DPEULGJH 3 %XUNH
µ1RWHVIRUD6RFLDO+LVWRU\RI6LOHQFHLQ(DUO\0RGHP(XURSH¶LQ%XUNH The
Art o f Conversation&DPEULGJH
) %UDXGHO The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age o f
Philip II (QJOLVKWUDQV YROV /RQGRQ
7KHH[DPLQHU¶VQDPHZDV/HZLV1DPLHU 5 &REE The Police and the People
2[IRUG S
(+RRP DHUWHWDOHistoria da lgreja no Brasil: ensaio de interpretagao apartir
do povo3HWUySROLV
- * $ 3RFRFN µ7KH &RQFHSW RI D /DQJXDJH¶ LQ $ 3DJGHQ HG The
Language o f Political Theory&DPEULGJH
5 * &ROOLQJZRRG The Idea o f History2[IRUG SS I
Peter Burke
%UDXGHO
4XRWHGLQ ) 6WHPHG Varieties o f History1HZ<RUN S
,WDNHWKHWHUPIURPWKHIDPRXV5XVVLDQFULWLF0LNKDLO%DNKWLQLQKLVDialogic
Imagination(QJOLVKWUDQV $XVWLQ SS[L[ &I 0 GH
&HUWHDX Heterologies: Discourse on the Other (QJOLVK WUDQV 0LQQHDSROLV
6HHDOPRVWDQ\LVVXHRIWKHHistory Workshop Journal.
&I3%XUNH The French Historical Revolution&DPEULGJH S
- + 5RELQVRQ The New History1HZ<RUN
/2UUµ7KH5HYHQJHRI/LWHUDWXUH¶New Literary History,SS
5 )UXLQµ'HQLHXZHKLVWRULRJUDSKLH¶UHSULQKLV Verspreide Geschriften,YRO
7KH+DJXH SS
0 +DUEVPHLHUµ:RUOG+LVWRULHVEHIRUH'RPHVWLFDWLRQ¶ Culture and History,
SS
:$OH[DQGHU The History o f Women/RQGRQ &0HLQHUVGeschichte
des weiblichen GeschlechtsYROV+DQRYHU
6RPHVKDUSFRPPHQWVRQWKLVSUREOHPLQ(6DLG Orientalism/RQGRQ
EHVWFRQVXOWHGLQWKH3HQJXLQHGLWLRQRIZLWKDQHZDIWHUZRUG
( 'H'HFFD 1930: o siléncio dos vencidos6DR3DXOR
&I 5 3RUWHU µ7KH 3DWLHQW¶V 9LHZ 'RLQJ 0HGLFDO +LVWRU\ IURP %HORZ¶
Theory and Society, SS
2QWKHRUGLQDU\VROGLHUV VHH- .HHJDQ The Face o f Battle/RQGRQ
- 2]RXIHG Nous les maitres d ’école3DULV H[DPLQHV WKHH[SHULHQFH
RIHOHPHQWDU\VFKRROWHDFKHUVF
) %UDXGHO Civilisation matérielle et capitalisme3DULV UHYLVHGHGQLes
structures du quotidien3DULV (QJOLVKWUDQV The Structures o f Everyday
Life /RQGRQ &I - .XF]\QVNL Geschichte des Alltags des Deutschen
VolkesYROV %HUOLQ
0 GH &HUWHDX L ’invention du quotidien 3DULV ( *RIIPDQ The Pre-
sentation o f S elf in Everyday Life1HZ<RUN + /HIHEYUH Critique de
la vie quotidienneYROV3DULV &I) 0DFNLH The Status o f Every-
day Life/RQGRQ
- /RWPDQ µ7KH 3RHWLFV RI (YHU\GD\ %HKDYLRXU LQ 5XVVLDQ (LJKWHHQWK
&HQWXU\ &XOWXUH¶ LQ - /RWPDQ DQG % $ 8VSHQVNLL HGV The Semiotics o f
Russian Culture $QQ $UERU SS $ IXOOHU GLVFXVVLRQ RIWKH
SUREOHPRIZULWLQJWKHKLVWRU\RIFXOWXUDOUXOHVLQ3%XUNHHistorical Anthro-
pology o f Early Modern Italy&DPEULGJH SSIIII
1 (OLDV µ=XP %HJULIIGHV $OOWDJV¶ LQ . +DPPHULFK DQG 0 .OHLQ HGV
Materiellen zur Soziologie des Alltags2SODGHQ SS
&I3 %XUNH Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe/RQGRQ UHYLVHG
HGQ$OGHUVKRW FK
37KRPSVRQThe Voice o f the Past2[IRUG -9DQVLQD Oral Tradition
(QJOLVKWUDQV /RQGRQ LG Oral Tradition as History0DGLVRQ
3 6PLWK HG The Historian and Film &DPEULGJH $ 7UDFKWHQEHUJ
Reading American Photographs: Images as History, Mathew Brady to Walker
Evans 1HZ <RUN - 7DJJ The Burden o f Representation: Essays on
The New History: Its Past and its Future
Photographies and Histories $PKHUVW 5REHUW 5RVHQVWRQH Visions o f
the Past: The Challenge o f Film to our Idea o f History &DPEULGJH 0DVV
(3DQRIVN\Essays in Iconology1HZ<RUN(:LQGPagan Mysteries
in the Renaissance/RQGRQ $PRUHVFHSWLFDOSRLQWRIYLHZLVH[SUHVVHG
E\( + *RPEULFK µ$LPV DQG/LPLWV RI,FRQRORJ\¶ LQKLV Symbolic Images
/RQGRQ SS
&*LQ]EXUJµ'D$E\:DUEXUJD(+*RPEULFK¶Studi medievali,
SS +LV FULWLFLVP ZDV GLUHFWHG DJDLQVW )ULW] 6D[O LQ SDUWLFXODU 2Q
LFRQRJUDSK\ IRU KLVWRULDQV RIPHQWDOLWLHV 0 9RYHOOH HG Iconographie et
histoire des mentalités$L[
. +XGVRQ The Archaeology o f the Consumer Society/RQGRQ
- 'HHW] In Small Things Forgotten: The Archaeology o f Early American Life
1HZ<RUN
0 , )LQOH\ The Use and Abuse o f History/RQGRQ S
$ $SSDGXUDL HG The Social Life o f Things &DPEULGJH - %UHZHU
DQG5 3RUWHU Consumption and the World o f Goods/RQGRQ
: $\GHORWWH Quantification in History 5HDGLQJ 0DVV $ %RJXH
Clio and the Bitch Goddess: Quantification in American Political History %HY
HUO\+LOOV &DOLI
3&KDXQXµ/HTXDQWLWDWLIDXHQLYHDX¶UHSULQKLVHistoire quantitatif
histoire sérielle,3DULV
* /H%UDVEtudes de sociologie religieuseYROV3DULV 0 9RYHOOH
Piété baroque et déchristianisation3DULV
* +HQQLQJVHQ µ(O ³%DQFR GH GDWRV´ GHO 6DQWR 2ILFLR¶ Boletin de la Real
Academia de Historia, SS
- 0DELOORQDe re diplomatica3DULV
&/OR\GExplanation in Social History2[IRUG RIIHUVDJHQHUDOVXUYH\
0RUH DFFHVVLEOH WR QRQSKLORVRSKHUV LV 6 -DPHV The Content o f Social
Explanation&DPEULGJH
1 )HUJXVRQHG Virtual History: Alternatives and Counterfactuals/RQGRQ
((ULNVRQ Young Man Luther1HZ<RUN 3*D\Freudfor Historians
1HZ<RUN ' 6WDQQDUG Shrinking History1HZ<RUN
5 * /:DLWH The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler1HZ<RUN
, WDNH WKH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ µLQWHQWLRQDOLVWV¶ DQG µIXQFWLRQDOLVWV¶ IURP 7
0DVRQ µ,QWHQWLRQ DQG ([SODQDWLRQ¶ LQ * +LUVFKIHOG DQG / .HWWHQDFNHU
HGV The Fiihrer State: Myth and Reality 6WXWWJDUW SS A 0\
WKDQNVWR,DQ.HUVKDZIRUEULQJLQJWKLVDUWLFOHWRP\DWWHQWLRQ
3 /RZHQEHUJ µ7KH 3V\FKRKLVWRULFDO 2ULJLQV RI WKH 1D]L <RXWK &RKRUW¶
American Historical Review,SS
-'HOXPHDXLapeur en occident3DULV LGRassurer e tprotéger3DULV
1 /XKPDQQ Love as Passion: The Codification o f Intimacy
(QJOLVK WUDQV 6WDQIRUG 3 1 DQG & = 6WHDPV µ(PRWLRQRORJ\¶
American Historical Review, SS & = DQG3 1 6WHDUQV
Anger &KLFDJR 7 =HOGLQ France 1848-1945 YROV 2[IRUG
Peter Burke
3%RXUGLHX Outline o f a Theory o f Practice(QJOLVKWUDQV&DPEULGJH
$ *XUHYLFK Medieval Popular Culture (QJOLVK WUDQV &DPEULGJH
(GLWRULDOFROOHFWLYHµ:K\*HQGHUDQG+LVWRU\"¶Gender and History,
SS
0 $JXOKRQ The Republic in the Village (QJOLVK WUDQV &DPEULGJH
0 6HJDOHQ Love and Power in the Peasant Family (QJOLVK WUDQV
&DPEULGJH 2 6PLWK The Politics o f Language 1791-1815 2[IRUG
'&DQQDGLQHDQG6 3ULFHHGVRituals o f Royalty&DPEULGJH
3 6DQWDQJHOR Emozioni e desideri in Cina5RPH%DUL 3 0 6SDFNV
Boredom: The Literary History o f a State o f M ind&KLFDJR : *
1DSK\ DQG 3 5REHUWV HGV Fear in Early Modern Society 0DQFKHVWHU
% + 5RVHQZHLQHGAnger’s Past: The Social Uses o f an Emotion in
the Middle Ages/RQGRQ
/ %pO\ Espions et ambassadeurs au temps de Louis X IV 3DULV HVSH
FLDOO\SS,II II
)RUDEDODQFHG RYHUYLHZVHH- $SSOHE\ / +XQWDQG0 -DFRE Telling the
Truth about History 1HZ<RUN
1/RUDX[L ’invention d ’Athénes3DULV 9<0XGLPEH The Invention
° f Africa/RQGRQ 0 * + 3LWWRFN The Invention o f Scotland/RQ
GRQ 1 6KXPZD\ The Invention o f Argentina %HUNHOH\ *
'HODQW\Inventing Europe/RQGRQ '.LEHUGInventing Ireland&DP
EULGJH 0DVV
1 = 'DYLVFiction in the Archives&DPEULGJH2QWKHVHSUREOHPVFI
3 %XUNHHistory and Social Theory&DPEULGJH SS
+LVWRU\ IURP%HORZ
Jim Sharpe
2Q -XQH D EDWWOH ZDV IRXJKW QHDU WR WKH %HOJLDQ YLOODJH RI
:DWHUORR $V HYHU\RQH ZKR KDV VWXGLHG %ULWLVK KLVWRU\ ZLOO NQRZ WKH
RXWFRPHRIWKDWEDWWOHZDVWKDWDQ$OOLHGDUP\FRPPDQGHGE\WKH'XNH
RI:HOOLQJWRQ ZLWK ODWH EXWGHFLVLYHDVVLVWDQFHIURP3UXVVLDQIRUFHVOHG
E\ %OXFKHU GHIHDWHG D )UHQFK DUP\ FRPPDQGHG E\ 1DSROHRQ %RQD
SDUWHDQGWKHIRUWXQHVRI(XURSHZHUHWKXVGHFLGHG,QWKHGD\VIROORZLQJ
WKHEDWWOHRQHRIWKRVHZKRKDGKHOSHGGHWHUPLQHWKHIDWHRIDFRQWLQHQW
3ULYDWH :LOOLDP :KHHOHU RIWKH %ULWLVK VW )RRW ZURWH D QXPEHU RI
OHWWHUVKRPHWRKLVZLIH
:KHHOHUZHQWRQWRJLYHKLVZLIHDGHVFULSWLRQRIWKH%DWWOHRI:DWHUORR
IURPWKH VKDUS HQG WKH H[SHULHQFHRIHQGXULQJ )UHQFKDUWLOOHU\ ILUH KLV
UHJLPHQW¶VGHVWUXFWLRQRIDERG\RIHQHP\FXLUDVVLHUVZLWKRQHYROOH\WKH
VSHFWDFOH RIKHDSV RIEXUQWFRUSVHVRI%ULWLVKJXDUGVPHQ LQ WKHUXLQV RI
WKHFKDWHDXRI+RXJRXPRQW WKHPRQH\SOXQGHUHGIURP DGHDG )UHQFK
KXVVDURIILFHUVKRWE\DPHPEHURIDGHWDFKPHQWLQ:KHHOHU¶VFKDUJH7KH
KLVWRU\ ERRNV WHOO XV WKDW:HOOLQJWRQZRQ WKH %DWWOH RI:DWHUORR ,Q D
FHUWDLQVHQVH :LOOLDP:KHHOHUDQGWKRXVDQGVOLNHKLP DOVRZRQ LW
Jim Sharpe
2YHUWKHSDVWWKUHHGHFDGHVDQXPEHURIKLVWRULDQVZRUNLQJLQDZLGH
YDULHW\RISHULRGVFRXQWULHVDQGW\SHVRIKLVWRU\ KDYHEHFRPHDZDUHRI
WKHSRWHQWLDOIRUH[SORULQJQHZSHUVSHFWLYHV RQWKHSDVW RIIHUHG E\ VXFK
VRXUFHVDV3ULYDWH:KHHOHU¶VFRUUHVSRQGHQFHZLWKKLVZLIHDQGWKH\KDYH
EHFRPH DWWUDFWHG WR WKH LGHD RIH[SORULQJ KLVWRU\ IURP DV LW ZHUH WKH
YLHZSRLQWRIWKHSULYDWHVROGLHUDQGQRWWKHJUHDWFRPPDQGHU7UDGLWLRQ
DOO\ KLVWRU\ KDV EHHQ UHJDUGHG IURP &ODVVLFDO WLPHV RQZDUGV DV DQ
DFFRXQW RIWKH GRLQJV RIWKH JUHDW ,QWHUHVW LQ EURDGHU VRFLDO DQG HFR
QRPLFKLVWRU\GHYHORSHGLQWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ EXWWKHPDLQVXEMHFW
PDWWHURIKLVWRU\UHPDLQHGWKHXQIROGLQJRIHOLWHSROLWLFV7KHUHZHUH RI
FRXUVHDQXPEHURILQGLYLGXDOVZKRIHOWXQKDSS\ZLWKWKLVVLWXDWLRQDQG
DV HDUO\ DV %HUWROW %UHFKW LQ KLV SRHP µ4XHVWLRQV IURP D :RUNHU
ZKR5HDGV¶RIIHUHGZKDWLVVWLOOSUREDEO\WKHPRVWGLUHFWVWDWHPHQWRIWKH
QHHGIRUDQDOWHUQDWLYHSHUVSHFWLYHWRZKDWPLJKWEHWHUPHGµWRSSHUVRQ¶V
KLVWRU\¶ <HW LW LV SUREDEO\ IDLU WR VD\ WKDW D VHULRXV VWDWHPHQW RIWKH
SRVVLELOLW\ RIWUDQVODWLQJ WKLV QHHG LQWR DFWLRQ GLG QRW FRPH XQWLO
ZKHQ (GZDUG7KRPSVRQSXEOLVKHG DQDUWLFOH µ+LVWRU\ IURP %HORZ¶ LQ
The Times Literary Supplement?7KHUHDIWHU WKHFRQFHSWRIKLVWRU\IURP
EHORZHQWHUHGWKHFRPPRQ SDUODQFHRIKLVWRULDQV %\ DYROXPH RI
HVVD\VHQWLWOHG History from BelowKDGEHHQSXEOLVKHGZKLOHLQ D
QHZHGLWLRQRIDERRNGHDOLQJZLWKWKHKLVWRULRJUDSK\RIWKH(QJOLVK&LYLO
:DUV DQG WKHLU DIWHUPDWK FDOOHG D FKDSWHU DERXW UHFHQW ZRUN RQ WKH
UDGLFDOV RIWKHSHULRG µ+LVWRU\IURP %HORZ¶7KXV RYHUWKHSDVWWZHQW\
\HDUVRUVRDODEHOKDVEHHQIRXQGIRUWKDWSHUVSHFWLYHRQWKHSDVWRIIHUHG
E\:LOOLDP:KHHOHU¶VOHWWHUV
7KLV SHUVSHFWLYH KDV KDG DQ LPPHGLDWH DSSHDO WR WKRVH KLVWRULDQV
DQ[LRXV WR EURDGHQ WKH ERXQGDULHV RIWKHLU GLVFLSOLQH WR RSHQ XS QHZ
DUHDV RIUHVHDUFK DQG DERYHDOO WRH[SORUHWKHKLVWRULFDOH[SHULHQFHVRI
WKRVH PHQ DQG ZRPHQ ZKRVH H[LVWHQFH LV VR RIWHQ LJQRUHG WDNHQ IRU
JUDQWHG RU PHQWLRQHG LQ SDVVLQJ LQ PDLQVWUHDP KLVWRU\ (YHQ WRGD\
PXFK RI WKH KLVWRU\ WDXJKW LQ %ULWDLQ¶V VL[WK IRUPV DQG XQLYHUVLWLHV
DQG RQH VXVSHFWV LQHTXLYDOHQWLQVWLWXWLRQVHOVHZKHUH VWLOO UHJDUGV WKH
H[SHULHQFHRIWKHPDVV RIWKHSHRSOHLQWKHSDVW DVHLWKHULQDFFHVVLEOH RU
XQLPSRUWDQW RU IDLOV WR UHJDUG LW DV D KLVWRULFDO SUREOHP RU DW EHVW
UHJDUGVWKHFRPPRQSHRSOHDVµRQHRIWKHSUREOHPVJRYHUQPHQWKDVKDG
WRKDQGOH¶7KHFRQYHUVHYLHZZDVVWDWHGSRZHUIXOO\E\(GZDUG7KRPS
VRQLQ LQWKHSUHIDFHWRRQHRIWKHPDMRUZRUNVRI(QJOLVKKLVWRU\,
,DPVHHNLQJWRUHVFXHWKHSRRUVWRFNLQJHUWKHOXGGLWHFURSSHUWKHµREVRO
HWH¶ KDQGORRP ZHDYHU WKH µXWRSLDQ¶ DUWLVDQ DQG HYHQ WKH GHOXGHG IRO
ORZHUV RI -RDQQD 6RXWKFRWW IURP WKH HQRUPRXV FRQGHVFHQVLRQ RI
SRVWHULW\ 7KHLUFUDIWV DQGWUDGLWLRQVPD\ KDYHEHHQG\LQJ 7KHLUKRVWLOLW\
WRWKH QHZ LQGXVWULDOLVP PD\KDYHEHHQ EDFNZDUGORRNLQJ 7KHLUFRPPX
History from Below
QLWDULDQLGHDOVPD\KDYHEHHQIDQWDVLHV 7KHLULQVXUUHFWLRQDU\FRQVSLUDFLHV
PD\KDYHEHHQIRROKDUG\%XWWKH\OLYHGWKURXJKWKHVHWLPHVRIDFXWHVRFLDO
GLVWXUEDQFHDQGZHGLGQRW
7KHFRPSOLFDWLRQVLQKHUHQWLQWKHTXHVWLRQRISUHFLVHO\ZKRVHKLVWRU\
FRPHV IURP EHORZ DUH LOOXVWUDWHG QHDWO\ LQ RQH RIWKH JURZWK DUHDV RI
VRFLDOKLVWRU\LQUHFHQW\HDUVWKHVWXG\RISRSXODUFXOWXUHLQHDUO\PRGHUQ
(XURSH $V IDU DV , FDQ VHH DSDUW IURP UHJDUGLQJ LW DV VRPH VRUW RI
UHVLGXDOFDWHJRU\QRKLVWRULDQKDV\HWFRPHXSZLWKDIXOO\FRPSUHKHQV
LYHGHILQLWLRQ RIZKDWSRSXODUFXOWXUH LQWKDWSHULRG DFWXDOO\ ZDV7KH
IXQGDPHQWDO UHDVRQ IRU WKLV LV WKDW µWKH SHRSOH¶ DV IDU EDFN DV WKH
VL[WHHQWK FHQWXU\ DW OHDVW ZHUH D UDWKHU YDULHG JURXS GLYLGHG E\ HFR
QRPLF VWUDWLILFDWLRQ RFFXSDWLRQDO FXOWXUHV DQG JHQGHU 6XFK FRQVLGHUD
WLRQVUHQGHULQYDOLGDQ\VLPSOLVWLFQRWLRQRIZKDWµEHORZ¶PLJKWPHDQLQ
PRVWKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WV
7KHTXHVWLRQ RIWKHZLGHUVLJQLILFDQFHRUSXUSRVHV RIDQDSSURDFK WR
KLVWRU\IURPEHORZLVHTXDOO\LPSRUWDQW 7KHSUREOHPVDUHSHUKDSVEHVW
LOOXVWUDWHGE\UHIHUHQFHWRWKHZRUNRIKLVWRULDQVZULWLQJZLWKLQWKH0DU[
LVWWUDGLWLRQRUZLWKLQWKHWUDGLWLRQRI%ULWLVKODERXUKLVWRU\ 2EYLRXVO\
WKHFRQWULEXWLRQRI0DU[LVWKLVWRULDQVKHUHDVHOVHZKHUHKDVEHHQHQRUP
RXVLQGHHGRQH0DU[LVWSKLORVRSKHUKDVFODLPHGWKDWDOORIWKRVHZULWLQJ
KLVWRU\IURPEHORZGR VR LQWKH VKDGRZRI0DU[¶VFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQ RI
KLVWRU\$OWKRXJK VXFKFODLPV PD\ VHHP DOLWWOHK\SHUEROLF WKH VRFLDO
KLVWRULDQ¶V GHEW WR 0DU[¶V LGHDV DQG WR 0DU[LVW KLVWRULDQV PXVW EH
DFNQRZOHGJHG DQG LW LV FHUWDLQO\ QRW P\ LQWHQWLRQ WRMRLQ WKHFXUUHQWO\
IDVKLRQDEOH WHQGHQF\ WR GHSUHFDWHRQH RIWKHZRUOG¶V ULFKHVWLQWHOOHFWXDO
WUDGLWLRQV<HWLWZRXOGVHHPWKDW0DU[LVWKLVWRULDQVEHIRUHRWKHUVZULW
LQJ IURP GLIIHUHQW WUDGLWLRQV VXJJHVWHG WKH EUHDGWK RI VXEMHFW PDWWHU
ZKLFK WKH VRFLDO KLVWRULDQPLJKW VWXG\ KDYHWHQGHGWR UHVWULFW VWXG\ RI
KLVWRU\IURPEHORZWRWKRVHHSLVRGHVDQGPRYHPHQWVLQZKLFKWKHPDVVHV
HQJDJHGLQRYHUWSROLWLFDODFWLYLW\RULQIDPLOLDUDUHDVRIHFRQRPLFGHYHO
RSPHQW $OWKRXJK KH ZDV WR WUDQVFHQG VXFK OLPLWDWLRQV WKLV ZDV WR D
ODUJHH[WHQWWKH VWDUWLQJSRLQW RI7KRPSVRQ¶V HVVD\ 7KHKLVWRULFDO
EDFNJURXQGWRVXFKDOLQHRIWKLQNLQJKDVEHHQGHVFULEHGPRUHUHFHQWO\E\
(ULF+REVEDZP+REVEDZPDUJXHGWKDWWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIZKDWKHWHUPV
µJUDVVURRWV KLVWRU\¶ ZDVQRWUHDOO\ DSSDUHQWEHIRUH RU WKHUHDERXWV
µ7KHKLVWRU\RIWKHFRPPRQSHRSOHDVDVSHFLDOILHOGRIVWXG\¶KHZURWH
µEHJLQVZLWKWKHKLVWRU\RIPDVVPRYHPHQWVLQWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\
)RU WKH 0DU[LVW RU PRUH JHQHUDOO\ WKH VRFLDOLVW LQWHUHVW LQ JUDVVURRWV
KLVWRU\GHYHORSHGZLWKWKHJURZWKRIWKHODERXUPRYHPHQW¶$VKHZHQW
RQ WR SRLQW RXW WKLV WHQGHQF\µLPSRVHGVRPHTXLWHHIIHFWLYHEOLQNHUVRQ
WKHVRFLDOLVWKLVWRULDQV¶
6RPHWKLQJRIWKHQDWXUHRIWKHVHEOLQNHUVZDVVXJJHVWHGLQDERRNILUVW
SXEOLVKHGLQ ZKLFKPLJKWZHOOKDYHEHHQVXEWLWOHGµ7KH%UHDNLQJRI
WKH(QJOLVK:RUNLQJ&ODVV¶ 5LFKDUG+RJJDUW¶V The Uses o f Literacy. ,Q
GLVFXVVLQJGLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKHVWRWKHVWXG\RIWKHZRUNLQJFODVV+RJJDUW
XUJHG FDXWLRQ RQ WKH UHDGHUV RIKLVWRULHV RIZRUNLQJFODVV PRYHPHQWV
History from Below
/LNHPDQ\RWKHUV+RJJDUWFDPHDZD\IURPPDQ\VXFKKLVWRULHVZLWKWKH
LPSUHVVLRQ µWKDW WKHLU DXWKRUV RYHUUDWH WKH SODFH RISROLWLFDO DFWLYLW\ LQ
ZRUNLQJFODVVOLIHWKDWWKH\GRQRWDOZD\VKDYHDQDGHTXDWHVHQVHRIWKH
JUDVVURRWVRIWKDWOLIH¶7KRPSVRQLQ QRWHGDVKLIWIURPWKHROGHU
FRQFHUQV RIODERXU KLVWRULDQV ZLWK WKH LQVWLWXWLRQV RIODERXU DQG ZLWK
DSSURYHGOHDGHUVDQGLGHRORJ\ DOWKRXJKKHDOVRQRWHGWKDWWKLVSURFHVV
ZDVWHQGLQJWRUREODERXUKLVWRU\RIVRPHRILWVFRKHUHQFH+REVEDZP
ZULWLQJLQWKHOLJKWRIWKHVXEVHTXHQWEURDGHQLQJRIODERXUKLVWRU\ ZDV
DEOHWRPDNHPRUHIRFXVHGFRPPHQWVRQWKLVSRLQW7KHSUREOHPZDVDV
+RJJDUW LPSOLHG WKDW KLVWRULDQV RI WKH ODERXU PRYHPHQW 0DU[LVW RU
RWKHUZLVH KDG VWXGLHG µQRWMXVW DQ\ FRPPRQ SHRSOH EXW WKH FRPPRQ
SHRSOHZKRFRXOGEHUHJDUGHGDVDQFHVWRUVRIWKHPRYHPHQWQRWZRUNHUV
DV VXFK VR PXFK DV &KDUWLVWV WUDGH XQLRQLVWV ODERXU PLOLWDQWV¶ 7KH
KLVWRU\RIWKHODERXUPRYHPHQWDQGRWKHULQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HGGHYHORSPHQWV
KHDYHUUHG VKRXOGQRWµUHSODFHWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHFRPPRQSHRSOHWKHP
VHOYHV¶
$QRWKHUOLPLWDWLRQZKLFKPDLQVWUHDPODERXUKLVWRU\FUHDWHVIRUKLVWRU\
IURPEHORZLVWKDWRIDUHVWULFWLRQLQSHULRG5HDGHUVRIWKHHDUO\HVVD\E\
7KRPSVRQ DQG +REVEDZP¶V ODWHU FRQWULEXWLRQ PLJKW HDVLO\ EH OHIW
GHVSLWH WKH LQWHQWLRQV RIWKH DXWKRUV ZLWK WKH LPSUHVVLRQ WKDW KLVWRU\
IURPEHORZFDQRQO\EHZULWWHQIRUSHULRGVIURPWKH )UHQFK5HYROXWLRQ
RQZDUGV+REVEDZPDVZHKDYHQRWHG IHOWWKDWLWZDVWKHGHYHORSPHQW
RI PDVV PRYHPHQWV LQ WKH ODWH HLJKWHHQWK FHQWXU\ ZKLFK ILUVW DOHUWHG
VFKRODUV WR WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RIZULWLQJ KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ DQG KH ZHQW
RQ WR GHFODUH WKDW µWKH )UHQFK 5HYROXWLRQ HVSHFLDOO\ VLQFH -DFRELQLVP
ZDVUHYLWDOLVHGE\VRFLDOLVPDQGWKH(QOLJKWHQPHQWE\0DU[LVPKDVEHHQ
WKH SURYLQJ JURXQG IRU WKLV NLQG RIKLVWRU\¶ $VNLQJ DW D VOLJKWO\ ODWHU
SRLQW µZK\ VR PXFK PRGHUQ JUDVVURRWV KLVWRU\ KDV HPHUJHG IURP WKH
VWXG\RIWKH)UHQFK5HYROXWLRQ¶+REVEDZPFLWHGWKHPDVVDFWLRQRIWKH
SRSXODFHDQGWKHDUFKLYHVFUHDWHGE\µDYDVWDQGODERULRXVEXUHDXFUDF\¶
ZKRGRFXPHQWHGWKHDFWLRQVRIWKHFRPPRQSHRSOH DQGWKHQWXUQHGWR
FODVVLI\LQJDQGILOLQJWKHLUUHFRUGV µIRUWKHEHQHILWRIWKHKLVWRULDQ¶ 7KLV
GRFXPHQWDWLRQ SURYLGHG D ULFK VHDP IRU ODWHU UHVHDUFK DQG ZDV DOVR
+REVEDZP QRWHG µEHDXWLIXOO\ OHJLEOH XQOLNH WKH FUDEEHG KDQGV RIWKH
VL[WHHQWKRUVHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXULHV¶
+LVWRU\ IURP EHORZ KRZHYHU KDV QRW PHUHO\ EHHQ ZULWWHQ DERXW
IDPLOLDU PRGHUQ SROLWLFDO KLVWRU\ E\ KLVWRULDQV ZKR DUH XQDEOH WR FRSH
ZLWK SDODHRJUDSKLF FKDOOHQJHV ,QGHHG DOWKRXJK WKH FRQFHSW RIKLVWRU\
IURPEHORZZDVHVVHQWLDOO\GHYHORSHGE\(QJOLVK0DU[LVWKLVWRULDQVZULW
LQJZLWKLQWKHWUDGLWLRQDOFKURQRORJLFDOERXQGVRI%ULWLVKODERXUKLVWRU\
SHUKDSV WKH ERRN XVLQJ WKLV SHUVSHFWLYH RQ WKH SDVW ZKLFK KDV KDG WKH
ZLGHVW LPSDFW ZDV ZULWWHQ E\ D )UHQFK VFKRODU DQG WDNHV D PHGLHYDO
3\UHQHDQ SHDVDQW FRPPXQLW\ DV LWV VXEMHFW PDWWHU (PPDQXHO /H 5R\
Jim Sharpe
/DGXULH¶V Montaillou, ILUVW SXEOLVKHG LQ )UDQFH LQ HQMR\HG PRUH
DWWHQWLRQEHWWHUVDOHVDQGDZLGHUUHDGHUVKLSWKDQPRVWZRUNVRIPHGLH
YDOKLVWRU\,WKDV RIFRXUVH DWWUDFWHGVRPHFULWLFLVPIURPZLWKLQ WKH
VFKRODUO\FRPPXQLW\DQGDQXPEHURITXHVWLRQVKDYHEHHQUDLVHGDERXW
/H5R\/DGXULH¶VPHWKRGRORJ\DQGKLVDSSURDFKWRKLVVRXUFHV+LVWRU
LDQVZRUNLQJIURPEHORZPXVWRIFRXUVHEHDVULJRURXVLQWKHVHPDWWHUV
DVDQ\ RWKHUV \HWMontaillouGRHV VWDQGDVVRPHWKLQJ RIDODQGPDUNLQ
ZULWLQJKLVWRU\IURPWKDWSHUVSHFWLYH$VLWVDXWKRUSRLQWHGRXW µWKRXJK
WKHUH DUH H[WHQVLYH KLVWRULFDO VWXGLHV FRQFHUQLQJ SHDVDQW FRPPXQLWLHV
WKHUH LV YHU\ OLWWOH PDWHULDO DYDLODEOH WKDW FDQ EH FRQVLGHUHG WKH GLUHFW
WHVWLPRQ\ RISHDVDQWV WKHPVHOYHV¶ /H 5R\ /DGXULH FLUFXPYHQWHG WKLV
SUREOHP E\ EDVLQJ KLV ERRN RQ WKH LQTXLVLWRULDO UHFRUGV JHQHUDWHG E\
-DFTXHV )RXUQLHU %LVKRS RI3RLWLHUV GXULQJKLV LQYHVWLJDWLRQ RIKHUHV\
EHWZHHQ DQG :KDWHYHU LWV GUDZEDFNV Montaillou GHPRQ
VWUDWHG QRW RQO\ WKDW KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ FRXOG DSSHDO WR WKH JHQHUDO
UHDGLQJ SXEOLF EXW DOVR WKDW FHUWDLQ W\SHV RI RIILFLDO UHFRUG FRXOG EH
XVHGWRH[SORUHWKHPHQWDODQGPDWHULDOZRUOGRISDVWJHQHUDWLRQV
,QGHHGVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFKLVWRULDQVDUHEHFRPLQJLQFUHDVLQJO\XVHG
WRHPSOR\LQJW\SHVRIGRFXPHQWDWLRQZKRVHYHU\XVHIXOQHVVDVKLVWRULFDO
HYLGHQFH OLHV LQ WKH IDFW WKDW LWV FRPSLOHUV ZHUH QRW GHOLEHUDWHO\ DQG
FRQVFLRXVO\UHFRUGLQJIRUSRVWHULW\0DQ\RIWKHVHFRPSLOHUVRQHLPDJL
QHVZRXOGKDYHEHHQVXUSULVHGDQGSHUKDSVGLVTXLHWHGE\WKHXVHZKLFK
UHFHQW KLVWRULDQV KDYH PDGH RI WKH FRXUW FDVHV SDULVKUHJLVWHU HQWULHV
ZLOOVDQGPDQRULDOODQGWUDQVDFWLRQVZKLFKWKH\UHFRUGHG 6XFKHYLGHQFH
FDQEHHPSOR\HG DVDSSURSULDWHWRH[SORUHH[SOLFLWDFWLRQVDQGLGHDVRU
LPSOLFLW DVVXPSWLRQV DQG WR SURYLGH D TXDQWLWDWLYH EDFNJURXQG WR SDVW
H[SHULHQFHV$V(GZDUG7KRPSVRQKDVQRWHG
3HRSOHZHUHWD[HGWKHKHDUWKWD[OLVWVDUHDSSURSULDWHGQRWE\KLVWRULDQVRI
WD[DWLRQ EXW E\ KLVWRULFDO GHPRJUDSKHUV 3HRSOH ZHUH WLWKHG WKH WHUULHUV
DUH DSSURSULDWHG DV HYLGHQFH E\ KLVWRULFDO GHPRJUDSKHUV 3HRSOH ZHUH
FXVWRPDU\WHQDQWVRUFRS\KROGHUV WKHLUWHQXUHVZHUH HQUROOHG DQGVXUUHQ
GHUHG LQ WKH UROOV RIWKHPDQRULDO FRXUW WKHVH HVVHQWLDO VRXUFHV DUH LQWHU
URJDWHGE\KLVWRULDQVDJDLQDQGDJDLQQRWRQO\LQSXUVXLWRIQHZHYLGHQFH
EXWLQDGLDORJXHLQZKLFKWKH\SURSRVHQHZTXHVWLRQV
PLQHUV DQG IDFWRU\ ZRUNHUV <HW WKH RUDO KLVWRULDQ KDV REYLRXV SUR
EOHPVLQGHDOLQJZLWKSHRSOHZKRHLWKHUGLHGEHIRUHWKH\ZHUHUHFRUGHGRU
ZKRVH PHPRU\ KDV EHHQ ORVW WR WKHLU VXFFHVVRUV DQG WKH W\SH RIGLUHFW
WHVWLPRQ\ WKH\ FDQ REWDLQ LV GHQLHG WR KLVWRULDQV RI HDUOLHU SHULRGV
&RQYHUVHO\ DVZH KDYH VXJJHVWHG VRXUFHVH[LVWZKLFKSHUPLWKLVWRULDQV
RIVXFKSHULRGVWRJHWFORVHWRWKHH[SHULHQFHVRIWKHORZHURUGHUV
/H 5R\ /DGXULH XVHG RQH VXFK VRXUFH -DFTXHV )RXUQLHU¶V UHJLVWHU
$QRWKHUZRUNVKRZLQJKRZWKLVW\SHRIOHJDOUHFRUGFRXOGEHHPSOR\HG
IRUDUDWKHUGLIIHUHQWW\SH RIKLVWRU\ IURPEHORZFDPHLQ ZLWKWKH
SXEOLFDWLRQRIWKH,WDOLDQHGLWLRQRI&DUOR*LQ]EXUJ¶V The Cheese and the
Worms.21 *LQ]EXUJ¶VREMHFWLYHZDVQRWWRUHFRQVWUXFWWKHPHQWDOLW\DQG
ZD\RIOLIHRIDSHDVDQWFRPPXQLW\EXWUDWKHUWRH[SORUHWKHLQWHOOHFWXDO
DQGVSLULWXDOZRUOGRIRQHLQGLYLGXDODPLOOHUQDPHG'RPHQLFR6FDQGHOOD
QLFNQDPHG 0HQRFFKLR ERUQ LQ ZKR OLYHG LQ )ULXOL LQ QRUWK
HDVWHUQ ,WDO\ 0HQRFFKLR IHOO IRXO RIWKH ,QTXLVLWLRQ KH ZDV HYHQWXDOO\
H[HFXWHG SUREDEO\LQ DQGWKHYROXPLQRXVGRFXPHQWDWLRQGHDOLQJ
ZLWKKLVFDVHDOORZHG*LQ]EXUJWRUHFRQVWUXFWPXFKRIKLVEHOLHIV\VWHP
7KH ERRN LWVHOILV D UHPDUNDEOH DFKLHYHPHQW ZKLOH *LQ]EXUJ¶V SUHIDFH
SURYLGHV D XVHIXO GLVFXVVLRQ RIWKH FRQFHSWXDO DQGPHWKRGRORJLFDOSUR
EOHPVRIUHFRQVWUXFWLQJWKHFXOWXUHRIWKHVXERUGLQDWHFODVVHVLQWKHSUH
LQGXVWULDOZRUOG,QSDUWLFXODUKHZDVLQVLVWHQWWKDWµWKHIDFWWKDWDVRXUFH
LVQRW³REMHFWLYH´IRUWKDWPDWWHUQHLWKHULVDQLQYHQWRU\GRHVQRWPHDQ
WKDWLW LVXVHOHVV ,Q VKRUW HYHQ PHDJUH VFDWWHUHG DQG REVFXUHGRFX
PHQWDWLRQ FDQ EH SXW WR JRRG XVH¶ +H DUJXHG WKDW VWXG\LQJ LQGLYL
GXDOVLQWKLVVRUWRIGHSWKLVDVYDOXDEOHDVWKHPRUHIDPLOLDUDJJUHJDWLYH
DSSURDFKHV WR VRFLDO KLVWRU\ 7KH SUREOHP UHPDLQV RI FRXUVH RI WKH
W\SLFDOLW\ RIVXFKLQGLYLGXDOV \HW SURSHUO\KDQGOHG FDVH VWXGLHV RIWKLV
VRUWFDQEHLPPHQVHO\LOOXPLQDWLQJ
%XW KLVWRULDQVKDYH XVHG RWKHUW\SHV RIRIILFLDO RU VHPLRIILFLDO GRFX
PHQWDWLRQWKDQDVLQJOHULFKVRXUFHLQWKHLUHIIRUWVWRVWXG\KLVWRU\IURP
EHORZ2QHH[DPSOHLV%DUEDUD$+DQDZDOWZKRKDVPDGHH[WHQVLYHXVH
RIRQH RIWKH JUHDW QHJOHFWHG VRXUFHV RI(QJOLVK VRFLDO KLVWRU\ WKH FRU
RQHU¶VLQTXHVWLQUHFRQVWUXFWLQJPHGLHYDOSHDVDQWIDPLO\OLIH+DQDZDOW
DUJXHVWKDWWKHVHUHFRUGVDUHIUHHRIWKHELDVIRXQGLQWKHUHFRUGVRIWKH
UR\DO HFFOHVLDVWLFDO RU PDQRULDO FRXUWV DQG DOVR PDNHV WKH LPSRUWDQW
SRLQWWR UHWXUQWRDQ HDUOLHUWKHPH WKDWWKHGHWDLOVRIPDWHULDOOLIHDQG
IDPLO\DFWLYLWLHVUHFRUGHGLQWKHP DUH LQFLGHQWDOWR WKHPDLQSXUSRVH RI
WKHUHFRUGVDQGKHQFHXQOLNHO\WREHGLVWRUWHG$VVRRIWHQZKHQGHDOLQJ
ZLWK RIILFLDO UHFRUGV WKH\ DUH DW WKHLU PRVW XVHIXO ZKHQ HPSOR\HG IRU
SXUSRVHV WKDW WKHLU FRPSLOHUV ZRXOG QHYHU KDYH GUHDPW RI &RPELQHG
ZLWKRWKHUIRUPVRIGRFXPHQWDWLRQ+DQDZDOWXVHGWKHLQTXHVWVWREXLOG
XSDSLFWXUH RIWKHPDWHULDOHQYLURQPHQW KRXVHKROGHFRQRP\ VWDJHVLQ
WKHOLIHF\FOHSDWWHUQVRIFKLOGUHDULQJDQGRWKHUDVSHFWVRIWKHHYHU\GD\
Jim Sharpe
OLIHRIPHGLHYDOSHDVDQWV,QDVHQVHKHUZRUNGHPRQVWUDWHVDQDOWHUQDWLYH
VWUDWHJ\WRWKDWIROORZHGE\/H5R\/DGXULHDQG*LQ]EXUJWKHVLIWLQJRI
D EURDG ERG\ RIGRFXPHQWDWLRQ UDWKHU WKDQ WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ RID FDVH
VWXG\EDVHG RQ RQH H[FHSWLRQDOO\IUXLWIXO VRXUFH %XWWKH QHW UHVXOW LV D
GHPRQVWUDWLRQRIKRZ\HWDQRWKHUIRUPRIRIILFLDOGRFXPHQWDWLRQFDQEH
XVHGWRFRQVWUXFWKLVWRU\IURPEHORZ
7KLVEURDGHQLQJRIWKHFKURQRORJLFDOUDQJHRIKLVWRU\IURPEHORZDQG
WKH PRYHPHQW WRZDUGV D ZLGHU UDQJH RI KLVWRULFDO FRQFHUQV WKDQ WKH
SROLWLFDO DFWLRQV DQG SROLWLFDO PRYHPHQWV RI WKH PDVVHV KDV OHG WR D
VHDUFK IRUPRGHOV RWKHUWKDQ WKRVH SURYLGHG E\ WUDGLWLRQDO 0DU[LVP RU
WKH ROGHU VW\OH RIODERXUKLVWRU\ 7KH QHHG WR PDLQWDLQ D GLDORJXHZLWK
0DU[LVW VFKRODUVLVHVVHQWLDO EXWLWUHPDLQVFOHDUWKDWWKHDSSOLFDWLRQ RI
HYHQVXFKDEDVLF0DU[LVWFRQFHSWDVFODVV WR WKHSUHLQGXVWULDOZRUOGLV
SUREOHPDWLFZKLOHLWLVGLIILFXOWWRLPDJLQHDGLVWLQFWO\0DU[LVWOLQHRQD
VL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\ <RUNVKLUH GHIDPDWLRQ VXLW RU D VHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\
:LOWVKLUH VNLPPLQJWRQ 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ WKH VHDUFK IRU DQ DOWHUQDWLYH
PRGHO DGPLWWHGO\ DV \HW EDUHO\ EHJXQ KDV VR IDU DFKLHYHG YHU\ OLWWOH
VXFFHVV 0DQ\ KLVWRULDQV HVSHFLDOO\ LQ FRQWLQHQWDO (XURSH KDYH EHHQ
LQVSLUHG E\ WKH )UHQFK Annales VFKRRO 0DQ\ RI WKH YDULHG ZRUNV
SURGXFHGE\ZULWHUVZRUNLQJZLWKLQWKHAnnalesWUDGLWLRQKDYHQRWRQO\
GHHSHQHG RXU NQRZOHGJH RI WKH SDVW EXW DOVR SURYLGHG WUHPHQGRXV
PHWKRGRORJLFDO LQVLJKWV LQWR VKRZLQJ KRZ LQQRYDWLYH XVH FDQ EH PDGH
RIIDPLOLDU IRUPV RIGRFXPHQWDWLRQ DQG KRZ QHZ TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKH
SDVW FDQ EH IRUPXODWHG 0RUHRYHU WKH Annalistes’ FODULILFDWLRQ RIWKH
FRQFHSW RI mentalité KDV SURYHG LQYDOXDEOH WR KLVWRULDQV ZKR KDYH
DWWHPSWHGWR UHFRQVWUXFW WKHPHQWDOZRUOG RIWKHORZHU RUGHUV , ZRXOG
FRQWHQGKRZHYHUWKDWWKHJUHDWHVWFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHAnnalesDSSURDFK
KDV EHHQ LQ GHPRQVWUDWLQJ KRZ WR EXLOG XS WKH FRQWH[W ZLWKLQ ZKLFK
KLVWRU\IURPEHORZPLJKWEH ZULWWHQ 7KHNQRZOHGJH RI IRUH[DPSOH D
UXQ RIJUDLQSULFHV LQ D JLYHQ VRFLHW\ RYHU DJLYHQ SHULRG KHOSV SURYLGH
HVVHQWLDOEDFNJURXQG WR XQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHH[SHULHQFH RIWKHSRRU VXFK
TXDQWLILHGHYLGHQFH KRZHYHUFDQQRWEHWKHZKROHVWRU\
2WKHUVKDYHVRXJKWPRGHOVLQVRFLRORJ\DQGDQWKURSRORJ\+HUHWRRLQ
VNLOOHG DQG VHQVLWLYHKDQGV WKHJDLQV KDYH EHHQ JUHDW DOWKRXJKHYHQ LQ
WKHVH KDQGV VRPH SUREOHPV KDYH UHPDLQHG ZKLOH LQ RWKHU KDQGV VRPH
GLVDVWHUV KDYH RFFXUUHG 6RFLRORJ\ LW PLJKW EH DUJXHG LV RI JUHDWHU
UHOHYDQFHWRKLVWRULDQVRILQGXVWULDOVRFLHW\ZKLOHVRPHRILWVDVVXPSWLRQV
KDYH QRW DOZD\V EHHQ WRR UHDGLO\ DSSOLFDEOH WR WKH W\SH RIPLFURVWXG\
IDYRXUHG E\ SUDFWLWLRQHUV RI KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ $QWKURSRORJ\ KDV
DWWUDFWHGDQXPEHURIKLVWRULDQVZRUNLQJRQPHGLHYDODQGHDUO\PRGHUQ
WRSLFV DOWKRXJKKHUHWRR WKHRXWFRPHKDVQRWEHHQZLWKRXWSUREOHPV
6RPHRIWKHLVVXHVDUHLOOXPLQDWHGE\$ODQ0DFIDUODQH¶VZRUNRQZLWFK
FUDIWDFFXVDWLRQVLQ7XGRUDQG6WXDUW(VVH[0DFIDUODQHVHWRXWWRZULWH
History from Below
,WZRXOGVHHPWKHQWKDWKLVWRU\IURPEHORZLVDWLWVPRVWHIIHFWLYHZKHQ
LWLVVHWLQDFRQWH[W7KXVLQWKHILUVWLVVXHRIDSHULRGLFDOGHYRWHGLQODUJH
PHDVXUHWRWKLVW\SHRIKLVWRU\WKHHGLWRULDOFROOHFWLYHRIHistory Workshop
JournalGHFODUHGWKDWµRXUVRFLDOLVPGHWHUPLQHVRXUFRQFHUQZLWKWKHFRP
PRQSHRSOHLQWKHSDVWWKHLUOLIHDQGZRUNDQGWKRXJKWDQGLQGLYLGXDOLW\DV
ZHOO DV WKH FRQWH[W DQG VKDSLQJ FDXVHV RI WKHLU FODVV H[SHULHQFH¶ DQG
FRQWLQXHGµHTXDOO\LWGHWHUPLQHVWKHDWWHQWLRQZHVKDOOSD\WRFDSLWDOLVP¶
$VVXFKVHQWLPHQWVUHPLQGXVWKHWHUPµKLVWRU\IURPEHORZ¶GRHVLPSO\WKDW
WKHUHLVVRPHWKLQJDERYHWRUHODWHWR7KLVDVVXPSWLRQLQWXUQDVVXPHVWKDW
WKHKLVWRU\R IµWKHFRPPRQSHRSOH¶HYHQZKHQDVSHFWVRIWKHLUSDVWH[SHUL
HQFHZKLFKDUHH[SOLFLWO\SROLWLFDODUHLQYROYHGFDQQRWEHGLYRUFHGIURPWKH
ZLGHUFRQVLGHUDWLRQVRIVRFLDOVWUXFWXUHDQGVRFLDOSRZHU7KLVFRQFOXVLRQ
LQLWVWXUQOHDGVWRWKHSUREOHPRIKRZKLVWRU\IURPEHORZLVWREHILWWHGLQWR
ZLGHU FRQFHSWLRQV RIKLVWRU\ 7R LJQRUH WKLV SRLQW ZKHQ GHDOLQJ ZLWK
KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ RU DQ\ RWKHU VRUW RI VRFLDO KLVWRU\ LV WR ULVN WKH
HPHUJHQFHRIDQLQWHQVHIUDJPHQWDWLRQRIKLVWRULFDOZULWLQJSHUKDSVHYHQ
RIVRPHVRUWRIODWWHUGD\DQWLTXDULDQLVP7KHGDQJHUVZHUHZHOOVWDWHGLQ
E\7RQ\-XGW 2QHQHHGQRWVKDUH-XGW¶VSRVLWLRQLQLWVHQWLUHW\WR
V\PSDWKL]HZLWKKLVFRQFHUQWKDWµWKHUHLVQRSODFHIRUSROLWLFDOLGHRORJ\LQ
PRVWPRGHPVRFLDOKLVWRU\DQ\PRUHWKDQWKHUHZDVLQWKHVRFLRORJ\IURP
ZKLFKWKHODWWHUGHULYHGVRFLDOKLVWRU\DV,VXJJHVWHGHDUOLHUKDVEHHQ
WUDQVIRUPHGLQWRDVRUWRIUHWURVSHFWLYHFXOWXUDODQWKURSRORJ\¶
7KHW\SHRIKLVWRU\IURPEHORZLQWURGXFHVDQRWKHULVVXHWKDWRIEURDG
HQLQJ WKH DXGLHQFH RI WKH SURIHVVLRQDO KLVWRULDQ RI DOORZLQJ D ZLGHU
DFFHVVWRKLVWRU\ RIDSURIHVVLRQDO VWDQGDUGWKDQWKDWQRUPDOO\DIIRUGHG
E\ WKH DFDGHPLF KLVWRULDQ¶V SHHUV DQG WKHLU VWXGHQWV ,Q KLV DUWLFOH
7KRPSVRQQRWHGWKDW7DZQH\DQGRWKHUKLVWRULDQVRI7DZQH\¶VJHQHUD
WLRQ KDG µDQ XQXVXDOO\ ZLGH SDUWLFLSDWRU\ UHDGHUVKLSZLWK DQ DXGLHQFH
RXWVLGH WKH JURYHV RI DFDGHPH¶ DQG REYLRXVO\ UHJUHWWHG WKDW WKLV ZDV
VRPHWKLQJZKLFKPRUHUHFHQWSUDFWLWLRQHUVRIKLVWRU\ODFNHG7KLVLVVXH
KDV EHHQ UDLVHG PRUH UHFHQWO\ E\ VRPHERG\ ZRUNLQJ IURP D UDWKHU
GLIIHUHQWLGHRORJLFDOSRVLWLRQIURP7KRPSVRQ'DYLG&DQQDGLQH1RWLQJ
WKH PDVVLYH H[SDQVLRQ RIKLVWRU\ DV D XQLYHUVLW\ GLVFLSOLQH LQ SRVWZDU
%ULWDLQ&DQQDGLQHFRPPHQWHGWKDW
PXFKRIWKLVQHZSURIHVVLRQDOYHUVLRQRI%ULWLVKKLVWRU\ZDVFRPSOHWHO\FXW
RIIIURPWKHODUJHOD\DXGLHQFHWKHVDWLVIDFWLRQRIZKRVHFXULRVLW\DERXWWKH
QDWLRQDO SDVW KDG RQFH EHHQ KLVWRU\¶V SULPH IXQFWLRQ 2QH SDUDGR[LFDO
UHVXOW RIWKLV XQSUHFHGHQWHGSHULRG R IH[SDQVLRQ ZDV WKDW PRUH DQGPRUH
DFDGHPLF KLVWRULDQV ZHUH ZULWLQJ PRUH DQGPRUHDFDGHPLF KLVWRU\ ZKLFK
IHZHUDQGIHZHUSHRSOHZHUH DFWXDOO\UHDGLQJ
2QH RI WKH PDMRU REMHFWLYHV RI WKRVH ZULWLQJ KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ
SDUWLFXODUO\ WKRVH ZRUNLQJ IURP D VRFLDOLVW RU ODERXU KLVWRU\ SRVLWLRQ
History from Below
ZDVWRDWWHPSWWRUHPHG\WKLVVLWXDWLRQE\EURDGHQLQJWKHLUDXGLHQFHDQG
SRVVLEO\ SURYLGLQJ D SHRSOH¶V YHUVLRQ RI WKDW QHZ V\QWKHVLV RI RXU
QDWLRQDOKLVWRU\ZKRVH SDVVLQJ&DQQDGLQHODPHQWHG 6R IDUWKHLUHIIRUWV
KDYHQRWEHHQVXFFHVVIXO DQGWRSSHUVRQ¶VKLVWRU\ VWLOO VHHPV WREHYHU\
PXFK WKH SXEOLF WDVWH +REVEDZP KLPVHOISURIHVVHG EDIIOHPHQW DW WKH
ZLGHUHDGHUVKLSIRUELRJUDSKLHVRIOHDGLQJSROLWLFDOILJXUHV
(YHQVR WKHQRWLRQRIEURDGHQLQJDFFHVVWR DQ DZDUHQHVVRIRXUSDVW
WKURXJKKLVWRU\IURPEHORZLVVWLOODQDWWUDFWLYHRQH7KHGDQJHUUHPDLQV
KRZHYHURIIDOOLQJLQWRVRPHWKLQJOLNHIUDJPHQWDWLRQRIKLVWRULFDONQRZ
OHGJH DQGWKDWGHSROLWLFL]DWLRQRIKLVWRU\ ZKLFK VRYH[HG-XGW 3RSXODU
LQWHUHVWLQKLVWRU\IURPEHORZDVDQ\ERG\ZKRKDVKDGWRILHOGTXHVWLRQV
RQ VXFK WRSLFV DW +LVWRULFDO $VVRFLDWLRQ EUDQFK PHHWLQJV ZLOO NQRZ LV
RIWHQUHVWULFWHGWRZKDWPLJKWEHWHUPHGDQ µ8SVWDLUV 'RZQVWDLUV¶YLHZ
RISDVWVRFLHW\WKLVSUREOHPEHLQJH[DFHUEDWHGE\VRPHDVSHFWVRIZKDW
WKHVHGD\VZHDUHEHFRPLQJ DFFXVWRPHGWR GHVFULELQJ DVSXEOLFKLVWRU\
6XFKDYLHZLVDZDUHWKDWSHRSOHGLGGLIIHUHQWDQGKHQFHE\LPSOLFDWLRQ
VOLJKWO\RGGWKLQJVLQWKHSDVWDQGWKDWPDQ\RIWKHPVXIIHUHGPDWHULDO
GHSULYDWLRQ DQG HQGXUHG KDUGVKLS ZKLFK DOORZV XV WR FRPSDUH SDVW
XQSOHDVDQWQHVV ZLWK RXU FXUUHQW HDVLHU FRQGLWLRQV %XW WKHUH LV OLWWOH
DWWHPSWWRSXVKPDWWHUVIXUWKHURUWRDSSURDFKKLVWRULFDOSUREOHPVRQD
OHYHOPXFKKLJKHUWKDQDQHFGRWHRULVRODWHGORFDOH[SHULHQFH(YHQWKRVH
ZLWKDPRUH GHYHORSHGYLHZRIWKHSHRSOH¶V SDVWKDYH QRWHVFDSHG IURP
WKRVHFKDUJHVRIDQWLTXDULDQLVPZKLFKDFDGHPLFKLVWRULDQVDUHVRIRQGRI
WKURZLQJ DW WKH OHVV FRQFHSWXDOO\ RU LGHRORJLFDOO\ ZHOOHTXLSSHG 7KXV
5RGHULFN )ORXG FULWLFL]LQJ WKH SRVLWLRQ RI D JURXS ZLWK YHU\ VKDUSO\
GHILQHGLGHDV RQWKHLPSRUWDQFHRISHRSOH¶VKLVWRU\FRXOGFODLPWKDWµDW
WLPHVLQGHHGWKHVW\OHRIHistory WorkshopKDVYHUJHGRQWKHDQWLTXDU
LDQLVPRIWKHOHIWWKHFROOHFWLRQDQGSXEOLFDWLRQRIHSKHPHUDRIZRUNLQJ
FODVVOLIH¶$OWKRXJKRQHPD\QRWEHLQV\PSDWK\ZLWKWKHRYHUDOOGULIW
RI )ORXG¶V DUJXPHQW WKHUH FDQ EH OLWWOH GRXEW WKDW KH KDV LVRODWHG D
JHQXLQHSUREOHP
$ SRVVLEOH UHVSRQVH WR WKLV FULWLFLVP LV RI FRXUVH WKDW XQWLO VRPH
µD Q W LT X D U LD Q LV P RI WKH OHIW¶ KDV SHUPLWWHG WKH EXLOGLQJ XS RI D VROLG
ERG\ RIUHOHYDQWPDWHULDOV HYHQ WKURXJK WKH FROOHFWLRQ DQGSXEOLFDWLRQ
RIHSKHPHUDWKHUHFDQEHOLWWOHKRSHRIGHYHORSLQJDPDWXUHV\QWKHVLVRUD
PHDQLQJIXO EURDGHU YLHZ $ VHFRQG DQG SHUKDSV PRUH YDOLG UHVSRQVH
PLJKW EH WKDW LVRODWHG FDVH VWXGLHV RU RWKHU VLPLODU VWXGLHV LIFRQWH[WX
DOL]HG PLJKW OHDG WR VRPHWKLQJ PRUH VLJQLILFDQW WKDQ DQWLTXDULDQLVP
8QGHUDSSURSULDWHFLUFXPVWDQFHV&DUOR *LQ]EXUJ¶VVWXG\RI'RPHQLFR
6FDQGHOOD ZRXOG VHHP WR IXUQLVK D JRRG H[DPSOH WKHZULWHU RIKLVWRU\
IURP EHORZ FDQ EHQHILW JUHDWO\ IURP WKH XVH RI ZKDW DQWKURSRORJLVWV
PLJKW GHVFULEH DV WKLFN GHVFULSWLRQ 7KH LQWHOOHFWXDO SUREOHP ZKLFK
VXFKDWHFKQLTXHUDLVHVZLOOEHIDPLOLDUWRVRFLDOKLVWRULDQVWKDWRISODFLQJ
Jim Sharpe
DVRFLDOHYHQWZLWKLQLWVIXOOFXOWXUDOFRQWH[W VRWKDWLWFDQEHVWXGLHGRQ
DQ DQDO\WLFDO UDWKHU WKDQ PHUHO\ D GHVFULSWLYH OHYHO %XW REYLRXVO\ WKLV
SURFHVVFDQEHUHYHUVHGDQG RQFHDJUDVSRIWKHVRFLHW\LQTXHVWLRQ KDV
EHHQHVWDEOLVKHGWKHLVRODWHGVRFLDOHYHQWRULQGLYLGXDODVLWZHUHDVLQJOH
EXWZHOOGRFXPHQWHG)ULXOLDQPLOOHUFDQEHXVHGWRSURYLGHDSDWKZD\WR
D GHHSHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKDW VRFLHW\ 7KH KLVWRULDQ QHHG QRW DGRSW
WKH VHPLRWLF FRQFHSW RI FXOWXUH DGYRFDWHG E\ VXFK DQWKURSRORJLVWV DV
&OLIIRUG *HHUW] WR DSSUHFLDWH WKH SRWHQWLDO XVHIXOQHVV RIWKLV WHFKQLTXH
$QG WKH EDVLF SUREOHP ZKLFK *HHUW] DGGUHVVHV WKDW RIKRZ ZH DUH WR
WUDQVODWHDVRFLDOUHDOLW\LQWRWKHVFKRODUO\FRQVWUXFWVRIERRNVDUWLFOHVRU
OHFWXUHV LV VXUHO\ RQH ZKLFK LV IDPLOLDU WR WKH VWXGHQW RIKLVWRU\ IURP
EHORZ
OLWHUDWXUH KDYH DYRZHGO\ VHW RXW WR DQDO\VH WKH VXEMHFWV RI WKHLU
UHVHDUFKHVµIURPEHORZ¶%XWLWLVSHUKDSVLQKLVWRU\WKDWWKLVSHUVSHFWLYH
KDV EHHQ PRVW FRJHQWO\ HVWDEOLVKHG DQG ZH PXVW QRZ GUDZ XS VRPH
JHQHUDO FRQFOXVLRQV DERXW WKH ODERXUV ZKLFK KDYH WDNHQ SODFH LQ WKLV
IUXLWIXOLIFRQIXVLQJFRUQHURI&OLR¶VYLQH\DUG
,WLV DWOHDVWFOHDUWKDWDQXPEHURIKLVWRULDQVKDYHEHHQ VXFFHVVIXOLQ
RYHUFRPLQJWKHQRWLQFRQVLGHUDEOHREVWDFOHVZKLFKLPSHGHWKHSUDFWLFHRI
KLVWRU\ IURPEHORZ 0RUHVSHFLILFDOO\ DQXPEHURIVFKRODUVKDYHUHFRJ
QL]HGWKHQHHGWRPDNHDFRQFHSWXDOOHDSWRIXUWKHUWKHLUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI
WKHORZHURUGHUVLQSDVWVRFLHWLHVDQGKDYHWKHQJRQHRQWRSHUIRUPWKDW
IHDW RI LQWHOOHFWXDO J\PQDVWLFV VXFFHVVIXOO\ (GZDUG 7KRPSVRQ &DUOR
*LQ]EXUJ (PPDQXHO/H5R\ /DGXULHDQGWKHUHVWIURPGLIIHULQJVWDUW
LQJSRLQWV DQGZLWK GLIIHUHQWKLVWRULFDO REMHFWLYHVLQ YLHZ KDYH DOO EHHQ
DEOH WR GHPRQVWUDWH KRZ LPDJLQDWLRQ FDQ LQWHUDFW ZLWK VFKRODUVKLS WR
EURDGHQ RXU YLHZ RIWKH SDVW 0RUHRYHU WKH ZRUN RIWKHVH DQG RWKHU
KLVWRULDQV KDV VKRZQKRZWKHKLVWRULFDOLPDJLQDWLRQ FDQ EH DSSOLHGQRW
RQO\WRIRUPLQJQHZFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQVRIWKHVXEMHFWPDWWHURIKLVWRU\
EXWDOVRWRDVNLQJQHZTXHVWLRQVRIGRFXPHQWVDQGGRLQJGLIIHUHQWWKLQJV
ZLWKWKHP7KUHHRUIRXUGHFDGHVDJRPDQ\KLVWRULDQVZRXOGKDYHGHQLHG
WKHSRVVLELOLW\ RQHYLGHQWLDOJURXQGV RIZULWLQJVHULRXV KLVWRU\DERXWD
QXPEHURIVXEMHFWVZKLFKDUHQRZIDPLOLDURQHVFULPHSRSXODUFXOWXUH
SRSXODUUHOLJLRQWKHSHDVDQWIDPLO\ )URPPHGLHYDOLVWVWU\LQJWRUHFRQ
VWUXFW WKH OLIH RISHDVDQW FRPPXQLWLHV WR RUDO KLVWRULDQV UHFRUGLQJ DQG
GHVFULELQJWKHOLIH RIHDUOLHUJHQHUDWLRQVLQWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\KLVWRU
LDQVZRUNLQJIURPEHORZKDYHVKRZQKRZWKHLPDJLQDWLYHXVHRIVRXUFH
PDWHULDOVFDQLOOXPLQDWHPDQ\DUHDVRIKLVWRU\WKDWPLJKWRWKHUZLVHKDYH
EHHQWKRXJKWRIDVGRRPHGWRUHPDLQLQGDUNQHVV
<HWWKHVLJQLILFDQFH RIKLVWRU\IURPEHORZLVGHHSHU WKDQPHUHO\SUR
YLGLQJKLVWRULDQVZLWKDQ RSSRUWXQLW\WR VKRZ WKDWWKH\FDQEHLPDJLQ
DWLYHDQGLQQRYDWRU\ ,WDOVRSURYLGHVDPHDQVIRUUHVWRULQJWKHLUKLVWRU\
WRVRFLDOJURXSVZKRPD\KDYHWKRXJKWWKDWWKH\KDGORVWLWRUZKRZHUH
XQDZDUHWKDWWKHLUKLVWRU\H[LVWHG$VZHKDYHQRWHGWKHLQLWLDOVHWWLQJRI
KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ LQ WKH KLVWRU\ RIWKH )UHQFK 5HYROXWLRQ RU LQ WKH
KLVWRU\ RI WKH %ULWLVK ODERXU PRYHPHQW FDXVHV VRPH SUREOHPV KHUH
DOWKRXJK LWUHPDLQV WUXH WKDWZRUN RQWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ FURZG RU
WKH QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ ZRUNLQJ FODVV KDV SURYLGHG VRPH RI WKH PRVW
SRZHUIXO H[DPSOHV RI KRZ WKH XQH[SHFWHG KLVWRU\ RI VHFWLRQV RI WKH
SRSXODWLRQ FDQ EH XQFRYHUHG 7KH SXUSRVHV RIKLVWRU\ DUH YDULHG EXW
RQH RIWKHP LV WR SURYLGH WKRVH ZULWLQJ RU UHDGLQJ LW ZLWK D VHQVH RI
LGHQWLW\ZLWKDVHQVHRIZKHUHWKH\FDPHIURP2QWKHEURDGHVWOHYHOWKLV
FDQ WDNH WKH IRUP RIKLVWRU\¶V UROH WKURXJK EHLQJ SDUW RIWKH QDWLRQDO
FXOWXUH LQ WKH IRUPDWLRQ RIQDWLRQDO LGHQWLW\ +LVWRU\ IURP EHORZ FDQ
SOD\DQ LPSRUWDQWSDUWLQWKLVSURFHVVE\ UHPLQGLQJXVWKDWRXULGHQWLW\
Jim Sharpe
,IDZRUNLVHYHUZULWWHQWRUHSODFH&DUU¶VDVDEDVLFKLVWRU\SULPHULWLV
REYLRXVWKDWLWVDXWKRULQWKHOLJKWRIKLVWRU\IURPEHORZDQGWKHEURDGHU
UHFHQWGHYHORSPHQWRIVRFLDOKLVWRU\ZLOOKDYHWRWDNHDEURDGHUYLHZRI
WKHSDVW ,QGHHGLWLVQRWHZRUWK\WKDWDZHOOUHFHLYHGUHFHQWZRUNZKLFK
ZDVLQVRPHZD\VGHVLJQHGWRUHSODFH&DUU¶VWKDWZULWWHQE\5LFKDUG-
(YDQVKDVPDGHVWURQJFODLPVIRUWKHLPSDFWRIKLVWRU\IURPEHORZ$VD
UHVXOWRIWKLVDSSURDFKZULWHV(YDQV µYLUWXDOO\HYHU\WKLQJRIPHDQLQJRU
LPSRUWDQFH WR FRQWHPSRUDU\ KXPDQLW\ QRZ KDV D ZULWWHQ KLVWRU\ DQG
WKDWPHDQVHYHU\WKLQJRILPSRUWDQFHWRDOONLQGVRISHRSOHDQGQRWMXVWWR
WKHVPDOOHOLWHRIWKHHGXFDWHGDQGSRZHUIXO¶
6XFKDQDVVHUWLRQLVFRPIRUWLQJWRSUDFWLWLRQHUVRIKLVWRU\IURPEHORZ
%XW RXUILQDO SRLQW PXVW EH WKDW KRZHYHUYDOXDEOHKLVWRU\IURPEHORZ
KDV SURYHG LQ KHOSLQJ WR HVWDEOLVK WKH LGHQWLW\ RI WKH ORZHU RUGHUV LW
VKRXOG EH EURXJKW RXW RIWKH JKHWWR RU SHDVDQW YLOODJH ZRUNLQJFODVV
VWUHHWVOXPRUWRZHUEORFNDQGXVHGWRFULWLFL]HUHGHILQHDQGVWUHQJWKHQ
WKH KLVWRULFDO PDLQVWUHDP 7KRVH ZULWLQJ KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ KDYH QRW
RQO\SURYLGHGDERG\RIZRUNZKLFKSHUPLWVXVWRNQRZPRUHDERXWWKH
SDVWWKH\KDYHDOVRPDGHLWSODLQWKDWWKHUHLVDJUHDWGHDOPRUHPXFKRI
LWV VHFUHWV VWLOO OXUNLQJ LQ XQH[SORUHG HYLGHQFH ZKLFK FRXOG EH NQRZQ
7KXV KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ UHWDLQV LWV VXEYHUVLYH DXUD 7KHUH LV D GLVWDQW
GDQJHUWKDW DVKDSSHQHGZLWKWKHAnnalesVFKRROLWPD\EHFRPHDQHZ
RUWKRGR[\ EXW DWWKHPRPHQW LWVWLOOFRFNV D VQRRN DW WKHPDLQVWUHDP
7KHUHZLOOFHUWDLQO\EHKLVWRULDQV ERWK DFDGHPLFDQGSRSXODU ZKRZLOO
FRQWULYHWRZULWHERRNVZKLFKLPSOLFLWO\RUH[SOLFLWO\GHQ\WKHSRVVLELOLW\
RIDPHDQLQJIXOKLVWRULFDOUHFUHDWLRQRIWKHOLYHVRIWKHPDVVHVEXWWKHLU
JURXQGVIRUVRGRLQJZLOOEHFRPHLQFUHDVLQJO\VKDN\+LVWRU\IURPEHORZ
KHOSVFRQYLQFHWKRVHRIXVERUQZLWKRXWVLOYHUVSRRQVLQRXUPRXWKVWKDW
ZH KDYH D SDVW WKDWZH FRPH IURP VRPHZKHUH %XW LW ZLOO DOVR DV WKH
\HDUVSURJUHVV SOD\DQ LPSRUWDQWSDUWLQKHOSLQJWRFRUUHFWDQGDPSOLI\
WKDW PDLQVWUHDP SROLWLFDO KLVWRU\ ZKLFK LV VWLOO WKH DFFHSWHG FDQRQ LQ
%ULWLVKKLVWRULFDOVWXGLHV
127(6
The Letters o f Private Wheeler 1809-1828, HG % + /LGGHOO +DUW /RQGRQ
SS
%HUWROW %UHFKW Poems, HG -RKQ:LOOHWW DQG5DOSK0DQKHLP/RQGRQ
SS
( 3 7KRPSVRQ µ+LVWRU\ IURP %HORZ¶ Times Literary Supplement, 1 $SULO
SS )RUDGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHEDFNJURXQGWR7KRPSVRQ¶VWKRXJKWV
VHH+DUYH\ - .D\H The British Marxist Historians: An Introductory Analysis
&DPEULGJH DQG +DUYH\ - .D\H DQG .HLWK 0F&OHOODQG HGV
Jim Sharpe
E P. Thompson: Critical Perspectives2[IRUG )RU VRPHFRPPHQWVRQ
WKH EURDGHU GHEDWH RQ WKH QDWXUH RIKLVWRU\ ZKLFK ZDV WDNLQJ SODFH LQ WKH
Times Literary Supplement LQ VHH WKH µ5HYLHZ (VVD\¶ E\ &KDUOHV 7LOO\
History and Theory, SS
)UHGHULFN .UDQW] HG History from Below: Studies in Popular Protest and
Popular Ideology 2[IRUG 7KLVZDVWKH (QJOLVKHGLWLRQRIDFROOHFWLRQ
ILUVWSXEOLVKHGLQ0RQWUHDOLQ
5 & 5LFKDUGVRQ The Debate on the English Revolution Revisited/RQGRQ
FK µ7KH7ZHQWLHWK&HQWXU\ ³+LVWRU\IURP%HORZ¶´
7KRPSVRQµ+LVWRU\IURP%HORZ¶S
( 3 7KRPSVRQ The Making o f the English Working Class /RQGRQ
SS
6HH IRU H[DPSOH WKH GLVFXVVLRQV LQ 3HWHU %XUNH Popular Culture in Early
Modern Europe /RQGRQ SS %DUU\ 5HD\ µ,QWURGXFWLRQ
3RSXODU &XOWXUH LQ (DUO\ 0RGHUQ (QJODQG¶ LQ Popular Culture in Seven-
teenth-Century England, HG %DUU\ 5HD\ /RQGRQ DQG -DPHV
6KDUSH µ3RSXODU &XOWXUH LQ WKH (DUO\ 0RGHUQ :HVW¶ LQ 0LFKDHO
%HQWOH\ HG Companion to Historiography /RQGRQ DQG 1HZ<RUN
SS
$ZD\URXQGWKLVSUREOHPLVWRH[DPLQHWKHH[SHULHQFHRIGLIIHUHQWVHFWLRQVRI
WKH ORZHU RUGHUV VRPHWLPHV WKURXJK WKHPHGLXP RIWKH LVRODWHGFDVH VWXG\
)RU WZR ZRUNV XVLQJ WKLV DSSURDFK ERWK RI WKHP FRQVWLWXWLQJ LPSRUWDQW
FRQWULEXWLRQV WR KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ VHH 1DWDOLH =HPRQ 'DYLV Society and
Culture in Early Modern France/RQGRQ DQG'DYLG6DEHDQ Power in
the Blood: Popular Culture and Village Discourse in Early Modern Germany
&DPEULGJH
$OH[&DOOLQLFRV The Revolutionary Ideas o f Karl M arx/RQGRQ S
&RQYHUVHO\ LW VKRXOG EH QRWHG WKDW WKHUH LV QR UHDVRQ ZK\ WKH 0DU[LVW
DSSURDFK VKRXOG QRW SURGXFH YHU\ HIIHFWLYH µKLVWRU\ IURP DERYH¶ VHH WKH
FRPPHQWV RI 3HUU\ $QGHUVRQ Lineages o f the Absolutist State /RQGRQ
S
(-+REVEDZPµ+LVWRU\IURP%HORZ 6RPH5HIOHFWLRQV¶LQ.UDQW]History
from Below,S
5LFKDUG +RJJDUW The Uses o f Literacy: Aspects o f Working-Class Life with
Special Reference to Publications and Entertainments+DUPRQGVZRUWK
S
7KRPSVRQ µ+LVWRU\IURP%HORZ¶S
+REVEDZP µ6RPH5HIOHFWLRQV¶ S
,ELGS 'HVSLWHWKHVFHSWLFLVPZKLFKPLJKWEHIHOWDERXWWKHXQLTXHQHVVRI
WKH FRQWULEXWLRQRIKLVWRULDQVRIWKH )UHQFK5HYROXWLRQLWUHPDLQVFOHDUWKDW
ZRUNVEDVHGRQWKDWSHULRGKDYHPDGHDVXEVWDQWLDOFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHFDQRQ
RI KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ UDQJLQJ IURP VXFK SLRQHHULQJ VWXGLHV DV *HRUJHV
/HIHEYUH Les pay sans du Nord 3DULV DQG The Great Fear o f 1789
(QJOLVKWUDQV 1HZ <RUN WR WKHPRUH UHFHQWZRUNRI5LFKDUG
&REE
3XEOLVKHGLQ (QJOLVKDVMontaillou: Cathars and Catholics in a French Village
1294-1324 (/RQGRQ
History from Below
6HH IRU H[DPSOH / ( %R\OH µ0RQWDLOORX 5HYLVLWHG 0HQWDOLWp DQG 0HWK
RGRORJ\¶LQ-$5DIWLVHGPathways to Medieval Peasants7RURQWR
DQG 5 5RVDOGR µ)URP WKH 'RRU RI KLV 7HQW 7KH )LHOGZRUNHU DQG WKH
,QTXLVLWRU¶ LQ- &OLIIRUG DQG * 0DUFXV HGV Writing Culture: The Poetics
and Politics o f Ethnography%HUNHOH\
/H5R\ /DGXULH Montaillou,S YL
(37KRPSVRQ The Poverty o f Theory and Other Essays/RQGRQ SS
)RUDEURDGHUGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHW\SHVRIUHFRUGXSRQZKLFKKLVWRULDQV
RI (QJODQG PLJKW EDVH KLVWRU\ IURP EHORZ VHH $ODQ 0DFIDUODQH 6DUDK
+DUULVRQ DQG &KDUOHV -DUGLQH Reconstructing Historical Communities &DP
EULGJH
6RPHLPSUHVVLRQVRIWKHW\SHRIVXEMHFWDUHDVFRYHUHGE\RUDOKLVWRULDQVFDQEH
JDLQHGIURPUHDGLQJWKHUHJXODUUHSRUWVRIZRUNLQSURJUHVVFRQWDLQHGLQOral
History: The Journal o f the Oral History Society, ZKLFK KDV DSSHDUHG VLQFH
3XEOLVKHG LQ (QJOLVK WUDQVODWHG E\ $QQH DQG-RKQ 7HGHVFKL DV The Cheese
and the Worms: The Cosmos o f a Sixteenth-Century Miller /RQGRQ
$QRWKHUZRUNE\*LQ]EXUJ The Night Battles: Witchcraft and Agrarian Cults
in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries /RQGRQ ,WDOLDQ HGLWLRQ
DOVR GHPRQVWUDWHV KRZ LQTXLVLWRULDO UHFRUGV FDQ EH XVHG WR WKURZ
OLJKWRQSRSXODUEHOLHIV
*LQ]EXUJ The Cheese and the Worms,S [YLL
%DUEDUD $ +DQDZDOW The Ties that Bound: Peasant Families in Medieval
England1HZ<RUNDQG2[IRUG )RUDEULHIHUVWDWHPHQWRI+DQDZDOW¶V
REMHFWLYHV VHHKHUDUWLFOHµ6HHNLQJWKH)OHVKDQG%ORRGRI0DQRULDO)DPLOLHV¶
Journal o f Medieval History, SS
7KHEHVWLQWURGXFWLRQWRWKHZRUNRIWKLVVFKRROLV7UDLDQ6WRLDQDYLWFKFrench
Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm ,WKDFD 1< DQG /RQGRQ
ZKLFK VKRXOG EH UHDG LQ FRQMXQFWLRQZLWK WKHPRUH UHFHQW 3HWHU %XUNH The
French Historical Revolution: The Annales School2[IRUG
)RU JHQHUDO GLVFXVVLRQV RIWKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKH WZR GLVFLSOLQHV VHH
3HWHU%XUNH Sociology and History /RQGRQ DQG3KLOLS$EUDPV His-
torical Sociology6KHSWRQ 0DOOHW
7ZRFODVVLFVWDWHPHQWVRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHSRVVLEOHOLQNVEHWZHHQKLVWRU\
DQGDQWKURSRORJ\DUH(((YDQV3ULWFKDUGAnthropology and History0DQ
FKHVWHU DQG .HLWK 7KRPDV µ+LVWRU\ DQG $QWKURSRORJ\¶ Past and
Present, SS )RUDPRUH VFHSWLFDOYLHZ VHH( 3 7KRPSVRQ
µ$QWKURSRORJ\DQGWKH'LVFLSOLQHRI+LVWRULFDO&RQWH[W¶Midland History,
VSULQJ SS
$ODQ 0DFIDUODQH Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England: A Regional and
Comparative Study /RQGRQ UHLVVXHG ZLWK LQWURGXFWLRQ E\ -DPHV
6KDUSH /RQGRQ 0DFIDUODQH¶V ZRUN VKRXOG EH UHDG LQ FRQMXQFWLRQ
ZLWK .HLWK 7KRPDV Religion and the Decline o f Magic: Studies in Popular
Belief in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century England/RQGRQ DZLGHU
UDQJLQJZRUNZKLFKDOVR GHULYHVFRQVLGHUDEOHLQVLJKWVIURPDQWKURSRORJ\
+ 5 7UHYRU5RSHU The European Witch-Craze o f the Sixteenth and Seven-
teenth Centuries+DUPRQGVZRUWK S
Jim Sharpe
7KRPSVRQ µ+LVWRU\IURP%HORZ¶S
µ(GLWRULDO¶History Workshop, S
7RQ\ -XGW µ$ &ORZQ LQ 5HJDO 3XUSOH 6RFLDO +LVWRU\ DQG WKH +LVWRULDQ¶
History Workshop, 1 S
7KRPSVRQ µ+LVWRU\IURP%HORZ¶ S
'DYLG &DQQDGLQH µ%ULWLVK +LVWRU\ 3DVW 3UHVHQW DQG )XWXUH¶ Past and
Present, S &DQQDGLQH¶V SLHFH SURPSWHG µ&RPPHQWV¶ E\
3 5 &RVV :LOOLDP /DPRQW DQG 1HLO (YDQV Past and Present,
SS /DPRQW¶VYLHZVQRWDEO\WKRVHH[SUHVVHGRQSS LPSO\D
KLVWRU\IURPEHORZ DSSURDFKWR D QHZQDWLRQDOKLVWRU\ ZKLOH(YDQV S
VWDWHVH[SOLFLWO\WKDWµ%ULWLVKKLVWRU\QHHGVWREH IDVKLRQHGIURPEHORZDQG
WRZRUNXSWRDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHVWDWH¶
+REVEDZP µ6RPH5HIOHFWLRQV¶S
5RGHULFN)ORXG µ4XDQWLWDWLYH+LVWRU\DQG 3HRSOH¶V +LVWRU\¶ History Work-
shop, S
6HH&OLIIRUG *HHUW] The Interpretation o f Cultures1HZ<RUN FK
µ7KLFN'HVFULSWLRQ 7RZDUGDQ,QWHUSUHWDWLYH7KHRU\RI&XOWXUH¶
&DURO\Q ( )LFN The Making o f Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from
Below.QR[YLOOH 7HQQ
6XPLW 6DUNDU µPopular’ Movements and ‘Middle Class’ Leadership in Late
Colonial India: Perspectives and Problems o f a ‘History from Below’&DOFXWWD
DQG1HZ'HOKL
'DQLHO + .DLVHU HG The Workers’ Revolution in Russia: The View from
Below&DPEULGJH
6DUNDU ‘Popular’ Movements and ‘Middle Class’ Leadership, S
6HH IRU H[DPSOH *HUULW +XL]HU DQG %UXFH 0DQQKHLP HGV The Politics o f
Anthropology: From Colonialism and Sexism toward a View from Below3DULV
DQG WKH PRUH QDUURZO\ IRFXVHG 8ZH 2W]HQ HG Development from
Below: Anthropologists and Development Studies7KH+DJXHDQG3DULV
%UXFH 5REELQV The Servant’s Hand: English Fiction from Below 'XUKDP
1& DQG/RQGRQ
(XJHQH' *HQRYHVHRoll, Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made/RQGRQ
S [Y
( + &DUU What is History?+DUPRQGVZRUWK SS
5LFKDUG- (YDQV In Defence o f History/RQGRQ S
:RPHQ¶V +LVWRU\
Joan W. Scott
7KH KLVWRU\ WKDW \RX FRXOG ZULWH RIZRPHQ¶V VWXGLHV EHORQJV DOVR WR WKH
PRYHPHQW LW LV QRW DPHWDODQJXDJH DQGZLOO DFW HLWKHU DV D FRQVHUYDWLYH
PRPHQWRUDVXEYHUVLYHPRP HQWWKHUHLVQRWKHRUHWLFDOO\QHXWHULQWHUSUH
WDWLRQRIWKHKLVWRU\RIZ RPHQ¶VVWXGLHV7KHKLVWRU\ZLOOKDYHDSHUIRUPDWLYH
SDUWLQLW
-DFTXHV'HUULGD
:RPHQ¶VKLVWRU\KDVHPHUJHGDVDGHILQDEOHILHOGPDLQO\VLQFHWKHV
'HVSLWH YDVW GLIIHUHQFHV LQ UHVRXUFHV DOORFDWHG WR LW LQ LWV LQVWLWXWLRQDO
UHSUHVHQWDWLRQDQGLWVSODFHLQWKHFXUULFXOXPLQWKHVWDWXVDFFRUGHGLWE\
XQLYHUVLWLHV DQG GLVFLSOLQDU\ DVVRFLDWLRQV WKHUH VHHPV QR ORQJHU DQ\
TXHVWLRQ WKDW ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ LV DQ HVWDEOLVKHG SUDFWLFH LQ PDQ\ SDUWV
RIWKH ZRUOG :KLOH WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV PD\ EH XQLTXH IRU WKH H[WHQW WR
ZKLFKZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\KDVDFKLHYHGDYLVLEOHDQGLQIOXHQWLDOSUHVHQFHLQ
WKH DFDGHP\ WKHUH LVFOHDUHYLGHQFH LQ DUWLFOHV DQGERRNV LQ WKH VHOI
LGHQWLILFDWLRQRIKLVWRULDQVZKRPRQHPHHWVDWLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRQIHUHQFHV
DQGLQWKH LQIRUPDOQHWZRUNVWKDWWUDQVPLWVFKRODUO\QHZV RILQWHUQD
WLRQDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\PRYHPHQW A
, XVHWKHWHUPµPRYHPHQW¶GHOLEHUDWHO\WRGLVWLQJXLVKWKHFXUUHQWSKHQR
PHQRQIURPHDUOLHUVFDWWHUHGHIIRUWVE\LQGLYLGXDOVWRZULWHDERXWZRPHQ
LQWKHSDVWWRVXJJHVWVRPHWKLQJRIWKHG\QDPLFTXDOLW\LQYROYHGLQFURVV
QDWLRQDODQGFURVVGLVFLSOLQDU\H[FKDQJHVE\KLVWRULDQVRIZRPHQDQGWR
HYRNHDVVRFLDWLRQVZLWKSROLWLFV
7KH FRQQHFWLRQ EHWZHHQ ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ DQG SROLWLFV LV DW RQFH
REYLRXVDQGFRPSOH[,QRQHRIWKHFRQYHQWLRQDOQDUUDWLYHVRIWKHRULJLQV
RIWKLVILHOGIHPLQLVWSROLWLFVDUHWKHVWDUWLQJSRLQW7KHVHDFFRXQWVORFDWH
Joan W. Scott
WKH RULJLQ RIWKH ILHOG LQ WKH V ZKHQ IHPLQLVW DFWLYLVWV FDOOHG IRU D
KLVWRU\ WKDW ZRXOG SURYLGH KHURLQHV SURRI RI ZRPHQ¶V DJHQF\ DQG
H[SODQDWLRQVRIRSSUHVVLRQDQGLQVSLUDWLRQIRUDFWLRQ$FDGHPLFIHPLQLVWV
DUH VDLG WR KDYH UHVSRQGHG WR WKH FDOO IRU µKHUVWRU\¶ E\ GLUHFWLQJ WKHLU
VFKRODUVKLS WR D ODUJHU SROLWLFDO DJHQGD WKHUH ZDV D GLUHFW FRQQHFWLRQ
EHWZHHQSROLWLFVDQGVFKRODUVKLSLQWKHHDUO\GD\V/DWHU VRPHWLPHLQWKH
PLG WR ODWH VHYHQWLHV WKH DFFRXQW FRQWLQXHV ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ PRYHG
DZD\IURP SROLWLFV ,WHQODUJHGLWVILHOG RITXHVWLRQVE\GRFXPHQWLQJDOO
DVSHFWVRIWKHOLYHVRIZRPHQLQWKHSDVWDQGVRDFTXLUHGDPRPHQWXPRI
LWVRZQ7KHDFFXPXODWLRQRIPRQRJUDSKVDQGDUWLFOHVWKHDSSHDUDQFHRI
LQWHUQDOFRQWURYHUVLHVDQGRQJRLQJLQWHUSUHWLYHGLDORJXHV DQGWKHHPHU
JHQFH RIUHFRJQL]HG VFKRODUO\DXWKRULWLHVZHUHWKHIDPLOLDUPDUNHUV RID
QHZILHOGRIVWXG\OHJLWLPL]HGLQSDUWLWVHHPHGE\LWVYHU\GLVWDQFHIURP
SROLWLFDO VWUXJJOH )LQDOO\ VR WKH VWRU\ JRHV WKH WXUQ WR JHQGHU LQ WKH
VZDVDGHILQLWLYHEUHDNZLWKSROLWLFVDQGVRHQDEOHGWKLVILHOGWRFRPH
LQWRLWV RZQ IRUJHQGHULVDVHHPLQJO\QHXWUDOWHUPGHYRLGRILPPHGLDWH
LGHRORJLFDO SXUSRVH 7KH HPHUJHQFH RI ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ DV D ILHOG RI
VFKRODUVKLS LQYROYHV LQ WKLV UHQGLWLRQ DQ HYROXWLRQ IURP IHPLQLVP WR
BZRPHQWRJHQGHU WKDWLVIURPSROLWLFVWRVSHFLDOL]HGKLVWRU\WRDQDO\VLV
7REHVXUH WKLVVWRU\KDVVLJQLILFDQWYDULDWLRQVGHSHQGLQJRQZKRWHOOV
LW ,Q VRPH YHUVLRQV WKH HYROXWLRQ LV YLHZHG SRVLWLYHO\ DV D UHVFXH RI
KLVWRU\IURPHLWKHUQDUURZO\LQWHUHVWHGSROLWLFV WRRH[FOXVLYHDIRFXVRQ
ZRPHQ RU SKLORVRSKLFDOO\ QDLYH DVVXPSWLRQV ,Q RWKHUV WKHLQWHUSUHWD
WLRQLVQHJDWLYHWKHµUHWUHDW¶WRWKHDFDGHP\WRVD\QRWKLQJRIWKHWXUQWR
JHQGHUDQGWRWKHRU\YLHZHGDVDVLJQRIGHSROLWLFL]DWLRQµ:KDWKDSSHQV
WR IHPLQLVP ZKHQ WKH ZRPHQ¶V PRYHPHQW LV GHDG"¶ (ODLQH 6KRZDOWHU
DVNHG UHFHQWO\ µ,W EHFRPHV ZRPHQ¶V VWXGLHV MXVW DQRWKHU DFDGHPLF
GLVFLSOLQH¶ 'HVSLWH WKHGLIIHUHQWYDOHQFHV SXW RQ WKH DFFRXQW KRZHYHU
WKHVWRU\LWVHOILV VKDUHGE\PDQ\IHPLQLVWVDQGWKHLUFULWLFVDVLILWZHUH
MQSRQWHVWDEO\ WKHZD\WKLQJVKDGKDSSHQHG
, ZRXOG OLNH WR DUJXHWKDW WKH VWRU\QHHGV VRPHFULWLFDO UHIOHFWLRQQRW
RQO\EHFDXVHLWLVWRRVLPSOHEXWDOVREHFDXVHLWPLVUHSUHVHQWVWKHKLVWRU\
LRIZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ DQG LWV UHODWLRQVKLS ERWK WR SROLWLFV DQG WR WKH GLV
FLSOLQH RIKLVWRU\ 7KH KLVWRU\ RIWKLV ILHOG UHTXLUHV QRW D VLPSOH OLQHDU
ZtiUUDWLYH EXWDPRUHFRPSOH[RQHWKDWWDNHVLQWR DFFRXQWWKHFKDQJLQJ
SRVLWLRQQRWRQO\RIZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\ EXWRIWKHIHPLQLVWPRYHPHQWDQG
WKH GLVFLSOLQH RI KLVWRU\ DV ZHOO $OWKRXJK ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ LV VXUHO\
DVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHHPHUJHQFHRIIHPLQLVPIHPLQLVPKDVQRWGLVDSSHDUHG
HLWKHUDVDSUHVHQFHLQWKHDFDGHP\RULQWKHVRFLHW\DWODUJH WKRXJKWKH
WHUPVRILWVRUJDQL]DWLRQDQGH[LVWHQFHKDYHFKDQJHG0DQ\RIWKRVHZKR
XVHWKHWHUPJHQGHULQIDFWFDOOWKHPVHOYHVIHPLQLVWKLVWRULDQV7KLVLVQRW
RQO\DSROLWLFDODOOHJLDQFHEXWDWKHRUHWLFDOSHUVSHFWLYHWKDWOHDGVWKHPWR
VHH JHQGHU DV D EHWWHU ZD\ RIFRQFHSWXDOL]LQJ SROLWLFV 0DQ\ RI WKRVH
Women’s History
ZULWLQJZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\FRQVLGHUWKHPVHOYHVLQYROYHGLQDKLJKO\SROLWLFDO _
HIIRUWWRFKDOOHQJHSUHYDLOLQJDXWKRULW\LQWKHSURIHVVLRQDQG WKHXQLYHU ,
VLW\DQGWRFKDQJHWKHZD\KLVWRU\LVZULWWHQ$QGPXFKFXUUHQWZRPHQ¶A
KLVWRU\ HYHQ DVLWZRUNVZLWKFRQFHSWV RIJHQGHU DGGUHVVHVLWVHOIWR WKH
FRQWHPSRUDU\FRQFHUQVRIIHPLQLVWSROLWLFVDPRQJWKHPLQWKH86WKHVH
GD\V ZHOIDUH FKLOGFDUH DQG DERUWLRQ ULJKWV ,QGHHG WKHUH LV DV PXFK
UHDVRQWRDUJXHWKDWGHYHORSPHQWVLQZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\DUHVWURQJO\UHODWHG
WRµWKHJURZLQJVWUHQJWKDQGOHJLWLPDF\ RIIHPLQLVPDVDSROLWLFDOPRYH
PHQW¶DVWKHUHLVWRLQVLVWWKDWWKHUHKDVEHHQLQFUHDVLQJGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQ
DFDGHPLF ZRUN DQG SROLWLFV %XW WR WDNH ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ VLPSO\ DV D
UHIOHFWLRQ RI WKH JURZWK RI IHPLQLVW SROLWLFV RXWVLGH WKH DFDGHP\ DOVR
PLVVHV WKH SRLQW 5DWKHU WKDQ SRVLW D VLPSOH FRUUHODWLRQ ZH QHHG WR
WKLQN DERXW WKLV ILHOG DV D G\QDPLF VWXG\ LQ WKH SROLWLFV RINQRZOHGJH
SURGXFWLRQ
7KHZRUGSROLWLFVLVXVHGWKHVHGD\VLQVHYHUDOVHQVHV)LUVWLQLWVPRVW
W\SLFDOGHILQLWLRQLWFDQ PHDQ DFWLYLW\ GLUHFWHGE\ RU DW JRYHUQPHQWV RU
RWKHUSRZHUIXO DXWKRULWLHV DFWLYLW\WKDW LQYROYHV DQ DSSHDO WR FROOHFWLYH
LGHQWLW\ PRELOL]DWLRQ RI UHVRXUFHV VWUDWHJLF FDOFXODWLRQ DQG WDFWLFDO
PDQRHXYUH 6HFRQGWKHWHUPSROLWLFVLV DOVRXVHGWRUHIHUWRUHODWLRQVRI
SRZHUPRUHJHQHUDOO\DQGWKHVWUDWHJLHVDLPHGDWPDLQWDLQLQJRUFRQWHVW
LQJ WKHP 7KLUG WKH ZRUG SROLWLFV LV DSSOLHG HYHQ PRUH EURDGO\ WR
SUDFWLFHV WKDW UHSURGXFH RU FKDOOHQJH ZKDW LV VRPHWLPHV ODEHOOHG µLGHR
ORJ\¶WKRVHV\VWHPVRIEHOLHIDQGSUDFWLFHZKLFKHVWDEOLVKLQGLYLGXDODQG
FROOHFWLYH LGHQWLWLHV ZKLFK IRUP WKH UHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ LQGLYLGXDOV DQG
FROOHFWLYLWLHV DQG WKHLU ZRUOG DQG ZKLFK DUH WDNHQ WR EH QDWXUDO RU
QRUPDWLYH RU VHOIHYLGHQW 7KHVH GHILQLWLRQV FRUUHVSRQG WR GLIIHUHQW
NLQGVRIDFWLRQDQGGLIIHUHQWVSKHUHVRIDFWLYLW\EXWP\XVHRIWKHZRUG
µSROLWLFV¶ WR FKDUDFWHUL]H WKHP DOO VXJJHVWV WKDW GHILQLWLRQDO DQG VSDWLDO
ERXQGDULHVDUHEOXUUHGDQGWKDWLQHYLWDEO\DQ\XVDJHKDVPXOWLSOHUHVRQ
DQFHV 7KHVWRU\RIZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\WKDW,ZDQWWRWHOOGHSHQGVRQWKHVH
PXOWLSOHUHVRQDQFHVLWLVDOZD\VDVWRU\ DERXWSROLWLFV
µ3URIHVVLRQDOLVP¶YHUVXVµ3ROLWLFV¶
)HPLQLVPKDVEHHQDQLQWHUQDWLRQDOPRYHPHQWLQWKHODVWGHFDGHVEXWLW
KDVSDUWLFXODUUHJLRQDODQGQDWLRQDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFV,WVHHPVWRPHXVHIXO
WR IRFXV RQ WKH GHWDLOV RIWKHFDVH ,NQRZEHVW WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV LQ
RUGHUWRPDNHVRPHJHQHUDOREVHUYDWLRQV
,Q WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV IHPLQLVP UHHPHUJHG LQ WKH V VWLPXODWHGLQ
SDUWE\WKH&LYLO 5LJKWVPRYHPHQWDQGE\JRYHUQPHQWSROLFLHVDLPHGDW
SURYLGLQJ ZRPDQSRZHU IRU DQWLFLSDWHG HFRQRPLF H[SDQVLRQ DFURVV WKH
Joan W. Scott
VRFLHW\ DQG LQFOXGLQJ WKH SURIHVVLRQV DQG WKH DFDGHP\ ,W IDVKLRQHG LWV
DSSHDODQGLWVVHOIMXVWLILFDWLRQZLWKLQWKHWHUPVRIWKHSUHYDLOLQJUKHWRULF
L RIHTXDOLW\ ,Q WKH SURFHVV IHPLQLVP DVVXPHG DQG FUHDWHG D FROOHFWLYH
M LGHQWLW\ RIZRPHQ IHPDOH VXEMHFWVZLWKDVKDUHGLQWHUHVWLQHQGLQJVXE
LL RUGLQDWLRQ LQYLVLELOLW\ DQGSRZHUOHVVQHVV E\FUHDWLQJHTXDOLW\DQGZLQ
QLQJFRQWURO RYHUWKHLUERGLHVDQGWKHLUOLYHV
,QDWWKHEHKHVWRI(VWKHU3HWHUVRQKHDGRIWKH:RPHQ¶V%XUHDX
LQWKH'HSDUWPHQW RI/DERU 3UHVLGHQW .HQQHG\ HVWDEOLVKHGD&RPPLV
VLRQRQWKH6WDWXVRI:RPHQ,WVUHSRUWLQGRFXPHQWHGWKHIDFWWKDW
$PHULFDQZRPHQZHUHGHQLHGHTXDOULJKWVDQGRSSRUWXQLWLHVDQGUHFRP
PHQGHGWKHFUHDWLRQRIILIW\VWDWHFRPPLVVLRQV,Q ZKHQWKH(TXDO
(PSOR\PHQW 2SSRUWXQLW\ &RPPLVVLRQ ((2& ZDV HVWDEOLVKHG XQGHU
WKH &LYLO 5LJKWV $FW VH[ GLVFULPLQDWLRQ ZDV LQFOXGHG LQ LWVMXULVGLFWLRQ
DGGHG E\ D KRVWLOH OHJLVODWRU WR GLVFUHGLW7LWOH9,, RIWKH $FW ,Q
GHOHJDWHVWRWKHWKLUGPHHWLQJRIWKH1DWLRQDO&RQIHUHQFHRI6WDWH&RP
PLVVLRQV RQWKH 6WDWXV RI:RPHQYRWHGGRZQ DUHVROXWLRQZKLFKXUJHG
WKH ((2& WR HQIRUFH WKH SURKLELWLRQ DJDLQVW VH[ GLVFULPLQDWLRQ DV VHU
LRXVO\ DV LW GLG WKDW DJDLQVW UDFH GLVFULPLQDWLRQ 7KH ZRPHQ ZKR KDG
RIIHUHGWKHGHIHDWHG DPHQGPHQWWKHQPHWWRGHFLGH RQWKHLUQH[WDFWLRQ
DQG IRUPHG WKH 1DWLRQDO 2UJDQL]DWLRQ RI:RPHQ$W DERXW WKH VDPH
WLPH \RXQJ ZRPHQ LQ 6WXGHQWV IRU D'HPRFUDWLF 6RFLHW\ DQG WKH &LYLO
5LJKWVPRYHPHQW EHJDQDUWLFXODWLQJWKHLUJULHYDQFHV GHPDQGLQJUHFRJ
QLWLRQRIWKHUROHRIZRPHQDVDFWLYHDQGHTXDOSDUWLFLSDQWVLQSROLWLFDO
>APRYHPHQWVIRUVRFLDOFKDQJH,QWKHUHDOPRIWUDGLWLRQDOSROLWLFVZRPHQ
KDG EHFRPH DQ LGHQWLILDEOH JURXS IRU WKH ILUVW WLPH VLQFH WKH VXIIUDJH
PRYHPHQWDWWKHWXUQRIWKHFHQWXU\
'XULQJ WKH V WRR FROOHJHV JUDGXDWH VFKRROV DQG IRXQGDWLRQV
EHJDQ WR HQFRXUDJH ZRPHQ WR JHW 3K'V E\ RIIHULQJ IHOORZVKLSV DQG D
JUHDWGHDORIYHUEDOVXSSRUWµ,WLVDSSDUHQW¶FRPPHQWHGRQHDXWKRUµWKDW
ZRPHQFRQVWLWXWHDPDMRUXQWDSSHGVRXUFHIRUFROOHJHVDQGXQLYHUVLWLHVLQ
QHHG RI JRRG WHDFKHUV DQG UHVHDUFKHUV¶ :KLOH ZULWHUV DV GLYHUVH DV
FROOHJH SUHVLGHQWV DQG IHPLQLVW DFDGHPLFV DFNQRZOHGJHG WKDW WKHUH KDG
EHHQµSUHMXGLFHVDJDLQVWZRPHQLQWKHOHDUQHGSURIHVVLRQV¶WKH\WHQGHGWR
DJUHHWKDWREVWDFOHVZRXOGIDOODZD\LIZRPHQSXUVXHGKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ
,W LV LQWHUHVWLQJ LQ WKH OLJKW RIVXEVHTXHQW WKHRUHWLFDO GLVFXVVLRQV WKDW
ZRPHQ¶V DJHQF\ ZDV KHUH DVVXPHG DV IUHHO\ FKRRVLQJ UDWLRQDO DFWRUV
ZRPHQ ZHUH FDOOHG XSRQ WR HQWHU SURIHVVLRQV WKDW KDG SUHYLRXVO\
H[FOXGHGRUXQGHUXWLOL]HGWKHP
,Q WKH VSDFH RSHQHG E\ WKH UHFUXLWPHQW RI ZRPHQ IHPLQLVP VRRQ
DSSHDUHGWRFODLPPRUHUHVRXUFHVIRUZRPHQDQGWRGHQRXQFHWKHSHUVLVW
HQFHRILQHTXDOLW\ )HPLQLVWVLQDFDGHPLDDUJXHGWKDWSUHMXGLFHV DJDLQVW
ZRPHQGLG QRWGLVDSSHDUHYHQZKHQWKH\KDGDFDGHPLFRUSURIHVVLRQDO
FUHGHQWLDOV DQG WKH\ RUJDQL]HG WR GHPDQG D IXOO VKDUH RIWKH ULJKWV WR
Women’s History
ZKLFK WKHLU GHJUHHV SUHVXPDEO\ HQWLWOHG WKHP ,Q WKH DVVRFLDWLRQV RI
DFDGHPLF GLVFLSOLQHV ZRPHQ IRUPHG FDXFXVHV WR SUHVV WKHLU GHPDQGV
7KHVHLQFOXGHGJUHDWHUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVDQGDWVFKRODUO\
PHHWLQJV DWWHQWLRQ WR VDODU\ GLIIHUHQWLDOV EHWZHHQZRPHQ DQGPHQ DQG
DQ HQG WR GLVFULPLQDWLRQ LQ KLULQJ WHQXUH DQG SURPRWLRQ 7KH QHZ
FROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\RIZRPHQLQWKHDFDGHP\SRVLWHGDVKDUHGH[SHULHQFH
RIGLVFULPLQDWLRQEDVHGRQVH[XDOGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQDQGLWDOVRDVVXPHGWKDW
ZRPHQKLVWRULDQVDVDJURXSKDGSDUWLFXODUQHHGVDQGLQWHUHVWVWKDWFRXOG
QRWEHVXEVXPHGLQWKHJHQHUDOFDWHJRU\RIKLVWRULDQV%\VXJJHVWLQJWKDW
IHPDOH KLVWRULDQV ZHUH GLIIHUHQW IURP PDOH KLVWRULDQV DQG WKDW WKHLU
JHQGHULQIOXHQFHGWKHLUSURIHVVLRQDOFKDQFHV IHPLQLVWVGLVSXWHG WKHXQL
YHUVDODQGXQLWDU\WHUPVZKLFKXVXDOO\GHVLJQDWHGSURIHVVLRQDOVDQGGUHZ
WKH FKDUJH WKDW WKH\ KDG µSROLWLFL]HG¶ SUHYLRXVO\ QRQSROLWLFDO RUJDQL]D
WLRQV
,Q WKHQHZO\IRUPHG&RRUGLQDWLQJ&RPPLWWHH RQ:RPHQ LQWKH
+LVWRULFDO3URIHVVLRQRIIHUHGUHVROXWLRQVDLPHGDWLPSURYLQJWKHVWDWXVRI
ZRPHQ DW WKH EXVLQHVV PHHWLQJ RIWKH $PHULFDQ +LVWRULFDO $VVRFLDWLRQ
$+$ LQ D WHQVH KLJKO\ FKDUJHG DWPRVSKHUH 2UGLQDULO\ GHYRWHG WR
GLVFXVVLRQV RIE\ODZVDQG RUJDQL]DWLRQDO SROLF\ WKHEXVLQHVV QRW WKH
SROLWLFVRIWKHDVVRFLDWLRQ WKHVHPHHWLQJVZHUHXVXDOO\DPRGHORIJRRG
IHOORZVKLS DQG GHFRUXP 'LVDJUHHPHQWV ZKHQ WKH\ RFFXUUHG FRXOG EH
DWWULEXWHG WR GLIIHUHQFHV RI LQGLYLGXDO RSLQLRQ WDVWH RU HYHQ SROLWLFDO
SHUVXDVLRQ WR LQVWLWXWLRQDO RUUHJLRQDO SULRULW\ EXW QRQH RIWKHPZHUH
IXQGDPHQWDO QRQHWKHSODWIRUPRIDQLGHQWLILDEOHµLQWHUHVW¶ DWRGGVZLWK
WKHZKROH %\WKHLUWRQH WKHLUVHQVH RIHPEDWWOHPHQW DQGWKHLUFODLPWR
UHSUHVHQW DFROOHFWLYH HQWLW\ V\VWHPDWLFDOO\GHQLHG LWV ULJKWV ZRPHQ GLV
UXSWHG WKH SURFHGXUHV DQG FKDOOHQJHG WKH LPSOLFDWLRQV RI µEXVLQHVV DV
XVXDO¶ ,QGHHG WKH\ FKDUJHG WKDWEXVLQHVV DV XVXDOZDV LWVHOID IRUP RI
SROLWLFVEHFDXVHLWLJQRUHGDQGWKXVSHUSHWXDWHGWKHV\VWHPDWLFH[FOXVLRQ
RQJURXQGVRIJHQGHUDQGUDFHRITXDOLILHGSURIHVVLRQDOV7KHDWWDFNRQ
HQWUHQFKHG SRZHUKDG DW OHDVW WZR UHVXOWV LWZRQFRQFHVVLRQV IURP WKH
$+$LQWKHIRUPRIDQad hocFRPPLWWHHWRORRNLQWRWKHTXHVWLRQVUDLVHG
DFRPPLWWHHWKDWLVVXHGDUHSRUWLQDFNQRZOHGJLQJZRPHQ¶VLQIHULRU
VWDWXVDQGUHFRPPHQGLQJDQXPEHURIFRUUHFWLYHPHDVXUHVLQFOXGLQJWKH
FUHDWLRQRIDVWDQGLQJFRPPLWWHHRQZRPHQDQGLWOHGWRFULWLFLVPRIWKH
ZRPHQ¶VFRQGXFWDVXQSURIHVVLRQDO
7KHRSSRVLWLRQEHWZHHQµSURIHVVLRQDOLVP¶DQGµSROLWLFV¶LVQRWDQDWXUDO
RQH EXW SDUW RIWKH VHOIGHILQLWLRQ RID SURIHVVLRQ DV D VNLOOHG SUDFWLFH
UHVWLQJ RQ VKDUHG SRVVHVVLRQ RIH[WHQVLYH NQRZOHGJH DFTXLUHG WKURXJK
HGXFDWLRQ 7KHUHDUHWZR GLVWLQFWEXWXVXDOO\LQVHSDUDEOHDVSHFWVRIWKH
GHILQLWLRQ RI D SURIHVVLRQ 2QH LQYROYHV WKH QDWXUH RI WKH NQRZOHGJH
SURGXFHG LQ WKLV FDVH ZKDW FRXQWV DV KLVWRU\ 7KH RWKHU LQYROYHV WKH
JDWHNHHSLQJ IXQFWLRQV WKDW VHW DQG HQIRUFH WKH VWDQGDUGV NHSW WR E\
Joan W. Scott
OHGJHZKLFKLVWKHLUVSHFLDOSURYLQFH *XDUGLDQVKLSDQGPDVWHU\DUHWKHQ
WKHEDVLV IRUDXWRQRP\ DQGIRU WKH SRZHU WR GHWHUPLQHZKDW FRXQWV DV
NQRZOHGJHDQGZKRSRVVHVVHVLW
$QG \HW RI FRXUVH SURIHVVLRQV DQG SURIHVVLRQDO RUJDQL]DWLRQV DUH
VWUXFWXUHGKLHUDUFKLFDOO\GRPLQDQWVW\OHVDQGVWDQGDUGVZRUNWRLQFOXGH
VRPHDQGH[FOXGHRWKHUVIURPPHPEHUVKLSµ0DVWHU\¶DQGµH[FHOOHQFH¶FDQ
EHERWKH[SOLFLWMXGJHPHQWVRIDELOLW\andLPSOLFLWH[FXVHVIRUELDVLQIDFW
MXGJHPHQWV RIDELOLW\ DUH RIWHQLQWHUWZLQHGZLWKDVVHVVPHQWV RIDQLQGL
YLGXDO¶V VRFLDO LGHQWLW\ WKDW DUH LUUHOHYDQW WR SURIHVVLRQDO FRPSHWHQFH
+RZWRVHSDUDWHWKHVHMXGJHPHQWVLQGHHGZKHWKHUWKH\FDQEHVHSDUDWHG
DWDOO DUHPDWWHUVQRWRQO\RIVWUDWHJ\EXWRIHSLVWHPRORJ\ 7KHRSSRVL
WLRQEHWZHHQ µSROLWLFV¶ DQG µSURIHVVLRQDOLVP¶ ZRUNHGWR REVFXUH WKH HSL
VWHPRORJLFDOLVVXH
,Q WKH$+$ZRPHQ EODFNV -HZV &DWKROLFV DQG µSHUVRQV QRW JHQWOH
PHQ¶ ZHUH V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ XQGHUUHSUHVHQWHG IRU \HDUV 7KLV VLWXDWLRQ
ZDV SHULRGLFDOO\ QRWHG DQG SURWHVWHG DQG VRPH KLVWRULDQV PDGH FRQ
FHUWHGHIIRUWVWRUHGUHVVGLVFULPLQDWLRQEXWWKHWHUPVDQGVW\OHRISURWHVW
ZHUHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKRVHXVHGDIWHU ,QWKHHDUOLHUSHULRGVZKHWKHU
UHIXVLQJWRDWWHQGDFRQYHQWLRQKHOGLQDVHJUHJDWHGKRWHORULQVLVWLQJWKDW
ZRPHQEHLQFOXGHGDWSURIHVVLRQDOPHHWLQJVSURWHVWLQJKLVWRULDQVDUJXHG
WKDWGLVFULPLQDWLRQEDVHGRQUDFHUHOLJLRQHWKQLFLW\RUVH[SUHYHQWHGWKH
UHFRJQLWLRQ RI RWKHUZLVH TXDOLILHG LQGLYLGXDO KLVWRULDQV $FFHSWLQJ WKH
I
QRWLRQ RIZKDW DSURIHVVLRQVKRXOG EH WKH\DUJXHGWKDWSROLWLFVKDG QR
HLQLWWKHLUDFWLRQWKH\FODLPHGZDVDLPHGDWUHDOL]LQJWUXO\SURIHV
tDOLGHDOV,QFRQWUDVWWKHLPSOLFDWLRQRIWKHSURWHVWVLQDQGDIWHU
ªWKDWSURIHVVLRQV wereSROLWLFDO RUJDQL]DWLRQV LQ WKHPXOWLSOHPHDQ
RIWKHWHUPµSROLWLFDO¶KRZHYHUGHFRURXVWKHLUPHPEHUV¶EHKDYLRXU
WKDW RQO\ FROOHFWLYH DFWLRQ FRXOG FKDQJH SUHYDLOLQJ SRZHU UHODWLRQ
6 'XULQJ WKH V ZRPHQ LQ WKH $+$ DQG RWKHU SURIHVVLRQDO
DVVRFLDWLRQV OLQNHG WKHLU ORFDO VWUXJJOHV IRUUHFRJQLWLRQ DQG UHSUHVHQWD
WLRQZLWKQDWLRQDO ZRPHQ¶VFDPSDLJQV HVSHFLDOO\ WKH RQH IRUWKH (TXDO
5LJKWV $PHQGPHQW (5$ WR WKH &RQVWLWXWLRQ DQG WKH\ LQVLVWHG WKDW
SURIHVVLRQDODVVRFLDWLRQVDVDZKROHWDNHDVWDQGRQWKHVHQDWLRQDOLVVXHV
Women's History
7KH\UHMHFWHGWKHVXJJHVWLRQWKDWWKH(5$ZDVLUUHOHYDQWWRWKHEXVLQHVV
RIWKH$+$RQWKHJURXQGVWKDWVLOHQFHZDVQRWQHXWUDOLW\EXWFRPSOLFLW\
ZLWKGLVFULPLQDWLRQ:LWKLQWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQV VDFUHGQRWLRQVOLNHµVFKRO
DUO\H[FHOOHQFH¶DQGµTXDOLW\RIPLQG¶ZHUHDVVDXOWHGDVVRPDQ\FRYHUVIRU
GLVFULPLQDWRU\WUHDWPHQWWKDWRXJKWWR EHUHSODFHGE\TXDQWLWDWLYHPHD
VXUHV RI DIILUPDWLYH DFWLRQ 3URIHVVLRQDO VWDQGDUGV RI LPSDUWLDOLW\ DQG
GLVLQWHUHVWHGQHVV ZHUH EHLQJ RYHUWKURZQ E\ SDUWLFXODULVWLF LQWHUHVWV RU
VRLWVHHPHGWRWKRVHKROGLQJWKHQRUPDWLYHYLHZ
$QRWKHUZD\RIORRNLQJDWWKHPDWWHUKRZHYHULVWRWUHDWWKHZRPHQ¶V
FKDOOHQJH DV D PDWWHU RI SURIHVVLRQDO UHGHILQLWLRQ IRU WKH SUHVHQFH RI
RUJDQL]HG ZRPHQ FRQWHVWHG WKH QRWLRQ WKDW WKH SURIHVVLRQ RI KLVWRU\
ZDV D XQLWDU\ ERG\ %\ LQVLVWLQJ WKDW WKHUH ZDV D FROOHFWLYH LGHQWLW\ RI
ZRPHQKLVWRULDQV DWRGGVZLWKWKDW RIPHQDQGVXJJHVWLQJDVZHOOWKDW
UDFH GLYLGHG ZKLWH PDOH KLVWRULDQV IURP EODFN IHPLQLVWV TXHVWLRQHG
ZKHWKHU WKHUHFRXOG HYHU EH LPSDUWLDO DVVHVVPHQWV RIPDVWHU\ LPSO\LQJ
WKDWWKH\ZHUHQRWKLQJPRUHWKDQWKHKHJHPRQLFJHVWXUHRIDQLQWHUHVWHG
YLHZSRLQW 7KH\ GLG QRW GLVFDUG SURIHVVLRQDO VWDQGDUGV LQGHHG WKH\
FRQWLQXHGWRFKDPSLRQWKHQHHGIRUHGXFDWLRQDQGMXGJHPHQWVRITXDOLW\
VHWWLQJXSDPRQJRWKHUWKLQJVSUL]HFRPSHWLWLRQVIRURXWVWDQGLQJZRUN
LQ ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ $OWKRXJK RQH FDQ VXUHO\ FLWH HYLGHQFH RIWHQGHQ
WLRXVQHVV DPRQJKLVWRULDQVRIZRPHQWKDWGLGQRWFKDUDFWHUL]HWKHILHOG
DV D ZKROH QRU ZDV LW RU LV LW SHFXOLDU WR IHPLQLVWV $QG HYHQ WKH
WHQGHQWLRXVGLGQRWDGYRFDWHGHOLEHUDWHGLVWRUWLRQRIIDFWVRUVXSSUHVVLRQ
RILQIRUPDWLRQIRUWKHVDNHRIWKHµFDXVH¶0RVWKLVWRULDQVRIZRPHQGLG
QRW UHMHFW WKH TXHVW IRU PDVWHU\ DQG NQRZOHGJH WKDW LV WKH XOWLPDWH
UDWLRQDOH IRU D SURIHVVLRQ ,QGHHG WKH\ DFFHSWHG WKH ODZV RIDFDGHPLD
DQGVRXJKWUHFRJQLWLRQDVVFKRODUV7KH\HPSOR\HGWKHUXOHVRIODQJXDJH
DFFXUDF\ HYLGHQFH DQG LQTXLU\ZKLFKPDNHFRPPXQLFDWLRQ DPRQJKLV
WRULDQVSRVVLEOH$QGLQWKHSURFHVVWKH\VRXJKWDQGDFTXLUHGVWDQGLQJ
DVSURIHVVLRQDOVLQWKH ILHOG RIKLVWRU\ $WWKH VDPH WLPH KRZHYHU WKH\
FKDOOHQJHG DQG VXEYHUWHGWKRVH UXOHVE\ TXHVWLRQLQJ WKH FRQVWLWXWLRQ RI
WKHGLVFLSOLQHDQGWKHFRQGLWLRQVRILWVSURGXFWLRQRINQRZOHGJH7KHLU
SUHVHQFH FRQWHVWHG WKH QDWXUH DQG HIIHFWV RI D XQLIRUP DQG LQYLRODEOH
ERG\ RI SURIHVVLRQDO VWDQGDUGV DQG RI D VLQJOH ZKLWH PDOH ILJXUH WR
UHSUHVHQWWKHKLVWRULDQ
,Q HIIHFW IHPLQLVW KLVWRULDQV LQVLVWHG WKDW WKHUH ZDV QR RSSRVLWLRQ
EHWZHHQ µSURIHVVLRQDOLVP¶ DQG µSROLWLFV¶ E\ LQWURGXFLQJ D VHW RI SUR
IRXQGO\ WURXEOLQJ TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKH KLHUDUFKLHV IRXQGDWLRQV DQG
DVVXPSWLRQV JRYHUQLQJ WKH KLVWRULFDO HQWHUSULVH :KRVH VWDQGDUGV
ZKRVHGHILQLWLRQVRIµSURIHVVLRQDOLVP¶DUHLQRSHUDWLRQ":KRVHFRQVHQVXV
GRWKH\UHSUHVHQW"+RZZDVFRQVHQVXVDUULYHGDW":KDWRWKHUYLHZSRLQWV
ZHUHH[FOXGHGRUVXSSUHVVHG":KRVHSHUVSHFWLYHGHWHUPLQHVZKDWFRXQWV
DVJRRGKLVWRU\RU IRUWKDWPDWWHU DVKLVWRU\"
Women's History
7KH\UHMHFWHGWKHVXJJHVWLRQWKDWWKH(5$ZDVLUUHOHYDQWWRWKHEXVLQHVV
RIWKH$+$RQWKHJURXQGVWKDWVLOHQFHZDVQRWQHXWUDOLW\EXWFRPSOLFLW\
ZLWKGLVFULPLQDWLRQ:LWKLQWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQV VDFUHGQRWLRQVOLNHµVFKRO
DUO\H[FHOOHQFH¶DQGµTXDOLW\RIPLQG¶ZHUHDVVDXOWHGDVVRPDQ\FRYHUVIRU
GLVFULPLQDWRU\WUHDWPHQWWKDWRXJKWWR EHUHSODFHGE\TXDQWLWDWLYHPHD
VXUHV RI DIILUPDWLYH DFWLRQ 3URIHVVLRQDO VWDQGDUGV RI LPSDUWLDOLW\ DQG
GLVLQWHUHVWHGQHVV ZHUH EHLQJ RYHUWKURZQ E\ SDUWLFXODULVWLF LQWHUHVWV RU
VRLWVHHPHGWRWKRVHKROGLQJWKHQRUPDWLYHYLHZ
$QRWKHUZD\RIORRNLQJDWWKHPDWWHUKRZHYHULVWRWUHDWWKHZRPHQ¶V
FKDOOHQJH DV D PDWWHU RI SURIHVVLRQDO UHGHILQLWLRQ IRU WKH SUHVHQFH RI
RUJDQL]HG ZRPHQ FRQWHVWHG WKH QRWLRQ WKDW WKH SURIHVVLRQ RI KLVWRU\
ZDV D XQLWDU\ ERG\ %\ LQVLVWLQJ WKDW WKHUH ZDV D FROOHFWLYH LGHQWLW\ RI
ZRPHQKLVWRULDQV DWRGGVZLWKWKDW RIPHQDQGVXJJHVWLQJDVZHOOWKDW
UDFH GLYLGHG ZKLWH PDOH KLVWRULDQV IURP EODFN IHPLQLVWV TXHVWLRQHG
ZKHWKHU WKHUHFRXOG HYHU EH LPSDUWLDO DVVHVVPHQWV RIPDVWHU\ LPSO\LQJ
WKDWWKH\ZHUHQRWKLQJPRUHWKDQWKHKHJHPRQLFJHVWXUHRIDQLQWHUHVWHG
YLHZSRLQW 7KH\ GLG QRW GLVFDUG SURIHVVLRQDO VWDQGDUGV LQGHHG WKH\
FRQWLQXHGWRFKDPSLRQWKHQHHGIRUHGXFDWLRQDQGMXGJHPHQWVRITXDOLW\
VHWWLQJXSDPRQJRWKHUWKLQJVSUL]HFRPSHWLWLRQVIRURXWVWDQGLQJZRUN
LQ ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ $OWKRXJK RQH FDQ VXUHO\ FLWH HYLGHQFH RIWHQGHQ
WLRXVQHVV DPRQJKLVWRULDQVRIZRPHQWKDWGLGQRWFKDUDFWHUL]HWKHILHOG
DV D ZKROH QRU ZDV LW RU LV LW SHFXOLDU WR IHPLQLVWV $QG HYHQ WKH
WHQGHQWLRXVGLGQRWDGYRFDWHGHOLEHUDWHGLVWRUWLRQRIIDFWVRUVXSSUHVVLRQ
RILQIRUPDWLRQIRUWKHVDNHRIWKHµFDXVH¶0RVWKLVWRULDQVRIZRPHQGLG
QRW UHMHFW WKH TXHVW IRU PDVWHU\ DQG NQRZOHGJH WKDW LV WKH XOWLPDWH
UDWLRQDOH IRU D SURIHVVLRQ ,QGHHG WKH\ DFFHSWHG WKH ODZV RIDFDGHPLD
DQGVRXJKWUHFRJQLWLRQDVVFKRODUV7KH\HPSOR\HGWKHUXOHVRIODQJXDJH
DFFXUDF\ HYLGHQFH DQG LQTXLU\ZKLFKPDNHFRPPXQLFDWLRQ DPRQJKLV
WRULDQVSRVVLEOH$QGLQWKHSURFHVVWKH\VRXJKWDQGDFTXLUHGVWDQGLQJ
DVSURIHVVLRQDOVLQWKH ILHOG RIKLVWRU\ $WWKH VDPH WLPH KRZHYHU WKH\
FKDOOHQJHG DQG VXEYHUWHGWKRVH UXOHVE\ TXHVWLRQLQJ WKH FRQVWLWXWLRQ RI
WKHGLVFLSOLQHDQGWKHFRQGLWLRQVRILWVSURGXFWLRQRINQRZOHGJH7KHLU
SUHVHQFH FRQWHVWHG WKH QDWXUH DQG HIIHFWV RI D XQLIRUP DQG LQYLRODEOH
ERG\ RI SURIHVVLRQDO VWDQGDUGV DQG RI D VLQJOH ZKLWH PDOH ILJXUH WR
UHSUHVHQWWKHKLVWRULDQ
,Q HIIHFW IHPLQLVW KLVWRULDQV LQVLVWHG WKDW WKHUH ZDV QR RSSRVLWLRQ
EHWZHHQ µSURIHVVLRQDOLVP¶ DQG µSROLWLFV¶ E\ LQWURGXFLQJ D VHW RI SUR
IRXQGO\ WURXEOLQJ TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKH KLHUDUFKLHV IRXQGDWLRQV DQG
DVVXPSWLRQV JRYHUQLQJ WKH KLVWRULFDO HQWHUSULVH :KRVH VWDQGDUGV
ZKRVHGHILQLWLRQVRIµSURIHVVLRQDOLVP¶DUHLQRSHUDWLRQ":KRVHFRQVHQVXV
GRWKH\UHSUHVHQW"+RZZDVFRQVHQVXVDUULYHGDW":KDWRWKHUYLHZSRLQWV
ZHUHH[FOXGHGRUVXSSUHVVHG":KRVHSHUVSHFWLYHGHWHUPLQHVZKDWFRXQWV
DVJRRGKLVWRU\RU IRUWKDWPDWWHU DVKLVWRU\"
Joan W. Scott
µ+LVWRU\¶YHUVXVµ,GHRORJ\¶
'H &HUWHDX¶V SRLQW KHUH LV not WKDW RQO\ ZRPHQ FDQ ZULWH ZRPHQ¶V
KLVWRU\ EXW WKDWZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\WKURZVRSHQDOOWKHTXHVWLRQV RIPDV
A-HU\DQGREMHFWLYLW\RQZKLFKGLVFLSOLQDU\QRUPVDUHEXLOW7KHVHHPLQJO\
PRGHVW UHTXHVW WKDW KLVWRU\ EH VXSSOHPHQWHG ZLWK LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW
ZRPHQVXJJHVWVQRWRQO\WKDWKLVWRU\ DVLWLVLVLQFRPSOHWHEXWDOVRWKDW
ŶB KLVWRULDQV¶ PDVWHU\RIWKHSDVW LVQHFHVVDULO\SDUWLDO $QGPRUH GLVWXUE
LQJO\ LWRSHQVWRFULWLFDOVFUXWLQ\WKHYHU\QDWXUHRIKLVWRU\DVDVXEMHFW
FHQWUHGHSLVWHPRORJ\
7KHGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHVHGLVWXUELQJSKLORVRSKLFDOLVVXHVKDVIRUWKHPRVW
SDUWEHHQGLVSODFHG RQWR DQRWKHUNLQGRIWHUUDLQ 6RFDOOHG µWUDGLWLRQDO¶
KLVWRULDQVKDYHGHIHQGHGWKHLUSRZHUDVJXDUGLDQV RIWKHGLVFLSOLQH DQG
E\ LPSOLFDWLRQ WKHLU PDVWHU\ RI KLVWRU\ E\ LQYRNLQJ DQ RSSRVLWLRQ
EHWZHHQ µKLVWRU\¶ WKDW NQRZOHGJH JDLQHG WKURXJK QHXWUDO LQTXLU\ DQG
Women’s History
RU DW OHDVW WKH OHJLWLPDF\ RIWKH VWXG\ RIZRPHQ $SSHDOLQJ WR VRPH
GLVFLSOLQDU\ SUHFRQFHSWLRQV DERXW GLVLQWHUHVWHG VFLHQWLILF DQDO\VLV LW
QRQHWKHOHVV SOXUDOL]HG WKH REMHFWV RI KLVWRULFDO LQTXLU\ JUDQWLQJ VRFLDO
JURXSV OLNH SHDVDQWV ZRUNHUV WHDFKHUV DQG VODYHV VWDWXV DV KLVWRULFDO
VXEMHFWV,QWKLVFRQWH[WKLVWRULDQVRIZRPHQFRXOGSRLQWWRWKHUHDOLW\RI
ZRPHQ¶V OLYHG H[SHULHQFH DQG DVVXPH LWV LQKHUHQW LQWHUHVW DQG LPSRUW
DQFH 7KH\ORFDWHGZRPHQLQSROLWLFDORUJDQL]DWLRQV DQGDWZRUNSODFHV
DQGLQWURGXFHGQHZDUHQDV DQGLQVWLWXWLRQV IDPLOLHV DQGKRXVHKROGV
DV ZRUWK\ RIVWXG\ 6RPH ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ VRXJKW WR GHPRQVWUDWH WKH
VLPLODULW\ RIZRPHQ¶V DQG PHQ¶V DJHQF\ VRPH RILW VWUHVVHG ZRPHQ¶V
GLIIHUHQFH ERWK DSSURDFKHV WRRN µZRPHQ¶ DV D IL[HG VRFLDO FDWHJRU\ D
VHSDUDWH HQWLW\ D NQRZQ SKHQRPHQRQ WKHVH ZHUH ELRORJLFDOO\ IHPDOH
SHUVRQV ZKR PRYHG LQ DQG RXW RIGLIIHUHQW FRQWH[WV DQG UROHV ZKRVH
H[SHULHQFHFKDQJHG EXW ZKRVH HVVHQWLDO EHLQJ DV ZRPHQ GLG QRW
7KXV VRFLDO KLVWRULDQV P\VHOIDPRQJ WKHP GRFXPHQWHG WKH HIIHFWV RI
LQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ RQ ZRPHQ D JURXS ZKRVH FRPPRQ LGHQWLW\ ZH
DVVXPHG :H DVNHG OHVV RIWHQ LQ WKRVH GD\V DERXW WKH KLVWRULFDO YDUL
DELOLW\RIWKHWHUPµZRPHQ¶ LWVHOI KRZLWFKDQJHG KRZLQWKHFRXUVHRI
LQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ IRU H[DPSOH WKH GHVLJQDWLRQ RIµZRPHQ ZRUNHUV¶ DV D
VHSDUDWH FDWHJRU\ IURP µZRUNHUV¶ FUHDWHG QHZ VRFLDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJV RI
ZKDWLWPHDQWWREHDZRPDQ2WKHUVWXUQHGWRZRPHQ¶VFXOWXUHDVWKH
WDQJLEOHSURGXFW RIZRPHQ¶V VRFLDO DQG KLVWRULFDO H[SHULHQFH DQG WKH\
WRRWHQGHGWRDVVXPHWKDWµZRPHQ¶ZDVDKRPRJHQHRXVFDWHJRU\$VD
UHVXOW WKH FDWHJRU\ µZRPHQ¶ WRRN RQ H[LVWHQFH DV D VRFLDO HQWLW\ DSDUW
IURP LWV KLVWRULFDOO\ VLWXDWHG FRQFHSWXDO UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH FDWHJRU\
µPHQ¶:RPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ VSHQWOHVV WLPH GRFXPHQWLQJZRPHQ¶V YLFWLP
L]DWLRQDQGPRUHWLPHDIILUPLQJWKHGLVWLQFWLYHQHVVRIµZRPHQ¶VFXOWXUH¶
7KHUHE\ FUHDWLQJ D KLVWRULFDO WUDGLWLRQ WR ZKLFK IHPLQLVWV FRXOG DSSHDO
IRU H[DPSOHV RI ZRPHQ¶V DJHQF\ IRU SURRI RI WKHLU DELOLW\ WR PDNH
j KLVWRU\
7KH GRFXPHQWDWLRQ RI WKH KLVWRULFDO UHDOLW\ RI ZRPHQ HFKRHG DQG
FRQWULEXWHGWRWKHGLVFRXUVHRIFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\WKDWPDGHWKHZRPHQ¶V
PRYHPHQWSRVVLEOHLQWKH V7KLVGLVFRXUVHSURGXFHGDVKDUHGIHPDOH
H[SHULHQFHWKDWZKLOHLWWRRNVRFLDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQWRDFFRXQWVWUHVVHGWKH
FRPPRQ GHQRPLQDWRU RI VH[XDOLW\ DQG WKH QHHGV DQG LQWHUHVWV WKDW
DWWDFKHGWRLW &RQVFLRXVQHVVUDLVLQJLQYROYHGWKHGLVFRYHU\RIWKH µWUXH¶
LGHQWLW\ RIZRPHQ WKH VKHGGLQJ RIEOLQGHUV WKH DFKLHYHPHQW RI DXWR
QRP\ LQGLYLGXDOLW\ DQG WKHUHIRUH HPDQFLSDWLRQ 7KH ZRPHQ¶V PRYH
PHQW DVVXPHG WKH H[LVWHQFH RIZRPHQ DV D VHSDUDWH GHILQDEOH VRFLDO
FDWHJRU\ZKRVHPHPEHUVQHHGHGRQO\WREHPRELOL]HGUDWKHUWKDQVHHLQJ
DGLVSDUDWHFROOHFWLRQRIELRORJLFDOO\VLPLODUSHRSOHZKRVHLGHQWLW\ZDVLQ
WKH SURFHVV RIEHLQJ FUHDWHG E\ WKH PRYHPHQW :RPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ WKXV
FRQILUPHG WKH UHDOLW\ RIWKHFDWHJRU\ µZRPHQ¶ LWV H[LVWHQFH SULRU WR WKH
Women’s History
FRQWHPSRUDU\PRYHPHQWLWVLQKHUHQWQHHGVLQWHUHVWVDQGFKDUDFWHULVWLFV
E\JLYLQJLWDKLVWRU\
7KH HPHUJHQFH RI ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ WKHQ ZDV LQWHUWZLQHG ZLWK WKH
HPHUJHQFH RIWKH FDWHJRU\ RI µZRPHQ¶ DV D SROLWLFDO LGHQWLW\ DQG WKLV
ZDV DFFRPSDQLHG E\ DQ DQDO\VLV WKDW DWWULEXWHG ZRPHQ¶V RSSUHVVLRQ
DQG WKHLU ODFN RIKLVWRULFDOYLVLELOLW\ WR PDOH ELDV /LNH µZRPHQ¶ µPHQ¶
ZHUHGHHPHGDKRPRJHQHRXVLQWHUHVWJURXSZKRVHUHVLVWDQFHWRGHPDQGV
IRUHTXDOLW\ZHUHDWWULEXWHGWRDQLQWHQWLRQDOGHVLUHWRSURWHFWWKHSRZHU
DQGUHVRXUFHVWKHLUGRPLQDQFHJDYHWKHP$WWHQWLRQWRGLYHUVLW\WRFODVV
UDFHDQGFXOWXUH\LHOGHGYDULDWLRQVRQWKHWKHPHRISDWULDUFK\EXWQRQH
WKHOHVVIL[HGWKHPDQZRPDQRSSRVLWLRQ7KHUHZDVOHVV DWWHQWLRQWRWKH
FRQFHSWXDO XQGHUSLQQLQJV RI µSDWULDUFK\¶ WR WKH ZD\V LQ ZKLFK VH[XDO
GLIIHUHQFHZDVEXLOWLQWRFXOWXUDONQRZOHGJHWKDQWKHUHZDVWRWKHHIIHFWV
RI V\VWHPV RIPDOH GRPLQDQFH RQ ZRPHQ DQG ZRPHQ¶V UHVLVWDQFH WR
WKHP7KH DQWDJRQLVPPHQYHUVXVZRPHQZDVDFHQWUDOIRFXVRISROLWLFV
DQGKLVWRU\DQGWKLVKDGVHYHUDOHIIHFWV LWPDGH DQLQIOXHQWLDODQGZLGH
VSUHDG SROLWLFDO PRELOL]DWLRQ SRVVLEOH DW WKH VDPH WLPH DV LW LPSOLFLWO\
DIILUPHGWKHHVVHQWLDOQDWXUHRIWKHELQDU\RSSRVLWLRQPDOHYHUVXVIHPDOH
7KHDPELJXLW\RIZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\VHHPHGWREHUHVROYHGE\WKLVVWUDLJKW
IRUZDUGRSSRVLWLRQEHWZHHQWZRVHSDUDWHO\FRQVWLWXWHGFRQIOLFWLQJLQWHU
HVWJURXSV
3DUDGR[LFDOO\ DOWKRXJK WKLV NLQG RIFRQIOLFW ZDV DQDWKHPD WR WKRVH
ZKRFRQFHLYHGRISURIHVVLRQVDVXQLILHGFRPPXQLWLHVLWZDVDFFHSWDEOHDV
DFKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIKLVWRU\7KLVZDVVRDWOHDVWLQSDUWEHFDXVHWKHILHOG
LWVHOIZDVFKDQJLQJ LWV IRFL VKLIWLQJ LWV UHLJQLQJ RUWKRGR[LHV FKDOOHQJHG
DQGGLVSODFHG,QGHHG LWPLJKWEHVDLGWKDWZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\DFKLHYHGD
FHUWDLQ OHJLWLPDF\ DV D KLVWRULFDO HQWHUSULVH DV LW DIILUPHG WKH VHSDUDWH
QDWXUH WKHVHSDUDWHH[SHULHQFHRIZRPHQ DVWKDWLV LWFRQVROLGDWHGWKH
FROOHFWLYH LGHQWLW\ RIZRPHQ 7KLV KDG WKH GRXEOH HIIHFW RIVHFXULQJ D
SODFH IRU ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ LQ WKH GLVFLSOLQH DQG DIILUPLQJ LWV GLIIHUHQFH
IURP µKLVWRU\¶ :RPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ ZDV WROHUDWHG DW OHDVW LQ SDUW EHFDXVH
SUHVVXUH IURPIHPLQLVWKLVWRULDQVDQGVWXGHQWVPDGHLWZRUWKWROHUDWLQJ
E\OLEHUDOSOXUDOLVWVZKR ZHUHZLOOLQJWR JUDQW FUHGHQFH WR WKHKLVWRULFDO
LQWHUHVWRIPDQ\WRSLFVEXWLWUHPDLQHGRXWVLGHWKHGRPLQDQWFRQFHUQVRI
WKHGLVFLSOLQH LWVVXEYHUVLYHFKDOOHQJH VHHPLQJO\FRQWDLQHGLQDVHSDUDWH
VSKHUH
µ3ROLWLFV¶YHUVXVµ7KHRU\¶
7KHDSSDUHQWFRQWDLQPHQWDQGVHJUHJDWLRQRIZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\ZDVQHYHU
FRPSOHWHEXWLWEHJDQWREHREYLRXVO\XQGHUPLQHGLQWKHODWH VE\D
Joan W. Scott
UHODWLYHWRVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOFRQWH[WVLWZDVSRVVLEOHWRWKLQNLQWHUPVRI
GLIIHUHQW JHQGHU V\VWHPV DQG WKH UHODWLRQV RIWKRVH WR RWKHU FDWHJRULHV
VXFKDVUDFHRUFODVVRUHWKQLFLW\ DVZHOODVWRWDNHDFFRXQWRIFKDQJH
7KH FDWHJRU\ RIJHQGHU XVHG ILUVW WR DQDO\VH GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ WKH
VH[HV ZDV H[WHQGHG WR WKH LVVXH RI GLIIHUHQFHV ZLWKLQ GLIIHUHQFH 7KH
LGHQWLW\ SROLWLFV RI WKH V EURXJKW PXOWLSOH DOOHJLDQFHV LQWR EHLQJ
WKDWFKDOOHQJHGWKHXQLWDU\PHDQLQJRIWKHFDWHJRU\RIµZRPHQ¶ ,QGHHG
WKHWHUP µZRPHQ¶ FRXOGKDUGO\EHXVHGZLWKRXWPRGLILFDWLRQZRPHQRI
FRORXU -HZLVK ZRPHQ OHVELDQ ZRPHQ SRRU ZRUNLQJ ZRPHQ VLQJOH
PRWKHUVZHUHRQO\VRPHRIWKHFDWHJRULHVLQWURGXFHG7KH\DOOFKDOOHQJHG
WKH ZKLWH PLGGOHFODVV KHWHURVH[XDO KHJHPRQ\ RI WKH WHUP µZRPHQ¶
DUJXLQJ WKDW IXQGDPHQWDO GLIIHUHQFHV RIH[SHULHQFH PDGH LW LPSRVVLEOH
WR FODLP D VLQJOH LGHQWLW\ 7KH IUDJPHQWDWLRQ RIDXQLYHUVDO QRWLRQ RI
µZRPHQ¶ E\ UDFH HWKQLFLW\ FODVV DQG VH[XDOLW\ ZDV FRPSRXQGHG E\
VHULRXVSROLWLFDOGLIIHUHQFHVZLWKLQWKHZRPHQ¶VPRYHPHQWRQLVVXHVUDQ
JLQJIURP3DOHVWLQHWRSRUQRJUDSK\7KHLQFUHDVLQJO\YLVLEOHDQGYHKH
PHQW GLIIHUHQFHV DPRQJ ZRPHQ FDOOHG LQWR TXHVWLRQ WKH SRVVLELOLW\ IRU
D XQLILHG SROLWLFV DQG VXJJHVWHG WKDW ZRPHQ¶V LQWHUHVWV ZHUH QRW VHOI
HYLGHQW EXW D PDWWHU RIFRQWHVW DQG GHEDWH ,Q HIIHFW DOO WKH GHPDQGV
IRUUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHH[SHULHQFHVDQGKLVWRULHVRIGLYHUVHNLQGVRIZRPHQ
SOD\HG RXW WKH ORJLF RI VXSSOHPHQWDULW\ WKLV WLPH LQ UHODWLRQ WR WKH
XQLYHUVDOFDWHJRU\RIZRPHQ WR WKHVXIILFLHQF\ RIDQ\ JHQHUDOZRPHQ¶V
KLVWRU\ DQG WR WKH DELOLW\ RIDQ\ KLVWRULDQ RIZRPHQ WR FRYHU DOO WKH
JURXQG
7KHLVVXHRIGLIIHUHQFHVZLWKLQGLIIHUHQFHEURXJKWWRWKHIRUHDGHEDWH
DERXWKRZDQGZKHWKHUWRDUWLFXODWHJHQGHUDVDFDWHJRU\RIDQDO\VLV2QH
RIWKHVH DUWLFXODWLRQV GUDZV RQZRUNLQWKH VRFLDOVFLHQFHVDERXWJHQGHU
V\VWHPV RU VWUXFWXUHV LW DVVXPHV D IL[HG RSSRVLWLRQ EHWZHHQ PHQ DQG
ZRPHQDQG VHSDUDWHLGHQWLWLHV RUUROHV IRUWKH VH[HVWKDW RSHUDWH FRQ
VLVWHQWO\ LQ DOO VSKHUHV RIVRFLDOOLIH ,W DOVR DVVXPHV DGLUHFWFRUUHODWLRQ
EHWZHHQWKHVRFLDOFDWHJRULHVPDOHDQGIHPDOHDQGWKHVXEMHFWLGHQWLWLHVRI
PHQDQGZRPHQDQGDWWULEXWHVWKHLUYDULDWLRQWRRWKHUHVWDEOLVKHGVRFLDO
FKDUDFWHULVWLFV VXFK DV FODVV RU UDFH ,W H[WHQGV WKH IRFXV RI ZRPHQ¶V
KLVWRU\ E\ DWWHQGLQJ WR PDOHIHPDOH UHODWLRQVKLSV DQG WR TXHVWLRQV
DERXW KRZ JHQGHU LV SHUFHLYHG ZKDW WKH SURFHVVHV DUH WKDW HVWDEOLVK
JHQGHUHG LQVWLWXWLRQV DQG WR WKH GLIIHUHQFHV WKDW UDFH FODVV HWKQLFLW\
DQG VH[XDOLW\ KDYH PDGH LQ WKH KLVWRULFDO H[SHULHQFHV RI ZRPHQ 7KH
VRFLDO VFLHQFH DSSURDFK WR JHQGHU KDV SOXUDOL]HG WKH FDWHJRU\ RI
µZRPHQ¶ DQGSURGXFHGDIORXULVKLQJVHW RIKLVWRULHVDQGFROOHFWLYHLGHQW
LWLHVEXWLWKDVDOVRUXQLQWRDVHHPLQJO\LQWUDFWDEOHVHWRISUREOHPVWKDW
IROORZ IURP DFNQRZOHGJLQJ GLIIHUHQFHV DPRQJ ZRPHQ ,I WKHUH DUH VR
PDQ\GLIIHUHQFHV RIFODVV UDFH HWKQLFLW\ DQG VH[XDOLW\ZKDWFRQVWLWXWHV
WKHFRPPRQ JURXQG RQ ZKLFK IHPLQLVWVFDQRUJDQL]HFRKHUHQWFROOHFWLYH
Joan W. Scott
DFWLRQ" :KDW LV WKH FRQFHSWXDO OLQN IRU ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ RU ZRPHQ¶V
VWXGLHV FRXUVHV DPRQJ ZKDW VHHPV WR EH DQ LQILQLWH SUROLIHUDWLRQ RI
GLIIHUHQW ZRPHQ¶V VWRULHV 7KH WZR SUREOHPV DUH OLQNHG LV WKHUH D
FRPPRQ LGHQWLW\ IRU ZRPHQ DQG LV WKHUH D FRPPRQ KLVWRU\ RI WKHP
WKDWZHFDQZULWH"
6RPH IHPLQLVWV KDYH WULHG WR DGGUHVV WKHVH TXHVWLRQV E\ DQDO\VLQJ
JHQGHUZLWKWKHOLWHUDU\DQGSKLORVRSKLFDODSSURDFKHVWKDW DVGLYHUVHDV
WKH\DUHDUHMRLQWO\JURXSHGXQGHUWKHUXEULFRISRVWVWUXFWXUDOLVP+HUH
WKH HPSKDVLV FKDQJHV IURP GRFXPHQWLQJ WKH ELQDU\ RSSRVLWLRQ PDOH
YHUVXVIHPDOHWRDVNLQJKRZLWLVHVWDEOLVKHGIURPDVVXPLQJDSUHH[LVWLQJ
LGHQWLW\ RIµZRPHQ¶ WR LQTXLULQJ LQWR WKH SURFHVVHV RILWV FRQVWUXFWLRQ
IURPJUDQWLQJDQLQKHUHQWPHDQLQJIRUFDWHJRULHVOLNHµPHQ¶DQGµZRPHQ¶
WR DQDO\VLQJKRZWKHLUPHDQLQJLV VHFXUHG 7KLVDQDO\VLVWDNHV VLJQLILFD
WLRQDVLWVREMHFWH[DPLQLQJWKHSUDFWLFHVDQGFRQWH[WVZLWKLQZKLFKWKH
PHDQLQJVRIVH[XDOGLIIHUHQFHDUHSURGXFHG ,WRIWHQXVHVSV\FKRDQDO\WLF
BBWKHRU\SDUWLFXODUO\/DFDQLDQUHDGLQJVRI)UHXGWRGLVFXVVWKHFRPSOH[
LW\DQG LQVWDELOLW\ RIDQ\ VXEMHFWLGHQWLILFDWLRQV 0DVFXOLQLW\DQG IHPLQ
LQLW\ DUH WDNHQ WR EH VXEMHFW SRVLWLRQV QRW QHFHVVDULO\ UHVWULFWHG WR
/ELJORJLFDOPDOHVRUIHPDOHV
0RVWLPSRUWDQWKDYHEHHQWKHZD\VVRPHIHPLQLVWVKDYHDSSURSULDWHG
ISRVWVWUXFWXUDOLVPWRWKLQNDERXWGLIIHUHQFH'LIIHUHQFHOLHVDWWKHKHDUWRI
OLQJXLVWLFWKHRULHVRIVLJQLILFDWLRQ $OOPHDQLQJVDUH VDLGWREHSURGXFHG
GLIIHUHQWLDOO\ WKURXJK FRQWUDVWV DQG RSSRVLWLRQV DQG KLHUDUFKLFDOO\
WKURXJK WKH DVVLJQPHQW RI SULPDF\ WR RQH WHUP VXERUGLQDWLRQ WR
_DQRWKHU 7KH LQWHUFRQQHFWHGQHVV RI WKH DV\PPHWULFDO UHODWLRQVKLS LV
LPSRUWDQW WR WDNH LQWR DFFRXQW EHFDXVH LW VXJJHVWV WKDWFKDQJH LV PRUH
WKDQ D PDWWHU RIWKH DGMXVWPHQW RIVRFLDO UHVRXUFHV IRU D VXERUGLQDWHG
JURXS PRUH WKDQ D TXHVWLRQ RIGLVWULEXWLYHMXVWLFH ,I0DQ¶V GHILQLWLRQ
UHVWV RQ WKH VXERUGLQDWLRQ RI:RPDQ WKHQ D FKDQJH LQ WKH VWDWXV RI
:RPDQUHTXLUHVDQGEULQJVDERXWFKDQJHLQRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI0DQ
DVLPSOHFXPXODWLYHSOXUDOLVPZRQ¶WZRUN7KHUDGLFDOWKUHDWSRVHGE\
ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ OLHV H[DFWO\ LQ WKLV NLQG RI FKDOOHQJH WR HVWDEOLVKHG
KLVWRU\ ZRPHQ FDQ¶WMXVWEHDGGHG RQZLWKRXW DIXQGDPHQWDO UHFDVWLQJ
RIWKHWHUPVVWDQGDUGVDQGDVVXPSWLRQVRIZKDWKDVSDVVHGIRUREMHFWLYH
QHXWUDO DQG XQLYHUVDO KLVWRU\ LQ WKH SDVW EHFDXVH WKDW YLHZ RIKLVWRU\
LQFOXGHGLQLWVYHU\GHILQLWLRQRILWVHOIWKHH[FOXVLRQRIZRPHQ
7KRVH ZKR GUDZ RQ WKH WHDFKLQJV RI SRVWVWUXFWXUDOLVP DUJXH WKDW
SRZHU PXVW EH XQGHUVWRRG LQ WHUPV RIWKH GLVFXUVLYH SURFHVVHV ZKLFK
SURGXFHGLIIHUHQFH+RZLVNQRZOHGJHRIGLIIHUHQFHSURGXFHGOHJLWLPDWHG
DQG GLVVHPLQDWHG" +RZ DUH LGHQWLWLHV FRQVWUXFWHG DQG LQ ZKDW WHUPV"
)HPLQLVWKLVWRULDQVILQGDQVZHUVWRWKHVHTXHVWLRQVLQSDUWLFXODUFRQWH[
WXDOLQVWDQFHVEXWWKH\GRQRWVLPSO\SURGXFHVHSDUDWHVWRULHV5DWKHUWKH
FRPPRQJURXQG SROLWLFDOO\DQG DFDGHPLFDOO\ LVRQHRQ ZKLFK IHPLQLVWV
Women’s History
KRZ WR LQFRUSRUDWH IDQWDV\ DQG WKH XQFRQVFLRXV LQWR VWXGLHV RI VRFLDO
EHKDYLRXU KRZWRUHFRJQL]H GLIIHUHQFHVDQGPDNHSURFHVVHVRIGLIIHUHQ
WLDWLRQ WKH IRFXV RI SROLWLFDO DQDO\VLV ZLWKRXW HLWKHU HQGLQJ XS ZLWK
XQFRQQHFWHG PXOWLSOHDFFRXQWVRUZLWKRYHUDUFKLQJFDWHJRULHVOLNHFODVV
RU µWKH RSSUHVVHG¶ KRZ WR DFNQRZOHGJH WKH SDUWLDOLW\ RI RQH¶V VWRU\
LQGHHG RI DOO VWRULHV DQG VWLOO WHOO LW ZLWK DXWKRULW\ DQG FRQYLFWLRQ
7KHVH DUH SUREOHPV QRW VROYHG E\ GLVPLVVLQJ µWKHRU\¶ RU GHFODULQJ LW
DQWLWKHWLFDO WR µSROLWLFV¶ UDWKHU WKH\ UHTXLUH VXVWDLQHG DQG VLPXOWDQHRXV
GLVFXVVLRQGLVFXVVLRQWKDWLVDWRQFHWKHRUHWLFDODQGSROLWLFDOIRULQWKH
HQGWKH\DUHWKHSUREOHPVRIDOOWKRVHZKRZULWHZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\ZKDW
HYHUWKHLUDSSURDFK
7KH\ DUH FRPPRQ SUREOHPV EHFDXVH WKH\ IROORZ IURP WKH ORJLF RI
VXSSOHPHQWDULW\ WKDW FKDUDFWHUL]HV ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ DQG WKDW KDV JLYHQ
LWLWVFULWLFDOIRUFH$VIHPLQLVWKLVWRULDQVKDYHXQGHUWDNHQWRSURGXFHQHZ
NQRZOHGJH WKH\ KDYH QHFHVVDULO\ FDOOHG LQWR TXHVWLRQ WKH DGHTXDF\ QRW
RQO\ RI WKH VXEVWDQFH RI H[LVWLQJ KLVWRU\ EXW DOVR RI LWV FRQFHSWXDO
IRXQGDWLRQVDQGHSLVWHPRORJLFDOSUHPLVHV ,QWKLVWKH\KDYHIRXQGDOOLHV
DPRQJ KLVWRULDQV DQG RWKHU VFKRODUV LQ WKH KXPDQLWLHV DQG WKH VRFLDO
VFLHQFHV ZKR DUH GHEDWLQJ DPRQJ WKHPVHOYHV LVVXHV RI FDXVDOLW\ DQG
H[SODQDWLRQDJHQF\DQGGHWHUPLQDWLRQ <HWIHPLQLVWVKDYH IRUWKHPRVW
SDUW QRWEHHQFRQVLGHUHGIXOOSDUWQHUVLQWKHVH GHEDWHV (YHQ LQ WKHVH
FULWLFDO GLVFRXUVHV WKHLUSRVLWLRQ UHPDLQV VXSSOHPHQWDU\ DWRQFHDSDU
WLFXODUH[DPSOHRIDJHQHUDOSKHQRPHQRQandDUDGLFDOFRPPHQWDU\XSRQ
WKHLQVXIILFLHQF\RILWVWHUPVDQGSUDFWLFHV7KHVXSSOHPHQWDU\SRVLWLRQ
LVRQHRIUHFXUULQJLQGHWHUPLQDF\DQGSRWHQWLDOGHVWDELOL]DWLRQ,WUHTXLUHV
FRQVWDQWDWWHQWLRQWRUHODWLRQVKLSVRISRZHUDFHUWDLQYLJLODQFHLQWKHIDFH
RIDWWHPSWV WR LPSOHPHQW RQH RUDQRWKHU RILWV FRQWUDGLFWRU\ SRVLWLRQV
:RPHQ¶V KLVWRULDQV FRQVWDQWO\ ILQG WKHPVHOYHV SURWHVWLQJ DWWHPSWV WR
UHOHJDWH WKHP WR SRVLWLRQV WKDW DUH PHUHO\ H[WUDQHRXV WKH\ DOVR UHVLVW
DUJXPHQWV WKDW GLVPLVV ZKDW WKH\ GR DV VR GLIIHUHQW WKDW LW GRHV QRW
TXDOLI\ DV KLVWRU\ 7KHLU SURIHVVLRQDO OLYHV DQG WKHLU ZRUN DUH IRU WKLV
UHDVRQQHFHVVDULO\SROLWLFDO,QWKHHQGWKHUHLVQRZD\WRGHWDFKSROLWLFV²
UHODWLRQVRISRZHU V\VWHPVRIEHOLHIDQGSUDFWLFH IURPNQRZOHGJHDQG
WKH SURFHVVHV WKDW SURGXFH LW ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ LV IRU WKLV UHDVRQ DQ
LQHYLWDEO\SROLWLFDOILHOG
7KHV
:KDWKDVKDSSHQHGWRWKHILHOGRIZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\LQWKHWHQ\HDUVVLQFH
WKLV ERRN ZDV ILUVW SXEOLVKHG" 7KH VKHHU YROXPH RI KLVWRULFDO ZULWLQJ
DERXWZRPHQKDVGHPRQVWUDWHGWKHSURIHVVLRQDOFUHGHQWLDOVRIKLVWRULDQV
Joan W. Scott
LQ WKLV ILHOG DQG WKH VXFFHVV RIZKDW , KDYH ODEHOOHG WKH VRFLDO VFLHQFH
DSSURDFKWRJHQGHUKDVTXLHWHGWKHIHDUVRIWKRVHZKRHTXDWHGWKHVWXG\
RIZRPHQZLWKIHPLQLVWSROHPLFV$OWKRXJKLWLVUDUHWKDWSRSXODUUHYLHZV
WKH New York Review o f Books RUWKH TLS, IRUH[DPSOH DFFRUGPXFK
VSDFHWRVHULRXVKLVWRULHVRIZRPHQDQGRUJHQGHUWKHSDJHVRIVFKRODUO\
MRXUQDOV QRZ UHJXODUO\ SURYLGH FRPPHQWDULHV DQG DUWLFOHV D VLJQDO RI
KDUGZRQ DQG ZHOOHDUQHG DFDGHPLF UHVSHFWDELOLW\ <HW LIKLVWRULDQV RI
ZRPHQKDYHVXFFHVVIXOO\VWDNHGRXWDWHUUDLQRIWKHLURZQWKH\KDYHQRW
LQWHJUDWHG WKHLU VXEMHFWLQWR ZKDWXVHG WREHFDOOHG PDLQVWUHDP KLVWRU\
7KLV LV ODUJHO\ EHFDXVH WKH ILHOG RIKLVWRU\ LWVHOILV LQ IOX[ :KHUH ROGHU
VWDQGDUGVVWLOOSUHYDLOZRPHQ¶VH[SHULHQFHGRHVQ¶W\HWFRXQWDVFHQWUDOWR
WKHPDNLQJ RIKLVWRU\ :KHUHQHZ VWDQGDUGV KDYH FRPHLQWR EHLQJ WKH
LGHDRIDPDLQVWUHDP DVLQJOHQDUUDWLYHRIQDWLRQDOGHYHORSPHQW LVQR
ORQJHULILWHYHUZDVDQDSWFKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIWKHZULWLQJDQGWHDFKLQJ
RIKLVWRU\ :RPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ KDV DW RQFH FRQWULEXWHG WR DQG EHQHILWHG
IURP WKH SOXUDOL]LQJ RIWKH DJHQWV DQG DXWKRUV RIKLVWRU\ DQG WKLV KDV
FKDOOHQJHG ERWK WKH H[LVWHQFH RID GHILQLQJFHQWUH IRUWKHGLVFLSOLQH DQG
WKHPDUJLQDOLW\RIZRPHQ
:LWKFKDQJHVLQWKHFRQFHSWLRQDQGSUDFWLFHRIKLVWRU\UHODWLRQVKLSVRI
SRZHUDQGWHUPVRIGHEDWHKDYHDOWHUHG +LVWRULDQVRIZRPHQKDYHFRPH
LQWRDVKDUHRIGLVFLSOLQDU\SRZHUDZDUGLQJSUL]HVUHIHUHHLQJERRNVDQG
DUWLFOHVHOHFWLQJOHDGHUVRISURIHVVLRQDORUJDQL]DWLRQVHYDOXDWLQJFDQGLG
DWHVIRUMREVDQGWHQXUH,QVWHDGRIWKHWHQVLRQVEHWZHHQZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU
LDQVDQGWUDGLWLRQDOKLVWRULDQVWKDW,GHVFULEHGLQWKHSUHFHGLQJSDJHVWKH
FRQIOLFWV QRZ DUH ZLWKLQ WKH ILHOG RIZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ LWVHOI 2QH VXFK
FRQIOLFW SLWV µKLVWRU\¶ DJDLQVW µWKHRU\¶ DQRWKHU µXQLYHUVDOLVP¶ DJDLQVW
µSDUWLFXODULVP¶\HWDQRWKHUµZRPHQ¶ DJDLQVWµJHQGHU¶
7KH GHEDWHDERXW KLVWRU\¶ DQG µWKHRU\¶ UHSOD\VDORQJVWDQGLQJDUJX
PHQW ZLWKLQ WKH GLVFLSOLQH DERXW WKH SODFH RI WKHRUHWLFDO FRQFHUQV RU
SKLORVRSK\ LQ WKH SUDFWLFH RIKLVWRU\ 2Q WKHRQH VLGH DUHKLVWRULDQV RI
ZRPHQ ZKR FRQVLGHU WKHRU\ DQWLWKHWLFDO WR KLVWRU\ DQG ZKR HQGRUVH
GLVFLSOLQDU\ FRPPLWPHQWV WR UHFRXQWLQJ WKH µUHDO¶ H[SHULHQFHV RIJURXSV
DQGLQGLYLGXDOVLQWKHSDVW2QWKHRWKHUVLGHDUHWKRVHZKRKDYHWDNHQXS
WKHUDGLFDOKLVWRULFL]LQJRIFDWHJRULHVLQFOXGLQJµZRPHQ¶DVVRFLDWHGZLWK
WKHZULWLQJV RI0LFKHO )RXFDXOW 7KH ILUVWJURXSFRQVLGHUV WKH OHJLWLPD
WLRQRIZRPHQDVREMHFWVRIKLVWRULFDOLQTXLU\WREHWKHIXOILOPHQWRIWKH
IHPLQLVW JRDO VWDWHG UHSHDWHGO\ LQ WKH V DQG V WR DOWHU WKH
SUDFWLFH RIKLVWRU\ 7KH VHFRQG JURXS WKLQNV DV , ZURWH RQ S
WKDW IHPLQLVP¶V FKDOOHQJH WR KLVWRU\ ZLOO EH LQFRPSOHWH XQOHVV FULWLFDO
UHIOHFWLRQVRQWKHQDWXUHRIKLVWRULFDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQLQIRUPLW 2IFRXUVH
WKHVH RSSRVLWLRQV REVFXUH WKH H[WHQW WR ZKLFK SUDFWLWLRQHUV RIµKLVWRU\¶
DGGUHVV TXHVWLRQVUDLVHGE\ µWKHRU\¶ DQG WKHH[WHQW WR ZKLFK WKRVHZKR
FRQVLGHUWKHPVHOYHV WKHRULVWVZULWHKLVWRU\ EXW LW LVWKHRSSRVLWLRQV QRW
Women’s History
WKHFRQWHQWVRIKLVWRULFDOVFKRODUVKLSWKDWVWUXFWXUHGHEDWH7KHGLVDJUHH
PHQWVDUHFRPSRXQGHGE\WKHILUVWJURXS¶VEHOLHIWKDWZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\LV
VWLOOLQWKHPRGHRIWKHLQVXUJHQF\RIHDUOLHUGHFDGHVDQGWKDWWKHUHIRUHD
XQLILHGIHPLQLVWSUHVHQFHLVUHTXLUHG7KLVVRPHWLPHVOHDGVWRWKHSXQLWLYH
WUHDWPHQW RI VRFDOOHG WKHRULVWV DQG UXQV WKH GDQJHU RI LQWURGXFLQJ D
FHUWDLQ GRJPDWLVP LQWR GLVFXVVLRQV RI ZKDW FRXQWV DV ZRPHQ DQG DV
KLVWRU\
µ8QLYHUVDOLVP¶ YHUVXV µSDUWLFXODULVP¶ LV DQRWKHU RSSRVLQJ SDLU LQ
GHEDWHVDERXWZRPHQ¶VKLVWRU\ 7KLVRSSRVLWLRQ DOVR WDNHV WKHIRUP RI
µHTXDOLW\¶YHUVXVµGLIIHUHQFH¶7KHGHEDWHVKDYHEHHQSURYRNHGE\WKHULVH
RI PXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP ZKLFK LQFOXGHV ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ 7KH\ UHYROYH
DURXQGWKHIROORZLQJVRUWV RITXHVWLRQV VKRXOGZRPHQEHGLIIHUHQWLDWHG
IURP PHQ LQ WKH VWRULHV ZH WHOO DERXW WKH SDVW RU GRHV WKLV DUWLILFLDOO\
IUDJPHQWHWKQLFUHOLJLRXVUDFLDODQGFODVVLGHQWLWLHV",VPXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP
ZLWKLWV LQVLVWHQFH RQ UHFRJQL]LQJIXQGDPHQWDO SHUKDSV LUUHGXFLEOH GLI
IHUHQFH µEDG¶ LQ 6XVDQ 2NLQ¶V WHUPV IRU IHPLQLVWV ZKR ZDQW WR DUJXH
WKDWWKHUHDUHH[SHULHQFHVFRPPRQWRDOOZRPHQ",VLWSRVVLEOHWRZULWH
ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ ZLWKRXW VSHFLI\LQJ ZKLFK ZRPHQ DUH EHLQJ GHVFULEHG"
$UHµZRPHQ¶ DOHJLWLPDWHFDWHJRU\RIKLVWRULFDONQRZOHGJH",VXQLYHUVDO
LVP YHUVXV SDUWLFXODULVP DQ DFFXUDWH RU XVHIXO ZD\ WR SRVH TXHVWLRQV
DERXW WKH KLVWRULFDO H[SHULHQFH RU GHPDQGV IRU ULJKWV RI SUHYLRXVO\
H[FOXGHG JURXSV DQGLQGLYLGXDOV DPRQJWKHP ZRPHQ" $PRQJKLVWRU
LDQV RI ZRPHQ WKHUH DUH HVSHFLDOO\ LQWHQVH GLVSXWHV DERXW ZKHWKHU
ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ RXJKW WR EH D VHSDUDWH ILHOG RI LQTXLU\ ZKHWKHU RQH
FDQ EH D IHPLQLVW KLVWRULDQ DQG QRW PDNH ZRPHQ WKH VXEMHFWV RIRQH¶V
ZULWLQJ DQGZKHWKHUDWWHQWLRQWRZRPHQDQG JHQGHURXJKWURXWLQHO\WR
EHFRPHDSDUWRIDOOKLVWRULFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQV
µ*HQGHU¶YHUVXVµZRPHQ¶LVDUHODWHGFRQWURYHUV\+HUHJHQGHUVLJQLILHV
WZRGLIIHUHQWWKLQJVDQLQWHUURJDWLRQRIWKHSURGXFWLRQRIWKHNQRZOHGJH
DERXWDQGWKHVRFLDORUJDQL]DWLRQRIVH[XDOGLIIHUHQFH DQGDPXOWLSOLFD
WLRQ RIWKH REMHFWV RIKLVWRULFDO LQTXLU\ WR LQFOXGH LGHDV DERXW VH[ DQG
VH[XDOLW\ DQG JD\ DQG OHVELDQ KLVWRU\ ,Q WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV DV PDQ\
ZRPHQ¶VVWXGLHVSURJUDPPHVKDYH RSWHGWREHFRPHJHQGHUVWXGLHVSUR
JUDPPHVRSSRQHQWVRIWKHFKDQJHKDYHZRUULHGDERXWWKHORVVRIDWWHQ
WLRQWRZRPHQLWPD\HQWDLO7RWKHH[WHQWWKDWJHQGHULVXQGHUVWRRGWR
EH DQDQDO\VLV RIWKHFKDQJLQJZD\VLQZKLFKVH[XDOGLIIHUHQFHKDVEHHQ
SURGXFHG LW WDNHV WKH SODFH RI WKHRU\ LQ WKH µWKHRU\¶ YHUVXV µKLVWRU\¶
GHEDWH µ+LVWRU\¶ LV UHSUHVHQWHG E\ WKRVH ZKR LQVLVW WKDW DFFRXQWV RI
ZRPHQ DQG WKHLU DJHQF\ RXJKWWRSUHRFFXS\KLVWRULDQV RIZRPHQ %XW
ZKHQJHQGHULV XQGHUVWRRG VLPSO\ DVDSOXUDOL]LQJRIWRSLFV WKHLVVXHLV
GLIIHUHQW ,W LQYROYHV LQ FRQWUDGLFWRU\ ZD\V WKH XQLYHUVDOLW\ RIWKH
FDWHJRU\ RIZRPHQ DV DJDLQVW WKH SDUWLFXODULW\ RI WKHLU HWKQLFLWLHV RU
VH[XDOLWLHV DQG WKH SDUWLFXODULW\ RI ZRPHQ¶V JHQGHUHG H[SHULHQFH DV
Joan W. Scott
127(6
, ZRXOG OLNH WR WKDQN &OLIIRUG *HHUW] IRUILUVW SRVLQJ VRPH RIWKH TXHVWLRQV
WKDWOHGWRWKHIRUPXODWLRQRIWKLVHVVD\DQGIRUKLVFODULI\LQJFRPPHQWVRQDQ
HDUO\YHUVLRQRILW'RQDOG6FRWWKHOSHGPHDUWLFXODWHPDQ\FUXFLDOSRLQWVDQG
(OL]DEHWK:HHGSURYLGHGLQYDOXDEOHFULWLFDO VXJJHVWLRQV ,DOVRDSSUHFLDWHWKH
FRPPHQWVDQGDGYLFHRI-XGLWK%XWOHU/DXUD(QJHOVWHLQ5XWK/H\VDQG0DU\
/RXLVH 5REHUWV 7KH FULWLFLVPV RI +LOGD 5RPHU 7DQLD 8UXP DQG .DULQ
:LGHUEHUJ SRVHG GLIILFXOW FKDOOHQJHV WKDW KDYH LPSURYHG DQG VWUHQJWKHQHG
WKHDUJXPHQW , DPJUDWHIXO IRUWKHP
µ:RPHQ LQ WKH %HHKLYH $ 6HPLQDU ZLWK -DFTXHV 'HUULGD¶ WUDQVFULSW RIWKH
3HPEURNH &HQWHUIRU 7HDFKLQJDQG 5HVHDUFK 6HPLQDUZLWK 'HUULGD LQ Sub-
jects/ObjectsVSULQJ S
&LWHGLQ.DUHQ:LQNOHU µ:RPHQ¶V6WXGLHVDIWHU7ZR'HFDGHV 'HEDWHVRYHU
3ROLWLFV1HZ'LUHFWLRQVIRU5HVHDUFK¶Chronicle o f Higher Education,6HSW
S $
1DQF\ )UDVHU DQG /LQGD 1LFKROVRQ µ6RFLDO &ULWLFLVP ZLWKRXW 3KLORVRSK\
XQSXEOLVKHG06 S
µ3ROLWLFV LQ WKH SURIRXQG VHQVH DV WKH HQVHPEOH RIKXPDQ UHODWLRQV LQ WKHLU
UHDO VRFLDO VWUXFWXUHLQWKHLUDELOLW\WRFRQVWUXFWWKHZRUOG¶ 5RODQG%DUWKHV
Mythologies 3DULV S 6HH DOVR 0LFKHO )RXFDXOW The History o f
Sexuality, Vol. 1 An Introduction1HZ<RUN SS
*D\DWUL &KDNUDYRUW\ 6SLYDN µ7KH 3ROLWLFV RI ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQ¶ LQ : - 7
0LWFKHOO The Politics o f Interpretation &KLFDJR SS 0DU\
3RRYH\ Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work o f Gender in mid- Victor-
ian England &KLFDJR 6HH DOVR µLGHRORJ\¶ LQ WKH JORVVDU\ RI /RXLV
$OWKXVVHUDQG(WLHQQH%DOLEDUReading Capital,WUDQV%HQ%UHZVWHU/RQGRQ
S
-R )UHHPDQ µ:RPHQ RQ WKH 0RYH 5RRWV RI5HYROW¶ LQ $OLFH 6 5RVVL DQG
$QQ&DOGHUZRRGHGVAcademic Women on the Move1HZ<RUN SS
6HH DOVR WKH HVVD\V E\ $OLFH 5RVVL DQG .D\ .ORW]EXUJHU LQ WKLV VDPH
YROXPH
6DUD(YDQV Personal Politics1HZ<RUN
4XRWDWLRQ IURP %DUQDE\ .HHQH\ 3UHVLGHQW RI%URZQ 8QLYHUVLW\ Pembroke
Alumnae,
2FW S
,ELG SS -HVVLH %HUQDUG Academic Women &OHYHODQG /XFLOOH
$GGLVRQ 3ROODUG Women on College and University Faculties: A Historical
Survey and a Study o f their Present Academic Status 1HZ <RUN 6HH
HVS S
3HWHU1RYLFN That Noble Dream: The ‘Objectivity Question’and the American
Historical Profession1HZ<RUN
2Q WKH LVVXH RI DFFHVV VHH 0DU\ * 'LHW] µ&RQWH[W LV $OO )HPLQLVP DQG
7KHRULHV RI&LWL]HQVKLS¶ -LOO . &RQZD\ µ3ROLWLFV 3HGDJRJ\ DQG *HQGHU¶
DQG-RDQ:6FRWWµ+LVWRU\DQG'LIIHUHQFH¶DOOLQDaedalusIDOOSS
UHVSHFWLYHO\
Joan W. Scott
+RZDUG . %HDOH µ7KH3URIHVVLRQDO +LVWRULDQ +LV7KHRU\DQG KLV3UDFWLFH¶
Pacific Historical Review, 22$XJ S
7KLV LVVXH KDV FRPH XS LQ PDQ\ GLIIHUHQWZD\V PRVW UHFHQWO\ LQ FRQQHFWLRQ
ZLWKWKH6HDUVFDVH ,QWKHFRXUVHRIDVH[GLVFULPLQDWLRQVXLWEURXJKWDJDLQVW
WKH 6HDUV 5RHEXFN DQG &RPSDQ\ UHWDLO FKDLQ WZR KLVWRULDQV RI ZRPHQ
5RVDOLQG 5RVHQEHUJ DQG $OLFH .HVVOHU+DUULV WHVWLILHG RQ RSSRVLWH VLGHV
7KHFDVHFUHDWHGWUHPHQGRXVFRQWURYHUV\DPRQJKLVWRULDQVDERXWWKHSROLWLFDO
LPSOLFDWLRQV RI ZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ DQG DERXW WKH SROLWLFDO FRPPLWPHQWV RI
IHPLQLVW KLVWRULDQV 7KHUH KDYH EHHQ DFFXVDWLRQV RIEDG IDLWK RQ ERWK VLGHV
EXW WKH PRVW UHFHQW DQG E\ IDU WKH PRVW YLQGLFWLYH FKDUJHV E\ 6DQIRUG
/HYLQVRQ DQG 7KRPDV +DVNHOO LQ GHIHQFH RI5RVHQEHUJ LQVLVW WKDW .HVVOHU
+DUULVGHOLEHUDWHO\GLVWRUWHGKLVWRU\LQWKHLQWHUHVWVRISROLWLFVZKLOH5RVHQEHUJ
EUDYHO\GHIHQGHGµWUXWK¶7KHRSSRVLWLRQEHWZHHQ µSROLWLFV¶DQG µWUXWK¶ µLGHRO
RJ\¶ DQG µKLVWRU\¶ VWUXFWXUHV WKHLU HVVD\ DQG JLYHV LW LWV VHHPLQJO\ REMHFWLYH
GLVSDVVLRQDWH WRQH ZKLOH DOORZLQJ WKHPWR JORVV RYHU DOOWKH GLIILFXOW HSLVWH
PRORJLFDO LVVXHV WKH FDVH UDLVHG DQG WKDW WKH\ JHVWXUH WR LQ IRRWQRWH
6HH µ$FDGHPLF )UHHGRP DQG ([SHUW :LWQHVVLQJ +LVWRULDQV DQG WKH 6HDUV
&DVH¶ Texas Law Review, 2FW SS 2Q WKH 6HDUV FDVH
VHH DOVR 5XWK 0LONPDQ µ:RPHQ¶V +LVWRU\ DQG WKH 6HDUV &DVH¶ Feminist
Studies, VXPPHU SS A DQG -RDQ : 6FRWW µ7KH 6HDUV
&DVH¶ LQ 6FRWW Gender and the Politics o f History 1HZ <RUN SS
(OOHQ6RPHNDZDDQG(OL]DEHWK$ 6PLWK µ7KHRUL]LQJWKH:ULWLQJRI+LVWRU\
RU ³, FDQ¶W WKLQN ZK\ LW VKRXOG EH VR GXOO IRU D JUHDW GHDO RILW PXVW EH
LQYHQWLRQ´¶Journal o f Social History, IDOO SS
2Q WKH SRWHQWLDO RIZRPHQ¶V KLVWRU\ WR WUDQVIRUP KLVWRU\ VHH $QQ *RUGRQ
0DUL-R%XKOHDQG1DQF\6FKURP'\Hµ7KH3UREOHPRI:RPHQ¶V+LVWRU\¶LQ
%HUHQLFH&DUUROOHGLiberating Women’s History8UEDQD 1 DWD
OLH =HPRQ 'DYLV µ:RPHQ¶V +LVWRU\ LQ 7UDQVLWLRQ 7KH (XURSHDQ &DVH¶
Feminist Studies, SS ² -RDQ .HOO\ Women, History, and
Theory &KLFDJR &DUO 'HJOHU µ:KDW WKH :RPHQ¶V 0RYHPHQW KDV
'RQHWR$PHULFDQ+LVWRU\¶ Soundings,ZLQWHU S
$PRQJWKHVHZHUH,Y\3LQFKEHFN Women Workers and the Industrial Revolu-
tion 1750—1850/RQGRQ DQG0DU\ %HDUG On Understanding Women
1HZ<RUN DQGAmerica through Women’s Eyes1HZ<RUN
9LUJLQLD:RROIA Room o f One's Own 1HZ<RUN S
-DFTXHV 'HUULGD Positions, WUDQV $ODQ%DVV &KLFDJR S 6HHDOVR
'HUULGD O f Grammatology, WUDQV *D\DWUL &KDNUDYRUW\ 6SLYDN %DOWLPRUH
SS
%DUEDUD-RKQVRQ,QWURGXFWLRQWRKHUWUDQVODWLRQRI'HUULGD¶VDisseminations
&KLFDJR S [LLL
0 DUWKD 0LQRZ µ7KH 6XSUHPH &RXUW 7HUP )RUHZRUG -XVWLFH (QJHQ
GHUHG¶Harvard Law Review, 1RY SS
,ELGS
2QWKHTXHVWLRQRIKLVWRU\¶VUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVVHH*D\DWUL &KDNUDYRUW\6SLYDN
µ&DQWKH6XEDOWHUQ6SHDN"¶LQ&DU\ 1HOVRQDQG /DZUHQFH*URVVEHUJ Marx-
ism and the Interpretation o f Culture8UEDQD SS
Women’s History
,QG -DQH0DQVEULGJH Why We Lost the ERA&KLFDJR 'RQDOG
* 0DWKHZV DQG -DQH 6KHUURQ GH +DUW ERA and the Politics o f Cultural
Conflict: North Carolina1HZ<RUN
6HH -XGLWK %XWOHU Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion o f Identity
1HZ<RUN
-XGLWK 1HZWRQ µ+LVWRU\ DV 8VXDO" )HPLQLVP DQG WKH ³1HZ +LVWRULFLVP´¶
Cultural Critique,S
7KH RSSRVLWLRQ EHWZHHQ µWKHRU\¶ DQG µSROLWLFV¶ DOVR VXJJHVWV DQ RSSRVLWLRQ
EHWZHHQLGHDOLVPDQGPDWHULDOLVPZKLFKPLVUHSUHVHQWVWKHSKLORVRSKLFDOLVVXHV
FXUUHQWO\DWVWDNH2QWKHLQYDOLGLW\RIWKHLGHDOLVPPDWHULDOLVPRSSRVLWLRQVHH
-RDQ: 6FRWW µ$5HSO\WR&ULWLFLVP¶International Labor and Working Class
History,IDOO SS A7KHµWKHRU\¶YHUVXVµSROLWLFV¶RSSRVLWLRQDOVR
UHIHUV REOLTXHO\ WR WKH TXHVWLRQ RIKXPDQ DJHQF\ PXFKLQVLVWHG XSRQ WKHVH
GD\V E\ KLVWRULDQV 3RVWVWUXFWXUDOLVW WKHRU\ GRHVQ¶W GHQ\ WKDW SHRSOH DFW RU
WKDW WKH\ KDYH VRPH FRQWURO RYHU WKHLUDFWLRQV UDWKHU LWFULWLFL]HV WKH OLEHUDO
LQGLYLGXDOWKHRU\WKDWDVVXPHVWKDWLQGLYLGXDOVDUHIXOO\DXWRQRPRXVUDWLRQDO
VHOIFUHDWLQJDFWRUV 7KHLVVXHLVQRWDJHQF\per se,EXWWKHOLPLWVRIWKHOLEHUDO
WKHRU\RIDJHQF\
7KHLURQ\LVVWULNLQJ +LVWRULDQVRIZRPHQZKRKDYHDFFHSWHGWKHGLVFLSOLQH¶V
QRWLRQVRIXQLYHUVDOLW\DGGLQJWKHXQLYHUVDO FDWHJRU\µZRPHQ¶ WRWKHH[LVWLQJ
RQH RIµPHQ¶ DQGRIPDVWHU\ DVVXPLQJWKDW KLVWRULDQV FDQ DFKLHYH GLVLQWHU
HVWHG RUFRPSOHWHNQRZOHGJH RIWKHSDVWQRQHWKHOHVVFKDUDFWHUL]HWKHLUSRVL
WLRQ DV µSROLWLFDO¶ D WHUP WKDW LQGLFDWHV WKHLU VXEYHUVLYH UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH
GLVFLSOLQH ,WKLQNWKLVLV \HWDQRWKHUH[DPSOH RIWKHORJLFRIWKH VXSSOHPHQW
ZRPHQ¶VKLVWRULDQVZKDWHYHUWKHLUHSLVWHPRORJLFDO SRVLWLRQ DUHQHLWKHUIXOO\
RIQRUIXOO\RXWRIWKHSURIHVVLRQRIKLVWRU\
6HH -RKQ 7RHZV µ,QWHOOHFWXDO +LVWRU\ DIWHU WKH /LQJXLVWLF 7XUQ 7KH $XWRQ
RP\ RI 0HDQLQJ DQG WKH ,UUHGXFLELOLW\ RI([SHULHQFH¶ American Historical
Review, 922FW SS 6HHDOVR-RDQ:6FRWWµ7KH(YLGHQFHRI
([SHULHQFH¶ Critical Inquiry, SS
2QH H[DPSOH RI WKLV QHJOHFW RI IHPLQLVW FRQWULEXWLRQV WR KLVWRULRJUDSKLFDO
GHEDWHV FDQ EH IRXQG LQ WKH VSHFLDO IRUXP RQ KLVWRU\ DQG FULWLFDO WKHRU\ LQ
American Historical Review,-XQH1RQHRIWKHDUWLFOHVDFNQRZOHGJHV
WKHLPSDFWWKDWIHPLQLVWKLVWRU\RU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQKLVWRU\RUJD\DQGOHVELDQ
KLVWRU\KDVKDGRQWKHHSLVWHPRORJLFDOTXHVWLRQVFRQIURQWLQJWKHGLVFLSOLQH6HH
'DYLG+DUODQµ,QWHOOHFWXDO+LVWRU\DQGWKH5HWXUQRI/LWHUDWXUH¶'DYLG+RO
OLQJHU µ7KH 5HWXUQ RIWKH 3URGLJDO 7KH 3HUVLVWHQFH RI+LVWRULFDO .QRZLQJ¶
DQG$ODQ0HJLOOµ5HFRXQWLQJWKH3DVW ³'HVFULSWLRQ´ ([SODQDWLRQDQG1DU
UDWLYHLQ+LVWRULRJUDSK\¶SS DQGUHVSHFWLYHO\
7KHFUHDWLRQLQWKH86RIDFRQVHUYDWLYHDOWHUQDWLYHWRWKH$PHULFDQ+LVWRULFDO
$VVRFLDWLRQLVV\PSWRPDWLFRIWKLVFKDQJH 7KHLURQ\LVWKDWWKHQHZ+LVWRU\
6RFLHW\ZKLFKFODLPVWRHPERG\DOOWKHYDOXHVRIWKHROGFHQWUHFRKHUHQFHD
XQLILHGVXEMHFWRIKLVWRU\IUHHGRPIURPLGHRORJ\DQGSROLWLFDOSDUWLVDQVKLSLV
DGHFLGHGO\PDUJLQDODQGPLQRULWDULDQRUJDQL]DWLRQ
6XVDQ 0 2NLQ Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women?3ULQFHWRQ
9DULRXVSRVLWLRQV LQ WKHGHEDWHDUHSUHVHQWHGLQDVSHFLDOLVVXHRIWKHMRXUQDO
Differences,µ:RPHQ¶V6WXGLHV RQWKH(GJH¶
Joan W. Scott
2Q WKH SROLWLFV RILGHQWLW\ VHH :HQG\ %URZQ States o f Injury: Power and
Freedom in Late Modernity3ULQFHWRQ
5DWKHUWKDQOLVWDORQJELEOLRJUDSK\ , UHIHUUHDGHUVWR DQRWKHUQHZGHYHORS
PHQW WKH ,QWHUQHW 7KHUH DUH QRZ D JURZLQJ QXPEHU RIVLWHV ZKLFK IXUQLVK
FRPSUHKHQVLYHELEOLRJUDSKLFDQGDUFKLYDOUHIHUHQFHV $PRQJWKHVHDUH
Henk Wesseling
ZDQWHGWRFRQWLQXHWKHLUH[LVWHQFHKDGWRILQGGLIIHUHQWSUHIHUDEO\PRUH
QHXWUDOQDPHV +RZHYHULWZDVQRWVLPSO\DPDWWHURIFKDQJLQJQDPHV
7KHUH ZDV DOVR D FKDQJH RI DSSURDFK DQG LQWHUHVW 2YHUVHDV KLVWRU\
GHYHORSHGLQWR DPXFKEURDGHUILHOGRIVWXG\WKDQFRORQLDOKLVWRU\XVHG
WREH ,WGHDOVQRWRQO\ZLWKFRORQLDOV\VWHPVDQGWKHHQFRXQWHUEHWZHHQ
(XURSHDQV DQG QRQ(XURSHDQV LQ JHQHUDO EXW DOVR ZLWK WKH HFRQRPLF
VRFLDO SROLWLFDO DQG FXOWXUDO KLVWRU\ RIWKH QRQ(XURSHDQ SHRSOHV ,W LV
SUHFLVHO\KHUHWKDWSUREOHPVDULVHEHFDXVHQRWRQO\WKHRUHWLFDOO\EXWDOVR
LQDFWXDOSUDFWLFHRYHUVHDVKLVWRU\KDVGHYHORSHGLQWR VXFKDYDVWVXEMHFW
DVWREHFRPHXQLGHQWLILDEOH2IFRXUVHWKHUHDUHVRPHHOHPHQWVWKDWJLYHD
FHUWDLQ FRKHVLRQ WR WKH ILHOG ,Q WKH ILUVW SODFH WKH RYHUVHDV KLVWRULDQ
QRUPDOO\ GHDOV ZLWK WZR W\SHV RIVRXUFHV RQ WKH RQH KDQG (XURSHDQ
PRVWO\DUFKLYDOVRXUFHVDQGRQWKHRWKHUQRQ(XURSHDQZULWWHQRUDVLV
RIWHQWKHFDVHLQ$IULFDQKLVWRU\QRQZULWWHQVRXUFHV%HFDXVHRIWKHODFN
RI WUDGLWLRQDO VRXUFHV WKH DVVLVWDQFH RI RWKHU GLVFLSOLQHV LV QHFHVVDU\
KHQFH WKH UROH RIGLVFLSOLQHVOLNH DUFKDHRORJ\ OLQJXLVWLFV DQG DQWKURSR
ORJ\ LQ RYHUVHDV KLVWRU\ 2YHUVHDV KLVWRU\ WKHUHIRUH WHQGV WR EH PRUH
LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\WKDQRWKHUILHOGV
$SDUWIURPWKLVWKHRYHUVHDVKLVWRULDQVPXVWDOVRIDPLOLDUL]HWKHPVHOYHV
ZLWKFLYLOL]DWLRQVRWKHUWKDQWKHLURZQ7KLVJHQHUDOO\VXSSRVHVDEURDGHU
DQGVRPHZKDWGLIIHUHQW HGXFDWLRQWKDQLVQRUPDOO\WKHFDVHDVZHOODV
D JUHDWHU GHPDQG IRU OLQJXLVWLF VNLOOV 7KLV LV WKH UHDVRQ ZK\ RYHUVHDV
KLVWRULDQVDUHRIWHQIRXQGLQRULHQWDOLVWRU$IULFDQLVWGHSDUWPHQWVDWOHDVW
LQ (XURSH WKHVLWXDWLRQLQWKH86 LVGLIIHUHQW $QGHYHQZKHQWKH\DUH
DSSRLQWHG LQ KLVWRU\ GHSDUWPHQWV RYHUVHDV KLVWRULDQV IHHO WKH QHHG WR
FROODERUDWH ZLWK RWKHU VSHFLDOLVWV RQ WKH VDPH DUHD VXFK DV OLQJXLVWV
DQWKURSRORJLVWV RU DUWKLVWRULDQV 7KLVLVQRWWKHFDVHZLWKKLVWRULDQV RI
(XURSH $ VSHFLDOLVW LQ )UHQFK KLVWRU\ ZLOO QRW QRUPDOO\ ZRUN LQ D
GHSDUWPHQW RI)UHQFK VWXGLHV QRU IHHO WKH XUJH WR JR WR FRQIHUHQFHV RQ
)UHQFK VWXGLHV $V LW LV W\SLFDO IRU RYHUVHDV KLVWRULDQV WR OHDUQ DERXW
FLYLOL]DWLRQV RWKHU WKDQ WKHLU RZQ WKH\ KDYH WR FROODERUDWH ZLWK RWKHU
GLVFLSOLQHV WR UHDFKDEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKDWSDUWLFXODUFLYLOL]DWLRQ
RU VRFLHW\ %XWWKH\ DOVR KDYHWRNHHS LQ WRXFK ZLWK RWKHUKLVWRULDQV LQ
RUGHUWRXQGHUVWDQGZKDWLVJRLQJRQLQWKHLURZQGLVFLSOLQH7KHWHQVLRQ
EHWZHHQWKHDUHDDSSURDFKDQGWKHGLVFLSOLQDU\DSSURDFKLVDZHOONQRZQ
SKHQRPHQRQ
7KHUH LV DQRWKHU UHDVRQ ZK\ KLVWRULFDOO\ VSHDNLQJ WKHUH LV D FHUWDLQ
XQLW\LQWKHILHOGRIRYHUVHDVKLVWRU\0RVWRIWKHRYHUVHDVZRUOGIRUPHUO\
EHORQJHGWRWKHFRORQLDOZRUOGDQGLVQRZVXSSRVHGWRIRUPSDUWRIWKH
7KLUG :RUOG 7KLV LV ZK\ LQ VRPH FLUFOHV WKH H[SUHVVLRQ µ7KLUG :RUOG
KLVWRU\¶LVLQXVH %XWWKHYHU\LGHDRIDµ7KLUG:RUOG¶LVQRZGLVLQWHJUDW
LQJDVLWQRORQJHUUHIOHFWVUHDOLW\,QUHWURVSHFWLWHYHQVHHPVVWUDQJHWKDW
FRXQWULHVOLNH,QGLDDQG,QGRQHVLDZHUHVXSSRVHGWRIRUPRQHZRUOGZLWK
Overseas History
6XGDQDQG0DOLIRUWKHVROHUHDVRQWKDWWKH\ZHUHDOOIRUPHUFRORQLHVDQG
DUH VWLOO UHODWLYHO\ SRRU 7R HTXDWH RYHUVHDV KLVWRU\ ZLWK 7KLUG :RUOG
KLVWRU\WKHUHIRUHGRHVQRWVHHPWREHDJRRGLGHDDOOWKHPRUHVRDVWKH
KLVWRU\ RI WKH 86 FOHDUO\ EHORQJV WR RYHUVHDV DQG LQGHHG WR FRORQLDO
KLVWRU\EXWQRWWR7KLUG:RUOGKLVWRU\
7KHTXHVWLRQFDQEHUDLVHGZKHWKHURYHUVHDVKLVWRU\LILWLVVXSSRVHGWR
LQFOXGHWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHZKROHZRUOGDSDUWIURP(XURSHRUµWKHZHVW¶
LV D VXEMHFW RIVWXG\ DW DOO 7KLV SUREOHP LV WKH UHVXOW RIWKH VXFFHVV RI
RYHUVHDVKLVWRU\ DIWHU WKH 6HFRQG:RUOG:DU ZKHQ WKH ULVH RIRYHUVHDV
KLVWRU\ZDVWRVRPHH[WHQWGXHWRDUHDFWLRQWRIRUPHUFRORQLDOKLVWRU\$
JUHDWEDFNORJKDGWREHPDGHXSDQGDJUHDWOHDSIRUZDUGZDVPDGH7KH
QHZ QDWLRQV YLQGLFDWHG WKHLU RZQ QDWLRQDO SDVW 7KH µSHRSOH ZLWKRXW
KLVWRU\¶ILQDOO\IRXQGRQHDQGWKHUHVXOWVRIWKLVPRYHPHQWZHUHLPSUHVV
LYH 2YHUVHDV KLVWRU\ KDV EHFRPH VR YDVW DQG VR YDULHG WKDW LW FDQ QR
ORQJHUEHFRQVLGHUHGDV RQH VSHFLILFILHOGRIKLVWRU\ ,QRUGHUWR VXUYLYH
RYHUVHDVKLVWRU\ZLOOQHHGVRPHIRUPRIUHFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQ %HIRUHGLV
FXVVLQJWKLVZHVKRXOGVNHWFKDEULHIRXWOLQHRIWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHVXEMHFW
7KH+LVWRU\RI2YHUVHDV+LVWRU\$6XUYH\
,QRQHIRUPRUDQRWKHUKLVWRU\KDVEHHQSUDFWLVHGLQPRVWFLYLOL]DWLRQV,Q
,QGRQHVLDWKHFKURQLFOHVRUbabadsJREDFNYHU\IDU7KH+LQGXVLQ,QGLD
WRRNOLWWOHLQWHUHVWLQKLVWRU\EXWWKH0XVOLPVKDGDJUHDWHULQWHUHVWDQGD
VWURQJHUVHQVHRIFKURQRORJ\WKRXJKWKH\WRRRQO\GUHZXSFKURQLFOHVRI
HYHQWV ,Q-DSDQDQG&KLQD DKLVWRULRJUDSK\ZDVGHYHORSHGFRPSDUDEOH
WRWUDGLWLRQDO(XURSHDQKLVWRU\ZKLFKLQLWVPRGHUQVFLHQWLILFIRUPZDV
RQO\GHYHORSHGLQWKHZHVWLQWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\,WLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\
ZKDW LV FDOOHG µWKH KLVWRULFDO PHWKRG¶ FKURQRORJ\ SKLORORJ\ WH[WXDO
FULWLFLVPKHUPHQHXWLFVDVZHOODVDSDUWLFXODUW\SHRIKLVWRULFDOWKLQNLQJ
$ZDUHQHVV RIWKH XQLTXHQHVV RIHYHQWV WKH QRWLRQ RIGHYHORSPHQW DQG
VXFFHVVLRQ RYHU WLPH EXW DOVR WKHQRWLRQ WKDWHDFKSHULRG KDV D VSHFLILF
FKDUDFWHUZLWKLWVRZQYDOXHVDQGVWDQGDUGVDUHFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIWKLV7KH
*HUPDQKLVWRULFDOVFKRROSOD\HGDPDMRUUROHLQWKLVGHYHORSPHQWZKLFK
LVZK\VRPHRIWKHPRVWIDPRXVKLVWRULFDOQRWLRQVDUHVWLOOEHVWNQRZQLQ
WKHLU*HUPDQIRUP Historismus, Verstehen, Zeitgeist.
7KH KLVWRULFDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ ZKLFK UHVXOWHG IURP WKLV ZDV H[WUHPHO\
(XURFHQWULF WeltgeschichteLQIDFWFDPH GRZQWR (XURSHDQKLVWRU\ IRU
LQ WKH IUDPHZRUN RIJHQHUDO KLVWRU\ QRQ(XURSHDQ SHRSOHV SOD\HG QR
UROH 7KH\ ZHUH FRQVLGHUHG DV SHRSOHZLWKRXW KLVWRU\ +HJHO RUSHRSOH
RIHWHUQDO VWDQGVWLOO 5DQNH $SDUWIURPWKHWUDGLWLRQDODQFLHQWFLYLOL]D
WLRQV WKH\ FDPH LQWR WKHSLFWXUH RQO\ DW WKH PRPHQW WKH\ VXEPLWWHGWR
Henk Wesseling
DQGZHUHFRQTXHUHGE\WKH(XURSHDQV7KLVGRHVQRWPHDQWKDWWKHUHZDV
QRLQWHUHVWDWDOOLQFLYLOL]DWLRQVRWKHUWKDQZHVWHUQRQHVIRUWKLVH[LVWHGLQ
WKH IRUP RIZKDWZDV NQRZQ DV RULHQWDO VWXGLHV 7KH LPSHWXV IRU WKHVH
VWXGLHVZDVRQRQHKDQGWKH%LEOHDQGOLQJXLVWLFVRQWKHRWKHUFRORQLDO
LVP$IWHUWKH5HQDLVVDQFHPDQ\(XURSHDQXQLYHUVLWLHVQRWRQO\FUHDWHG
FKDLUV RI *UHHN DQG /DWLQ EXW DOVR RI +HEUHZ DQG $UDELF /DWHU RQ
GHSDUWPHQWV RI 0LGGOH (DVWHUQ DQGRU $UDELF VWXGLHV HPDQDWHG IURP
WKHVH VXEMHFWV &RPSDUDWLYH DQG KLVWRULFDO OLQJXLVWLFV D SRSXODU VXEMHFW
LQWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\VWLPXODWHGWKHVWXG\RI6DQVNULWZKLFKLQWXUQ
JDYHULVHWRFKDLUVDQGLQVWLWXWHVIRUWKHVWXG\RI,QGLDQFLYLOL]DWLRQ
$QHYHQPRUHLPSRUWDQWVWLPXOXVFDPHIURPFRORQLDOLVP7KHWUDLQLQJ
RIFRORQLDOFLYLOVHUYDQWVEHFDPHDSDUWRI(XURSHDQXQLYHUVLW\HGXFDWLRQ
LQWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\&RXUVHVRQODQJXDJHVDQGFRORQLDODGPLQLVWUD
WLRQ FRXOG EH IRXQG DORQJVLGH FRXUVHV RQ LPSHULDO RU FRORQLDO KLVWRU\
:KLOH WKH\ IRFXVHG SULPDULO\ RQ WKH (XURSHDQ SRLQW RI YLHZ WKHVH
FRXUVHV DOVRSDLGVRPHDWWHQWLRQ WR RYHUVHDVSHRSOHV ,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJWR
VHHWKDWDVHDUO\DV DVHDUFKFRPPLWWHHIRUDFKDLULQWKHKLVWRU\RI
WKH1HWKHUODQGV ,QGLHVJDYHSUHIHUHQFHWR DFDQGLGDWH EHFDXVHKHFRXOG
DOVR SD\ DWWHQWLRQ µWR WKH LQGLJHQRXV SRLQW RI YLHZ¶ $SDUW IURP WKH
FRORQLDO VXEMHFWV WKHPVHOYHV RWKHU RYHUVHDV SHRSOHV EHFDPH REMHFWV RI
VWXG\,QWKH1HWKHUODQGVIRUH[DPSOHWKH&KLQHVHZHUHVWXGLHGEHFDXVH
RIWKH LPSRUWDQW &KLQHVH FRPPXQLW\ LQ WKH (DVW ,QGLHV WKH -DSDQHVH
EHFDXVHRIWKHµ\HOORZSHULO¶ DQG,VODPEHFDXVHRIWKHGDQJHURIµ0XVOLP
IDQDWLFLVP¶7KHUHVXOWRIWKLVZDVWKDWWZRJURXSVRIKLVWRULDQVFDPHLQWR
EHLQJDVPDOOJURXSLQGHSDUWPHQWVRIRULHQWDOVWXGLHVZKRVWXGLHGRWKHU
FLYLOL]DWLRQVLQWKHLURZQULJKWDQGDPXFKODUJHURQHZKRWDXJKWKLVWRU\
SURSHU WKDWLVWKHKLVWRU\RI(XURSHDQGLWVFRORQLHV (YHQWKRXJKWKH\
ZHUH EDVHG LQ WKH VDPH XQLYHUVLW\ WKH WZR JURXSV ZRXOG UDUHO\ FROODE
RUDWH
7KH VLWXDWLRQ FKDQJHG GUDVWLFDOO\ DIWHU SDUWO\ IRU H[WHUQDO DQG
SDUWO\IRULQWHUQDOUHDVRQV7KHH[WHUQDOUHDVRQVDUHREYLRXVGHFRORQL]D
WLRQWKHGHFOLQHRI(XURSHWKHHPHUJHQFHRIWKHQHZVXSHUSRZHUV7KHVH
HYHQWV OHG WR DUHWKLQNLQJ RIWKH UROH RI(XURSH LQZRUOG KLVWRU\ DQG D
TXHVWLRQLQJRIWKH(XURFHQWULFDSSURDFK 7KHGHFOLQHRI(XURSHEHFDPH
DVLPSRUWDQWDVXEMHFWRIVWXG\DVLWVSUHYLRXVULVH WRSRZHU 7KH'XWFK
KLVWRULDQ -DQ 5RPHLQ SURFODLPHG WKH HQG RIWKH European Era DQG WKH
EHJLQQLQJRIWKHAsian Century,WRTXRWHWKHWLWOHVRIWZRRIKLVERRNV
%XWDSDUWIURPSROLWLFDODQGLGHRORJLFDOUHDVRQVWKHUHZHUHDOVRLQWHUQDO
GHYHORSPHQWV FKDQJHV LQ WKH ZD\ KLVWRU\ ZDV VWXGLHG 7KH SRVWZDU
SHULRG ZLWQHVVHG WKH ULVH RI VRFLDO DQG HFRQRPLF KLVWRU\ +LVWRULDQV
EHFDPHOHVVLQWHUHVWHGLQSROLWLFDODQGPLOLWDU\KLVWRU\DQGPRUHLQWHUHVWHG
LQ VXEMHFWV VXFK DV PDWHULDO FLYLOL]DWLRQ mentalités, HYHU\GD\ OLIH WKH
FRPPRQ PDQ HWF ,Q WKLV UHVSHFW DW OHDVW XQWLO WKH HLJKWHHQWK FHQWXU\
Overseas History
(XURSHDQKLVWRU\ZDVQRWVRGLIIHUHQWIURPQRQ(XURSHDQKLVWRU\8QGHU
WKH LPSDFW RI WKH Annales VFKRRO KLVWRU\ EHFDPH OHVV WHOHRORJLFDO OHVV
µZKLJJLVK¶ 6WUXFWXUH UHSODFHG HYROXWLRQ DV WKH FHQWUDO SUHRFFXSDWLRQ
&RQWLQXLW\EHFDPHDVLPSRUWDQWDVFKDQJHDQGWKHUHIRUHWKHRSSRVLWLRQ
EHWZHHQ(XURSH FKDQJH DQG$VLDFRQWLQXLW\EHFDPH OHVV UHOHYDQW ,Q
WKLVDSSURDFKWKHQDWLRQVWDWHZDVQRORQJHUWKHFHQWUDOXQLWRIKLVWRULFDO
DQDO\VLV WKHUHIRUH WKH RSSRVLWLRQ RIPRWKHUODQG DQG FRORQ\ ZDV OHVV
LPSRUWDQW 7KH QHZ DSSURDFK ZDV PRUH LQ WHUPV RI YLOODJHV WRZQV
UHJLRQVVRFLDOJURXSV7KLVPDGHWKHDQWDJRQLVPEHWZHHQWKHFRORQLDOLVW
DQG WKH QDWLRQDOLVW DSSURDFK OHVV VKDUS DQG WKHUH ZHUH DOVR SUDFWLFDO
FKDQJHV $JURZLQJLQIOXHQFH FDPH IURP$PHULFDQ KLVWRULDQV IRUWKHLU
GHSDUWPHQWV RIKLVWRU\ KDG DOZD\V EHHQ OHVV SDURFKLDO WKDQ (XURSHDQ
RQHV DQG WKH\ SOD\HG DQ LQFUHDVLQJ UROH LQ $VLDQ DQG $IULFDQ KLVWRU\
0RUHRYHU WKH IRUPHU FRORQLHV WKHPVHOYHV GHYHORSHG WKHLU RZQ KLVWRU\
GHSDUWPHQWV 7R EH VXUH IRU DORQJWLPHZHVWHUQKLVWRULDQV VWLOOGRPLQ
DWHG WKH ILHOG DV WKH\ ZHUH EHWWHU HGXFDWHG DQG KDG HDV\ DFFHVV WR
LPSRUWDQW KROGLQJV LQ (XURSHDQ DUFKLYHV 7KH LQGLJHQRXV HOLWHV ZHUH
PRUH LQWHUHVWHG LQILHOGV RWKHU WKDQKLVWRU\ 7KH WDVN RIGHYHORSLQJWKH
HFRQRP\DQGEXLOGLQJWKHQDWLRQZDVPRUHXUJHQW DQGPRUHUHZDUGLQJ
WKDQWKDWRIZULWLQJKLVWRU\
$ FXULRXV VLWXDWLRQ UHVXOWHG IURP WKLV 2Q RQH KDQG WKH LPSDFW RI
(XURSHRQWKHFRQFHSWRIKLVWRU\LWVHOIEHFDPHHYHQVWURQJHUWKDQEHIRUH
+LVWRULDQVIURP$VLDDQG$IULFDRIWHQFDPHWR(XURSHWRVWXG\KLVWRU\RU
DWOHDVW WR ILQLVK WKHLU HGXFDWLRQ 7KH\ ZRUNHG LQ ZHVWHUQ DUFKLYHV DQG
WKH\WXUQHGWRZHVWHUQPRGHOVWROHDUQKRZKLVWRU\ZDVWREHVWXGLHGDQG
ZULWWHQ 7KXV OLNHWKH-DSDQHVH DIWHUWKH 0HLML UHYROXWLRQ WKH\OHDUQHG
KLVWRU\IURPWKHZHVW,QWKHLURZQFLYLOL]DWLRQWKH\IRXQGQRUHIHUHQFHV
2QWKH RWKHUKDQG WKHLU LQWHUSUHWDWLRQZDVRIFRXUVHYHU\GLIIHUHQWDQG
VRPHWLPHV VWURQJO\ DQWLZHVWHUQ 7KH \RXQJ QDWLRQV QHHGHG µD XVDEOH
SDVW¶ DQGµXVDEOH¶ PHDQW QDWLRQDOLVWLFDQGDQWLFRORQLDO 7KXVWKHTXHV
WLRQZDVQRWRQO\RQHRIFRORQLDOLVWYHUVXVQDWLRQDOLVW KLVWRULRJUDSK\ ,W
FRQFHUQHG WKH SODFH RIWKH ZHVW LQ ZRUOG KLVWRU\ LQ JHQHUDO (XURSHDQ
KLVWRULDQVWKHPVHOYHVDOVR TXHVWLRQHGWKH(XURFHQWULFDSSURDFKWRRYHU
VHDV KLVWRU\ $ QHZ LPSXOVH IRU WKLV GHEDWH FDPH IURP WKH GLVFXVVLRQ
DERXW WKH RULJLQV RIXQGHUGHYHORSPHQW VWHPPLQJ IURP WKH GLVDSSRLQW
PHQWRISRVWFRORQLDOFKDQJH 7KHRULJLQDORSWLPLVPDERXWDEULJKWQHZ
IXWXUHQRZWKDWFRORQLDOLVPKDGHQGHGIDGHGDZD\ZKHQLWEHFDPHFOHDU
WKDW WKH HFRQRPLF DQG VRFLDO SUREOHPV RI WKH IRUPHU FRORQLHV ZHUH
SHUPDQHQW RU VWUXFWXUDO UDWKHU WKDQ WHPSRUDU\ /LEHUDO RSWLPLVPZDV
UHSODFHG E\ UDGLFDO SHVVLPLVP WR SDUDSKUDVH $ * +RSNLQV¶V KDSS\
IRUPXODWLRQ7KLVWLPHWKHRSSRVLWLRQZDVQRWWKDWRIFRORQLDOLVPYHUVXV
QDWLRQDOLVP EXW RI/HIWYHUVXV 5LJKW 7KHQHR0DU[LVWFULWLTXH RIFROR
QLDOLVPEHFDPHYHU\LQIOXHQWLDOLQWKHZHVWHUQZRUOGLWVHOI
Henk Wesseling
7KXVWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIRYHUVHDVKLVWRU\DIWHU ZDVDGLDOHFWLFDO
SURFHVV)LUVWWKHUHZDVDQHPDQFLSDWLRQPRYHPHQWLQQRQZHVWHUQKLVWRUL
RJUDSK\ZKLFKUHVXOWHGLQDQLPSUHVVLYHH[SORVLRQRIKLVWRULFDOUHVHDUFK
DQGSURGXFWLRQLQ$VLDDQG$IULFD7KHQRQ(XURSHDQFRXQWULHVGLVFRY
HUHGWKHLURZQSDVWDQGRIIHUHGWKHLURZQLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRILW EXWLWZDV
SUHFLVHO\WKHQWKDWWKHSUREOHPRIRYHUVHDVKLVWRU\PDQLIHVWHGLWVHOILQD
QHZIRUP 7RGD\HYHU\ERG\DFFHSWVWKDW$IULFDQVDQG$VLDQVKDYHWKHLU
RZQKLVWRU\DQGWKDWLWLVDVULFKDQGLQWHUHVWLQJDVWKDWRI(XURSH 7KH
TXHVWLRQKRZHYHULVZKHWKHUZHFDQVWRSKHUHDQGVLPSO\FRQVLGHUZRUOG
KLVWRU\DV WKHVXPRIDJUHDWQXPEHURIDXWRQRPRXVUHJLRQDO KLVWRULHV
0RVWKLVWRULDQVZRXOGDJUHHWKDWZHVKRXOGWU\WRGRPRUHDQGVWXG\KRZ
LQRQHZD\RUDQRWKHUWKHVHYDULRXVFLYLOL]DWLRQVKDYHEHFRPHLQWHUFRQ
QHFWHGKRZWRGD\¶VZRUOG VLWXDWLRQ KDVFRPHLQWREHLQJ 7KHUHDOFKDO
OHQJHRIRYHUVHDVKLVWRU\LVWRRIIHUDPRGHUQIRUPRIZRUOGKLVWRU\7KLVLV
DQDPELWLRXVJRDOEXW DV)HUQDQG%UDXGHOKDV VDLG ZHQHHGDPELWLRXV
KLVWRULDQV $ SRVVLEOH RXWOLQH RIWKLV FDQ SHUKDSV EH IRXQG LQ WKH QHZ
KLVWRU\RI(XURSHDQH[SDQVLRQWKDWKDVGHYHORSHGLQWKHODVWWKUHHGHFDGHV
RU VR %XW EHIRUH H[DPLQLQJ WKLV ZH VKDOO ORRN ILUVW DW WKH VSHFWDFXODU
GHYHORSPHQWRI$VLDQDQG$IULFDQKLVWRU\LQWKHVDPHSHULRG
$VLDQDQG$IULFDQ+LVWRU\
%RWKLQ,QGLDDQGLQ,QGRQHVLDKLVWRU\LQLWVPRGHUQ VFLHQWLILFIRUPZDV
LQWURGXFHGE\WKHFRORQLDOSRZHU,Q,QGLDWKHIRXQGDWLRQRIWKH$VLDWLF
6RFLHW\ RI%HQJDO LQ FDQ EH FRQVLGHUHG DV WKH VWDUWLQJSRLQW 7KH
RIILFLDO %ULWLVK KLVWRULRJUDSK\ RI ,QGLD ZDV KLJKO\ $QJORFHQWULF $V
1HKUX RQFH UHPDUNHG DERXW WKH %ULWLVK µ5HDO KLVWRU\ IRU WKHP EHJLQV
ZLWKWKHDGYHQW RIWKH(QJOLVKPDQWR ,QGLD DOO WKDWZHQWEHIRUH LWLVLQ
VRPHP\VWLFNLQG RIZD\DSUHSDUDWLRQ IRU WKLV GLYLQH FRQVXPPDWLRQ¶
+RZHYHU DQ LQWHUHVWLQKLVWRULFDOVWXGLHV VRRQ EHJDQWR GHYHORSDPRQJ
WKHQHZ,QGLDQLQWHOOLJHQWVLD,QWKHPLGGOHRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\DVD
UHDFWLRQWRWKHUDWKHUFRQGHVFHQGLQJDSSURDFKRIWKHFRORQLDOKLVWRULDQV
,QGLDQ KLVWRULDQV GHYHORSHG WKHLU RZQ KLVWRULRJUDSK\ DQG LQ WKH ODWH
QLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ WKH ULVH RIWKH QDWLRQDOLVW PRYHPHQW JDYH D VWURQJ
LPSHWXVWRWKLVVRWKDWE\WKHVDQGVWKHUHH[LVWHGDFRQVLGHUDEOH
JURXSRISURIHVVLRQDOKLVWRULDQV7KHQDPHVRIZHOONQRZQVFKRODUVVXFK
DV5 . 0RRNHUMLDQG5 & 0DMXPGDUEHDUZLWQHVVWRWKLV DQGWKHUH
IRUH ZKHQLQGHSHQGHQFH FDPHLQ ,QGLDQSURIHVVLRQDO KLVWRULRJUD
SK\ZDVDOUHDG\LQDVWURQJSRVLWLRQ
7KHWUDQVIHURISRZHULWVHOIDOVR VWLPXODWHGWKHZULWLQJRIKLVWRU\ DQG
WKHUHZDVDGHPDQGIRUSRSXODUWH[WVDQGVFKRROERRNV7KHJRYHUQPHQW
Overseas History
VWLPXODWHGWKHVWXG\RIWKHUHFHQWSDVWDQGSDUWLFXODUO\RIWKHQDWLRQDOLVW
PRYHPHQW,QWKH0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQRUGHUHGWKHFRPSLODWLRQRI
D KLVWRU\ RIWKH ,QGLDQ IUHHGRP PRYHPHQW DQG 5 & 0DMXPGDU ZDV
DSSRLQWHG GLUHFWRU RI WKH SURMHFW 0DMXPGDU¶V FRQFOXVLRQV ZHUH YHU\
GLIIHUHQWIURPZKDW WKH JRYHUQPHQWKDG H[SHFWHG EXWKHSXEOLVKHGKLV
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQDOOWKHVDPH7KLVGHEXQNLQJRIWKHQDWLRQDOLVWP\WKZDVD
FOHDU LQGLFDWLRQ RIWKH KLJK VWDQGDUG RISURIHVVLRQDOLVP WKDW KDG EHHQ
UHDFKHG E\ WKH ,QGLDQ KLVWRULDQV $OWKRXJK %ULWLVK KLVWRULDQV DUH VWLOO
SOD\LQJDOHDGLQJUROHLQ,QGLDQKLVWRU\,QGLDQKLVWRULDQVWKHPVHOYHVKDYH
EHFRPH LQFUHDVLQJO\ LPSRUWDQW 7KH Cambridge Economic History o f
India DV ZHOO DV WKH New Cambridge History o f India DUH FRQYLQFLQJ
GHPRQVWUDWLRQVRIWKLV
,Q ,QGRQHVLD WKH GHYHORSPHQWZDV VRPHZKDW GLIIHUHQW &RPSDUHG WR
,QGLDWKHUHZHUHIHZHUXQLYHUVLW\WUDLQHGSHUVRQVLQJHQHUDODQGSUDFWLF
DOO\ QR SURIHVVLRQDO KLVWRULDQV DW DOO GXULQJ WKH FRORQLDO SHULRG 7KH
QDWLRQDOLVWPRYHPHQWZDVDOVRZHDNHUWKDQLWZDVLQ,QGLDDQGQDWLRQDOLVW
LQWHOOHFWXDOVH[SUHVVHGWKHLUIHHOLQJVLQOLWHUDU\UDWKHUWKDQVFKRODUO\ZRUNV
7KXVWKHUHZHUHSUDFWLFDOO\QRSURIHVVLRQDO,QGRQHVLDQKLVWRULDQVEHIRUH
LQGHSHQGHQFH7KHJRYHUQPHQWRIWKH5HSXEOLFVWLPXODWHGWKHVWXG\RIWKH
SDVW EXW IURP D FOHDU SROLWLFDO SHUVSHFWLYH LGHRORJLFDO SUHVVXUHV ZHUH
VWURQJ ,Q WKHILUVWQDWLRQDOFRQJUHVVRIKLVWRULDQVZDVKHOG7KHUH
LWEHFDPHFOHDUKRZOLWWOHUHVHDUFK KDG\HWEHHQGRQH EXWIURP WKHQ RQ
KLVWRU\DVDVFKRODUO\GLVFLSOLQHZDVGHYHORSHG7KHPDLQILJXUHLQWKLVZDV
6DUWRQR.DUWRGLUGMRZKRLQWURGXFHGDQHZVRFLDOVFLHQFHLQVSLUHGIRUP
RIKLVWRU\ZKLFKSD\VVSHFLDODWWHQWLRQWRUXUDOKLVWRU\
,Q WKH PHDQWLPH LW ZDV ,QGRQHVLDQ KLVWRU\ WKDW OHG WR DQ LQWHUHVWLQJ
GHEDWHDERXWDQHZ$VLDFHQWULFDSSURDFKWR$VLDQKLVWRU\ -RKQ%DVWLQ
LQKLVLQDXJXUDOOHFWXUHDW.XDOD/XPSXUSXEOLVKHGLQ DVThe Study
o f Modern Southeast Asian History JUHDWO\ VWLPXODWHG WKLV GLVFXVVLRQ
EXW WKH TXHVWLRQ LWVHOI KDG DOUHDG\ EHHQ UDLVHG PXFK HDUOLHU ,W ZDV
LQWURGXFHGE\- & YDQ /HXULQKLVGLVVHUWDWLRQ DERXWHDUO\$VLDQWUDGH
ZKLFKZDVSXEOLVKHGLQ9DQ/HXUZKRGLHGYHU\\RXQJDWWKHDJH
RIWKLUW\IRXULQWKH%DWWOHRIWKH-DYD6HDZDVWRKDYHDODVWLQJLQIOXHQFH
RQ ,QGRQHVLDQ KLVWRU\ DQG LQGHHG RQ $VLDQ KLVWRU\ LQ JHQHUDO 7KH
RULJLQDOLW\RIKLVZRUNOLHVLQWZR WKLQJV WKH DEDQGRQPHQW RIWKH(XUR
FHQWULF YLHZSRLQW DQG WKH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI VRFLRORJLFDO FDWHJRULHV +H
UHDFWHG DJDLQVW WKH H[FOXVLYHO\ FRORQLDO DSSURDFK ZKLFK FRQVWLWXWHG D
GLVWRUWHG SHUVSHFWLYH DQG LJQRUHG YDVW DUHDV RIKLVWRULFDO UHDOLW\ 0RVW
KLVWRULDQVKHZURWH VHHWKH$VLDWLFZRUOGWKURXJKWKHH\HVRIWKH'XWFK
UXOHU µIURP WKH GHFN RIWKH VKLS WKH UDPSDUW RIWKH IRUWUHVV WKH KLJK
JDOOHU\RIWKHWUDGLQJKRXVH¶
+RZHYHU 9DQ /HXU¶V FULWLFLVP LV DW WKH VDPH WLPH PRUH JHQHUDO DQG
PRUH IXQGDPHQWDO +H TXHVWLRQV WKH SHULRGL]DWLRQ RI KLVWRU\ DQG WKH
Henk Wesseling
SODFH LQ LW DOORWWHG WR $VLD )RU LQVWDQFH LQ D ZHOONQRZQ DUWLFOH KH
H[DPLQHVZK\SHULRGODEHOVVXFKDVµWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\¶ZHUHDSSOLHG
WR,QGRQHVLDQKLVWRU\ +HFRQFOXGHVWKDWWKHUHZDVQRSRLQWLQWKLVVLQFH
QRQH RIWKHJUHDWFKDQJHV ZKLFK W\SLI\ (XURSHDQ KLVWRU\ RIWKLV SHULRG
FDQEHWUDFHGLQWKH,QGRQHVLDQSDVW8SWR LWVLPSO\UHPDLQVSDUWRI
$VLD
7KLVOHDGVXVWRWKHVHFRQGPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFRI9DQ/HXU¶VKLVWRULFDO
DSSURDFKQDPHO\WKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIFRQFHSWVIURPVRFLRORJ\LQSDUWLFX
ODUWKRVH RI0D[:HEHU 8VLQJ:HEHU¶VFRQFHSW RIWKHLGHDO W\SH IRU
H[DPSOH WKRVH RI µSHDVDQW FXOWXUH¶ µSDWULPRQLDO EXUHDXFUDWLF VWDWHV¶
µSHGGOLQJ WUDGH¶ KH DWWHPSWV WR GHVFULEH $VLDQ KLVWRU\ DV SDUW RIXQL
YHUVDOKLVWRU\EXWZLWKLWVRZQFKDUDFWHU ,QWKLVZD\LWLVSRVVLEOHWRGR
MXVWLFH WR WKH SHFXOLDULWLHV RIYDULRXV FXOWXUHV ZLWKRXW HLWKHU ZUDSSLQJ
WKHP XS HQWLUHO\ LQ WRR DEVWUDFW DQG WRR JHQHUDO D VHW RIFDWHJRULHV RU
GLVFXVVLQJWKHPDVPHUHO\H[RWLFDQGLQFRPSUHKHQVLEOH
7KH TXHVWLRQ RIWKH UROH RI(XURSH LQ$VLDQ KLVWRU\ZDV RIFRXUVH RI
YLWDOLPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHSRVWLQGHSHQGHQFHKLVWRULRJUDSK\,QWKLVUHVSHFW
RQH FDQ GLVWLQJXLVK WZR VFKRROV WKH PLQLPDOLVW DQG WKH VHQWLPHQWDOLVW
7KHPLQLPDOLVWVFKRROPLQLPDOL]HVWKHUROHRIWKHZHVWHUQIDFWRULQ$VLDQ
KLVWRU\FODLPLQJWKDWWKLVZDVYLUWXDOO\QRQH[LVWHQWZKLOHWKHVHQWLPHQW
DOLVW VFKRRO PD[LPL]HV WKH FULPHV DQGPLVGHHGV RIWKH ZHVW $OWKRXJK
ORJLFDOO\ VSHDNLQJ WKH WZR YLHZV VHHP WR EH FRQWUDGLFWRU\ WKH\ FDQ
VRPHWLPHV ERWK EH IRXQG LQ WKH ZRUN RIRQH VFKRODU IRU H[DPSOH WKH
'XWFKVRFLRORJLVW: ) :HUWKHLPRUWKH,QGLDQKLVWRULDQ . 0 3DQLN
NDU7KXVWKHGHEDWH ZDVQRWDOWRJHWKHUFOHDUDQGWKHFRQFHSWVWKHP
VHOYHVDUHDPELJXRXV%XWWKHWZRTXHVWLRQVµ:DVZHVWHUQLQIOXHQFHJRRG
RUEDG":DVLWVLPSDFWJUHDWRUVPDOO"¶DUHVWLOOLQWHQVLYHO\GHEDWHGWRGD\
DQGXQGHUVWDQGDEO\VR7KH\DUHYLWDOIRURXULQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHSDVWDV
ZHOODVRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHSUHVHQW DVZHVKDOOVHHODWHU
,Q WKH QLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ WKH (XURSHDQ DSSURDFK WR $VLDQ KLVWRU\
EHFDPH LQFUHDVLQJO\GRPLQDWHG E\IHHOLQJV RI(XURSHDQVXSHULRULW\ DQG
D FRQYLFWLRQ RI$VLDQ EDFNZDUGQHVV 7KLV KRZHYHU ZDV RQO\ D IDLUO\
UHFHQWSKHQRPHQRQVLQFH(XURSHDQKLVWRULDQVKDGWUDGLWLRQDOO\VKRZQD
JUHDWUHVSHFWIRUWKHDQFLHQWFLYLOL]DWLRQVRI$VLD7KLVZDVYHU\GLIIHUHQW
IURP WKH (XURSHDQ DWWLWXGH WRZDUGV $IULFD ZKLFK KDG DOZD\V EHHQ
UHJDUGHG DV DQDKLVWRULFDO FRQWLQHQWDQGWKH$IULFDQ SHRSOHDVD SHRSOH
ZLWKRXWFLYLOL]DWLRQDQGWKXVZLWKRXWKLVWRU\7KHPRVWIDPRXVIRUPXOD
WLRQRIWKLVRSLQLRQLVWREHIRXQGLQWKH-HQD/HFWXUHVJLYHQE\+HJHOLQ
DQGSXEOLVKHGDVWKHPhilosophy o f History. +HUHKHZURWH
$WWKLVSRLQWZHOHDYH$IULFDQRWWRPHQWLRQLWDJDLQ )RULWLVQRKLVWRULFDO
SDUW R IWKH:RUOG LW KDV QR PRYHPHQWRUGHYHORSPHQW WR H[KLELW :KDW
ZH SURSHUO\ XQGHUVWDQG E\ $IULFD LV WKH 8QKLVWRULFDO 8QGHYHORSHG 6SLULW
Overseas History
+HJHO KDG RI FRXUVH D JUHDW LQIOXHQFH RQ .DUO 0DU[ DQG FODVVLFDO
0DU[LVWZULWLQJVUHIOHFWWKHVDPHOLQHRIWKRXJKW$ODWHHFKRRIWKLVFDQ
EHIRXQGLQWKHZRUNRID+XQJDULDQ0DU[LVWKLVWRULDQRI$IULFD (QGUH
6LNZKRZURWHLQ
3ULRUWRWKHLUHQFRXQWHUZLWK(XURSHDQVWKHPDMRULW\RI$IULFDQSHRSOHVVWLOO
OLYHG D SULPLWLYH EDUEDULF OLIH PDQ\ RIWKHP HYHQ RQ WKH ORZHVW OHYHO RI
EDUEDULVP 6RPHRIWKHPOLYHGLQFRPSOHWH RUDOPRVWFRPSOHWH LVRODWLRQ
WKHFRQWDFWVLIDQ\RIRWKHUVZHUHEXWVFDWWHUHGVNLUPLVKHVZLWKQHLJKERXU
LQJ SHRSOHV 7KH State, WDNHQ LQ WKH UHDO VHQVH RIWKH ZRUG ZDV D QRWLRQ
XQNQRZQWRPRVW$IULFDQSHRSOHVDVFODVVHVGLGQRWH[LVWHLWKHU2UUDWKHU
ERWKH[LVWHGDOUHDG\EXWRQO\LQHPEU\R7KHUHIRUHLWLVXQUHDOLVWLFWRVSHDN
RIWKHLUµKLVWRU\¶ LQWKHVFLHQWLILFVHQVHRIWKHZRUG EHIRUHWKHDSSHDUDQFH
RIWKH(XURSHDQLQYDGHUV
7KH YHU\ VFDUFLW\ RI VRXUFHV KDV JLYHQ DQ HQRUPRXV VWLPXOXV WR WKH
GHYHORSPHQWRIQHZWHFKQLTXHVDQGPHWKRGV7KHSDVWKDGWREHLQYHVW
LJDWHGZLWKRWKHUPHDQV$JDLQWKHFRPSDULVRQZLWKWKHAnnalesDQGLWV
nouvelle histoire LV UHOHYDQW ,Q ERWK FDVHV DUFKDHRORJ\ FDUWRJUDSK\
OLQJXLVWLFV RQRPDVWLFVKDYHEHHQDSSOLHG $QWKURSRORJ\KDVDOVRSOD\HG
D PDMRU UROH LQ $IULFDQ KLVWRU\ ,QGHHG WKH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH
DQWKURSRORJLVWDQGWKHKLVWRULDQLVE\QRPHDQVYHU\VKDUS
7KHPRVWIDPRXVRIWKHWHFKQLTXHVGHYHORSHGLQRUGHUWRSURYLGHQHZ
VRXUFHV IRU $IULFDQ KLVWRU\ ZDV WKH VWXG\ RI RUDO WUDGLWLRQ +HUH WKH
SXEOLFDWLRQ RI -DQ 9DQVLQD¶V De la tradition orale. Essai de méthode
historique LQ ZDV HSRFKPDNLQJ 4XLFNO\ WUDQVODWHG LQWR (QJOLVK
(Oral Tradition, WKH ERRN KDG D WUHPHQGRXV LPSDFW RQ $IULFDQ
KLVWRU\ +DOIZD\EHWZHHQWKHQDLYHDQGWKHVFHSWLF9DQVLQDGHYHORSHG
DPHWKRGIRUXVLQJRUDOWUDGLWLRQLQDFULWLFDOZD\DQGWKXVIRUHPSOR\LQJ
LWLQ VHULRXVKLVWRU\ZULWLQJ 9DQVLQDGLYLGHGWKH RUDO WUDGLWLRQ LQWR ILYH
FDWHJRULHV IRUPXODV SRHWU\ OLVWV WDOHV FRPPHQWDULHV HDFK ZLWK LWV
YDULRXV VXEGLYLVLRQV +H DUJXHG WKDW RUDO WUDGLWLRQ VKRXOG QRW EH
DFFHSWHG DW IDFH YDOXH DQG WKDW LW VKRXOG RQO\ EH XVHG DIWHU FULWLFDO
H[DPLQDWLRQ SD\LQJ DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH LPSDFW RIVRFLDO VLJQLILFDQFH FXO
WXUDO YDOXHV DQG WKH SHUVRQDOLW\ RIWKH ZULWHUV ,W VKRXOG DOVR DV IDU DV
SRVVLEOH EH FKHFNHG ZLWK RWKHU VRXUFHV IRU H[DPSOH DUFKDHRORJLFDO
ILQGLQJV RU ZULWWHQ GRFXPHQWV 6RPH KLVWRULDQV DQG DQWKURSRORJLVWV
ZHUH PRUH VFHSWLFDO DERXW RUDO WUDGLWLRQ DQG EHOLHYHG ZLWK GXH UHVSHFW
IRU 9DQVLQD WKDW KH RYHUHVWLPDWHG LWV SRVVLELOLWLHV EXW LW LV XQGHQLDEOH
WKDWKLVZRUNDQGLGHDVKDYHJUHDWO\LQIOXHQFHG$IULFDQKLVWRU\
:KDWHYHU SRVVLELOLWLHV RUDO WUDGLWLRQ DQG RWKHU XQRUWKRGR[ VRXUFHV
RIIHU WKH IDFW UHPDLQV WKDW DV IDU DV ZULWWHQ GRFXPHQWV DUH FRQFHUQHG
$IULFDLVUDWKHUGHSULYHG,WLVRIFRXUVHWUXHWKDWWKLVDOVRJRHVIRUFHUWDLQ
SHULRGVRI(XURSHDQKLVWRU\IRUZKLFKGRFXPHQWVDUHDOVRYHU\VFDUFHDV
ZHOODVIRUSUH&ROXPELDQ$PHULFDSUH&RRNLDQ$XVWUDOLDHWFDQGWKDW
WKHUHIRUH $IULFDQ KLVWRU\ LV H[FHSWLRQDO EXW QRW XQLTXH $OO WKH VDPH D
KLVWRULRJUDSK\RI$IULFDFRPSDUDEOHWRWKDWRI(XURSHVHHPVLPSRVVLEOH
/RQJWHUP GHYHORSPHQWV FDQ EH VWXGLHG EXW D VWULFWO\ IDFWXDO RU événe-
mentielKLVWRU\LVRIWHQLPSRVVLEOH$WWKHPRPHQWWKHVWUXFWXUDORUORQJ
WHUPDSSURDFKLVLQYRJXHLQ(XURSHDQKLVWRU\DVZHOOEXWWKLVLVDPDWWHU
RIFKRLFH ,Q$IULFDVWUXFWXUDO KLVWRU\LVQRW DFKRLFHEXWWKHRQO\SRVV
LELOLW\2QHLVQRWVHGXFHGE\LWEXWFRQGHPQHGWRLW
,QWKHODVWGHFDGHVDQXPEHURI$IULFDQKLVWRULDQVKDYHDSSHDUHGLQWKH
LQWHUQDWLRQDO IRUXP DQGWKHLUUROH LV EHFRPLQJLQFUHDVLQJO\ SURPLQHQW
$OO WKH VDPH RQH VKRXOG DFNQRZOHGJH WKDW WKH JUHDW OHDS IRUZDUG LQ
$IULFDQ KLVWRU\ ZDV PRVWO\ GXH WR (XURSHDQ DQG $PHULFDQ KLVWRULDQV
HVSHFLDOO\%ULWLVKRQHV7KHJournal o f African History - WKHILUVWLVVXHRI
ZKLFKDSSHDUHGLQ ZDVDV7HUHQFH5DQJHUKDVVDLGµWKHFRPELQHG
Overseas History
PDQLIHVWRFKDUWHUSURJUDPPHDQGVKRSZLQGRZIRUWKHILHOG¶5RODQG
2OLYHU¶V VHPLQDU DWWKH /RQGRQ 6FKRRO RI2ULHQWDO DQG $IULFDQ 6WXGLHV
KDVEHHQ FDOOHG µWKH SUHPLHU VHWWLQJLQ WKHZRUOGIRUWKH SUHVHQWDWLRQ RI
QHZZRUNRQ$IULFD¶VSDVW¶2OLYHU¶VDQG)DJH¶VShort History o f Africa
VROG VHYHUDO KXQGUHG WKRXVDQG FRSLHV DQG LV SUREDEO\ WKH VLQJOH PRVW
LQIOXHQWLDOERRNRQ$IULFDQKLVWRU\
)UHQFK KLVWRULDQV KDYH DOVR SOD\HG DQ LPSRUWDQW UROH DOEHLW D PRUH
PRGHVWRQH,Q +HQUL%UXQVFKZLJ DIRUPHUVWXGHQWRI0DUF%ORFK
DQG /XFLHQ )HEYUH DW 6WUDVERXUJ ZDV LQYLWHG E\ )HUQDQG %UDXGHO WR
LQWURGXFH $IULFDQ KLVWRU\ DW WKH (FROH GHV +DXWHV (WXGHV +LV VHPLQDU
EHFDPH DPHHWLQJ SODFH IRU )UHQFK DQG$IULFDQ VFKRODUV <YHV 3HUVRQ
WKH DXWKRU RI D PRQXPHQWDO DQG LQQRYDWLYH KLVWRU\ RI 6DPRUL DQG
&DWKHULQH &RTXHU\9LGURYLWFK QRW RQO\ ZURWH LPSRUWDQW ERRNV WKHP
VHOYHV EXW DOVR EURXJKW WKH VXEMHFW WR WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI3DULV 2WKHU
XQLYHUVLWLHV $L[HQ3URYHQFH %RUGHDX[ DOVR RIIHUHGFRXUVHV DQG VHPL
QDUVLQ$IULFDQKLVWRU\DQGDJUHDWQXPEHURI$IULFDQVWXGHQWVSUHVHQWHG
GRFWRUDOGLVVHUWDWLRQVDW)UHQFKXQLYHUVLWLHV
7KHFRQWULEXWLRQRI$PHULFDQXQLYHUVLWLHVZDVVLJQLILFDQWSDUWLFXODUO\
WKDWRIWKHWKUHH PDLQ VFKRROV RI<DOH 8&/$DQG DERYH DOO 0DGLVRQ
:LVFRQVLQ7KRVH$PHULFDQKLVWRULDQVZKRSOD\HGDOHDGLQJUROHLQWKH
VHFRQG DQG WKLUG JHQHUDWLRQV RI$IULFDQ KLVWRULDQV ZHUH PRVWO\ IRUPHU
VWXGHQWV RI&XUWLQ DQG9DQVLQD DW0DGLVRQ $W WKHPRPHQW LPSRUWDQW
KLVWRULFDO VFKRROV DOVR H[LVW DW YDULRXV XQLYHUVLWLHV LQ $IULFD LWVHOI 7KH
SHULRGRI(XURSHDQGRPLQDQFHLVFOHDUO\RYHU
,Q UHWURVSHFW PXFK RIWKH GHEDWH DERXW WKH SRVVLELOLWLHV DQG LPSRVV
LELOLWLHVRI$IULFDQDQG$VLDQKLVWRU\ORRNVUDWKHUIXWLOHQRWRQO\EHFDXVH
RIWKHGHFUHDVHLQWKHIHHOLQJRI(XURSHDQVXSHULRULW\EXW DOVRGXHWRWKH
FKDQJHVLQWKHVWXG\RIKLVWRU\LWVHOI7KHDQWDJRQLVPRIFRORQLDOLVWYHUVXV
QDWLRQDOLVWPDNHVVHQVHZLWKLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRISROLWLFDOKLVWRU\EXWLQ
RWKHU ILHOGV RI KLVWRU\ ZH ILQG D GLIIHUHQW DSSURDFK 6RFLDO KLVWRU\ LV
VWXGLHG DW WKH OHYHO RIWKHYLOODJH WKHUHJLRQ WKH HWKQLFJURXS &XOWXUDO
KLVWRU\LVDQDO\VHGRQ DPXFK ELJJHUVFDOHWKDQWKDWRIWKHQDWLRQVWDWH
&RQFHSWVOLNH+LQGX RU-DYDQHVHFLYLOL]DWLRQ RU µWKHZRUOGRI,VODP¶ DUH
UHOHYDQWKHUH (FRQRPLFKLVWRU\ZRUNVZLWKODUJHXQLWLHV OLNHWKH,QGLDQ
2FHDQ RU 6RXWK(DVW $VLD RUHYHQWKHZRUOGHFRQRP\ ,Q WKLV W\SH RI
DSSURDFK WKH RSSRVLWLRQ FRORQLDO YHUVXV DQWLFRORQLDO GRHV QRW PDNH
PXFKVHQVH
'RHV WKLVPHDQ WKDW WKHLPSDFW RIFRORQLDOLVP RQ RYHUVHDV KLVWRU\ LV
RYHUDQGWKDWZHVWHUQ DQGQRQZHVWHUQ DWWLWXGHV KDYH IRXQG DFRPSOHWH
HTXLOLEULXP"1RWQHFHVVDULO\IRULQWZRUHVSHFWVWKHUHVWLOOH[LVWVDGHJUHH
RIZHVWHUQGRPLQDQFH ,QWKHILUVWSODFHDVDUHVXOWRIFRORQLDOH[SDQVLRQ
DJUHDWTXDQWLW\RIERRNVGRFXPHQWVDQGRWKHUPDWHULDODERXWWKHRYHU
VHDV ZRUOG ZHUH EURXJKW RYHU WR (XURSH DQG DUH QRZ DYDLODEOH LQ
Henk Wesseling
([SDQVLRQDQG5HDFWLRQ
7KHVWXG\RI(XURSHDQH[SDQVLRQZDVDOVRLQIOXHQFHGE\H[WHUQDODVZHOO
DVLQWHUQDOIDFWRUV7KHUDSLGIDOORIWKHFRORQLDOHPSLUHVIRUH[DPSOHOHG
WR D TXHVWLRQLQJ RI WKHLU SUHYLRXV DSSDUHQW VWDELOLW\ 7KH ULVH RI WKH
$PHULFDQ HPSLUH DQ HPSLUH ZLWKRXW FRORQLHV VWLPXODWHG D UHWKLQNLQJ
RIERWKLQIRUPDODQGIRUPDOWHFKQLTXHVRILPSHULDOLVP7KHHPHUJHQFHRI
&KLQD OHG WR D UHDSSUDLVDO RIWKH FRXQWU\¶V VFLHQWLILF DQG QDYDO SRVVLE
LOLWLHV DQG WKXV WR QHZ TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKH GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ &KLQHVH
DQGHDUO\(XURSHDQH[SDQVLRQ
2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG LQWHUQDO IDFWRUV FKDQJHG WKH QDWXUH RIH[SDQVLRQ
VWXGLHV DV ZHOO DQG WKH JHQHUDO WUHQG LQ IDYRXU RIVRFLDO DQG HFRQRPLF
KLVWRU\ DOVR PDQLIHVWHG LWVHOILQ WKLV ILHOG 4XHVWLRQV DERXW PRQHWDUL]D
WLRQ VKLSSLQJJROGDQG VLOYHU WKHSURILWVRIHPSLUHHWF ZHUHDVNHGLQD
QHZZD\DQGWKHVHFRXOGRIWHQEHDQVZHUHGZLWKWKHDLGRIDFRPSXWHU
Overseas History
6RFLDOKLVWRU\EHFDPHDIDVKLRQDEOHVXEMHFWDQGWKLVVWLPXODWHGWKHVWXG\
RIPLJUDWLRQ WKHVODYHWUDGH UDFHUHODWLRQVXUEDQL]DWLRQDQGmentalités.
3ROLWLFDO VFLHQFH LQIOXHQFHG SROLWLFDO KLVWRU\ E\ VXJJHVWLQJ WKH VWXG\ RI
VXFKWRSLFVDVGHFLVLRQPDNLQJSXEOLFRSLQLRQWKHUROHRIVSHFLDOLQWHUHVW
JURXSVHWF
$OWKRXJK DWWKHWKHRUHWLFDOOHYHOWKHWUDGLWLRQDO GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ D
ILUVWDQGDVHFRQGSKDVHRIH[SDQVLRQZDVTXHVWLRQHG LQDFWXDOSUDFWLFH
WKHGLYLVLRQRIODERXUEHWZHHQPRGHUQLVWVDQGVWXGHQWVRIFRQWHPSRUDU\
KLVWRU\LV VWLOOYHU\YLVLEOH 7UDGLWLRQDOO\ LQ HDUO\PRGHUQ H[SDQVLRQWKH
HPSKDVLVLVRQWKHJUHDWGLVFRYHULHVVKLSVDQGQDYLJDWLRQFRPSDQLHVDQG
WUDGH PLJUDWLRQ SODQWDWLRQ V\VWHPV DQG VODYH VRFLHWLHV &KDUOHV %R[HU
DQG - + 3DUU\ ZURWH VXFFHVVIXO ERRNV DLPLQJ DW DQ RYHUYLHZ RIWKH
VHDERUQH HPSLUHV7KH 0LQQHVRWDVHULHV (XURSH DQGWKH:RUOGLQ WKH
$JH RI([SDQVLRQ DOVR RIIHUHG D VHULHV RIWH[WERRNV RQ WKHVH WRSLFV ,Q
PDQ\ RIWKHVH ILHOGV QHZ DSSURDFKHV ZHUH RIIHUHG QHZ TXHVWLRQV ZHUH
DVNHGDQGQHZWHFKQLTXHVDSSOLHG*ODPDQQ6WHHQVJDDUGDQG&KDXGKXUL
SXEOLVKHGSDWKILQGLQJVWXGLHVRIWKH,QGLDQ&RPSDQLHV &XUWLQGLGSLR
QHHUZRUNRQ WKH VODYHWUDGH &KDXQX RQWKH $WODQWLFZRUOG %DLO\Q RQ
PLJUDWLRQDQGPDQ\PRUHFRXOGDQGVKRXOGEHPHQWLRQHG0DQ\RIWKH
TXHVWLRQV GLVFXVVHGKHUH DUHFORVHO\UHODWHGWRPDMRUWRSLFV RIGHEDWH LQ
(XURSHDQKLVWRU\VXFKDVWKHRULHVDERXWWKHRULJLQVRIFDSLWDOLVPµ3KDVH,
DQG ,) WKH JHQHUDO GHSUHVVLRQ RI WKH VHYHQWHHQWK FHQWXU\ WKH SULFH
UHYROXWLRQ HWF ,W VKRXOG KRZHYHU EH DFNQRZOHGJHG WKDW QR JHQHUDO
WKHRU\RI(XURSHDQH[SDQVLRQZDVRIIHUHG:KLOHLQWKHKLVWRU\RIQLQH
WHHQWKDQGWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\H[SDQVLRQWKHGHEDWHZDVGRPLQDWHGE\WKH
FRQFHSW RI LPSHULDOLVP WKHUH ZDV QR VXFK WKLQJ LQ HDUO\ H[SDQVLRQ
VWXGLHV DW OHDVW QRW XQWLO ,PPDQXHO :DOOHUVWHLQ ODXQFKHG KLV WKHRU\
DERXWWKHPRGHUQZRUOGV\VWHP
,PPDQXHO:DOOHUVWHLQDVRFLDOVFLHQWLVWIURP&ROXPELD8QLYHUVLW\ILUVW
VWXGLHG $IULFDQ GHFRORQL]DWLRQ DQG GHYHORSPHQW SUREOHPV +LV ZD\ RI
WKLQNLQJDERXWWKHVHWRSLFVZDVLQIOXHQFHGE\dependendaDQGXQGHUGHYHO
RSPHQW WKHRULHV +RZHYHU :DOOHUVWHLQ WXUQHG WR KLVWRU\ EHFDXVH KH
EHOLHYHVWKDWWKHVHSUREOHPVRIGHYHORSPHQWFDQRQO\EHIXOO\XQGHUVWRRG
LQWKHLUJOREDOFRQWH[WDQGLQDKLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFWLYH7KHKLVWRULFDOZRUN
KHIHHOVPRVWIDPLOLDUZLWKLVWKDWRIWKHAnnalesJURXSDQGSDUWLFXODUO\WKDW
RI)HUQDQG%UDXGHO7KHUHLVLQGHHGDVWURQJVLPLODULW\EHWZHHQ:DOOHU
VWHLQ¶VLGHDVDQGWKHFRQFHSWXDOIUDPHZRUNRIWKHWKLUGYROXPHRI%UDX
GHO¶VZRUNMaterial Civilization, Economy and Capitalism:DOOHUVWHLQ¶V
PDLQSXEOLFDWLRQVRIDULVDSODQQHGIRXUYROXPHVWXG\RIZKDWKHFDOOV
The Modern World System. 7KH ILUVW YROXPH ZKLFK FDPH RXW LQ
RIIHUHGWKHDQDO\WLFIUDPHZRUNRIWKHSURMHFW,WZDVDVRXUFHRILQVSLUD
WLRQIRUPDQ\RWKHUVFKRODUVDQGOHGWRDQLQWHUHVWLQJGHEDWHRQWKHRULJLQV
RI(XURSHDQH[SDQVLRQDQGFDSLWDOLVP
Henk Wesseling
(XURSHDQ H[SDQVLRQ ZDV WKH PRVW GUDPDWLF QRW VR PXFK EHFDXVH RI
WUDGHEXWEHFDXVHRIWKHGHPRJUDSKLFGHFOLQHRIWKHRULJLQDOSRSXODWLRQ
$Q LQWHUHVWLQJ SRLQW RI:DOOHUVWHLQ¶V WKHRU\ LV KLV TXHVWLRQLQJ RIWKH
YHU\ FRQFHSW RI DQ ,QGXVWULDO 5HYROXWLRQ DQG WKXV RI WKH GLVWLQFWLRQ
EHWZHHQSUHLQGXVWULDO DQGLQGXVWULDOFRORQLDOLVP 7KLVGLVWLQFWLRQZDV D
FHQWUDODUJXPHQWLQWKHFODVVLFDOWKHRU\RILPSHULDOLVPDWKHRU\WKDWKDV
GRPLQDWHG WKH KLVWRULRJUDSK\ RIODWH QLQHWHHQWK DQG WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\
(XURSHDQH[SDQVLRQ
,PSHULDOLVP
$OWKRXJK WKH ZRUG LPSHULDOLVP KDG EHHQ LQ H[LVWHQFH VLQFH WKH V
LPSHULDOLVP DV D KLVWRULFDO FRQFHSW RQO\ EHJDQ ZLWK WKH SXEOLFDWLRQ RI
- $ +REVRQ¶V Imperialism: A Study LQ ,Q RUGHU WR H[SODLQ
LPSHULDOLVP+REVRQDUJXHGWKDWDVDFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHFDSLWDOLVWV\VWHP
WKH %ULWLVK HFRQRP\ VXIIHUHG IURP XQGHUFRQVXPSWLRQ 7KLV PHDQW WKDW
VXUSOXV FDSLWDO FRXOGQRWEH SURILWDEO\ LQYHVWHG LQ %ULWDLQ LWVHOI 7KHUH
IRUH LQKLV IDPRXV ZRUGV WKH FDSLWDOLVWV ZHUH µVHHNLQJIRUHLJQ PDUNHWV
DQGIRUHLJQLQYHVWPHQWVWRWDNHWKHJRRGVDQGFDSLWDOWKH\FDQQRWVHOORU
XVHDWKRPH¶7KXVWKHWKHRU\RIFDSLWDOLVWLPSHULDOLVPZDVERUQ
+REVRQ¶VWKHRU\ZDVVRRQWDNHQRYHUDGDSWHGDQGPDGHPRUHVRSKLV
WLFDWHG E\ 0DU[LVW WKLQNHUV HVSHFLDO *HUPDQV VXFK DV .DUO +LOIHUGLQJ
DQG5RVD/X[HPEXUJ,QGRLQJVRWKHVHDXWKRUVDOVRFKDQJHG+REVRQ¶V
DUJXPHQW:KHUHDVWR+REVRQWKHIOLJKWRIFDSLWDOZDVDW\SLFDOEXWQRWD
QHFHVVDU\FRQVHTXHQFHRIFDSLWDOLVPIRUWKH0DU[LVWVLPSHULDOLVPEHFDPH
DQLQHYLWDELOLW\7KHPRVWIDPRXVIRUPXODLVWREHIRXQGZLWK/HQLQZKR
LQ FDOOHGLPSHULDOLVPµWKHKLJKHVWVWDJHRIFDSLWDOLVP¶$OWKRXJKWKH
GLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ+REVRQDQG/HQLQDUHHYLGHQWLWVRRQEHFDPHFRP
PRQSODFHWR UHIHUWR WKH µ+REVRQ² /HQLQWKHVLV¶ ,QIDFW LQ RQHIRUP RU
DQRWKHUWKLVµWKHRU\¶EHFDPHDVWDQGDUGH[SODQDWLRQRI(XURSHDQLPSHUL
DOLVPGXULQJWKH VDQG V
2QO\LQWKH VZDVWKHJHQHUDOGLVFXVVLRQRQLPSHULDOLVPUHRSHQHG
&OHDUO\ GHFRORQL]DWLRQ DV ZHOO DV WKH ULVH RI WKH $PHULFDQ HFRQRPLF
HPSLUH KDG PXFK WR GR ZLWK WKLV ,Q WKH %ULWLVK KLVWRULDQV -
*DOODJKHUDQG5 5RELQVRQSXEOLVKHGWKHERRNWKDWZDVWREHWKHVLQJOH
PRVW LQIOXHQWLDO UHH[DPLQDWLRQ RI %ULWLVK LPSHULDOLVP Africa and the
Victorians 7KH \HDU EHIRUH +HQUL %UXQVFKZLJKDGSXEOLVKHG Mythes
et réalités de l’impérialisme colonial frangais, 1871-1914, DQ HVVD\ZKLFK
VHW WKH WRQH IRU DOO ODWHU VWXGLHV RQ )UHQFK LPSHULDOLVP 1HZ LQWHU
SUHWDWLRQV RI %HOJLDQ *HUPDQ ,WDOLDQ 3RUWXJXHVH DQG HYHQWXDOO\
'XWFKLPSHULDOLVPIROORZHG7KXVZHPLJKWVSHDNRIDKLVWRULRJUDSKLFDO
Henk Wesseling
RYHUVHDVGHVWLQDWLRQVRUHYHQ%ULWDLQLWVHOI7KXV+REVRQDQG/HQLQZHUH
ZURQJDERXWWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQVXUSOXVFDSLWDODQGWKHXUJHWRRYHUVHDV
H[SDQVLRQ 7KH GHSHQGHQW FRORQLHV ZHUH QRW PDMRU UHFLSLHQWV RI &LW\
FDSLWDO7KHUHFDQEHQRGRXEWWKDWWKLVLVQRWWKHZKROHDQVZHUEHFDXVH
'DYLV DQG+XWWHQEDFNDOVR DUJXHWKDW IRUVRPH FDSLWDOLVWV WKHVHLQYHVW
PHQWVZHUHIDUIURPPDUJLQDO
,Q)UDQFHXQGHUWKHLQIOXHQFHRI%UXQVFKZLJ¶VDUJXPHQWVHYHQ0DU[
LVWDXWKRUVKDYHDFFHSWHGKLVYLVLRQWKDWWKHHFRQRPLFDVSHFWVRI)UHQFK
LPSHULDOLVP ZHUH QHJOLJLEOH ,Q DQ DWWHPSW WR UHVFXH WKH 0DU[LVW LQWHU
SUHWDWLRQ WKH\ KDYH DUJXHG WKDW )UHQFK LPSHULDOLVP ZDV WR EH IRXQG
HOVHZKHUH LQ 5XVVLD WKH 2WWRPDQ HPSLUH HWF 7KLV GLDOHFWLFDO H[HUFLVH
UHVXOWHGLQWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDW)UHQFKFRORQLDOLVPZDVQRWLPSHULDOLVWDQG
)UHQFK LPSHULDOLVP QRW FRORQLDO ,Q RUGHU WR ILQG D PRUH HPSLULFDO
DQVZHU WR WKH TXHVWLRQ RI HFRQRP\ DQG HPSLUH &DWKHULQH &RTXHU\
9LGURYLWFKWRRNWKHLQLWLDWLYHRIVHWWLQJXSDGDWDEDQNRI)UHQFKFRORQLDO
WUDGH+HU3DULVLDQFROOHDJXH-DFTXHV0DUVHLOOHZDVWKHILUVW
WR PDNH H[WHQVLYH XVH RI WKLV ULFK GRFXPHQWDWLRQ IRU KLV GLVVHUWDWLRQ
Empire colonial et capitalisme frangais: histoire d ’un divorce0DUVHLOOH¶V
FRQFOXVLRQLVWKDWWKHUHZDVDEUHDNLQWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQFDSLWDOLVPDQG
FRORQLDOLVP,QWKHLQLWLDOSHULRG )UHQFKLQGXVWU\QHHGHGWKH
RXWOHWRIWKHSURWHFWHGFRORQLDOPDUNHWDQGWKHPDUULDJH RIFRORQLDOLVP
DQGFDSLWDOLVPZDV DKDSS\ RQH ,Q WKH VHFRQGSHULRG SUR
WHFWLRQLVPEHFDPHDQREVWDFOHWRVRUHO\QHHGHGLQGXVWULDOPRGHUQL]DWLRQ
'LYRUFH EHFDPH LQHYLWDEOH %XW GHFRORQL]DWLRQ ZDV DOUHDG\ XQGHU ZD\
7KHHQGRIHPSLUHLQ ZDVDEOHVVLQJIRUFDSLWDOLVP
6R PXFK IRU (XURSH EXWZKDWZDVWKHLPSDFW RILPSHULDOLVP RQ WKH
RYHUVHDV ZRUOG" 7KLV LV D FRPSOLFDWHG VXEMHFW RQ ZKLFK D SDVVLRQDWH
GHEDWHKDV EHHQ JRLQJ RQHYHU VLQFHWKHTXHVWLRQ ZDV UDLVHG 7KHUH DUH
IHZWKLQJVRQZKLFKWKHGHEDWHUVDJUHHEXWRQHIDFWLVXQGHQLDEOHWKHUHDO
LPSDFW RIWKH ZHVW RQ WKH RYHUVHDV WHUULWRULHV RQO\ WRRN SODFH DIWHU WKH
,QGXVWULDO5HYROXWLRQ:KDWZHUHWKHHIIHFWVRIWKLV"2IFRXUVHFRORQLDO
LVP ZDV RUJDQL]HG LQ VXFK D PDQQHU DV WR SURPRWH WKH LQWHUHVWV RIWKH
FRORQLDO SRZHU 2IFRXUVHWKLV LPSOLHG EXUGHQV RIYDULRXV NLQGV IRU WKH
FRORQL]HGSHRSOHV +RZHYHU EH\RQGWKHGRPDLQ RIEDVLFWUXWKV VXFK DV
WKHVH WKHUH LV DYDVW ]RQH RISUREOHPV WKDW FDQQRW EH DQVZHUHG VLPSO\
7KHUHLVWKHZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGSKHQRPHQRQRIGHLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQQRWDEO\
LQ WKHFDVH RIWKH ,QGLDQ WH[WLOH LQGXVWU\ 7KHUH LV DOVR WKH SUREOHP RI
VSHFLDOL]DWLRQ LQ FDVK FURSV 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG WKHUH DUH ORQJWHUP
GHYHORSPHQWV UHVXOWLQJ IURP LQYHVWPHQW LQ LQIUDVWUXFWXUH PLQLQJ
URDGV SRUWV WKHLPSURYHPHQWRIDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ HGXFDWLRQ KHDOWK 7R
GUDZDQHFRQRPLFEDODQFHVKHHWRIFRORQLDOLVPLVH[WUDRUGLQDULO\GLIILFXOW
1RW RQO\ EHFDXVH RI WKH ODFN RI GDWD EXW DOVR EHFDXVH RI WKHRUHWLFDO
SUREOHPV
Henk Wesseling
'HFRORQL]DWLRQDQG$IWHU
QL]DWLRQLVILQDOO\HPHUJLQJDVDVXEMHFWIRUKLVWRULFDODQDO\VLVUDWKHUWKDQ
DQDFWRI*RGRUWKHUHVXOWRIWKHODZVRIQDWXUH
7KHTXHVWLRQVGLVFXVVHGDUHEDVLFDOO\YHU\VLPSOHRQHV :K\GLGGHFR
ORQL]DWLRQ RFFXU ZKHQ LW RFFXUUHG DQG ZK\ GLG LW WDNH RQ WKH YDULRXV
IRUPV LW GLG" 'HFRORQL]DWLRQ LV QR ORQJHU H[FOXVLYHO\ GHVFULEHG DV WKH
KLVWRU\RIWKHDFWVRISROLWLFDOOHDGHUVLQDVKRUWWLPHVSDQ ,WV
ORQJWHUP VWUXFWXUDO DQG FRQMXQFWXUDO DVSHFWV DUH DOVR JLYHQ DWWHQWLRQ
7KHDQDO\VLV RIWKHYDULRXVIRUPV RIGHFRORQL]DWLRQFHQWUHV RQWKHWKUHH
IRUFHVWKDWZHUHDWZRUN WKHFRORQLDOSRZHU WKH VLWXDWLRQLQWKHFRORQ\
DQGWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDO IDFWRU 7KHLQWHUDFWLRQ RIWKHVH IRUFHV GHFLGHG WKH
IRUPV EXW QRW WKH RXWFRPH RIWKHSURFHVV EHFDXVH ZKDWHYHUWKH GLIIHU
HQFHVWKHRXWFRPHZDVDOZD\VWKHVDPH LQGHSHQGHQFH %XWKHUHDTXHV
WLRQDULVHV :KDWGLGLQGHSHQGHQFHUHDOO\PHDQ":DVWKHHQGRI(PSLUH
DOVR WKHHQG RILPSHULDOLVP RUZDV LWWKHFRQWLQXDWLRQ RILWE\ GLIIHUHQW
PHDQV"+HUHWKH VXEMHFWRIGHFRORQL]DWLRQWRXFKHVRQDQRWKHUWRSLF WKH
WKHRU\RIGHSHQGHQF\
7KH dependenda WKHRU\ZDVILUVWSXWIRUZDUGE\WKH$UJHQWLQLDQHFR
QRPLVW5D~O3UHELVFKLQ DQGWKHQIXUWKHUGHYHORSHGLQWKH VE\
/DWLQ $PHULFDQ VFKRODUV DQG E\ 1RUWK $PHULFDQV LQWHUHVWHG LQ /DWLQ
$PHULFD7KHWKHRU\ZDVERUQIURPWKHREVHUYDWLRQRIWKHSHUPDQHQF\RI
/DWLQ$PHULFD¶VSUREOHPVSRYHUW\LQHTXDOLW\VOXPVH[WHUQDOGHEWVWKH
GRPLQDQFH RIIRUHLJQFDSLWDO LQ RQHZRUG GHSHQGHQF\ 7KHWKHRU\ RI
GHSHQGHQF\DUJXHVWKDWWKLVVLWXDWLRQLVQRWWKHUHVXOWRIDODFNRIGHYHO
RSPHQWEXWRIXQGHUGHYHORSPHQW2ULJLQDWLQJLQ/DWLQ$PHULFDQVWXGLHV
WKHWKHRU\ZDVIXUWKHUZRUNHGRXWDQGUHILQHGWREHFRPHDXQLYHUVDORQH
DSSOLFDEOHQRWRQO\WR/DWLQ$PHULFDEXWWRWKHHQWLUH7KLUG:RUOG7KH
7KLUG:RUOGLVVHHQDVWKHSHULSKHU\RIDZRUOGHFRQRPLFV\VWHPLQZKLFK
WKHFHQWUHWKDWLVWRVD\WKHZHVWLVDFFXPXODWLQJWKHSURILWVDQGNHHSLQJ
WKHSHULSKHU\LQDVLWXDWLRQRISHUPDQHQWGHSHQGHQF\7KXVXQGHUGHYHO
RSPHQWLVQRWDVLWXDWLRQEXWDSURFHVV7KH7KLUG:RUOGLVQRWXQGHYHO
RSHG EXWLWLV EHLQJXQGHUGHYHORSHG E\ WKHZHVW $QGUp *XQGHU )UDQN
IRUPXODWHG LWV PRVW FDWFKLQJ IRUPXODWLRQ µWKH GHYHORSPHQW RIXQGHU
GHYHORSPHQW¶
7KH WKHRU\ RIGHSHQGHQF\ ZDV VRRQ DSSOLHG WR YDULRXV SDUWV RIWKH
7KLUG :RUOG SDUWLFXODUO\ WR $IULFD 6DPLU $PLQ ZURWH H[WHQVLYHO\ RQ
WKHVXEMHFWDQG:DOWHU5RGQH\SXEOLVKHGDVXFFHVVIXOERRNDERXWLWZLWK
WKH DUUHVWLQJ WLWOH H ow Europe Underdeveloped A frica.49 7KH SUREOHP
ZLWKWKHWKHRU\LVWKDWLQRUGHUWRH[SODLQWKHSDUWLFXODUXQGHUGHYHORS
PHQW RI $IULFD LW KDV WR PDNH WKH FRQWLQHQW GHSHQGHQW XSRQ IRUHLJQ
LQIOXHQFHVGXULQJPRVWRILWVKLVWRU\7KLVOLQHRIWKRXJKWZDVVRPHZKDW
FRQWUDGLFWRU\WRWKHPDLQWUHQGZKLFKGHYHORSHGLQ$IULFDQKLVWRU\LQWKH
VDPHSHULRGZKLFKXQGHUOLQHGWKHDXWRQRP\RI$IULFDQKLVWRU\$IULFDQV
ZHUHQRORQJHUVHHQDVPHUHYLFWLPVRI(XURSHDQH[SDQVLRQEXWWRDODUJH
Henk Wesseling
H[WHQWDVPDVWHUVRIWKHLURZQGHVWLQ\:KLOHQHR0DU[LVWVHPEUDFHGWKH
WKHRU\ RIGHSHQGHQF\ FODVVLFDO 0DU[LVW KLVWRULDQV DQG DQWKURSRORJLVWV
XQGHUOLQHGWKHDXWRQRP\RI$IULFDQKLVWRU\DQGHYHQWULHGWRGLVFRYHUDQ
µ$IULFDQPRGHRISURGXFWLRQ¶
%RWK WKH WKHRU\ RIGHSHQGHQF\ DQG WKH FRQFHSW RILQIRUPDO HPSLUH
ZHUHRIJUHDWKHXULVWLFYDOXHEHFDXVHWKH\TXHVWLRQHGVRPHRIWKHIXQGD
PHQWDODVVXPSWLRQVRIRYHUVHDVKLVWRU\DQGWKXVFKDQJHGRXULQWHUSUHWD
WLRQ7KHYHU\FRQFHSWRIDQDJHRILPSHULDOLVPZLWKDFOHDUFXWEHJLQQLQJ
DQGHQGFDQEHGLVSXWHGDWOHDVWDVIDUDV%ULWDLQLVFRQFHUQHG7KH]HQLWK
RIWKH%ULWLVK(PSLUHLVQRZVRPHWLPHVSODFHGLQWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\
LWVGHFOLQHDOUHDG\EHJLQQLQJLQWKHQLQHWHHQWK1RWVXUSULVLQJO\WKHTXHV
WLRQ KDV EHHQ DVNHG µ:K\ GLG WKH %ULWLVK (PSLUH ODVW VR ORQJ"¶ 7KH
GDQJHU ZLWK FRQFHSWV DQG WKHRULHV OLNH WKHVH LV WKDW WKHLU PHDQLQJ LV
RYHUHVWLPDWHGDQGWKH\EHFRPHWKHQHZRUWKRGR[\,WLVDXVHIXOFRUUHFW
LYH WR H[LVWLQJ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV WR UHODWLYL]H WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI WXUQLQJ
SRLQWV VXFK DV WKH EHJLQQLQJ RILPSHULDOLVP RU WKH WUDQVIHU RISRZHU
EXW ZH VKRXOG DOVR QRW XQGHUHVWLPDWH WKHLU KLVWRULFDO VLJQLILFDQFH 7KH
ORVV DQG HYHQWXDOO\ UHFRYHU\ RI SROLWLFDO LQGHSHQGHQFH DUH LPSRUWDQW
HQRXJKKLVWRULFDOFDHVXUDHDQGLWLVQRXVHOHWWLQJWKHLUFRQFUHWHKLVWRULFDO
VLJQLILFDQFH IDGH DZD\ LQ VRPH UDWKHU DEVWUDFW FRQFHSW RIGHSHQGHQF\
+HUHZHIDFHDQRWKHUSUREOHPZLWKFRQFHSWVOLNHWKLVWKH\DUHIRUPXODWHG
LQ VXFK DQ DEVWUDFW ZD\ WKDW WKH\ FRYHU DOO W\SHV RI GRPLQDQFH
5RQDOG5RELQVRQ¶V ODWHVWFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHGHEDWH WKHµH[FHQWULF¶ WKH
RU\ RI LPSHULDOLVP ZLWK RU ZLWKRXW HPSLUH VXIIHUV IURP WKLV ,Q WKLV
PRGHO LPSHULDOLVP LV FRQFHLYHG LQ µWHUPV RI WKH SOD\ RILQWHUQDWLRQDO
HFRQRPLFDQGSROLWLFDOPDUNHWVLQZKLFKGHJUHHVRIPRQRSRO\DQGFRP
SHWLWLRQ LQ UHODWLRQV DW ZRUOG PHWURSROLWDQ DQG ORFDO OHYHOV GHFLGH LWV
QHFHVVLW\DQGSURILWDELOLW\¶7KLVLVSUREDEO\DFRUUHFWEXWDOVRDUDWKHU
DEVWUDFWGHVFULSWLRQRILPSHULDOLVP$V\PPHWU\RISRZHUDQGFKDQJHVLQ
IRUPV RIFROODERUDWLRQDUHWREHIRXQGWKURXJKRXWKLVWRU\ 3HUKDSVLWLV
PRUHXVHIXOWRVWD\VRPHZKDWFORVHUWRWKHFRQFUHWHKLVWRULFDOSURFHVVDQG
WR JLYH IXOO DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH VSHFLILF DQG XQLTXH DVSHFWV RI (XURSHDQ
H[SDQVLRQ7KLVEULQJVXVEDFNWRWKHTXHVWLRQZH VWDUWHGZLWK µ:KDWLV
RYHUVHDVKLVWRU\"¶RUUDWKHU µ:KDWZLOOLWEHLQWKHIXWXUH"¶
&RQFOXVLRQ
GHYHORSPHQWRIPRGHUQKLVWRU\DQGFRQVLGHUVWKHZULWLQJRIKLVWRU\DVWKH
GHVFULSWLRQ RIFRQFUHWH KLVWRULFDO SURFHVVHV DQG HYHQWV +HUH KLVWRU\ LV
DOVR VWXGLHG LQ DFRPSDUDWLYH ZD\EXWZLWKLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRIFKURQR
ORJLFDO GHYHORSPHQWV 7KHUH LV PRUH LQWHUHVW LQ WKH GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ
YDULRXV GHYHORSPHQWV DQG WKH XQLTXHQHVV RI FHUWDLQ HYHQWV WKDQ LQ
WKHLUVLPLODULWLHV 7KHFRQFHSWXDOIUDPHZRUNLVWKDWRIWKHXQLILFDWLRQ RI
WKHZRUOGDVDFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHH[SDQVLRQRI(XURSHDQGWKHULVHRIWKH
ZHVW%RWKDSSURDFKHVDUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DVWURQJGHVLUHWRWUDQVFHQG
WUDGLWLRQDO ERXQGDULHV SDURFKLDO YLHZV DQG QDWLRQDOLVW ELDV ,Q WKH HQG
WKH\KDYHWKHVDPHJRDOWRPDNHWKHVSHFLILFZHVWHUQGLVFLSOLQHRIKLVWRU\
DSSOLFDEOHWRZRUOGKLVWRU\ 7KLVLVQHFHVVDU\EHFDXVH µRXUFLYLOL]DWLRQLV
WKHILUVWWRKDYHIRULWVSDVWWKHSDVWRIWKHZRUOGRXUKLVWRU\LVWKHILUVWWR
EHZRUOGKLVWRU\¶7KHVHZRUGVZHUHZULWWHQE\WKH'XWFKKLVWRULDQ-RKDQ
+XL]LQJD PRUH WKDQ VL[W\ \HDUV DJR 7KH FKDOOHQJH RI GUDZLQJ WKH
FRQVHTXHQFHVIURPWKHPLVRQHZHDUHVWLOOIDFLQJWRGD\
1 2 7 (6
6HHHJ 0 0|UQHUDQG7 6YHQVVRQHGV The History o f the Third World in
Nordic Research*|WHERUJ
6HH & )DVVHXU µ/HLGHQ DQG (PSLUH 8QLYHUVLW\ DQG &RORQLDO 2IILFH
¶ LQ: 2WWHUVSHHUHGLeiden Oriental Connections, 1850-1940/HLGHQ
SS
- 5RPHLQ Aera van Europa /HLGHQ DQG De eeuw van Azie /HLGHQ
/ %OXVVp µ-DSDQHVH +LVWRULRJUDSK\DQG(XURSHDQ6RXUFHV¶ LQ3 & (PPHU
DQG+/:HVVHOLQJHGVReappraisals in Overseas History/HLGHQ SS
6HH7 2 5DQJHU µ7RZDUGVD8VDEOH$IULFDQ3DVW¶LQ& )\IH HG African
Studies since 1945: A Tribute to Basil Davidson /RQGRQ SS
6HH $ * +RSNLQV µ(XURSHDQ ([SDQVLRQ LQWR :HVW $IULFD $ +LVWRULRJUD
SKLFDO 6XUYH\ RI(QJOLVK /DQJXDJH 3XEOLFDWLRQV VLQFH ¶ LQ (PPHU DQG
:HVVHOLQJReappraisals,S
)%UDXGHOLa Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen á l ’époque de Philippe II
UGHGQ YROV3DULV YRO S
)RUERWKSUDFWLFDODQGWKHRUHWLFDOUHDVRQVZHZLOOQRWGLVFXVVKHUHWKHKLVWRU\
RIWKH$PHULFDV DQG WKH&DULEEHDQ $V IDUDV $VLDLVFRQFHUQHGZHZLOOOLPLW
RXUVHOYHVWRWKH WZRELJH[FRORQLHV ,QGLD DQG ,QGRQHVLD ZKHUHWKHULVH RID
QDWLRQDOKLVWRULRJUDSK\KDVEHHQWKHPRVWLPSUHVVLYH
- 1HKUX The Discovery o f India/RQGRQ S
6HH 6 5D\ µ,QGLD $IWHU ,QGHSHQGHQFH¶ Journal o f Contemporary History, 2
SS
Overseas History
+ $ - .ORRVWHU Indonesiers schrijven hun geschiedenis. De ontwikkeling van
de Indonesische geschiedbeoefening in theorie en praktijk, 1900-1980 /HLGHQ
- %DVWLQ The Study o f Modern Southeast Asian History .XDOD /XPSXU
6HH DOVR KLV The Western Element in Modern Southeast Asian History
.XDOD/XPSXU
- &YDQ/HXUEenige beschouwingen betreffende den ouden Aziatischen handel
0LGGHOEXUJ $WUDQVODWLRQRIWKLVERRNDQGRIKLVRWKHUZULWLQJVFDQEH
IRXQGLQ- &YDQ/HXUIndonesian Trade and Society: Essays in Asian Social
and Economic History7KH+DJXH
9DQ/HXU Trade and Society,S
,ELG SS 6HH IRUWKLVDOVR / %OXVVp DQG ) 6 *DDVWUDHGV On the
Eighteenth Century as a Category o f Asian History: Van Leur in Retrospect
$OGHUVKRW
.03DQLNNDUA Survey o f Indian History/RQGRQ : ):HUWKHLP
µ$VLDQ +LVWRU\ DQG WKH :HVWHUQ +LVWRULDQ 5HMRLQGHU WR 3URIHVVRU %DVWLQ¶
Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, SS
*: ) +HJHO The Philosophy o f History1HZ<RUN S
( 6LN The History o f Black AfricaYROV %XGDSHVW YRO S
+7UHYRU5RSHU The Rise o f Christian Europe/RQGRQ S
+ %UXQVFKZLJ µ8Q IDX[ SUREOpPH O¶HWKQRKLVWRLUH¶ Annales E.S.C.,
SS
-9DQVLQDDe la tradition orale. Essai de méthode historique7HUYXHUHQ
(QJOLVK WUDQV Oral Tradition: A Study in Historical Methodology /RQGRQ
,Q VRPH RI KLV ODWHU ZRUNV 9DQVLQD ZDV VRPHZKDW PRUH VFHSWLFDO 6HH 3
6DOPRQIntroduction á Thistoire de TAfrique%UXVVHOV II )RUWKLV
VHH DOVR - 9DQVLQD¶V DXWRELRJUDSKLFDO ERRN Living with Africa 0DGLVRQ
:LV
6HH + %UXQVFKZLJ µ8QH KLVWRLUH GH O¶$IULTXH QRLUH HVWHOOH SRVVLEOH"¶ LQ
Mélanges en I'honneur de Fernand Braudel YROV 7RXORXVH YRO
SS
6HH5DQJHU µ8VDEOH3DVW¶S
The Blackwell Dictionary o f Historians2[IRUGSVY2OLYHU56HH
DOVR5RODQG2OLYHU¶VDXWRELRJUDSKLFDOERRNIn the Realms o f Gold: Pioneering
in African History/RQGRQ
& &RTXHU\9LGURYLWFK Le Congo au temps des grandes compagnies conces-
sionnaires 3DULV < 3HUVRQ Samori: une Révolution dyula YROV
'DNDU 6HH DOVR + %UXQVFKZLJ µ)UHQFK +LVWRULRJUDSK\ VLQFH
&RQFHUQLQJ %ODFN $IULFD¶ LQ (PPHU DQG :HVVHOLQJ Reappraisals, SS
6HH 7 /LQGEODG µ&RPSXWHU $SSOLFDWLRQV LQ ([SDQVLRQ +LVWRU\ $ 6XUYH\¶
Second Bulletin o f the ESF-Network on the History o f European Expansion.
Supplement to Itinerario, SS
& 5 %R[HU The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1418-1825 1HZ<RUN
& 5 %R[HU The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800 /RQGRQ - +
3DUU\ The Spanish Seaborne Empire 1HZ<RUN
Henk Wesseling
. *ODPDQQDutch-Asiatic Trade 1620-1740QGHGQ7KH+DJXH 1
6WHHQVJDDUG The Asian Trade Revolution o f the 17th Century: The East India
Companies and the Decline o f the Caravan Trade &KLFDJR . 1
&KDXGKXUL The Trading World o f Asia and the English East India Company,
1660-1760&DPEULGJH 3K&XUWLQ The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census
0DGLVRQ :LV 3 DQG+ &KDXQX Seville et I’Atlantique, 1504-1650
YROV 3DULV % %DLO\Q Voyagers to the West: Emigration from
Britain to America on the Eve o f the Revolution /RQGRQ $ UHFHQW
V\QWKHVLV LQ * 9 6FDPPHOO The First Imperial Age: European Overseas
Expansion, c. 1400—1715 /RQGRQ 0DQ\ RIWKHVH GHYHORSPHQWV DUH
GLVFXVVHG LQ WKH LQWHUYLHZV ZLWK PDMRU KLVWRULDQV RI(XURSHDQ H[SDQVLRQ
FROOHFWHGE\/%OXVVp)3YDQGHU3XWWHQDQG+9RJHOHGVPilgrims to the
Past: Private Conversations with Historians o f European Expansion /HLGHQ
) %UDXGHO Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme, XVe-XVllle siécle
YROV3DULV
, :DOOHUVWHLQ The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the
Origins o f the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century 1HZ
<RUN YRO YRO
6HH- GH9ULHV The Economy o f Europe in an Age o f Crisis, 1600-1750&DP
EULGJH SS
6HH5 )ORXGDQG'0F&ORVNH\HGV The Economic History o f Britain since
1700 YROV &DPEULGJH YRO SS
6HH 3 . 2¶%ULHQ µ(XURSHDQ (FRQRPLF 'HYHORSPHQW 7KH &RQWULEXWLRQ RI
WKH 3HULSKHU\¶ Economic History Review, S DQG3 . 2¶%ULHQ
µ,QWHUFRQWLQHQWDO 7UDGH DQG WKH 'HYHORSPHQW RIWKH 7KLUG :RUOG VLQFH WKH
,QGXVWULDO 5HYROXWLRQ¶Journal o f World History,SS
- $ +REVRQ Imperialism: A Study/RQGRQ
,ELGS
5 5RELQVRQ DQG- *DOODJKHUZLWK$ 'HQQ\Africa and the Victorians: The
Official Mind o f Imperialism /RQGRQ )RU D UHFHQW V\QWKHVLV RQ WKH
KLVWRU\ RIWKH SDUWLWLRQ RI$IULFD VHH+ / :HVVHOLQJ Divide and Rule: The
Partition o f Africa 1880-1914:HVWSRUW &RQQDQG/RQGRQ 1996).
+ %UXQVFKZLJ Mythes et réalités de l ’impérialisme colonial frangais, 1871-
19143DULV
5 5RELQVRQ DQG - *DOODJKHU µ7KH ,PSHULDOLVP RI)UHH 7UDGH¶ Economic
History Review, SS
/ $ 'DYLVDQG5 $ +XWWHQEDFN Mammon and the Pursuit o f Empire: The
Political Economy o f British Imperialism, 1860-1912 &DPEULGJH 2Q
WKHJHQHUDOVXEMHFWRIWKHFRVWVDQGEHQHILWVRIHPSLUHVVHH3. 2¶%ULHQDQG
/ 3DGURVGHOD(VFRVXUDHGV µ7KH&RVWVDQG%HQHILWV RI(XURSHDQ,PSHUL
DOLVP IURP WKH &RQTXHVW RI &HXWD WR WKH 7UHDW\ RI /XVDND ¶
Revista de Historia Económica, QR
)RU D PRUH UHFHQW LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ VHH 3 - &DLQ DQG $ * +RSNLQV¶ WZR
YROXPHZRUNBritish Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914/RQ
GRQ DQG British Imperialism: Crisis and Reconstruction 1914-1990
/RQGRQ )RU D JHQHUDO RYHUYLHZ / -DPHV The Rise and Fall o f the
Overseas History
British Empire /RQGRQ DQG 5 +\DPV Britain’s Imperial Century,
1815-1914: A Study o f Empire and ExpansionQGHGQ /RQGRQ
6HH - %RXYLHU DQG 5 *LUDXOW HGV L'impérialisme frangais d ’avant 1914
3DULV7KH+DJXH
-0DUVHLOOHEmpire colonial et capitalisme frangais: histoire d ’un divorce3DULV
5HFHQWRYHUYLHZVRI)UHQFKH[SDQVLRQDUH5 $OGULFK Greater France:
A History o f French Overseas Expansion /RQGRQ DQG WZR PXOWL
DXWKRUHG ZRUNV Histoire de la France Coloniale YROV 3DULV DQG
Histoire de la colonisation frangaiseYROV 3DULV
5RELQVRQ DQG *DOODJKHU µ,PSHULDOLVPRI)UHH7UDGH¶VHHQ
5 5RELQVRQ µ1RQ(XURSHDQ)RXQGDWLRQV RI(XURSHDQ,PSHULDOLVP 6NHWFK
IRUD7KHRU\ RI&ROODERUDWLRQ¶ LQ5 2ZHQDQG % 6XWFOLIIH HGV Studies in
the Theory o f Imperialism/RQGRQ SS
6HH: - 0RPPVHQDQG- 2VWHUKDPPHOHGV Imperialism and After: Con-
tinuities and Discontinuities /RQGRQ 7KHUHLV RIFRXUVH D YDVW OLWHU
DWXUH RQ WKH JHQHUDO VXEMHFW RI WKH ULVH DQG IDOO RIHPSLUHV RIZKLFK 3DXO
.HQQHG\¶V The Rise and Fall o f the Great Powers: Economic Change and
Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 /RQGRQ LV SUREDEO\ WKH EHVW
NQRZQ
)RUWKLVVHH+ /:HVVHOLQJµ7RZDUGVD+LVWRU\RI'HFRORQL]DWLRQ¶LQ+/
:HVVHOLQJ Imperialism and Colonialism: Essays on the History o f European
Expansion :HVWSRUW &RQQ DQG /RQGRQ SS 6RPH UHFHQW
WLWOHV RQ GHFRORQL]DWLRQ DUH 5 ) +ROODQG European Decolonization, 1918-
1981: An Introductory Survey/RQGRQ - 'DUZLQBritain and Decolo-
nisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World/RQGRQ -
'DUZLQ The End o f the British Empire: The Historical Debate2[IRUG
$ &OD\WRQ The Wars o f French Decolonization /RQGRQ &K5
$JHURQLa décolonisation frangaise3DULV
$ *)UDQNµ7KH'HYHORSPHQWRI8QGHUGHYHORSPHQW¶LQ5,5KRGHVHG
Imperialism and Underdevelopment: A Reader1HZ<RUN SS 6HH
DOVR00XFKLH+/:HVVHOLQJDQG2P3UDNDVKNorth-South Perspectives:
Debates on Colonialism and North-South Relations$PVWHUGDP DQG/
%OXVVp + / :HVVHOLQJ DQG * ' :LQLXV HGV History and Underdevelop-
ment/HLGHQ )RU)UDQN¶VODWHVWYLHZVRQWKHVXEMHFWVHH$*)UDQN
ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age/RV$QJHOHVDQG/RQGRQ
: 5RGQH\How Europe Underdeveloped Africa/RQGRQ
7KHUHLV DYDVWOLWHUDWXUH RQWKLVVXEMHFW )RU DEULHILQWURGXFWLRQ VHH $ *
+RSNLQVµ&OLR$QWLFV$+RURVFRSHIRU$IULFDQ(FRQRPLF+LVWRU\¶LQ)\IH
African Studies,SS
3 0 .HQQHG\ µ:K\ 'LG WKH %ULWLVK (PSLUH /DVW 6R /RQJ"¶ LQ 3 0
.HQQHG\ Strategy and Diplomacy, 1870-1945: Eight Studies /RQGRQ
SS
6HH DOVR 5 5RELQVRQ µ7KH ([FHQWULF ,GHD RI,PSHULDOLVP :LWK RU:LWKRXW
(PSLUH¶ LQ 0RPPVHQ DQG 2VWHUKDPPHO Imperialism and After, SS
3&(PPHUDQG+ /:HVVHOLQJ µ:KDWLV2YHUVHDV+LVWRU\"¶LQ(PPHUDQG
:HVVHOLQJ Reappraisals,S
Henk Wesseling
6HH7 6NRFSRODQG0 6RPHU µ7KH8VHV RI&RPSDUDWLYH +LVWRU\LQ 0DFUR
VRFLDO ,QTXLU\¶ Comparative Studies in Society and History, QQ
&IDOVR(ULF5:ROIEurope and the People without History%HUNHOH\
3K &XUWLQ Cross Cultural Trade in World History&DPEULGJH 0DVV
: 0F1HLOO The Rise o f the West: A History o f the Human Community
&KLFDJR ' 6 /DQGHV The Wealth and Poverty o f Nations 1HZ
<RUN - 'LDPRQG Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates o f Human Socie-
ties/RQGRQ
-+XL]LQJDµ$'HILQLWLRQRIWKH&RQFHSWRI+LVWRU\¶LQ5.OLEDQVN\DQG+
- 3DWRQHGV Philosophy and History2[IRUG S
2Q 0LFURKLVWRU\
Giovanni Levi
$GRXEWZLWKRXWDQHQGLVQRWHYHQDGRXEW
/ :LWWJHQVWHLQ
,WLVQRDFFLGHQWWKDWWKHGHEDWHRYHUPLFURKLVWRU\KDVQRWEHHQEDVHGRQ
WKHRUHWLFDO WH[WV RUPDQLIHVWRV 0LFURKLVWRU\LVHVVHQWLDOO\DKLVWRULRJUD
SKLFDOSUDFWLFHZKHUHDVLWVWKHRUHWLFDOUHIHUHQFHVDUHYDULHGDQGLQDVHQVH
HFOHFWLF7KHPHWKRGLVLQIDFWFRQFHUQHGILUVWDQGIRUHPRVWZLWKWKHDFWXDO
GHWDLOHGSURFHGXUHVZKLFKFRQVWLWXWHWKHKLVWRULDQ¶VZRUNVRPLFURKLVWRU\
FDQQRWEHGHILQHGLQUHODWLRQWRWKHPLFURGLPHQVLRQVRILWVVXEMHFWPDWWHU
7KHUHDGHUPD\ WKXVSHUKDSVEH VXUSULVHG E\ WKH VRPHZKDW WKHRUHWLFDO
QDWXUHRIWKLVDUWLFOH,QIDFWPDQ\KLVWRULDQVZKRDGKHUHWRPLFURKLVWRU\
KDYHEHHQLQYROYHGLQFRQWLQXRXVLQWHUFKDQJHVZLWKWKHVRFLDOVFLHQFHVDQG
HVWDEOLVKHGKLVWRULRJUDSKLFDOWKHRULHVZLWKRXWKRZHYHUIHHOLQJDQ\QHHG
WR UHIHU WR DQ\ FRKHUHQW V\VWHP RIFRQFHSWV RU SULQFLSOHV RIWKHLU RZQ
0LFURKLVWRU\ LQ FRPPRQ ZLWK DOO H[SHULPHQWDO ZRUN KDV QR ERG\ RI
HVWDEOLVKHGRUWKRGR[\WRGUDZRQ7KHZLGHGLYHUVLW\RIPDWHULDOSURGXFHG
FOHDUO\GHPRQVWUDWHVKRZOLPLWHGWKHUDQJHRIFRPPRQHOHPHQWVLV+RZ
HYHULQP\RSLQLRQ VXFKIHZFRPPRQHOHPHQWVDVWKHUHDUHLQPLFURKLV
WRU\DUHFUXFLDODQGLWLVWKHVHWKDW,ZLOOKHUHDWWHPSWWRH[DPLQH
7KHUHDUHFHUWDLQGLVWLQFWLYHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVLQPLFURKLVWRU\ZKLFKGHULYH
IURPWKDWSHULRGLQWKH VZKHQLWDURVHRXWRIDPRUHJHQHUDOSROLWLFDO
DQG FXOWXUDO GHEDWH 7KHUH LV QRWKLQJSDUWLFXODUO\ XQXVXDO LQ WKDW VLQFH
WKH V DQG VZHUH DOPRVW XQLYHUVDOO\ \HDUV RIFULVLV IRU WKH SUH
YDLOLQJ RSWLPLVWLF EHOLHIWKDW WKH ZRUOG ZRXOG EH UDSLGO\ DQG UDGLFDOO\
Giovanni Levi
WUDQVIRUPHG DORQJ UHYROXWLRQDU\ OLQHV $W WKDW WLPHPDQ\ RIWKH KRSHV
DQGP\WKRORJLHVZKLFKKDGSUHYLRXVO\JXLGHGDPDMRUSDUWRIWKHFXOWXUDO
GHEDWH LQFOXGLQJWKHUHDOPRIKLVWRULRJUDSK\ZHUHSURYLQJWREHQRWVR
PXFKLQYDOLGDVLQDGHTXDWHLQWKHIDFHRIWKHXQSUHGLFWDEOHFRQVHTXHQFHV
RISROLWLFDO HYHQWV DQG VRFLDO UHDOLWLHV HYHQWV DQG UHDOLWLHV ZKLFK ZHUH
YHU\IDUIURPFRQIRUPLQJWRWKHRSWLPLVWLFPRGHOVSURSRVHGE\WKHJUHDW
0DU[LVW RU IXQFWLRQDOLVW V\VWHPV :H DUH VWLOO OLYLQJ WKURXJK WKH LQLWLDO
GUDPDWLFSKDVHVRIWKLVSURFHVV DQGKLVWRULDQVKDYHEHHQIRUFHGWRSRVH
QHZTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHLURZQPHWKRGRORJLHVDQGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQV$ERYH
DOO WKH DVVXPSWLRQ RIWKH DXWRPDWLVP RIFKDQJHKDV EHHQ XQGHUPLQHG
PRUH VSHFLILFDOO\ ZKDW KDV EHHQ FDOOHG LQWR TXHVWLRQ LV WKH LGHD RI D
UHJXODUSURJUHVVLRQWKRXJKDXQLIRUPDQGSUHGLFWDEOHVHULHVRIVWDJHVLQ
ZKLFK VRFLDO DJHQWV ZHUH FRQVLGHUHG WR DOLJQ WKHPVHOYHV LQ FRQIRUPLW\
ZLWKVROLGDULWLHVDQGFRQIOLFWVLQVRPHVHQVHJLYHQQDWXUDODQGLQHYLWDEOH
7KHFRQFHSWXDODSSDUDWXVZLWKZKLFKVRFLDOVFLHQWLVWVRIDOOSHUVXDVLRQV
LQWHUSUHWHG FXUUHQW RU SDVW FKDQJH ZDV ZHLJKHG GRZQ E\ D EXUGHQ RI
LQKHULWHG SRVLWLYLVP )RUHFDVWV RI VRFLDO EHKDYLRXU ZHUH SURYLQJ WR EH
GHPRQVWUDEO\ HUURQHRXV DQG WKLV IDLOXUH RIH[LVWLQJ V\VWHPV DQG SDUD
GLJPV UHTXLUHG QRW VR PXFK WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI D QHZ JHQHUDO VRFLDO
WKHRU\ DV D FRPSOHWH UHYLVLRQ RI H[LVWLQJ WRROV RI UHVHDUFK +RZHYHU
EDQDO DQGVLPSOLVWLFWKLVVWDWHPHQWPD\ DSSHDUWR EH WKLVSHUFHSWLRQ RI
FULVLV LV VR JHQHUDO WKDW RQO\ WKH VLPSOHVW UHPLQGHU ZRXOG VHHP WR EH
QHFHVVDU\
7KHUHZHUH KRZHYHU DQXPEHURISRVVLEOHUHDFWLRQVWRWKHFULVLV DQG
PLFURKLVWRU\LWVHOILVQRWKLQJEXWRQHJDPXWRISRVVLEOHUHVSRQVHVZKLFK
ODLG HPSKDVLV RQ UHGHILQLQJFRQFHSWV DQGSURIRXQGO\ DQDO\VLQJ H[LVWLQJ
WRROV DQGPHWKRGV $W WKH VDPH WLPH WKHUH KDYH EHHQ RWKHU DOWRJHWKHU
PRUHGUDVWLF VROXWLRQVSURSRVHGZKLFKRIWHQYHHUHGWRZDUGVDGHVSHUDWH
UHODWLYLVP QHRLGHDOLVP RUHYHQ WKH UHWXUQWR DSKLORVRSK\ULGGOHGZLWK
LUUDWLRQDOLW\
7KRVHKLVWRULDQVZKRDOLJQHGWKHPVHOYHVZLWKPLFURKLVWRU\XVXDOO\KDG
WKHLU URRWV LQ 0DU[LVP D SROLWLFDO RULHQWDWLRQWR WKH OHIW DQG DUDGLFDO
VHFXODULVP ZLWK OLWWOH LQFOLQDWLRQ IRU PHWDSK\VLFV 'HVSLWH WKH IDFW WKDW
WKHVHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVZHUHPDQLIHVWHGLQZLGHO\GLYHUVHZD\V,EHOLHYHWKDW
WKH\ VHUYHG WR DQFKRU WKHVH KLVWRULDQV ILUPO\ WR WKH LGHD WKDW KLVWRULFDO
UHVHDUFKLVQRWDSXUHO\UKHWRULFDODQGDHVWKHWLFDFWLYLW\
7KHLU ZRUN KDV DOZD\V FHQWUHG RQ WKH VHDUFK IRU D PRUH UHDOLVWLF
GHVFULSWLRQ RI KXPDQ EHKDYLRXU HPSOR\LQJ DQ DFWLRQ DQG FRQIOLFW
PRGHO RIPDQ¶VEHKDYLRXULQWKHZRUOGZKLFKUHFRJQL]HVKLV UHODWLYH
IUHHGRPEH\RQG WKRXJKQRWRXWVLGH WKHFRQVWUDLQWVRISUHVFULSWLYH DQG
RSSUHVVLYH QRUPDWLYH V\VWHPV 7KXV DOO VRFLDO DFWLRQ LV VHHQ WR EH WKH
UHVXOWRIDQLQGLYLGXDO¶VFRQVWDQWQHJRWLDWLRQ PDQLSXODWLRQFKRLFHVDQG
GHFLVLRQV LQ WKH IDFH RI D QRUPDWLYH UHDOLW\ ZKLFK WKRXJK SHUYDVLYH
On Microhistory
QHYHUWKHOHVV RIIHUV PDQ\ SRVVLELOLWLHV IRU SHUVRQDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV DQG
IUHHGRPV7KHTXHVWLRQLVWKHUHIRUHKRZWRGHILQHWKHPDUJLQV KRZHYHU
QDUURZ WKH\ PD\ EH RI WKH IUHHGRP JUDQWHG DQ LQGLYLGXDO E\ WKH
LQWHUVWLFHV DQG FRQWUDGLFWLRQV RI WKH QRUPDWLYH V\VWHPV ZKLFK JRYHUQ
KLP ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV DQ LQTXLU\ LQWR WKH H[WHQW DQG QDWXUH RIIUHH ZLOO
ZLWKLQWKHJHQHUDOVWUXFWXUHRIKXPDQVRFLHW\ ,QWKLVW\SHRILQTXLU\WKH
KLVWRULDQLVQRWVLPSO\FRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIPHDQLQJVEXW
UDWKHUZLWKGHILQLQJWKHDPELJXLWLHVRIWKHV\PEROLFZRUOG WKHSOXUDOLW\
RISRVVLEOH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV RILW DQGWKH VWUXJJOH ZKLFK WDNHV SODFH RYHU
V\PEROLFDVPXFKDVRYHUPDWHULDOUHVRXUFHV
0LFURKLVWRU\WKXVKDGDYHU\VSHFLILFORFDWLRQZLWKLQWKHVRFDOOHGQHZ
KLVWRU\ ,W ZDV QRW VLPSO\ D TXHVWLRQ RI FRUUHFWLQJ WKRVH DVSHFWV RI
DFDGHPLF KLVWRULRJUDSK\ ZKLFK QR ORQJHU DSSHDUHG WR IXQFWLRQ ,W ZDV
PRUH LPSRUWDQW WR UHIXWH UHODWLYLVP LUUDWLRQDOLVP DQG WKH UHGXFWLRQ RI
WKHKLVWRULDQ¶VZRUNWR DSXUHO\UKHWRULFDODFWLYLW\ZKLFKLQWHUSUHWV WH[WV
DQGQRWHYHQWVWKHPVHOYHV
µ$GRXEWZLWKRXW DQHQG LV QRWHYHQ D GRXEW¶ DFFRUGLQJ WR:LWWJHQ
VWHLQ 7KH SUREOHP OD\ LQ ILQGLQJ D ZD\ RI ERWK DFNQRZOHGJLQJ WKH
OLPLWV RINQRZOHGJH DQG UHDVRQ ZKLOVW DW WKH VDPH WLPH FRQVWUXFWLQJ D
KLVWRULRJUDSK\ FDSDEOH RI RUJDQL]LQJ DQG H[SODLQLQJ WKH ZRUOG RI WKH
SDVW7KHUHIRUHWKHPDLQFRQIOLFWLVQRWRQHEHWZHHQQHZDQGWUDGLWLRQDO
KLVWRU\EXWUDWKHURQH RIWKHPHDQLQJRIKLVWRU\VHHQDVDQLQWHUSUHWLYH
SUDFWLFH
0LFURKLVWRU\ DV D SUDFWLFH LV HVVHQWLDOO\ EDVHG RQ WKH UHGXFWLRQ RIWKH
VFDOHRIREVHUYDWLRQRQDPLFURVFRSLFDQDO\VLVDQGDQLQWHQVLYHVWXG\RI
WKH GRFXPHQWDU\ PDWHULDO 7KLV GHILQLWLRQ DOUHDG\ JLYHV ULVH WR SRVVLEOH
DPELJXLWLHV LW LV QRW VLPSO\ D TXHVWLRQ RI DGGUHVVLQJ WKH FDXVHV DQG
HIIHFWVRIWKHIDFWWKDWGLIIHUHQWGLPHQVLRQVFRH[LVWLQHYHU\VRFLDOV\VWHP
LQRWKHUZRUGVWKHSUREOHPRIGHVFULELQJYDVWFRPSOH[VRFLDOVWUXFWXUHV
ZLWKRXW ORVLQJ VLJKW RI WKH VFDOH RIHDFK LQGLYLGXDO¶V VRFLDO VSDFH DQG
KHQFHRISHRSOHDQGWKHLUVLWXDWLRQLQOLIH,WLVQRWWKHUHIRUHDPDWWHURI
FRQFHSWXDOL]LQJWKHLGHDRIVFDOHDVDIDFWRULQKHUHQWLQDOOVRFLDOV\VWHPV
DQG DV DQ LPSRUWDQW FKDUDFWHULVWLF RIWKH FRQWH[WV RIVRFLDO LQWHUDFWLRQ
LQFOXGLQJGLIIHUHQWTXDQWLWDWLYHDQGVSDWLDOGLPHQVLRQV7KLVSUREOHPKDV
EHHQ DPSO\ GLVFXVVHG DPRQJ DQWKURSRORJLVWV ZKR KDYH SUHVHQWHG WKH
FRQFHSW RIVFDOH LQMXVW WKLV SHUVSHFWLYH VFDOH DV DQ REMHFW RI DQDO\VLV
ZKLFKVHUYHVWRPHDVXUHWKHGLPHQVLRQVLQWKHILHOGRIUHODWLRQVKLSV )RU
)UHGULN%DUWKIRUH[DPSOHZKRRUJDQL]HGDIXQGDPHQWDOVHPLQDURQWKH
WKHPH WKHSUREOHPLVWKDWRIRXUµDELOLW\WRGHVFULEHGLIIHUHQWFRPELQD
WLRQV RIVFDOHLQGLIIHUHQWHPSLULFDO VRFLDO RUJDQL]DWLRQV WRPHDVXUHWKH
SDUW WKH\ SOD\ LQ WKH GLIIHUHQW VHFWRUV RI WKH OLYHV WKH\ VKDSH¶)RU
PLFURKLVWRU\ WKH UHGXFWLRQ RI VFDOH LV DQ DQDO\WLFDO SURFHGXUH ZKLFK
Giovanni Levi
7R VWXG\ WKH FKURQLFOHV RIDYLOODJH DV LV GRQH IDUWRR RIWHQ QRZDGD\V LV
FRPSOHWHO\PHDQLQJOHVV 7KHKLVWRULDQ¶VGXW\LVWRVWXG\WKHRULJLQVRIWKRVH
LGHDVZKLFK VKDSH RXUOLYHV QRW WRZULWHQRYHOV , QHHGRQO\ WR TXRWH RQH
H[DPSOH WKHUH LVDJUHDWGHDORIWDONWRGD\DERXWWKHQHHGWRUHWXUQWRWKH
PDUNHW:KRLQYHQWHGWKHPDUNHW"7KHPHQRIWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\$QG
LQ ,WDO\ ZKR FRQFHUQHG WKHPVHOYHV ZLWK LW" 7KH (QOLJKWHQPHQW WKLQNHUV
*HQRYHVL DQG 9HUUL ,W LV LPSRUWDQW WR SODFH ILUPO\ DW WKH FHQWUH RIRXU
VWXGLHVWKHURRWV RIRXUPRGHUQOLIH
2QHFRXOGUHSO\WRWKLVE\SDUDSKUDVLQJ*HHUW]µ+LVWRULDQVGRQRWVWXG\
YLOODJHVWKH\VWXG\LQYLOODJHV¶
1DWXUDOO\WKHGHVFULSWLRQRIGLIIHULQJDOEHLWFRQJUXHQWFRPELQDWLRQVRI
VFDOH LQ VRFLDOSKHQRPHQD LV LPSRUWDQW LIRQO\ DV DPHDQV RIDVFULELQJ
LQWHUQDOGLPHQVLRQVWR WKHREMHFWRIDQDO\VLV +RZHYHU LWLVVHOIHYLGHQW
EDQDOHYHQWRVWDWHWKDWWKHSDUWLFXODUGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHREMHFWRIDQDO\VLV
GRQRWQHFHVVDULO\UHIOHFWWKHGLVWLQFWLYHVFDOHRIWKHSUREOHPSRVHG7KH
LGHDWKDWVFDOHKDV LWV RZQ H[LVWHQFH LQ UHDOLW\LV DFFHSWHGHYHQE\WKRVH
ZKRFRQVLGHUPLFURDQDO\VLVWRZRUNSXUHO\E\H[DPSOHWKDWLVWRVD\DVD
VLPSOLILHG DQDO\WLF SURFHVV WKH VHOHFWLRQ RID VSHFLILF SRLQW RIUHDO OLIH
IURPZKLFKWRH[HPSOLI\JHQHUDOFRQFHSWV UDWKHUWKDQWKHVWDUWLQJSRLQW
IRUDEURDGHUPRYHWRZDUGV JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ :KDWWKHGLPHQVLRQV RIWKH
VRFLDO ZRUOGV RIGLIIHUHQW FDWHJRULHV RISHRSOH DQG GLIIHUHQW VWUXFWXUHG
ILHOGV RI UHODWLRQVKLSV GHPRQVWUDWH LV WKH SUHFLVH QDWXUH RI WKH VFDOH
RSHUDWLQJLQUHDOLW\,QWKLVVHQVHWKHUHIRUHWKHVHJPHQWDWLRQRIFRPSOH[
VRFLHWLHVLVGHOLQHDWHGZLWKRXWUHFRXUVHWRDSULRULDVVXPSWLRQVDQGIUDPH
On Microhistory
ZRUNVEXWWKLVDSSURDFKLVRQO\DEOHWRFRQVWUXFWDJHQHUDOL]DWLRQZKLFK
LV PRUH PHWDSKRULFDO WKDQ DUJXHG D JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ EDVHG PHUHO\ RQ
DQDORJ\ ,W VHHPV WR PH LQ RWKHU ZRUGV WKDW ZH VKRXOG GLVFXVV WKH
SUREOHP RI VFDOH QRW RQO\ DV RQH RIWKH VFDOH RI REVHUYHG UHDOLW\ EXW
DOVR DV D TXHVWLRQ RID YDULDEOH VFDOH RIREVHUYDWLRQ IRU H[SHULPHQWDO
SXUSRVHV ,W LV QDWXUDO DQG ULJKW WKDW WKH LUUHGXHLELOLW\ RI LQGLYLGXDO
SHUVRQVWRWKHUXOHVRIODUJHVFDOHV\VWHPVVKRXOGKDYHSODFHGWKHSUREOHP
RIVFDOHDWWKHFRUHRIWKHGHEDWH$JDLQVWDQRYHUVLPSOHIXQFWLRQDOLVPLW
LVLPSRUWDQWWRHPSKDVL]HWKHUROHRIVRFLDOFRQWUDGLFWLRQVLQJHQHUDWLQJ
VRFLDO FKDQJH LQ RWKHU ZRUGV HPSKDVL]H WKH H[SODQDWRU\ YDOXH RIGLV
FUHSDQFLHV EHWZHHQ WKH FRQVWUDLQWV HPDQDWLQJ IURP YDULRXV QRUPDWLYH
V\VWHPV EHWZHHQ VD\ VWDWHDQGIDPLO\ QRUPV DQG RIWKH IDFW WKDW LQ
DGGLWLRQ DQ\LQGLYLGXDO KDVD GLIIHUHQW VHWRIUHODWLRQVKLSVZKLFKGHWHU
PLQH KLV RU KHU UHDFWLRQVWR DQGFKRLFHVZLWK UHJDUG WR WKH QRUPDWLYH
VWUXFWXUH
$OWKRXJKVFDOHDVDQLQKHUHQWFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIUHDOLW\LVFHUWDLQO\QRWDQ
H[WUDQHRXV HOHPHQW LQ WKH PLFURKLVWRU\ GHEDWH LWLV UDWKHU WDQJHQWLDO
IRUWKHUHDOSUREOHPOLHVLQWKHGHFLVLRQWRUHGXFHWKHVFDOHRIREVHUYDWLRQ
IR)H[SHULPHQWDO SXUSRVHV 7KH XQLI\LQJ S P D S 7 R I D8 PL&7R+6WRUZDO
UHVHDUFK LV WKH EHOLHI WKDW PLFURVFRSLF REVHUYDWLRQ ZLOO UHYHDO IDFWRUV
SUHYLRXVO\XQREVHUYHG 6RPHH[DPSOHVRIWKLVLQWHQVLYHSURFHGXUHDUH D
UHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RIWKHFDVH DJDLQVW *DOLOHR DV D GHIHQFH RI$ULVWRWHOLDQ
QRWLRQV RIVXEVWDQFH DQG RIWKH (XFKDULVW DJDLQVW DQ DWRPLVP ZKLFK
ZRXOGKDYHPDGHLPSRVVLEOHWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIZLQH DQGEUHDGLQWR
EORRG DQGIOHVK IRFXVLQJRQ DVLQJOHSDLQWLQJDQGWKH LGHQWLILFDWLRQRI
ZKRLWVILJXUHVDUHDVDPHDQVRILQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHFXOWXUDOZRUOGRI3LHUR
GHOOD)UDQFHVFDWKHVWXG\RIFRQVDQJXLQDU\PDWULPRQLDOVWUDWHJLHVLQD
VPDOO YLOODJH LQ WKH UHJLRQ RI &RPR WR UHYHDO WKH PHQWDO XQLYHUVH RI
VHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\ SHDVDQWV WKH LQWURGXFWLRQ RI WKH PHFKDQLFDO
ORRP DVREVHUYHGLQDVPDOOWH[WLOHYLOODJH WRH[SODLQWKHJHQHUDOWKHPH
RILQQRYDWLRQ LWV UK\WKPV DQG HIIHFWV RQH YLOODJH¶V ODQG WUDQVDFWLRQV
VWXGLHGWRGLVFRYHUWKHVRFLDOUXOHVRIFRPPHUFLDOH[FKDQJHDWZRUNLQD
PDUNHWZKLFKKDG\HWWREHGHSHUVRQDOL]HG
/HWXVEULHIO\H[DPLQHWKHODVWH[DPSOH7KHUHKDVEHHQDJUHDWGHDORI
GLVFXVVLRQ FRQFHUQLQJ WKH FRPPHUFLDOL]DWLRQ RIODQG DQG LW LV D ZLGHO\
KHOG EHOLHIWKDW WKHSUHFRFLW\ DQG IUHTXHQF\ RIODQG WUDQVDFWLRQV ZKLFK
RFFXUUHGLQPDQ\ ZHVWHUQ(XURSHDQFRXQWULHVDQGLQ&RORQLDO$PHULFD
LQGLFDWHWKHHDUO\SUHVHQFHRIFDSLWDOLVPDQGLQGLYLGXDOLVP7ZRHOHPHQWV
KDYHSUHYHQWHG DPRUH DGHTXDWHDVVHVVPHQW RIWKLVSKHQRPHQRQ ,QWKH
ILUVW SODFHPDQ\ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV KDYH EHHQ EDVHG RQ DJJUHJDWH GDWD DQ
DSSURDFKZKLFKKDVPDGHLWLPSRVVLEOHWRH[DPLQHWKHFRQFUHWHIDFWVRI
WKH WUDQVDFWLRQV WKHPVHOYHV 6HFRQGO\ KLVWRULDQV KDYH EHHQ PLVOHG E\
WKHLU RZQ PRGHUQ PHUFDQWLOH PHQWDOLW\ ZKLFK OHG WKHPWR LQWHUSUHW WKH
Giovanni Levi
'HVSLWHKDYLQJLWVURRWVZLWKLQWKHFLUFOH RIKLVWRULFDOUHVHDUFKPDQ\RI
PLFURKLVWRU\¶V FKDUDFWHULVWLFV GHPRQVWUDWH WKH FORVH WLHV ZKLFK OLQN KLV
WRU\ZLWKDQWKURSRORJ\ SDUWLFXODUO\WKDWµWKLFNGHVFULSWLRQ¶ZKLFK&OLI
IRUG *HHUW] VHHV DV WKH SURSHU SHUVSHFWLYH RI DQWKURSRORJLFDO ZRUN
5DWKHU WKDQ VWDUWLQJ ZLWK D VHULHV RI REVHUYDWLRQV DQG DWWHPSWLQJ WR
LPSRVHRQHODZOLNHWKHRU\RQWKHP WKLVSHUVSHFWLYHVWDUWVIURPDVHWRI
VLJQLI\LQJVLJQV DQGWULHV WR ILWWKHPLQWR DQLQWHOOLJLEOH VWUXFWXUH 7KLFN
GHVFULSWLRQWKHUHIRUHVHUYHVWRUHFRUGLQZULWWHQIRUPDVHULHVRIVLJQLI\LQJ
HYHQWV RUIDFWVZKLFKZRXOG RWKHUZLVH EH HYDQHVFHQW EXW ZKLFK FDQ EH
LQWHUSUHWHGE\EHLQJLQVHUWHGLQFRQWH[W7KDWLVWRVD\LQWKHIORZRIVRFLDO
GLVFRXUVH 7KLV DSSURDFK VXFFHHGV LQ XVLQJ PLFURVFRSLF DQDO\VLV RIWKH
PRVW PLQXWH HYHQWV DV D PHDQV RI DUULYLQJ DW WKH PRVW IDUUHDFKLQJ
FRQFOXVLRQV
7KLV DFFRUGLQJWR*HHUW]LVWKHSURFHGXUHDGRSWHGE\WKHHWKQRORJLVW
ZKRVHDLPVDUHERWKH[WUHPHO\DPELWLRXVDQGYHU\PRGHVW$PELWLRXVLQ
WKHVHQVHWKDWWKHHWKQRORJLVW¶VDXWKRULW\WRLQWHUSUHWPDWHULDOLVSUDFWLF
DOO\ OLPLWOHVV DQG PRVW LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ LV WKH HVVHQFH RIHWKQRJUDSKLFDO
ZRUN $QWKURSRORJLFDO ZULWLQJV DUH LPDJLQDWLYH ZRUNV LQ ZKLFK WKH
DXWKRUV¶ DELOLW\ LV PHDVXUHG E\ WKHLU FDSDFLW\ WR EULQJ XV LQWR FRQWDFW
ZLWKWKHOLYHVRIIRUHLJQHUVDQGWRIL[HYHQWVRUVRFLDOGLVFRXUVHLQVXFKD
ZD\DVWRDOORZXVWRH[DPLQHWKHPFOHDUO\ 7KHSRZHURIWKHLQWHUSUHWHU
On Microhistory
2XU GRXEOH WDVN LV WR XQFRYHU WKH FRQFHSWXDO VWUXFWXUHV WKDW LQIRUP RXU
VXEMHFWV¶ DFWV WKH µVDLG¶ RIVRFLDO GLVFRXUVH DQG WR FRQVWUXFW D V\VWHP RI
DQDO\VLVLQZKRVHWHUPVZKDWLVJHQHULFWRWKRVHVWUXFWXUHVZKDWEHORQJVWR
WKHP EHFDXVH WKH\ DUH ZKDW WKH\ DUH ZLOO VWDQG RXW DJDLQVW WKH RWKHU
GHWHUPLQDQWVRIKXPDQEHKDYLRXU ,QHWKQRJUDSK\WKH RIILFH RIWKHRU\ LV
WR SURYLGH D YRFDEXODU\ LQ ZKLFK ZKDW V\PEROLF DFWLRQ KDV WR VD\ DERXW
LWVHOI WKDWLV DERXWWKHUROHRIFXOWXUHLQKXPDQ OLIH FDQ EHH[SUHVVHG
SS
Giovanni Levi
ODQJXDJH LQ RWKHU ZRUGV ODQJXDJH FDXJKW LQ WKH HIIRUW RIIRUJLQJ QHZ
PHDQLQJV ,Q IDFW DFFRUGLQJWR *HHUW] PDQ FDQQRW IRUPXODWHPHQWDO
V\VWHPVZLWKRXW UHFRXUVH WR WKH JXLGDQFH RISXEOLF V\PEROLFPRGHOV RI
HPRWLRQ VR WKDW WKHVH PRGHOV DUH WKH HVVHQWLDO HOHPHQWV ZLWK ZKLFK KH
PDNHVVHQVHRIWKHZRUOG)XUWKHUPRUHWKHVHV\PEROLFPRGHOVDUHQRWWR
EHIRXQGLQ DOOKXPDQ VSHHFKVLQFH VSHHFKKDV XVXDOO\ GHJHQHUDWHGWR D
PHUHPHDQV RIFRPPXQLFDWLRQ *HHUW] OLNH +HLGHJJHU ILQGVWKHVH V\P
EROLF PRGHOV LQ WKH TXLQWHVVHQWLDO ODQJXDJH RISRHWU\ ZKLFK UHSUHVHQWV
WKHIRUHPRVWH[SUHVVLRQRIWKHKXPDQH[SHULHQFHRIUHDOLW\ *HHUW]VSHFL
ILFDOO\UHIHUVWRWKHODQJXDJHRIP\WKULWXDODQGDUWµ,QRUGHUWRPDNHXS
RXUPLQGVZHPXVWNQRZKRZZHIHHODERXWWKLQJVDQGWRNQRZKRZZH
IHHODERXWWKLQJVZHQHHGWKHSXEOLFLPDJHVRIVHQWLPHQWWKDWRQO\ULWXDO
P\WKDQGDUWFDQSURYLGH¶*HHUW]¶VFOHDUDQGOXFLGSRVLWLRQLVWKDWWKH
LQILQLWHUHSHUWRLUHRIWKHV\PEROLFSRVVLELOLWLHVRIWKHKXPDQPLQGSHUPLWV
XV WR DSSURDFK UHDOLW\ E\ D VHULHV RI LQILQLWHO\ VPDOO VWHSV ZLWKRXW
KRZHYHU HYHU DUULYLQJ 7KLV YLHZ LV FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK +HLGHJJHU¶V DQWL
+HJHOLDQ WKHRU\ WKDW WKH NQRZLQJ VXEMHFW VKRXOG QRW GLVVROYH WKH H[LV
WHQFHRIRWKHUVLQWRKLPVHOIEXWUDWKHUWKDWWKHSURSHUIXQFWLRQRIWKRXJKW
DV D µKHUPHQHXWLF FODVVLILHU¶ LV WR DOORZ RWKHU SHRSOH WR UHPDLQ RWKHU ,
EHOLHYHWKLV+HLGHJJHULDQOLQNLVHVVHQWLDOWRDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIERWKWKH
VWUHQJWKDQGVXEWOHW\ RIWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVDQGWKHUHODWLYHZHDNQHVV RI
WKHH[SODQDWLRQV RIWKHZRUOGV LQ *HHUW]¶V LQWHUSUHWLYH DQWKURSRORJ\ ,Q
WKLV ZD\*HHUW]PDQDJHV WR DYRLG WKH LVVXH RIUDWLRQDOLW\ DQGLWV OLPLWV
OLPLWVZKLFKDUHGHILQHGE\PXFKPRUHWKDQVLPSO\GLIIHUHQWLDODFFHVVWR
LQIRUPDWLRQ 7KH GLIIHUHQFH LV WKDW EHWZHHQ µDXWKHQWLF WKRXJKW¶ DQG
WKRXJKW JRYHUQHGE\ WKH SULQFLSOH RIµVXIILFLHQWUHDVRQ¶ ,Q YLHZ RIWKLV
LWZRXOGVHHPWKDWHWKQRORJLVWV VKRXOGSHUKDSV EH FRQWHQW WR VWRSWKHLU
UHVHDUFKDWWKHOHYHORIGHVFULSWLRQVRIPHDQLQJ
&OHDUO\ LW PXVW EH DFFHSWHG WKDW IURP D ELRORJLFDO SRLQW RIYLHZ DOO
PHQSRVVHVVVXEVWDQWLDOO\HTXDOLQWHOOHFWVEXWWKDWLQWHOOHFWLVFRPSOHWHO\
GHSHQGHQW RQ FXOWXUDO UHVRXUFHV IRU LWV IXQFWLRQLQJ 7KLV HPSKDVLV RQ
FXOWXUHDOORZVWKHDYRLGDQFHRIDQ\WKHRU\RIWKHVXSHULRULW\ RIFLYLOL]HG
RYHUSULPLWLYHPDQ ,W DOVRDYRLGVFRQVLGHULQJWKHLGHDWKDWFXOWXUHLVDW
FHUWDLQ SRLQWV RUGHUHG LQ HYROXWLRQDU\ SKDVHV &XOWXUH GHILQHG DV WKH
FDSDFLW\ IRU V\PEROLF WKRXJKW LV SDUW RIPDQ¶V YHU\ QDWXUH &XOWXUH LV
QRW VXSSOHPHQWDU\ WR EXW DQ LQWULQVLF LQJUHGLHQW RI KXPDQ WKRXJKW
1HYHUWKHOHVV DFFRUGLQJ WR *HHUW] WKH SUREOHP RI DYRLGLQJ µDEVROXWH¶
FXOWXUDO UHODWLYLVP VR PDNLQJ FRPSDULVRQEHWZHHQ FXOWXUHV SRVVLEOH
FDQQRWEHUHVROYHGDQGVKRXOGQRWHYHQEHDGGUHVVHG+HFRQILQHVKLPVHOI
WR GHILQLQJWKHIXQFWLRQ RIWKH LQWHOOHFWDVDµVHDUFK IRULQIRUPDWLRQ¶ DQ
HPRWLYHHODERUDWLRQXVLQJWKHPDWHULDOVFRPPRQWRPHPEHUVRIDVSHFLILF
FXOWXUH µ,Q VXP KXPDQ LQWHOOHFWLRQ LQ WKH VSHFLILF VHQVH RI GLUHFWLYH
UHDVRQLQJ GHSHQGV XSRQ WKH PDQLSXODWLRQ RIFHUWDLQ NLQGV RIFXOWXUDO
Giovanni Levi
1HHGKDP :LQFK +RUWRQ DQG 6SHUEHU WR ZKRP *HHUW] UHIHUV DV DOO
H[SRQHQWV RID KLHUDUFKLFDO RUGHULQJ RIFXOWXUHV :K\ VKRXOG FRJQLWLYH
SURFHVVHVRUFRJQLWLYHXQLYHUVDOVOHDGRQO\WRDQHWKQRFHQWULFFRQFOXVLRQ"
:K\ VKRXOG D GHVFULSWLRQ RIUDWLRQDO SURFHVVHV LQ IRUPDO WHUPV RU D
FRQFHSW RI WKH OLPLWDWLRQV RI UDWLRQDOLW\ SURYH REVWDFOHV WR D QRQ
KLHUDUFKLFDOGHVFULSWLRQRIFXOWXUH":K\VKRXOGIRUPDOL]DWLRQDQGJHQHUDO
L]DWLRQ ZKLFK DOORZ IRU WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RIFRPSDULVRQ EHWZHHQ FXOWXUHV
QHFHVVDULO\ LPSO\ WKH GHVWUXFWLRQ RI RWKHUQHVV" 1DWXUDOO\ WKH GDQJHU
H[LVWVEXWLVWKHVROXWLRQUHDOO\WRDFFHSWWKHSDUDO\VLQJLUUDWLRQDOLVWWKUHDW
RIUHODWLYLVPDVWKHSULFHIRUHVFDSLQJHWKQRFHQWULVPDVSHFWUHLQDQ\FDVH
E\ QRZ DOUHDG\ ODUJHO\ H[RUFL]HG" , EHOLHYH UDWKHU WKDW LW LV WKH YHU\
LGHQWLILFDWLRQRIXQLIRUPFRJQLWLYHSURFHVVHVZKLFKHQDEOHVRQHWRDFFHSW
FXOWXUDO UHODWLYLW\ ZKLOVW UHMHFWLQJ WKH DEVROXWH UHODWLYLVP RI WKRVH ZKR
OLPLW RXU SRVVLELOLWLHV RI NQRZLQJ UHDOLW\ ZLWK WKH UHVXOW RIEHFRPLQJ
HQWDQJOHG LQ DQ HQGOHVV JUDWXLWRXV JDPH RILQWHUSUHWLQJ WKH LQWHUSUHWD
WLRQV
,W VHHPV WR PH WKDW RQH RIWKH PDLQ GLIIHUHQFHV RISHUVSHFWLYH EHWZHHQ
PLFURKLVWRU\DQGLQWHUSUHWLYHDQWKURSRORJ\LVWKDWWKHODWWHUVHHVDKRPR
JHQHRXVPHDQLQJLQSXEOLFVLJQVDQGV\PEROVZKHUHDVPLFURKLVWRU\VHHNV
WR GHILQH DQG PHDVXUH WKHP ZLWKUHIHUHQFH WR WKH PXOWLSOLFLW\ RIVRFLDO
UHSUHVHQWDWLRQVWKH\SURGXFH7KHSUREOHPLVWKXVQRWVLPSO\RQHRIWKH
IXQFWLRQLQJ RI WKH LQWHOOHFW 7KHUH LV DOVR D GDQJHU RI ORVLQJ VLJKW RI
WKHVRFLDOO\GLIIHUHQWLDWHGQDWXUHRIV\PEROLFPHDQLQJVDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\
RIWKHLU SDUWO\ DPELJXRXV TXDOLW\ 7KLV OHDGV RQ DOVR WR WKHSUREOHP RI
GHILQLQJ WKH GLIIHUHQW IRUPV RIIXQFWLRQLQJ RIKXPDQ UDWLRQDOLW\ ZLWKLQ
WKHFRQWH[WRIVSHFLILFVLWXDWLRQV %RWKWKHDPRXQWRILQIRUPDWLRQQHFHV
VDU\ WR RUJDQL]H DQG GHILQH D FXOWXUH DQG WKH DPRXQW RILQIRUPDWLRQ
QHFHVVDU\IRUDFWLRQDUHKLVWRULFDOO\PXWDEOHDQGVRFLDOO\YDULDEOH 7KLV
WKHQ LV WKH SUREOHP ZKLFK QHHGV WR EH IDFHG VLQFH WKH IUDPHZRUN RI
SXEOLF V\PEROLF VWUXFWXUHV LV DQ DEVWUDFWLRQ )RU LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI
GLIIHULQJVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQVWKHVHV\PEROLFVWUXFWXUHVSURGXFH77IDJPHQ
WHGDQGGLIIHUHQWLDWHGPXOWLSOLFUW\RIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVDQGLWLVWKHVHZKLFK
VKRXOGEHWKHREMHFWRIRXUVWXG\
%RWK WKH DPRXQW RILQIRUPDWLRQ DYDLODEOH DQG WKH RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU
HPSLULFDOREVHUYDWLRQDUHSUREDEO\IDUZLGHUDQGPRUHFRPSOH[LQFRQ
WHPSRUDU\ VRFLHWLHV WKDQ LQ VLPSOH RQHV RU LQ WKRVH RIWKH SDVW 1HYHU
WKHOHVV WKH PDLQ SUREOHP LV DOZD\V WKH RQH VWDWHG LQ H[WUDRUGLQDULO\
LOOXPLQDWLQJ IDVKLRQ E\ )RXFDXOW WKH SUREOHP RI WKH VHOHFWLRQ IURP
WKH UDQJH RIDOWHUQDWLYH SRVVLEOH PHDQLQJV ZKLFKD GRPLQDQW V\VWHP RI
FODVVLILFDWLRQPXVW LPSRVH QRWWRPHQWLRQWKDW VHOHFWLRQ RILQIRUPDWLRQ
ZKLFKZHPD\FDOOVHOISURWHFWLYHZKLFKDOORZVXVWRJLYHPHDQLQJWRWKH
ZRUOG DQG WR IXQFWLRQ HIIHFWLYHO\ 7KH TXDQWLW\ DQG TXDOLW\ RI VXFK
Giovanni Levi
LQIRUPDWLRQLVQRWKRZHYHUVRFLDOO\XQLIRUPDQGWKHUHIRUHLWLVQHFHVVDU\
WRH[DPLQHWKHSOXUDOLW\RIIRUPVRIWKHOLPLWHGUDWLRQDOLW\DWZRUNLQWKH
SDUWLFXODU UHDOLW\ XQGHU REVHUYDWLRQ 7KLV SOXUDOLW\ H[LVWV DV D UHVXOW
DPRQJ RWKHU WKLQJV RISURWHFWLYH PHFKDQLVPV GHSOR\HG LQ WKH IDFH RI
H[FHVVLQIRUPDWLRQPHFKDQLVPVHQDEOLQJHVFDSHIURPWKHVKHHUTXDQWLW\
RI LQIRUPDWLRQ LQ RUGHU WKDW GHFLVLRQV FDQ EH WDNHQ 2QH WKLQNV IRU
H[DPSOH RI WKH SURFHVVHV RI FDXVDO VLPSOLILFDWLRQ DQG RI WKH XVH RI
VLPSOLILHGVORJDQVLQSROLWLFDOFKRLFHV RIWKHDHWLRORJLFDOV\VWHPVXVHGLQ
SRSXODU PHGLFLQH RU WKH WHFKQLTXHV RI SHUVXDVLRQ HPSOR\HG E\ WKH
DGYHUWLVLQJLQGXVWU\
,W VHHPV WR PH WKHUHIRUH WKDW LW LV QRW HQRXJK WR FRQGXFW D JHQHUDO
GLVFXVVLRQRIV\PEROLFIXQFWLRQLQJRQWKHEDVLVRID*HHUW]LDQGHILQLWLRQ
RIFXOWXUHDVDQHQGOHVVVHDUFKIRULQIRUPDWLRQ,EHOLHYHLWLVQHFHVVDU\WR
DWWHPSWWRPHDVXUHDQGIRUPDOL]HWKHPHFKDQLVPVRIERXQGHGUDWLRQDOLW\
DERXQGHGUDWLRQDOLW\WKHORFDWLRQRIZKRVHERXQGDULHVYDULHVZLWKWKH
YDULRXV IRUPV RI DFFHVV WR LQIRUPDWLRQ LQ RUGHU WR DOORZ DQ XQGHU
VWDQGLQJ RI WKH GLIIHUHQFHV H[LVWLQJ ZLWKLQ WKH FXOWXUHV RILQGLYLGXDOV
JURXSV DQGVRFLHWLHVLQYDULRXV WLPHV DQGSODFHV 7KHVRPHZKDWDOOXVLYH
TXDOLW\RI*HHUW]¶VLPSRUWDQWEXWLQFRPSOHWHV\VWHPQHJOHFWVWKLVJRDO
7KHSURRIRIWKLVLQDGHTXDF\LVH[HPSOLILHGLQWKHDEXQGDQFHRIDXWR
ELRJUDSKLFDO UHODWLYLVP ZKLFK KDV DSSHDUHG RQ WKH VFLHQWLILF VFHQH LQ
UHFHQW \HDUV XQGHU WKH JXLVH RI LQWHUSUHWLYH DQWKURSRORJ\ 5DELQRZ¶V
Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco VHHPV WR PH WR EH D SULPH H[
DPSOH 7KHUH LV IXUWKHU SURRILQ WKH IDFW WKDW WKH UHSHUWRLUH RIWKLFN
GHVFULSWLRQVKDVQRFRPSDUDWLYHDLPEXWUHPDLQVVLPSO\DUHSHUWRLUHIURP
ZKLFK WR SLFN RXW FDVHV IRU FODULILFDWLRQ DFFRUGLQJ WR UXOHV ZKLFK DUH
XQVSHFLILHG &RQVHTXHQWO\ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ KDV RIWHQ UHPDLQHG RSHQ
LPSRQGHUDEOH DQG OLPLWHG &HUWDLQ H[DPSOHV RI WKLV LPSRQGHUDELOLW\
DSSHDU PRUH LQ *HHUW]LDQV WKDQ LQ *HHUW] KLPVHOI $ FODVVLF H[DPSOH
VHHPVWRPHWREH The Great Cat MassacreE\5REHUW'DUQWRQ
$ VHFRQG DVSHFW ZKLFK KDV DOUHDG\ EHHQ PHQWLRQHG LV IRUJRLQJ DQ\
DWWHPSWWRFRQVWUXFWPRGHOVDQGVWDWHWKHIRUPDO UXOHVRIWKHLQWHUSUHWLYH
DQGFRPPXQLFDWLYHJDPHV*HHUW]FRQFOXGHVE\SURSRVLQJDWHQWDWLYHXVH
RIJHQHUDO DFDGHPLFFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQ RQO\WRUHYLWDOL]HWKHFRQFHSWVLQ
WKH FRQFUHWH H[DPSOHV RIWKLFN GHVFULSWLRQV ,Q WKLVZD\ DUHSHUWRLUH RI
FRQFHSWVLVZRYHQLQWRDUHSHUWRLUHRILQWHUSUHWHGHYHQWVLQWKHKRSHWKDW
WKH\ZLOOZRUNWRJHWKHUVRWKDW VLPSOHHYHQWVPD\EHPDGH VFLHQWLILFDOO\
HORTXHQW DQG FRQYHUVHO\ WKDW IDUUHDFKLQJ FRQFOXVLRQV PD\ EH GUDZQ
IURPWKHGHQVLW\ RIVLPSOHIDFWV 7KLVPHWKRG RIWHQUHVXOWV LQ DFXOWXUDO
KLVWRU\ ZLWKRXW VRFLDO DQDO\VLV RU LQ DQ H[WUHPHO\ VWHUHRW\SHG VRFLDO
DQDO\VLV GUDZQ IURP DQ LQWHQVLYHO\ LQYHVWLJDWHG FXOWXUDO KLVWRU\ 7KH
DFWLRQLVH[DPLQHGLQGHSWKEXWZLWKRXWDFRPSOH[IRUPDOUHFRQFHSWXDO
On Microhistory
L]DWLRQRIWKHVRFLDOPHFKDQLVPVLQYROYHGDQGWKHDQDO\VLVWKHUHIRUHVWRSV
VKRUW DVLIIULJKWHQHG DWWKHYHU\WKUHVKROGRIVRFLDOKLVWRU\ )RUH[DP
SOH WKH FKDULVPD DQG V\PEROLVP RI SRZHU LQ FRURQDWLRQ FHUHPRQLDO
VHHPVWRVSHDNWKHVDPHODQJXDJHWRHYHU\RQHZLWKLQDVRFLDOO\XQGLIIHU
HQWLDWHGVRFLHW\2UWRWDNHDQRWKHUH[DPSOHFRFNILJKWLQJLVSUHVHQWHG
DVKDYLQJDVLQJOHXQLYHUVDOVLJQLILFDQFHIRUWKHZKROHVRFLHW\HYHQWKRXJK
WKHIRUPVRIZDJHUDUHVRFLDOO\GLYHUVH
0LFURKLVWRU\RQWKHRWKHUKDQGKDVQRWUHMHFWHGWKHFRQVLGHUDWLRQRI
VRFLDO GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ LQ WKH VDPH ZD\ DV LQWHUSUHWLYH DQWKURSRORJ\ EXW
UHJDUGVLWDVHVVHQWLDOWRKDYHDVIRUPDODUHDGLQJ DVSRVVLEOHRIDFWLRQV
EHKDYLRXU VRFLDO VWUXFWXUHV UROHV DQG UHODWLRQVKLSV ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV
DOWKRXJK FXVWRPV DQG WKH XVH RIV\PEROV DUH DOZD\V SRO\VHPLF QHYHU
WKHOHVV WKH\ DVVXPH PRUH SUHFLVH FRQQRWDWLRQV IURP WKH PRELOH DQG
G\QDPLF VRFLDO GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQV ,QGLYLGXDOV FRQVWDQWO\ FUHDWH WKHLU RZQ
LGHQWLWLHV DQGJURXSVGHILQHWKHPVHOYHVDFFRUGLQJWRFRQIOLFWVDQGVROLG
DULWLHV ZKLFK KRZHYHU FDQQRW EH DVVXPHG D SULRUL EXW UHVXOW IURP
G\QDPLFVZKLFKDUHWKHREMHFWRIDQDO\VLV
,ZRXOGOLNHQRZWRORRNDWDQRWKHUFKDUDFWHULVWLFFRPPRQWRWKHZRUNRI
PLFURKLVWRULDQVZKLFKLVWKHSUREOHPRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQZLWKWKHUHDGHU
WKH SUREOHP RIQDUUDWLYH 7KH UHYLYDO RIQDUUDWLYH VKRXOG QRW EH VHHQ
PHUHO\LQWHUPV RIWKHFKRLFHEHWZHHQTXDOLWDWLYH LQGLYLGXDOL]HGKLVWRU\
DQG WKDW TXDQWLWDWLYH KLVWRU\ ZKRVH DPELWLRQLV WR HVWDEOLVK ODZV UHJX
ODULW\ DQG IRUPDO FROOHFWLYH EHKDYLRXU 0LFURKLVWRU\ KDV VSHFLILFDOO\
DGGUHVVHG WKH SUREOHP RIFRPPXQLFDWLRQ DQG KDV EHHQ DFXWHO\ DZDUH
WKDWKLVWRULFDOUHVHDUFKGRHVQRWFRLQFLGHVROHO\ZLWKWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQ
RIUHVXOWVLQ DERRN 7KLVZDVDFHQWUDOSRLQWQHJOHFWHGLQDZHOONQRZQ
DUWLFOHE\6WRQH,QJHQHUDOWKHSUREOHPVRISURRIDQGGHPRQVWUDWLRQLQ
KLVWRU\ E\ PHDQV RI WKH UHFRXQWLQJ
|77ROQFUHWH tQVIiQFHV
KDYH D FORVH
FRQQHFWLRQZLIIL7pF%QLJXHU|IAJè6g|Q
7KLVLVQRWVLPSO\DSUREOHPRI
UKHWRULFIRUWKHPHDQLQJRIKLVWRULFDOZRUNFDQQRWEHUHGXFHGWRUKHWRULF
EXWVSHFLILFDOO\DSUREOHPRIFRPPXQLFDWLQJZLWKWKHUHDGHUZKRLVQHYHU
D tabula rasa, DQG WKHUHIRUH DOZD\V SRVHV D SUREOHP RIUHFHSWLRQ ,W
VHHPVWRPHWKDWWKHSDUWLFXODUIXQFWLRQRIQDUUDWLYHFDQEHVXPPDUL]HG
LQ WZR FKDUDFWHULVWLFV 7KH ILUVW LV WKH DWWHPSW WR GHPRQVWUDWH E\ DQ
DFFRXQW RIVROLG IDFWV WKH WUXHIXQFWLRQLQJ RIFHUWDLQ DVSHFWV RIVRFLHW\
ZKLFK ZRXOG EH GLVWRUWHG E\ JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ DQG TXDQWLWDWLYH IRUPDOL]D
WLRQ XVHG RQ WKHLU RZQ VLQFH WKHVH RSHUDWLRQV ZRXOG DFFHQWXDWH LQ D
IXQFWLRQDOLVWZD\WKH UROHRIV\VWHPV RIUXOHV DQGPHFKDQLVWLF SURFHVVHV
RIVRFLDOFKDQJH,QRWKHUZRUGVDUHODWLRQVKLSLVVKRZQEHWZHHQQRUPDW
LYH V\VWHPV DQG WKDW IUHHGRP RIDFWLRQ FUHDWHG IRULQGLYLGXDOV E\ WKRVH
VSDFHV ZKLFK DOZD\V H[LVW DQG E\ WKH LQWHUQDO LQFRQVLVWHQFLHV ZKLFK
DUH SDUW RI DQ\ V\VWHP RI QRUPV DQG QRUPDWLYH V\VWHPV 7KH VHFRQG
Giovanni Levi
FKDUDFWHULVWLFLVWKDWRILQFRUSRUDWLQJLQWRWKHPDLQERG\RIWKHQDUUDWLYH
WKHSURFHGXUHVRIUHVHDUFKLWVHOIWKHGRFXPHQWDU\OLPLWDWLRQVWHFKQLTXHV
RISHUVXDVLRQDQGLQWHUSUHWLYHFRQVWUXFWLRQV 7KLVPHWKRGFOHDUO\EUHDNV
ZLWKWKHWUDGLWLRQDODVVHUWLYHDXWKRULWDULDQIRUPRIGLVFRXUVHDGRSWHGE\
KLVWRULDQV ZKR SUHVHQWUHDOLW\ DV REMHFWLYH ,QPLFURKLVWRU\LQFRQWUDVW
WKH UHVHDUFKHU¶V SRLQW RIYLHZEHFRPHV DQ LQWULQVLF SDUW RIWKH DFFRXQW
7KHUHVHDUFK SURFHVV LV H[SOLFLWO\GHVFULEHG DQG WKH OLPLWDWLRQV RIGRFX
PHQWDU\HYLGHQFHWKHIRUPXODWLRQRIK\SRWKHVHVDQGWKHOLQHVRIWKRXJKW
IROORZHGDUHQRORQJHUKLGGHQDZD\IURPWKHH\HVRIWKHXQLQLWLDWHG7KH
UHDGHU LV LQYROYHG LQ D VRUW RI GLDORJXH DQG SDUWLFLSDWHV LQ WKH ZKROH
SURFHVV RI FRQVWUXFWLQJ WKH KLVWRULFDO DUJXPHQW 2QH LOOXPLQDWLQJ H[
DPSOH RIWKLVSURFHVV LV *LQ]EXUJ DQG3URVSHUL¶V ERRN +HQU\-DPHV
DGRSWHGDVLPLODUDSSURDFKLQKLVVWRU\In The Cage,11ZKLFKVHUYHVDVDQ
H[WUDRUGLQDU\ PHWDSKRU RI WKH KLVWRULDQ¶V ZRUN ,Q WKH VWRU\ -DPHV
GHVFULEHVWKHZKROHSURFHVV RILQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RIUHDOLW\FRQVWUXFWHGE\ D
WHOHJUDSKRSHUDWRULQKHUFRQILQHGSODFHRIZRUNLQDGLVWULFWRI/RQGRQ
+HUUDZPDWHULDOLVWKHVFDQWIUDJPHQWDU\DQGIDOODFLRXVGRFXPHQWDWLRQ
SUHVHQWHG E\ WKH WH[W RIGDLO\ WHOHJUDPV H[FKDQJHG E\ KHU DULVWRFUDWLF
FOLHQWV7KHVWRU\RIWKLVHYLGHQWSURFHVVRIPDNLQJVHQVHRIWKHZRUOGLVD
PHWDSKRUIRUWKHKLVWRULDQ¶VZRUNEXWLWDOVRSURYLGHVDQH[DPSOHRIWKH
UROHZKLFKQDUUDWLYHFDQSOD\LQVXFKDZRUN
7KH PLFURKLVWRULFDO DSSURDFK DGGUHVVHV WKH SUREOHP RI KRZ ZH JDLQ
DFFHVV WR NQRZOHGJH RIWKH SDVW E\ PHDQV RIYDULRXV FOXHV VLJQV DQG
V\PSWRPV7KLVLVDSURFHGXUHZKLFKWDNHVWKHSDUWLFXODUDVLWV VWDUWLQJ
SRLQW D SDUWLFXODU ZKLFK LV RIWHQ KLJKO\ VSHFLILF DQG LQGLYLGXDO DQG
ZRXOGEHLPSRVVLEOHWRGHVFULEHDVDW\SLFDOFDVHDQGSURFHHGVWRLGHQWLI\
LWVPHDQLQJLQWKHOLJKWRILWVRZQVSHFLILFFRQWH[W
&RQWH[WXDOL]DWLRQKRZHYHUFDQPHDQPDQ\WKLQJV7KHPRVWFRKHUHQW
WKHRU\RIFRQWH[WLVWKHIXQFWLRQDOLVWRQHZKRVHPRVWFKDUDFWHULVWLFDVSHFW
LV SHUKDSV WKDW RIIRFXVLQJ RQ FRQWH[W WR H[SODLQ VRFLDO EHKDYLRXU )RU
IXQFWLRQDOLVPLWLVQRWVRPXFKWKHFDXVHVRIEHKDYLRXUWKHPVHOYHVZKLFK
DUHREMHFWVRIDQDO\VLVEXWUDWKHUWKHQRUPDOL]DWLRQRIDIRUPRIEHKDYLRXU
ZLWKLQDFRKHUHQWV\VWHPZKLFKH[SODLQVWKDWEHKDYLRXULWVIXQFWLRQVDQG
KRZLWRSHUDWHV7KH'XUNKHLPLDQPRGHORIFRQWH[WXDOL]DWLRQHPSKDVL]HV
WKHELQGLQJQDWXUHRIVRPHRIRXUJHQHUDOFRQFHSWVEXWWKHFRQWH[WXDOL]D
WLRQLVDIXQFWLRQDOLVWHOHPHQWHYHQLILWFRQILQHVLWVHOIWRXQGHUOLQLQJWKHILW
EHWZHHQDQLQVWLWXWLRQDIRUPRIEHKDYLRXURUDFRQFHSWDQGWKDWV\VWHPRI
ZKLFKLWLVSDUW$V*HOOQHUSRLQWVRXWHYHQ:LWWJHQVWHLQZDVDµIROORZHU
DQG VXFFHVVRU¶ RI'XUNKHLP LQ WKDW HYHQ KH µVXSSRVHG >WKDW@ FDWHJRULHV
ZHUHYDOLGDWHGE\EHLQJSDUWVRID³IRUPRIOLIH´¶
,ZRXOGSRLQWRXWWKDWFRQWUDU\WRIXQFWLRQDOLVP¶VHPSKDVLVRQVRFLDO
FRKHUHQFH PLFURKLVWRULDQV KDYH FRQFHQWUDWHG RQ WKH FRQWUDGLFWLRQV RI
On Microhistory
7KHVHREVHUYDWLRQVSRVHIXUWKHUSUREOHPVZKLFKLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRFRQVLGHU
EULHIO\ )LUVWO\ WKHSUREOHPRIWKHFRQWUDVWEHWZHHQLQGLYLGXDOL]LQJDQG
JHQHUDOL]LQJNQRZOHGJH DUHFXUULQJGHEDWHDPRQJVRFLDOKLVWRULDQV,WLV
VXIILFLHQWWRUHFDOOWKHGHEDWHRQTXDOLWDWLYHRUTXDQWLWDWLYHKLVWRU\RIWKH
IDPLO\RULQDZLGHUFRQWH[WWKHFULVLVZKLFKKDVVKDNHQDEHOLHIZLGHVSUHDG
LQWKHVL[WLHVLQWKHSRVVLELOLW\RITXDQWLI\LQJVRFLDO RFFXUUHQFHV DQGIRU
PXODWLQJULJRURXVODZVRIVRFLDOEHKDYLRXU,ZDQWWRFRQFHQWUDWHKHUHRQ
RQHDVSHFWRQO\ZKLFKWKRXJKXQLTXHLQLWVHOISHUKDSVVHUYHVWRLOOXPLQDWH
DQLPSRUWDQWSUREOHP,ZRXOGOLNHWRH[DPLQHZKDWLVPHDQWE\TXDQWLWDW
LYH KLVWRU\ RUUDWKHU WR H[DPLQH WKRVHFKDUDFWHULVWLFV RITXDQWLILFDWLRQ
ZKLFKZHUHLPSOLFLWLQDPHFKDQLVWLFFRQFHSWRIVRFLDOUHDOLW\
0LFURKLVWRU\WULHVQRWWRVDFULILFHNQRZOHGJHRILQGLYLGXDOHOHPHQWVWR
ZLGHUJHQHUDOL]DWLRQDQGLQIDFWLWDFFHQWXDWHVLQGLYLGXDOOLYHVDQGHYHQWV
On M icrohistory
7KHVHWKHQ DUHWKHFRPPRQTXHVWLRQVDQGSRVLWLRQVZKLFKFKDUDFWHUL]H
PLFURKLVWRU\ WKH UHGXFWLRQ RI VFDOH WKH GHEDWH DERXW UDWLRQDOLW\ WKH
VPDOOFOXHDVVFOHQILILFaSDUDGOMPWKHUROHRIWKHSDUWLFXODUQRWKRZHYHU
LQ RSSRVLWLRQ WR WKH VRFLDO WKH DWWHQILRQ WR UHFHSWLRQ DQG QDUUDWLYH D
VSHFLILFGHILQLWLRQ RIFRQWH[WDQGWKHUHMHFWLRQRIUHODWLYLVP 7KHVHFKDU
DFWHULVWLFHOHPHQWVDUHLQPDQ\ZD\VVLPLODUWRWKRVHRXWOLQHGE\-DFTXHV
5HYHO LQ D UHFHQW DUWLFOH RQ PLFURKLVWRU\ ZKLFK LV SHUKDSV WKH PRVW
Giovanni Levi
FRKHUHQW DWWHPSW WR GDWH WR LQWHUSUHW WKLV H[SHULPHQWDO ZRUN 5HYHO
GHILQHV PLFURKLVWRU\ DV WKH DWWHPSW WR VWXG\WKH VRFLDO QRWDV DQ REMHFW
LQYHVWHGZLWKLQKHUHQWSURSHUWLHVEXWDVDVHWRIVKLIWLQJLQWHUUHODWLRQVKLSV
H[LVWLQJ EHWZHHQ FRQVWDQWO\ DGDSWLQJ FRQILJXUDWLRQV +H VHHV PLFURKLV
WRU\ DV DUHVSRQVH WR WKH REYLRXV OLPLWDWLRQV RIWKRVH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV RI
VRFLDOKLVWRU\ZKLFKLQWKHLUTXHVWIRUUHJXODULW\JLYHSURPLQHQFHWRRYHU
VLPSOH LQGLFDWRUV 0LFURKLVWRU\KDV WULHG WRFRQVWUXFW DPRUH IOXLG FRQ
FHSWXDOL]DWLRQ D OHVV SUHMXGLFLDO FODVVLILFDWLRQ RI ZKDW FRQVWLWXWHV WKH
VRFLDODQGFXOWXUDO DQGDIUDPHZRUNRIDQDO\VLVZKLFKUHMHFWVVLPSOLILFD
WLRQV GXDOLVWLFK\SRWKHVHV SRODUL]DWLRQVULJLGW\SRORJLHVDQGWKHVHDUFK
IRUW\SLFDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFV µ:K\PDNHWKLQJVVLPSOHZKHQRQHFDQPDNH
WKHPFRPSOLFDWHG"¶S[[LYLVWKHVORJDQ5HYHOVXJJHVWVIRUPLFURKLVWRU\
%\ WKLV KH PHDQV WKDW WKH WUXH SUREOHP IRU KLVWRULDQV LV WR VXFFHHG LQ
H[SUHVVLQJWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIUHDOLW\HYHQLIWKLVLQYROYHVXVLQJGHVFULSWLYH
WHFKQLTXHV DQG IRUPV RI UHDVRQLQJ ZKLFK DUH PRUH LQWULQV7FD+Y VHOI
TXHVWLRQLQJDQGOHVV DVVHUWLYHWKDQDQ\ XVHG EHIRUH7KH SUREOHPLVDOVR
WKDW RIVHOHFWLQJWKHLPSRUWDQWDUHDV IRUH[DPLQDWLRQ WKH LGHDRIVHHLQJ
WKHVXEMHFWVRIWKHWUDGLWLRQDOKLVWRU\LQRQHRIWKHLUORFDOL]HGYDULDWLRQVLV
DQDORJRXVWR WKHLGHDRIUHDGLQJEHWZHHQWKHOLQHV RIDSDUWLFXODU GRFX
PHQW RUEHWZHHQ WKH ILJXUHV RID SDLQWLQJLQ RUGHUWR GLVFHUQPHDQLQJV
ZKLFKKDYHSUHYLRXVO\HYDGHGH[SODQDWLRQRUWKHWUXHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKDW
ZKLFK SUHYLRXVO\ DSSHDUHG WR KDYH DULVHQ PHUHO\ IURP HLWKHU FLUFXPVW
DQFHRUQHFHVVLW\ RUWKHDFWLYHUROHRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOZKRKDGSUHYLRXVO\
DSSHDUHGVLPSO\SDVVLYHRULQGLIIHUHQW
:LWK UHIHUHQFH WR 5HYHO¶V GHILQLWLRQ , KDYH DWWHPSWHG WR XQGHUOLQH
PRUH FOHDUO\ WKH DQWLUHODWLYLVWLF WKUXVW RIPLFURKLVWRU\ DQG WKH DVSLUD
WLRQV WRZDUGV IRUPDOL]DWLRQZKLFKFKDUDFWHUL]H RULQP\RSLQLRQ RXJKW
WR FKDUDFWHUL]H WKH PLFURKLVWRULDQ¶V ZRUN 7KLV LV LPSRUWDQW VLQFH WKH
FRQFHSWVZHXVHLQKLVWRU\DQGWKHVRFLDOVFLHQFHVDUHRIWHQLPSUHFLVHDQG
XVHG PHWDSKRULFDOO\ 7KH YHU\ FRQFHSW RI FRQILJXUDWLRQ IRU H[DPSOH
(OLDV¶VDSW LQWXLWLYHIRUPXOD VHHPVWRPHWREHW\SLFDOLQWKHVHQVHWKDW
LW LV SRZHUIXOO\ H[SUHVVLYH EXW UHPDLQV DOOXVLYH DQG GRHV QRW PRYH
WRZDUGV VRPHWKLQJ ZKLFK DV , KDYH DWWHPSWHG WR VKRZ LQ WKLV HVVD\ ,
EHOLHYHLWSRVVLEOHWRH[SUHVVLQPRUHIRUPDOWHUPV
,GRQRWNQRZZKHWKHUWKLVSUHVHQWDWLRQRIPLFURKLVWRU\LVDUHOLDEOHRQH
,ZDQWHGWRSUHVHQWLQUHODWLYHO\VWURQJO\FKDUDFWHUL]HGWHUPVDJURXS RI
SHRSOH ZKR LQ UHDOLW\ KDYH EHHQ LQYROYHG LQ PDQ\ DQG YDULRXV GHEDWHV
ZLWKLQ,WDOLDQVRFLDOKLVWRU\LQWKHVHYHQWLHVDQGHLJKWLHV,VKRXOGSHUKDSV
KDYHH[SODLQHGPRUHIXOO\WKHYDULRXVGLIIHUHQWRSLQLRQVLQYROYHGDQGWKH
UHIHUHQFHV WR D KLVWRULFDO GHEDWH UDQJLQJ IDU EH\RQG WKH ,WDOLDQ IUDPH
ZRUN ,PXVW WKHUHIRUHFODULI\PDWWHUV E\LQIRUPLQJWKH UHDGHUWKDWP\
JXLGLQJSULQFLSOHVDUHVWURQJO\SHUVRQDO RQHV WKLVLVDVHOISRUWUDLWUDWKHU
On Microhistory
WKDQDJURXSSRUWUDLW,FRXOGQRWKDYHGRQHRWKHUZLVHDQG,KHUHE\ZDUQ
WKHUHDGHUWKDWWKLVLVWKHFDVH
7KH0LFURKLVWRU\'HEDWH3%
1 2 7(6
6HH- * $ 3RFRFN The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought
and the Atlantic Republican Tradition3ULQFHWRQ DQG Virtue, Commerce,
and History: Essays on Political Thought and History, Chiefly in the Eighteenth
Century&DPEULGJH 6HHDOVR4 6NLQQHU µ+HUPHQHXWLFVDQGWKH5ROH
RI+LVWRU\¶New Literary History, 1SS DQG6NLQQHU¶VERRN
The Foundations o f Modern Political Thought: The Renaissance &DPEULGJH
51HHGKDP Reconnaissances7RURQWR%XIIDOR /RQGRQ
0*ULEDXGLMondo operaio e mito operaio: spazi epercorsi sociali a Torino nel
primo Novecento7XULQ
0HU]DULRII paese stretto.
5 $JR Un.feudo esemplare: immobilismo padronale e astuzia contadina nel
Lazio del’7005RPH
( *UHQGL µ0LFURDQDOLVLHVWRULDVRFLDOH¶ Quaderni Storici, 1SS
DQGPolanyi: dall’antropologia economica alia microanalisi storica0LODQ
& *LQ]EXUJ µ6SLH UDGLFL GL XQ SDUDGLJPD LQGL]LDULR¶ LQ $ *DUJDQL HG
Crisi della ragione 7XULQ SS UHSULQWHG LQ *LQ]EXUJ¶V ERRN
M iti emblemi spie: morfologia e storia7XULQ SS $Q(QJOLVK
WUDQVODWLRQRIWKHERRNZDVSXEOLVKHGLQ/RQGRQLQ DVMyths, Emblems,
Clues.
5HYHO µ/¶KLVWRLUHDXUDVGXVRO¶ Q DERYH
$-DUULFNBack to Modern Reason: Johan Hjerpe and other Petit Bourgeois in
Stockholm in the Age o f Enlightenment(QJOLVKWUDQV /LYHUSRRO
- + 3OXPE µ3ROLWLFDO +LVWRU\ ¶ LQ Victoria County History, Lei-
cestershire,YRO /RQGRQ SS
2UDO+LVWRU\
Gwyn Prins
H[HPSOLI\LQJ WKH $VLDWLF PRGH RI SURGXFWLRQ VLPSO\ VWHZHG LQ WKH
VXQ XQSURGXFWLYHO\ UHSURGXFLQJ WKHPVHOYHV µXQWRXFKHG E\ WKH VWRUP
FORXGVRIWKHSROLWLFDOVN\¶LQ0DU[¶VIDPRXVSKUDVH0DU[LVWVXSSRUWHUV
RI DQWLFRORQLDO PRYHPHQWV KDYH ZULWKHG XSRQ LWV SRLQW HYHU VLQFH
WU\LQJ WR H[SODLQ WKDW WKH 2OG 0DQ GLGQ¶W UHDOO\ PHDQ ZKDW KH SODLQO\
GLGPHDQ
,Q ERWK WKH V\PSDWKHWLF DQG KRVWLOH FDVHV WKH EDVLF 5DQNHDQ WHVW LV
DSSOLHG 8QGHU WKH 5DQNHDQ KLHUDUFK\ RI GDWD ZKHQ RIILFLDO ZULWWHQ
VRXUFHV DW DYDLODEOH WKH\ DUH WR EHSUHIHUUHG :KHUH WKH\DUHQRW RQH
KDVWRSXWXSZLWKVHFRQGEHVWILOOLQJRQH¶VEXFNHWIXUWKHUDZD\IURPWKH
SXUH VRXUFHRIRIILFLDOWH[W2UDOGDWDDUHLQWKHVHWHUPVZLWKRXWGRXEW
VHFRQG EHVW RU ZRUVH VR WKHLU UROH LV WR IDFLOLWDWH VHFRQGEHVW KLVWRULHV
DERXWFRPPXQLWLHVZLWK SRRU VRXUFHV 2Q WKHVHFULWHULD +HJHO 7UHYRU
5RSHUDQG0DU[DUHPHUHO\EHLQJVFUXSXORXV
)URP WKRVH ZKR HPSOR\ RUDO VRXUFHV WKHUH KDYH EHHQ WZR VRUWV RI
UHVSRQVHWR VXFKVFHSWLFLVP RQHSULFNO\ WKHRWKHUOHVV VR 3DXO7KRPS
VRQ D OHDGLQJ ILJXUH LQ WKH RUDO KLVWRU\ µPRYHPHQW¶ D VHOIGHVFULSWLRQ
ZKLFKDOUHDG\KDVDQHYDQJHOLVWLFULQJZKLFKFKDPSLRQVWKHYDOXHRIRUDO
VRXUFHV LQ PRGHUQ VRFLDO KLVWRU\ DV JLYLQJ KLVWRULFDO SUHVHQFH WR WKRVH
ZKRVH YLHZV DQG YDOXHV DUH GLVHQIUDQFKLVHG E\ µKLVWRU\ IURP DERYH¶
ZURWHDQJULO\LQKLVPDQLIHVWR The Voice o f the Past,WKDW
WKH RSSRVLWLRQ WR RUDO HYLGHQFH LV DV PXFK IRXQGHG RQ IHHOLQJ DV RQ
SULQFLSOH 7KH ROGHU JHQHUDWLRQ R IKLVWRULDQV ZKR KROG WKH &KDLUV DQG WKH
SXUVHVWULQJV DUH LQVWLQFWLYHO\ DSSUHKHQVLYH DERXW WKH DGYHQW R I D QHZ
PHWKRG ,W LPSOLHV WKDW WKH\ QR ORQJHU FRPPDQG DOO WKH WHFKQLTXHV RI
WKHLUSURIHVVLRQ+HQFHWKHGLVSDUDJLQJFRPPHQWVDERXW\RXQJPHQWUDPS
LQJWKH VWUHHWVZLWKWDSHUHFRUGHUV
6RLQWKHEDWWOHDERXWRUDOVRXUFHVLQFRQWHPSRUDU\KLVWRU\WKHLQWHPSHU
DWHODQJXDJHUHYHDOVWKDWGHHSSDVVLRQVDUHHQJDJHGRQERWKVLGHV%XWRQ
WKHUROHRIRUDO VRXUFHVIRUWKHKLVWRU\RIQRQOLWHUDWHVRFLHWLHVWKHPRVW
GLVWLQJXLVKHG H[SRQHQW RI RUDO KLVWRU\ LQ $IULFD -DQ <DQVLQD
IUHHO\ FRQFHGHG 0DUZLFN¶V SRLQW LQ his PDQLIHVWR Oral Tradition as
History.
:KHUH WKHUH LV QR ZULWLQJ RU DOPRVW QRQH RUDO WUDGLWLRQV PXVW EHDU WKH
EUXQW R IKLVWRULFDO UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ 7KH\ ZLOO QRW GR WKLV DV LI WKH\ ZHUH
ZULWWHQ VRXUFHV :ULWLQJ LV D WHFKQRORJLFDO PLUDFOH 7KH OLPLWDWLRQV RI
RUDO WUDGLWLRQ PXVW EH IXOO\ DSSUHFLDWHG VR WKDW LW ZLOO QRW FRPH DV D
GLVDSSRLQWPHQW WKDWORQJ SHULRGV RIUHVHDUFK\LHOGD UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ WKDW LV
VWLOO QRW YHU\ GHWDLOHG :KDW RQH GRHV UHFRQVWUXFW IURP RUDO VRXUFHV PD\
ZHOO EH RI D ORZHU RUGHU R I UHOLDELOLW\ ZKHQ WKHUH DUH QR LQGHSHQGHQW
VRXUFHV WRFURVVFKHFN
Gwyn Prins
1RWH WKDW WKH DJUHHPHQW LV OLPLWHG WR FLUFXPVWDQFHV ZKHUH RUDO VRXUFHV
KDYHWR VWDQGDORQH DQGVLQFH9DQVLQDVKRZV ERWKLQWKDWERRNDQGLQ
KLVPDQ\PRQRJUDSKVWKDWWKLVLVIUHTXHQWO\QRWWKHFDVHWKHPDLQWKUXVW
RIKLVDUJXPHQWLVLQIDFWPXFKPRUHDVVHUWLYH,WLVWKDWWKHUHODWLRQVKLS
RIZULWWHQWRRUDOVRXUFHVLVQRWµRQHRIWKHGLYDDQGKHUXQGHUVWXG\LQWKH
RSHUD ZKHQWKHVWDUFDQQRWVLQJ WKHXQGHUVWXG\ DSSHDUV ZKHQZULWLQJ
IDLOVWUDGLWLRQFRPHRQVWDJH7KLVLVZURQJ>2UDOVRXUFHV@FRUUHFWRWKHU
SHUVSHFWLYHVMXVWDVPXFKDVRWKHUSHUVSHFWLYHVFRUUHFWLW¶
:K\VKRXOGWKHXVHRIRUDOVRXUFHVEHVRFRQWURYHUVLDO"3DXO7KRPS
VRQ KDV VXJJHVWHGWKDW ROGSURIHVVRUV GRQ¶W OLNH WR OHDUQQHZWULFNV DQG
WKDWWKH\UHVLVWZKDWWKH\SHUFHLYHWREHHURVLRQRIWKHVSHFLDOVWDWXVRIWKH
5DQNHDQPHWKRG 7KLVPD\EHWUXH EXW, VXVSHFW WKDWWKHUH DUHGHHSHU
UHDVRQVDQGOHVVVWULGHQWRQHV+LVWRULDQVOLYHLQOLWHUDWHVRFLHWLHVDQGOLNH
PDQ\RIWKHLQKDELWDQWVRIVXFKVRFLHWLHVXQWKLQNLQJO\WKH\WHQGWRKROG
WKH VSRNHQZRUG LQFRQWHPSW ,W LVWKHFRUROODU\ RIRXUSULGHLQZULWLQJ
DQGRXUUHVSHFWIRUWKHZULWWHQZRUG $QGZK\ QRW"$V9DQVLQDQRWHG
FRPPXQLFDWLRQWKURXJKV\PEROLFZULWWHQODQJXDJHLVDTXLWHVWXSHQGRXV
DFKLHYHPHQW7KHOLWHUDWHWHQGWRIRUJHWWKLV7KH0DRULVRI1HZ=HDODQG
SURYLGHDVDGEXWLOOXPLQDWLQJH[DPSOHRIDFRPPRQRFFXUUHQFHGXULQJ
WKHH[SDQVLRQRI(XURSHQRQOLWHUDWHSHRSOHZKRREVHUYHGWKHQJUDVSHG
ZLWKILHUFHHQHUJ\EXWIDLOHGWRFRQWUROWKLVLQVWUXPHQWRISRZHU
7KH EDOG IDFWV DUH SDUWLFXODUO\ VWULNLQJ ,Q SHUKDSV 0DRULV
FRXOG UHDG ZLWKLQ D \HDU ,Q WKH \HDU RI WKH 7UHDW\ RI
:DLWDQJLLQZKLFKWKH0DRULFKLHIVORVWWKHLUODQGRUREWDLQHGWKHEHQHILW
RI%ULWLVKDQQH[DWLRQGHSHQGLQJXSRQ\RXUSRLQWRIYLHZXQFKDUDFWHU
LVWLFDOO\IRUDpakehaZKLWHPDQDWWKDWWLPHDWUDYHOOHUH[SUHVVHGIHDUV
IRUWKHSK\VLFDOKHDOWKRIWKH0DRUL,QVWHDGRIH[HUFLVLQJDVEHILWVQREOH
VDYDJHVWKH\ZHUHQRZVHGHQWDU\KDYLQJ µEHFRPHUHDGHUV¶,Q WKH
SULQWHU :LOOLDP &ROHQVR D PHPEHU RID IDPRXV PLVVLRQDU\ IDPLO\
FRPSOHWHG WKH ILUVW HGLWLRQ RI D 0DRUL 1HZ 7HVWDPHQW DQG E\
3URWHVWDQW PLVVLRQDULHVKDGGLVWULEXWHGKDOIDVPDQ\ 0DRUL 1HZ7HVWD
PHQWVDVWKHUHZHUH0DRULV,Q*RYHUQRU*HRUJH*UD\EHOLHYHGWKDW
DODUJHUSURSRUWLRQRI0DRULZHUHOLWHUDWHWKDQRIDQ\(XURSHDQSRSXOD
WLRQ :KDWZDV WKH SRZHU LQ ZULWLQJWKDWWKH0DRUL VDZ DQGVRXJKW VR
HDJHUO\"
,WZDV DWKUHHIROG SRZHU EXWOLNHPDQ\QHZO\FRQTXHUHG DQG QHZO\
SDUWLDOO\OLWHUDWHSHRSOHV WKH0DRUL RQO\VXFFHVVIXOO\VHL]HGDVPDOOSDUW
RILW 7KH ILUVW IDFHW RIERRN SRZHU ZDV WRWHPLF ,OOLWHUDWH 0DRUL WRRN
ERRNV DQ\ERRNV WR FKXUFK RU VWXIIHGSDJHV LQWR HQODUJHG KROHV LQ
WKHLUHDUOREHV,WZDVDQDWWHPSWFRPPRQO\REVHUYHGLQWKHHDUO\VWDJHV
RIDFRORQLDOHQFRXQWHUWRREWDLQSRZHUE\DVVRFLDWLRQ7KHVHFRQGIDFHW
ZDV PDQLSXODWLYH 7KH VDPH &ROHQVR XVLQJ WKH VDPH FRPSRVLQJVWLFN
ZLWKZKLFKKHKDGVHWWKHVFULSWXUHVLQ VHWWKHWH[WVRIWKH7UHDW\RI
Oral History
2UDO FXOWXUHV ZKHUH ODQJXDJH WDNHV D SXUHO\ RUDO IRUP 7KHVH DUH
W\SLILHG E\ ORFDO ODQJXDJHV WKH\ DUH QRZ DQG KDYH EHHQ IRU D ORQJ
WLPH UHODWLYHO\UDUH
:ULWWHQFXOWXUHVZKHUHODQJXDJHWDNHVDZULWWHQIRUPRQO\EHFDXVHWKH
RUDOIRUPKDVGLHGRXW7KHVHDUHW\SLILHGE\FODVVLFDOODQJXDJHV
&RPSRVLWHFXOWXUHVZKHUHODQJXDJHWDNHVERWKRUDODQGZULWWHQIRUPV
IRU DOO RU D SURSRUWLRQ RIWKH SHRSOH :H DUH REOLJHG WR FDWHJRUL]H
IXUWKHUDQGWRGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQuniversally literateFXOWXUHVVXFKDV
ZHWRRHDVLO\WDNHIRUJUDQWHGEXWZKLFKDUHKLVWRULFDOO\XQXVXDO DQG
restrictedly literateFXOWXUHV ZKHUH PRVW SHRSOH OLYH RQ WKH IULQJHV RI
EXWXQGHUWKHVZD\RIWKHOLWHUDWHUHJLVWHU
([LVWHQFH ZLWKLQ D FRPSRVLWH FXOWXUH LV LQ IDFW W\SLFDO WRGD\ RIDOO WKH
JUHDW ZRUOG ODQJXDJHV 3HRSOH DUH HLWKHU SHUVRQDOO\ LOOLWHUDWH RU VHPL
OLWHUDWH \HW UXOHG E\ WKH ERRN DV ZLWK QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ 0DRUL LQ
PXFKRIWKH,VODPLFZRUOGRUSRVWOLWHUDWHLQWKHQHZZRUOGRIHOHFWURQLF
PDVVFRPPXQLFDWLRQ GRPLQDWHGE\WKHUDGLR WHOHYLVLRQ DQGWHOHSKRQH
%XWKLVWRULDQVDUHOLWHUDWHSHRSOHpar excellence,DQGIRUWKHPWKHZULWWHQ
ZRUG LVSDUDPRXQW ,W VHWV WKHLU VWDQGDUGV DQGPHWKRGV ,WGRZQJUDGHV
VSRNHQ ZRUGV ZKLFK DUH UHQGHUHG XWLOLWDULDQ DQG IODW FRPSDUHG WR WKH
FRQFHQWUDWHGPHDQLQJRIWH[W7KHQXDQFHVDQGW\SHVRIRUDOGDWDDUHQRW
VHHQ
2QHRIWKHHIIHFWVRIOLYLQJLQDFXOWXUHGRPLQDWHGE\WKHZULWWHQZRUG
LVWKURXJKGRZQJUDGLQJWKHVSRNHQZRUGWRFDXWHUL]HLW:HPD\KDYHD
GHWDLOHG DZDUHQHVV RIPDQ\FRPSOH[ VSHFLDOZULWWHQODQJXDJHV LQ(QJ
OLVKWKURXJKWLPHZHKDYH&KDXFHULDQDQG6KDNHVSHDUHDQPRGHV RUWKH
VSHFLDOODQJXDJHRIWKH.LQJ-DPHV%LEOHRUWKH%RRNRI&RPPRQ3UD\HU
DOORIZKLFKOLYHRQ,QORRNLQJDWDQRUDORUFRPSRVLWHFXOWXUHZHKDYHWR
PDNH DFRQVFLRXVHIIRUWWRWU\DQGVORZGRZQRXUSDFHRILQWDNHDQGWR
VHHRUDOWHVWLPRQ\DVSRWHQWLDOO\HTXDOO\FRPSOH[:HPXVWUHFRJQL]HWKH
GLVWLQFWLRQVEHWZHHQLPSRUWDQWDQGEDQDOVSHHFKMXVWDV7KRPDV+DUG\¶V
7HVVRIWKHG¶8UEHUYLOOHVVZLWFKHGIURP'RUVHW GLDOHFWWR VWDQGDUG(QJ
OLVKDFFRUGLQJWRKHULQWHUORFXWRUMXVWDV&DULEEHDQ5DVWDIDULDQVUHVHUYH
DVSHFLDOUHJLVWHUIRUUHOLJLRXVFKDQWLQJ
2QH RIWKH ROGHVW DQG EHVWNQRZQ H[DPSOHV RIKRZ WKH VSHFLDO ODQ
JXDJHV RIWKH RUDO DQG WKH ZULWWHQ UHJLVWHU LQWHUZHDYH LQ D FRPSRVLWH
FXOWXUHLVWKHRUDOWUDGLWLRQDERXWWKH.RUDQWKHhadith.,QDPDJQLILFHQW
Oral History
VWXG\RIVXFKDFRPSRVLWH,VODPLFFXOWXUH(UQHVW*HOOQHUKDVVKRZQKRZ
WKHbarakaFKDULVPDWLFDXWKRULW\RIWKHµVDLQWV¶RU+RO\0HQRIWKH$WODV
0RXQWDLQVRI0RURFFRGHULYHVIRUWKHLULOOLWHUDWHQHLJKERXUVIURPWKHLU
RUDOH[SRXQGLQJRIWKH,VODPLFODZWKHshari’a.%XWWKHshari’aLVDZULWWHQ
ODZDQGWKHVH+RO\0HQPD\EHWKHPVHOYHVSHUVRQDOO\LOOLWHUDWH<HWWKH\
GHULYHFKDULVPDIURPDVVRFLDWLRQZLWKERRNZRUGSRZHU
7UDGLWLRQDOGRFXPHQWGULYHQKLVWRULDQVORRNIRUWKUHHTXDOLWLHVLQWKHLU
VRXUFHVQRQHRIZKLFKRUDOGDWDFRQVSLFXRXVO\SRVVHVVHV7KHUHIRUHWKH\
DUHQRWWDNHQVHULRXVO\7KH\GHPDQGSUHFLVLRQLQIRUP,WLVLPSRUWDQWWR
VHHWKHVWDEOHQDWXUHRIWKHHYLGHQFH$GRFXPHQWLVDQDUWHIDFW7KHUHDUH
QRGRXEWVDERXWZKDWWKHWHVWLPRQ\LVSK\VLFDOO\WKHIRUPLVIL[HG,WFDQ
DOVREHWHVWHGLQYDULRXVZD\VSK\VLFDOO\DJDLQEXWDOVRE\DEDWWHU\RI
FRPSDUDWLYH WH[WXDO VWUXFWXUDO DQG RWKHUPHDQV 7KLV JLYHV WKH VHFRQG
TXDOLW\WKDWLVVRXJKWSUHFLVLRQLQFKURQRORJ\
+LVWRULDQV WKLQN LQ VHULDO WLPH DV PHDVXUHG E\ WKH FDOHQGDU DQG WKH
ZULVWZDWFK 'RFXPHQWV FDQ JLYH ILQH GHWDLOLQ WKLV GLPHQVLRQ DQGWKXV
FDQSHUPLWVXEWOHDUJXPHQWV GHULYHGIURPLW 7KHREMHFWLYLW\FODLPHGE\
WKHPRUHWUDGLWLRQDOPHPEHUVRIWKHKLVWRULFDOSURIHVVLRQLVSRVLWHGODUJHO\
XSRQWKHSUHVXPHGVWUHQJWKRIGHGXFWLRQGUDZQIURPDFORVHVWXG\RIWKH
ORJLFRIILQHO\WH[WXUHGQDUUDWLYH %XWDVZHVKDOOVHHLQDPRPHQWVHULDO
WLPHLVQRWWKHRQO\VRUWRIWLPHWKDWPHQXVHDQGWKHUHDUHRWKHUWKLQJV
WKDQFKDQJHWRH[SODLQ
7KLUGO\RQFH\RXDUHOLWHUDWHZULWLQJLVHDV\DQGLWOHDYHVDIL[HGWUDFH
WKHUHIRUHZHOLYHLQDQRFHDQRIZULWWHQPHVVDJHVDQGZHFRXQWRQXQGHU
VWDQGLQJ WKH PHVVDJH RID WH[W E\ UHDGLQJ DGGLWLRQDO WH[WV Testis unus,
testis nullusRQHZLWQHVVLVQRZLWQHVV:HGHPRQVWUDWHE\PXOWLSOLFDWLRQ
2QHDFKRIWKHVHJURXQGVXQVXSSRUWHGRUDOHYLGHQFHUDQNVSRRUO\ 7KH
form is notIL[HGWKHFKURQRORJ\LVIUHTXHQWO\LPSUHFLVHWKHFRPPXQLFD
WLRQPD\IUHTXHQWO\EHXQVXSSRUWHG )RUKLVWRULDQVZKRGRQRWOLNHRUDO
KLVWRU\WKHVHFRPSRVHVXIILFLHQWJURXQGVIRULWVGLVPLVVDO%XWWZRPRUH
UHODWLQJ WR LWV REMHFWV RIVWXG\ DUH RIWHQ DGGHG 2QH PHQWLRQHG DW WKH
EHJLQQLQJRIWKLVFKDSWHULVWKDWRUDOKLVWRU\LVVHOILQGXOJHQWO\FRQFHUQHG
ZLWKWDQJHQWLDOLVVXHV7KHRWKHULVWKDWLWFDQQRWEHRWKHULWLVORFNHGLQWR
WKHLUUHOHYDQFHRIWKHVPDOOVFDOH
,WKLQNWKDWWKHJHQHUDOFRPSODLQWIURPPHWKRGRORJLFDOSUHPLVHVDERXW
SUHFLVLRQRIWHQUHIOHFWVDEHOLHIWKDWRUDOGDWDFDQQRWH[SODLQFKDQJHDQG
WKDWFKDQJHLVZKDWKLVWRULDQVPDLQO\ VWXG\ %XWWKDWLVQRWZKROO\WUXH
DQG LQ VRPH FLUFXPVWDQFHV QRWDEO\ LQ QRQ RU TXDVLOLWHUDWH VRFLHWLHV
FRQWLQXLW\ LVPXFK PRUH LQWHUHVWLQJ DQGPRUH GLIILFXOWWR H[SODLQ WKDQ
FKDQJH 7KH FRPSODLQW DERXW VHOILQGXOJHQFH UHIOHFWV HLWKHU D SUHMXGLFH
DJDLQVWKLVWRU\IURPEHORZRUIHDUWKDWVLQFHRUDOGDWDDUHXWWHUHGLQWKH
VFDOH RI WKH LQGLYLGXDO¶V SHUFHSWLRQV WKH KLVWRULDQ ZLOO EH WUDSSHG LQ
WKHVPDOOVFDOHE\WKHPSRVVLEO\PLVOHGDQGWKXVEHXQDEOHWRH[WUDSRODWH
Gwyn Prins
HIILFLHQWO\,QVKRUWZHZRXOGMXVWJHWXQKHOSIXOO\FOXWWHUHG2UDOKLVWRU\
WHOOVXVRQO\WULYLDDERXWLPSRUWDQWSHRSOHDQGLPSRUWDQWWKLQJVE\WKHLU
RZQOLJKWVDERXWWULYLDOSHRSOH
,V WKLV UHDOO\ WUXH" ,W ZDV RIFRXUVH WR EODVW WKDW VRUW RIGLVPLVVLYH
SRVLWLRQ WKDW WKH DUWLOOHU\ RIWKH µRUDO KLVWRU\ PRYHPHQW¶ ZDV ZKHHOHG
RQWRWKHEDWWOHILHOG,WPD\KDYHEHHQORDGHGRYHUHQWKXVLDVWLFDOO\GXULQJ
HDUO\ ILULQJV EXW WKH LVVXHV LQ GLVSXWH DUH UHDO DQG DUH HTXDOO\ FOHDUO\
OLQNHGWRWKHIXQFWLRQVRIPHPRU\DQGWKHSXUSRVHVRIKLVWRU\LQVRFLHWLHV
ZLWKGLIIHUHQWPRGHVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQ7KHUHDUHWHVWVRWKHUWKDQ5DQ
NHDQRQHVWREHDSSOLHG
7RMXGJHWKHVHFRPSODLQWV DQGWRVHHZKR LVVPXJJOLQJZKDWDVVXPS
WLRQVDERXWWKHKLVWRULDQ¶VSXUSRVHVZHPXVWEHSUHFLVHLQGHILQLQJWHUPV
LQRUGHUWRDYRLGFDWHJRU\PLVWDNHV7KHUHIRUHDWRQFH,GLVWLQJXLVKWZR
W\SHVDQGZLWKLQRQHW\SHIROORZLQJ9DQVLQDIRXUGLIIHUHQWIRUPVRIRUDO
GDWDDQGZHPXVWSUHSDUHWRHQFRXQWHUGLIIHUHQWDUJXPHQWVDERXWHDFKRI
WKHPLQGLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIVRFLHW\
:KDWLVRUDOHYLGHQFHPRUHSUHFLVHO\"$WWKHEHJLQQLQJ,GHILQHGLWDV
HYLGHQFH REWDLQHG IURP OLYLQJSHRSOH DV RSSRVHG WR LQDQLPDWH VRXUFHV
EXWWKDWLVQRORQJHUVXIILFLHQWO\GHWDLOHG7KHUHLVRUDOWUDGLWLRQ,QDe la
tradition orale WKHERRNZKLFKPRUHWKDQDQ\RWKHUKDVUHYROXWLRQL]HG
RXUSHUFHSWLRQRIRUDOWUDGLWLRQ-DQ9DQVLQDGHILQHGLWDVµRUDOWHVWLPRQ\
WUDQVPLWWHG YHUEDOO\from one generation to the next, or more¶ P\ HP
SKDVLV 6XFK PDWHULDO LV WKH VXEVWDQFH RIZKDW ZH KDYH ZLWK ZKLFK WR
UHFRQVWUXFW WKH SDVW RI D VRFLHW\ ZLWK DQ RUDO FXOWXUH 2UDO WUDGLWLRQ
EHFRPHV OHVV DQG OHVV SURQRXQFHG DV D FXOWXUH PRYHV WRZDUGV PDVV
OLWHUDF\ DOWKRXJK VRPH RUDO WUDGLWLRQ FDQ SHUVLVW LQ D GRPLQDWLQJO\ OLW
HUDWHHQYLURQPHQW
7KH RWKHU W\SH RIRUDO VRXUFH LV SHUVRQDO UHPLQLVFHQFH 7KLV LV RUDO
HYLGHQFH VSHFLILFWR WKHOLIH H[SHULHQFHV RIWKH LQIRUPDQW 6XFK HYLGHQFH
GRHVQRWSDVV IURPJHQHUDWLRQ WR JHQHUDWLRQH[FHSWLQKLJKO\HPDFLDWHG
IRUP IRU H[DPSOH LQ SULYDWH IDPLO\ VWRULHV ,Q WKH V P\ PDWHUQDO
JUDQGIDWKHUZDVZRUNLQJDVDJDUGHQHU¶VER\LQDELJKRXVHLQ&RUQZDOO
7KHEXWOHUZDVDVDGLVWZKRXVHGWRSXWNLWWHQVRQWRWKHKRWNLWFKHQUDQJH
DQGHQMR\ZDWFKLQJWKHLUDJRQ\8QGHUVWDQGDEO\P\JUDQGIDWKHUGLGQRW
IRUJHWWKLVEHKDYLRXUDQGLQGHHGOHIWWKHKRXVHWRZRUNLQWKHWLQPLQHV
EHFDXVH RI WKDW PDQ 7KLV VQLSSHW , KHDUG IURP P\ PRWKHU 'LUHFW
SHUVRQDOUHPLQLVFHQFHIRUPVWKHRYHUZKHOPLQJEXONRIWKHRUDOHYLGHQFH
XVHGE\3DXO7KRPSVRQDQGWKHRUDOKLVWRU\PRYHPHQW
2UDOWUDGLWLRQLVGLVWLQJXLVKHGIURPUHPLQLVFHQFHLQDQRWKHUZD\ 7KH
WUDQVPLVVLRQ RI ODUJH DPRXQWV DQG VSHFLDO VKDSHV RI RUDO GDWD IURP
JHQHUDWLRQ WR JHQHUDWLRQ UHTXLUHV WLPH DQG FRQVLGHUDEOH PHQWDO HIIRUW
VRWKHUHPXVWEHVRPHSXUSRVH ,WLVXVXDOO\WKRXJKW WKDWWKHSXUSRVHLV
VWUXFWXUDO 6RPHWKHRULVWV OLNH 'XUNKHLP ZRXOG VHHWKHSXUSRVH LQ WKH
Oral History
FUHDWLRQ DQG WUDQVPLVVLRQ RI RUDO WUDGLWLRQ WR EH V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ DQG
GHSHQGHQWO\ UHODWHG WR WKH UHSURGXFWLRQ RIVRFLDO VWUXFWXUH 2WKHUV VHH
ZLGHUDQGPRUHDXWRQRPRXVFRJQLWLYHSXUSRVHV %XWZKDWHYHUWKH\DUH
EHIRUHWKH\FDQEHFRQVLGHUHG RUDOWUDGLWLRQPXVWEHIXUWKHUVXEGLYLGHG
LQWRIRXUW\SHV
5RWH 1RQURWH
:25',1*
IUR]HQ IUHH
IUR]HQ 32(75< (3,&
,1&/8',1*
621* /,676
)250 $1'
IUHH )2508/$6 1$55$7,9(
QDPHV
SURYHUEVHWF
,IDQDFFRXQWLVOHDUQHGE\URWHWKHQWKHZRUGVEHORQJWRWKHWUDGLWLRQ,I
WKH IRUP RIWKH SHUIRUPDQFH LV IL[HG WKHQ WKH VWUXFWXUH EHORQJV WR WKH
WUDGLWLRQ ,VKDOOWDNHHDFKFDWHJRU\LQWXUQ
5RWHOHDUQHGIUR]HQIRUPPDWHULDOVDFWXDOO\SUHVHQWWKHKLVWRULDQZLWK
WKH VPDOOHVW SUREOHPV RIFKHFNLQJ IRU ULJRURXV WH[WXDOFULWLFLVPRIYHU
VLRQVRIWKHVDPHWUDGLWLRQZLOOJLYHDZD\WRJHWDWWKHFRPPRQFRUHRI
IRUP DQG ZRUGV 7KH UXOHV RI IRUP DQG ODQJXDJH FDQ EH LGHQWLILHG
$IULFDQ SUDLVH SRHPV RIZKLFK WKH EHVWNQRZQ DUH WKH =XOX isibongo,
DUHJRRGH[DPSOHVRIWKLVJHQUH7KHZRUGVWKHIRUPDQGWKHLQWRQDWLRQ
DUH DOO VWULFWO\ GHILQHG )UHTXHQWO\ SUDLVH SRHPV GHVFULEH WKH UHODWLRQV
EHWZHHQWKHUXOHUDQGWKHUXOHGWKH\PHGLDWHDUHODWLRQVKLSWKDWFRXOGQRW
EH FRQGXFWHG LQ FROORTXLDO ODQJXDJH 7KHLU VWUXFWXUH WKXV UHIOHFWV WKHLU
SXUSRVH +HUHLVDQH[WUDFWIURPD/R]LSUDLVHSRHPRIWKLVVRUWZKLFK,
FROOHFWHGLQZHVWHUQ=DPELD,WLVSHUIRUPHGLQ/X\DQDWKHROGODQJXDJH
ZKLFKLVDERXWDVFORVHWRWKHHYHU\GD\ODQJXDJHVL/R]LDV$QJOR6D[RQ
LVWRPRGHP(QJOLVK
$OWKRXJK,DPQHDU\RX,FDQQRWWDONWR\RX%XW,DPQRWFRQFHUQHGIRU,
NQRZ ZKHQFH P\ NLQ FRPHV , FRPH IURP D OLQH RIUHODWLRQVKLS ZKLFK LV
DWWDFKHGWR \RX (YHU\ VRQJKDVLWV RULJLQ
:KHQ WKH .LQJ LV LQ &RXUW KH LV OLNH DQ HOHSKDQW LQ WKH WKRUQ VFUXE OLNH
D EXIIDOR LQ WKH WKLFN IRUHVW OLNH D JDUGHQ RI PDL]H RQ D PRXQG LQ WKH
=DPEH]L IORRGSODLQ 5XOH WKH FRXQWU\ ZHOO :KHQ WKH FRXQWU\ GLHV \RX
ZLOOEHUHVSRQVLEOH:KHQLWSURVSHUVLWZLOOEHSURXGR I\RXDQGZLOODFFODLP
\RX
Gwyn Prins
)RUPXODLFPDWHULDOVDUHHVSHFLDOO\XVHIXOZKHQRQHLVWU\LQJWRGLVFRYHU
WKH GLPHQVLRQV RI D SRSXODU FXOWXUH $ VWXG\ RI SURYHUEV LV RIWHQ DQ
HIILFLHQW ZD\ WR EHJLQ WR PDNH VXFK D PDS ERWK LQ WKH SUHVHQW RIDQ
RUDORUFRPSRVLWHFXOWXUHDQGLQLWVSDVW7KLVLVEHFDXVHLWLVQRWHDV\WR
WDPSHUZLWKWKHLUZRUGLQJ RULIWKH\ DUH WDPSHUHGZLWK LWLVFOHDUWKDW
WKLVKDVEHHQGRQH+HUHLVDQRWKHULOOXVWUDWLRQDJDLQFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKH
/R]LNLQJVKLSLQ=DPELD 7KHFRORQLDOFHQWXU\LQ$IULFDKDVEHHQZKDW
HYHUHOVH WXPXOWXRXV*UHDWIRUFHVRIFKDQJHKDYHWRXFKHG/R]LVRFLHW\
OLNHPRVWRWKHUV7KHUHIRUH LIRQHILQGVHOHPHQWVZKLFKUHPDLQFRQVWDQW
GHVSLWHVXFKSUHVVXUHVWKDWLVSDUWLFXODUO\LQWHUHVWLQJDQGWKLVH[DPSOHLV
RQHVKRZLQJWKHP
,Q ,ZDVOLYLQJLQ %XOR]L DQGXVHG WRFROOHFWSURYHUEVLQDQRWH
ERRNDWILUVWPDLQO\IURPFXULRVLW\$FRPPRQRQHUHIHUVE\DQDORJ\WR
WKH.LQJVKLS ,WLVLQ/X\DQD
7KH KLSSRSRWDPXV >.LQJ@ VWLUV WKH GHHSHVW ZDWHUV R IWKH ULYHU WKH ZKLWH
VDQGV RIWKHVKDOORZVEHWUD\KLP
+HDOHU FKDQWV 0H]L PZD QXND NL WDSHOR :DWHU IURP WKH ULYHU LV D
SUD\HU
+HDOHUVLQJV .XEX PZDQDOLOROR +LSSRFKLOGR IWKHZKLUOSRRO
&KRUXV ,WXPXNHODPZDQJDOD+HVXUIDFHVLQPLGVWUHDP
+HDOHU 0XVKHNHQLPXNRQJD7KH VDQGVEHWUD\ KLP
&KRUXV ,WXPXNHODPZDQJDOD
6R KHUH ZH KDYH WZR YDULDQWV VKDULQJWKH VDPHPDMRU WKHPH DQG ERWK
ILUPO\LQWKHSRVWFRORQLDOHUD7KHH[DPSOHVKRZVFOHDUO\KRZFU\VWDOVRI
ZRUGLQJUHPDLQXQFKDQJHGZLWKLQDFKDQJLQJNDOHLGRVFRSHRIVWUXFWXUHV
DGDSWHGWRSDUWLFXODUSXUSRVHV
7KHVWUHQJWKRIIRUPXODLFPDWHULDOLVVHHQZKHQWKHVHPRGHPYHUVLRQV
DUHSODFHGEHVLGHWKHVDPHSURYHUEEXWLQWKHIRUPVFROOHFWHGE\D)UHQFK
PLVVLRQDU\DWWKHYHU\EHJLQQLQJRIWKHFRORQLDOH[SHULHQFHLQWKH V
µZDIXODQJDPH\LPDWXQJXPXVKHNHQLPXN¶RQJD¶DQGµ0EXNXPZDQ¶D
OLOROR ZD WZHODQJDPDWXQJX PXVKHNHQLPX N¶RQJD¶6XFKD YLYLGH[
DPSOHRISHUVLVWHQFHLQWKHIRUPRIDQRUDOVRXUFHZLWQHVVHVWRLWVFRQWLQXDO
UHSURGXFWLRQLQSRSXODUFXOWXUHDQGWKDWLQWXUQZLWQHVVHVWRLWVFRQWLQXLQJ
WRSRVVHVVVRPHSHUVLVWLQJFXOWXUDOIXQFWLRQ7KLVLQWXUQUDLVHVDQLPSRUW
DQWTXHVWLRQDERXWVHOHFWLYHPHPRU\LQRUDOVRXUFHVRIZKLFKPRUHEHORZ
Oral History
6RPHIRUPXODLFPDWHULDOVDUHOHVVSURQHWRVXFKVHOHFWLYHPHPRU\WKDQ
RWKHUV )RUH[DPSOHRQH¶VLGHQWLW\ZLWKLQRQH¶VSHUVRQDOFXOWXUHLVRIWHQ
UHQGHUHG DQG H[SUHVVHG SXEOLFO\ LQ D VHPLRWLF GHVFULSWLRQ RISK\VLFDO
ERXQGDULHV 7KHUHIRUH LIGHFRGHG WKH ODQGVFDSH RIKRPH GHVFULEHG E\
DPLJUDQWFDQGHPRQVWUDWHFXOWXUDOUHSURGXFWLRQPRVWYLYLGO\,WLVVKRZQ
EULOOLDQWO\LQDQRWKHU$IULFDQ FDVHVWXG\ Siyaya: The Historical Anthro-
pology o f an African Landscape PDNHV VXFK D GHFRGLQJ DQG XVHV LW WR
FKDOOHQJH WKH FRQYHQWLRQDO SUHVXPSWLRQ WKDW PLJUDWLRQ OHDGV WR EURNHQ
UHODWLRQVKLSV
7KHPDLQSUREOHPVRIXVHDQGPLVXVHRIRUDOWUDGLWLRQUHODWHWRWUDGL
WLRQV QRW OHDUQHG E\ URWH HSLFV DQG QDUUDWLYHV 7KH IL[HG IRUP RIHSLF
PHDQVWKDWPRVW$IULFDQHSLFLVQDUUDWLYHLQWKLVVFKHPDWL]DWLRQ%\µHSLF¶
KHUH,PHDQWKH+RPHULFHSLFKHURLFSRHWU\FRPSRVHGRUDOO\DFFRUGLQJ
WR UXOHV 2IFRXUVH WKHSRHPVZHUHZULWWHQGRZQ VXEVHTXHQWO\ DQGZH
FDQQRWNQRZKRZIDUWKH\ZHUHDOWHUHGDWWKLVSRLQWRUVXEVHTXHQWO\EXW
WKH VWUXFWXUH LV VWURQJ HQRXJK WR WUDQVFHQG WKDW SURFHVV ,W LV D SDWFK
ZRUNDUKDSVRG\ OLWHUDOO\µVHZQWRJHWKHU¶IURPWKH*UHHNYHUE SRQU7WR
VRWKDWUHSHWLWLRQRIIRUPXODHSOD\VDSDUWLQJLYLQJWKHZRUNVKDSHIRU
ERWK EDUG DQG DXGLHQFH $ERXW D WKLUG RIWKH IliadFRQVLVWV RIOLQHV RU
EORFNV RI OLQHV ZKLFK RFFXU PRUH WKDQ RQFH 7KH VDPH LV WUXH RI WKH
Odyssey. 7ZHQW\ILYH IRUPXODLF H[SUHVVLRQV RFFXU LQ WKH ILUVW WZHQW\
ILYHOLQHVRIWKHIliad.)RUH[DPSOHGDZQLVDOPRVWDOZD\VµURV\ILQJHUHG¶
$WKHQDµRZOH\HG¶WKHLVOHRI,WKDFDµVHDJLUW¶$FKLOOHVµFLW\VDFNLQJ¶ DQG
PRVWIDPRXVO\WKHVHD µZLQHGDUN¶%XWLWLVQRWPRQRWRQRXVUHSHWLWLRQ
7KHUHDUHWKLUW\VL[GLIIHUHQWHSLWKHWVIRU$FKLOOHV FKRVHQDQGHPSOR\HG
E\ ILUP UXOHV 7KXV RXW RIVXFK SLHFHV RIPDWHULDO WKH EDUG VWLWFKHV
WRJHWKHUDQHZZRUNDOWKRXJKWKHLQGLYLGXDOSDWFKHVPD\EHROGDQGZHOO
NQRZQ %XWWKLVFDWHJRU\DQGWKLVPHWKRGDJDLQUDLVHREYLRXVTXHVWLRQV
DERXWWKHOLPLWDWLRQXSRQWKHTXDQWLW\RINQRZOHGJHZKLFKRUDOWUDGLWLRQ
FDQFRQWDLQRUWUDQVPLW ,VQ¶WWKLVDOOFULSSOLQJO\OLPLWLQJ"
(YHQ ZLWK D UDQJH RI DOWHUQDWLYHV VXFK RUDO FRPSRVLWLRQ FDQQRW
DGYDQFHNQRZOHGJHRUSUHFLVLRQ ,WLVVKDFNOHG E\WKHLPSHUPDQHQFH RI
WKHVSRNHQZRUGDQGE\WKHOLPLWHGFDSDFLW\RIWKHKXPDQPHPRU\HYHQ
ZKHQ DLGHGE\PQHPRQLFGHYLFHV VR RUDO FXOWXUHV FDQQRW LQQRYDWH DQG
PXVW IRUJHW 7KLVYLHZOLHV DWWKHKHDUW RI3URIHVVRU-DFN*RRG\¶VDUJX
PHQW LQ The Domestication o f the Savage Mind. 7KH µVDYDJH¶ PLQG
EHFRPHVµGRPHVWLFDWHG¶ZKHQWKHmeansRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQPDNHLWSRVV
LEOHWRFKDQJHWKHmode:
:ULWLQJDQGPRUHHVSHFLDOO\DOSKDEHWLFOLWHUDF\PDGHLWSRVVLEOHWRVFUXWLQ
LVH GLVFRXUVH LQ D GLIIHUHQW ZD\ E\ JLYLQJ RUDO FRPPXQLFDWLRQ D VHPL
SHUPDQHQW IRUP WKLV VFUXWLQ\ IDYRXUHG WKH LQFUHDVH LQ VFRSH RI FULWLFDO
DFWLYLW\ DQG KHQFH R I UDWLRQDOLW\ VFHSWLFLVP ORJLF ,W LQFUHDVHG WKH
Gwyn Prins
SRWHQWLDOLWLHV RIFULWLFLVP EHFDXVH ZULWLQJ ODLG RXW GLVFRXUVH EHIRUH RQH¶V
H\HVLQDGLIIHUHQWNLQGRIZD\DWWKHVDPHWLPHLWLQFUHDVHGWKHSRWHQWLDOLW\
IRUFXPXODWLYHNQRZOHGJHHVSHFLDOO\NQRZOHGJHRIDQDEVWUDFWNLQG1R
ORQJHUGLGWKHSUREOHPRIPHPRU\VWRUDJHGRPLQDWHPDQ¶VLQWHOOHFWXDOOLIH
7KH KXPDQ PLQG ZDV IUHH WR VWXG\ VWDWLFWH[W UDWKHUWKDQ EH OLPLWHG E\
SDUWLFLSDWLRQLQG\QDPLFXWWHUDQFH
816758&785('7,0(
7UDGLWLRQVRIJHQHVLV
µ75$',7,21$/¶7,0(VHTXHQFHGEXWQRWVHULDO
'\QDVWLFKLVWRULHV
$FFRXQWVRIVWDWHVWUXFWXUH
6(5,$/7,0(
Oral History
VHOIGHIHQFH E\ SOD\LQJ GLP RU GXPE YLYLGO\ H[SORUHG E\ $OH[DQGHU
6RO]KHQLWV\QLQ One Day in the Life o f Ivan Denisovitch. &RORQLDO VLWXD
WLRQVDUHVLPLODULQEHLQJDOVRPDUNHGE\H[WUHPHVRISRZHUDQGSRZHU
OHVVQHVV ,QFHUWDLQVSHFLDOFLUFXPVWDQFHVQRUHFRYHU\DWDOOLVSRVVLEOHLQ
WRWDOLWDULDQ RQHV LW PD\ EH WKH YHU\ VHTXHQFH DQG WHPSR RIWLPH LWVHOI
ZKLFKLVFRQWRUWHG LQFRORQLDOFRQWH[WVDFFRXQWVRIVRFLDOVWUXFWXUHDQG
RIG\QDVWLFWUDGLWLRQDUHPRVWFRPPRQO\UHLQYHQWHG
7KHUHDUHFHUWDLQVRUWVRIPHPRU\ZKLFKPD\EHIRUHYHULUUHFRYHUDEOH
EHFDXVHRIWKHPDQQHURIWKHLUORVV6XFKZDVWKHFDVHPDGHE\WKH,WDOLDQ
ZULWHU3ULPR/HYLDVXUYLYRURI$XVFKZLW]ZLWKUHJDUGWRWKH+RORFDXVW
The Drowned and the Saved, KLV ILQDO ERRN LV RQH RIWKH ILQHVWLQVLJKWV
LQWR WKHQDWXUH RIOLIH DQGWKHPDQQHURISV\FKRORJLFDO RSHUDWLRQRIWKH
GHDWKFDPSVZKLFKSRVWHULW\SRVVHVVHV <HWLQLW/HYLDVVHUWHGWKHHFFHQ
WULFLW\RIKLV RZQUHFROOHFWLRQ DQGWKHFRQVHTXHQWO\IODZHGQDWXUH RIKLV
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ %\ GHILQLWLRQ KH FRXOG QRW UHFRYHU PHPRU\ IURP WKH
GHSWKVZKHUHWKHPDMRULW\GURZQHG IURPWKHUHQR RQHUHWXUQHG DQGKH
ZDV RQH RIWKH IHZ VDYHG ,QWKHHQG IRUKLPDVIRUWKH JUHDW)UHXGLDQ
SV\FKRDQDO\VW %UXQR %HWWHOKHLP DQRWKHU VXUYLYRU RI WKH FDPSV LW
DSSHDUVWKDWWKHEXUGHQRIVXUYLYDOZDVWRRPXFKDQGERWK LQWKHLUROG
DJH FRPPLWWHG VXLFLGH 3HUKDSV IRU WKHP WKH SDVW FRXOG EH QHLWKHU
UHLQYHQWHGQRUFRPPXQLFDWHG ,WZDVOLWHUDOO\XQVSHDNDEOH
2QH VWHS FORVHU WR XV WKDQ VLOHQFH VWDQGV WKH UHFRQVWLWXWLRQ RI VXE
VWDQFH 7KH KLVWRULDQ RIWKH 6RYLHW H[SHULHQFH *HRIIUH\ +RVNLQJ LOOX
VWUDWHG WKH WRWDOLWDULDQ VLWXDWLRQ ZLWK D TXRWDWLRQ IURP µ$UPHQLDQ
5DGLR¶ µ$OOWKHIXQGDPHQWDO WUXWKVDERXW6RYLHWOLIHDUHLOOXPLQDWHGE\
RUDO DQHFGRWHV PDQ\ RIZKLFK RULJLQDWH IURP WKH P\WKLFDO $UPHQLDQ
5DGLR 7KXV $UPHQLDQ 5DGLR LV DVNHG ³,V LW SRVVLEOH WR IRUHWHOO WKH
IXWXUH"´ $QVZHU ³<HV WKDW LV QR SUREOHP ZH NQRZ H[DFWO\ ZKDW WKH
IXWXUHZLOOEHOLNH2XUSUREOHPLVZLWKWKHSDVWWKDWNHHSVFKDQJLQJ´
6LQFH WKH FRPLQJ RIglasnost LQ WKH 8665 WKH EDWWOH IRU FRQWURO RI
PHPRU\KDVEHHQELWWHU2QHIDFWLRQLQGHHGFDOOVLWVHOI3DP\DW0HPRU\
DQRWKHU ZKROO\ RSSRVHG WR WKH IHUYHQW 6ODY QDWLRQDOLVP DQG DQWL
VHPLWLVP RI3DP\DW LV FDOOHG 0HPRULDO 0HPRULDO ZDV VWLPXODWHG E\
WKHODWH$FDGHPLFLDQ$QGUHL6DNKDURYDVDZD\RIUHVFXLQJWKHYLFWLPVRI
6WDOLQIURPWKHREOLYLRQRIVLOHQFH5HFRYHULQJSRSXODUPHPRU\IURPWKH
6LEHULD RIWKH PLQG KDV EHFRPH D SURPLQHQW DQG LQ QR VHQVH P D UJ LQ D O
SROLWLFDO DFWLYLW\ LQ WKH VHFRQG 5XVVLDQ 5HYROXWLRQ 5HIRUPLQJ IRUFHV
FDXVHGDFRPPLVVLRQWRUHSRUWWRWKHIXOO&RQJUHVV RI3HRSOH¶V'HSXWLHV
ODWHLQ RQWKHUHVFXHDQGUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIRQHFUXFLDOHSLVRGHWKH
+LWOHU6WDOLQSDFW
7KHQDWXUHRIKLVWRU\LVIRXJKWRYHUILHUFHO\LQ%ULWDLQDOVR,Q+HU
0DMHVW\¶V ,QVSHFWRUDWH SXEOLVKHG D YLHZ RIZKDW FKLOGUHQ VKRXOG OHDUQ
7KH +0, µ%OXH %RRN¶ V\QWKHVL]HG PXFK WKDW ZDV EHVW RI LQQRYDWLRQ
Oral History
LQ VFKRROV RYHU WKH SUHYLRXV WZHQW\ \HDUV ZRUN VXFK DV WKH 6FKRROV
&RXQFLO+LVWRU\SURMHFWZKLFKWDXJKWFKLOGUHQDJHGWRWRGLVFULPLQ
DWHJRRGIURPEDGHYLGHQFHWRUHFRJQL]HWKHOHJLWLPDF\RIPDQ\W\SHVRI
VRXUFHV LQFOXGLQJWKHRUDO WRTXHVWLRQDOOUHFHLYHGWUXWKV WR HPSDWKL]H
ZLWKWKHSUHGLFDPHQWVRISHRSOHLQWKHSDVWDVDQHVVHQWLDOVWLPXOXVWRWKH
KLVWRULFDO LPDJLQDWLRQ /LNH WKHPRGHUQUHYROXWLRQDULHV LQ WKH 8665
WKH ,QVSHFWRUV XQGHUVWRRG H[DFWO\ WKH SROLWLFDO VLJQLILFDQFH RID UREXVW
VWXG\ RIKLVWRU\ DQGWKHUHIRUHSODFHG RQWKHEDFNFRYHU RIWKHERRNWKH
IROORZLQJVD\LQJRI1LNLWD.KUXVKFKHYµ+LVWRULDQVDUHGDQJHURXVSHRSOH
7KH\DUHFDSDEOHRIXSVHWWLQJHYHU\WKLQJ¶
0UV7KDWFKHU¶VJRYHUQPHQWDEROLVKHGWKH 6FKRROV&RXQFLO7KHUHZDV
DQDQJU\SURWUDFWHGDQGXQVXFFHVVIXODWWHPSWE\0UV7KDWFKHUDQGWKH
UDGLFDO5LJKWWR VHWDVWKHH[FOXVLYH WHUPVRIWKH 6DXQGHUV:DWVRQ
+LVWRU\ :RUNLQJ *URXS DGYLVLQJ WKH 'HSDUWPHQW RI (GXFDWLRQ DQG
6FLHQFHRQWKHFRQWHQWRIWKH%ULWLVKQDWLRQDOFXUULFXOXPLWVWULXPSKDOLVW
:KLJJLVK GRFXPHQWGULYHQ DQG SDURFKLDO V\OODEXV RI %ULWLVK SROLWLFDO
DQG FRQVWLWXWLRQDO KLVWRU\ ZLWK DQ HPSKDVLV RQ URWH OHDUQLQJ RIGDWHV
DQG µIDFWV¶ DQG DQ DYHUVLRQ WR WKH KLVWRULFDO LPDJLQDWLRQ 'HQLDORIWKH
OHJLWLPDF\RIRUDOKLVWRU\LVWREHIRXQGWKHUHDOVR
7KH:RUNLQJ*URXSUHSRUWHGLQWHUPVVLPLODUWRWKRVHRI+0,LQ
RQO\ WR EH DEUXSWO\ RYHUWKURZQ E\ PLQLVWHULDO ILDW ZKHQ 0U .HQQHWK
&ODUNH QHZO\LQVWDOOHGLQRIILFHLPSRVHGWKHYLHZVUHMHFWHGE\:RUNLQJ
*URXS WHDFKLQJ SURIHVVLRQ DQG ,QVSHFWRUDWH µ%OXH %RRN¶ DOLNH $W WKH
WLPHRIZULWLQJ)HEUXDU\WKHUHLVFRQIXVLRQDQGUHVHQWPHQWRIVXFK
DQDFWLRQWREHVHHQLQWKHSURIHVVLRQ
7KHVHVWRULHVPDNHWZRSRLQWV7KH6LEHULDRIWKHPLQGLVQRWRQO\WKH
WHUUDLQRIGHDGVLOHQFHEXWDOVRRIDOLYLQJGHQLDORIOHJLWLPDF\ ,WVXUUHQ
GHUV WKH YRLFHOHVV WR WKH GHVLFFDWLYH FRQGHVFHQVLRQ DQG WKH SURVFULELQJ
KHJHPRQ\RISUHVHQWUXOHUV,QWKLVWKH%ULWLVKFKLOOLQJO\HFKRHVWKH6RYLHW
GHEDWH 6HFRQGO\ WKHHYLGHQFHRIWKHIUDJLOLW\ DQG XQGHUFRQWHPSRUDU\
SUHVVXUHPDOOHDELOLW\RIWKHSDVWLVXQGHUVFRUHG7KHVFDOHRIVXFKLQYHQ
WLRQFDQEHJUHDW
7KH 7LY SHRSOH RIFHQWUDO 1LJHULD ZHUH QRW JHQWOHPHQ ,Q WKH HDUO\
V WKH\ IRXJKWRIIZKLWH VROGLHUV OD\LQJWHOHJUDSKOLQHV WKURXJK WKHLU
ODQGDQGWKHUHE\JDLQHGDUHSXWDWLRQIRUEHLQJODZOHVVWUHDFKHURXVDQG
RIFRXUVH GHHSO\ SDJDQ )XUWKHUPRUH WKH\ VWDQN RIDQDUFK\ IRU WKH\
KDG QR FOHDU KLHUDUFK\ RI FKLHIV 7KHUHIRUH ZKHQ LQ D %ULWLVK
5HVLGHQW &KDUOHV )RUEHV *RUGRQ GHVFULEHG WKHLU VRFLHW\ IRU WKH ILUVW
WLPHKHVDZDQGUHFRUGHGWKHVHJPHQWDU\QDWXUHRIWKHLUFODQV%XWE\WKH
WLPH RIWKH )LUVW:RUOG :DU WKH %ULWLVK DGPLQLVWUDWLRQLQ1LJHULD ZDV
EDGO\ RYHUVWUHWFKHG DQG IRXQG LWFRQYHQLHQWWR JLYHXS ORRNLQJ DWWKH
7LY DV 7LY LQVWHDG EUDFNHWLQJ WKHP ZLWK WKHLU PRUH QXPHURXV QHLJK
ERXUV WKH +DXVD 2EOLJLQJO\ 7LY KHDGPHQ µ+DXVDL]HG¶ WKHPVHOYHV IRU
Gwyn Prins
FRORQLDOH\HVVSHDNLQJ+DXVDGUHVVLQJOLNH+DXVDDQGVRRQ%XWWKHQLQ
WKH7LYZHUHYLVLWHGDQGVWXGLHGE\5&$EUDKDPDJRYHUQPHQW
DQWKURSRORJLVWDQG5 2 'RZQHV D'LVWULFW2IILFHU
7KH$EUDKDP'RZQHVUHSRUW SURSRVHGDIUHVKYLHZRIWKH7LY 7KH\
VDZ WKH DFHSKDORXV VRFLHW\ GHVFULEHG E\ )RUEHV *RUGRQ LQ IDLUO\ KLHU
DUFKLFDOWHUPV UHIOHFWHG LQDQHZVHWRIWLHUHGFRXQFLOV %XWOHJLWLPL]LQJ
WKHVHFRXQFLOVDQGWKHLUKHDGPHQFXWRIID\RXQJHUJHQHUDWLRQRIOLWHUDWH
7LYIURPSRWHQWLDOSROLWLFDOSDWURQDJH 6R WKH\LQWXUQEHJDQWRFKDP
SLRQDQHZFDXVHWKDWRIWKH7RU7LY D7LYSDUDPRXQWFKLHIWRWUXPS
WKH FRXQFLOV DQG FRLQFLGHQWDOO\ H[DFWO\ FRQJUXHQW ZLWK WKH µQRUPDO¶
PRGHO RI QDWLYH DXWKRULW\ KHOG E\ %ULWLVK RIILFHUV WUDLQHG LQ /RUG
/XJDUG¶V VFKRRO RILQGLUHFW UXOH $QRWKHU DQWKURSRORJLFDO LQYHVWLJDWLRQ
LQGHFLGHGWKDWWKH7LYZHUHDFWXDOO\UXOHGE\SDWULDUFKVZKRIRUPHG
D S\UDPLG RI DXWKRULW\ 3HUKDSV WKHUH UHDOO\ ZDV D QDWLYH SDUDPRXQW
FKLHI" ,Q IRUW\ \HDUV WKH SHUFHSWLRQ RI7LY VRFLDO VWUXFWXUH KDG WXUQHG
XSVLGHGRZQ7KHQLQWKHODWHVFDPHWZRPRUHDQWKURSRORJLVWVWKH
%RKDQQDQV DQG WKHLU FODVVLF VWXG\ RIWKH 7LY DV D VHJPHQWDU\ OLQHDJH
VRFLHW\OLNHWKHRQHGHVFULEHGXSRQILUVWDFTXDLQWDQFHZLWKLWVWLOOVWDQGV
(DFK (XURSHDQ LQYHVWLJDWRU VRXJKW WKH µUHDO¶ 7LY DQG HDFK WLPH WKDW
RXWVLGHUVFDPHXSZLWKDQHZLPDJHVRPH7LYFRQVWLWXHQF\ZKRVDZLWWR
EHLQWKHLULQWHUHVWV UHLQYHQWHGWKHLU SDVW WR REOLJH :HNQRZWKLV VWRU\
RQO\EHFDXVHDKLVWRULDQ' & 'RUZDUG UHDOL]HGWKDWWKHLQYHVWLJDWRUV
ZHUH LQWHUDFWLYHO\ SDUW RIWKHKLVWRU\ DQGEHFDXVHKHNQHZWKDWJUDQGO\
LQYHQWHG WUDGLWLRQ ZDV D SRVVLELOLW\ &OHDUO\ WKH GHIHQFH DJDLQVW
LQYHQWHGWUDGLWLRQLVMXVWWKDWWRKDYHDOHVVWUXVWLQJYLHZRIWKHUHOLDELOLW\
ERWKRIXQVXSSRUWHGRUDOWHVWLPRQ\DQGRIRQH¶VDFDGHPLFSUHGHFHVVRUV
XQOHVV WKH\KDYH VKRZQ VLJQVRIEHLQJDZDUHRIWKHSUREOHP 1RULVWKH
SUREOHPFRQILQHGWR RUDOKLVWRU\DORQH
$QRWKHU$IULFDQH[DPSOHFRQILUPV9DQVLQD¶VREMHFWLRQWRWKHLPDJHRI
GLYDVDQGWKHLUXQGHUVWXGLHV ,WVKRZVWKDWWRRWUXVWLQJDYLHZRIXQVXS
SRUWHG written VRXUFHV FRPELQHG ZLWK WRR PXFK UHVSHFW IRUKLVWRULDQV
FDQEHDQHTXDOO\PLVOHDGLQJFRPELQDWLRQ%\WKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIV\VWHPD
WLF GRXEW -XOLDQ &REELQJ KDV FRQYLQFLQJO\ WKURZQ LQWR TXHVWLRQ WKUHH
FHQWUDOWHQHWVRIVRXWKHUQ$IULFDQKLVWRU\WKHSRSXODUYLHZRIWKH0DWD
EHOHRI=LPEDEZHDVDZDUULRUFXOWXUHWKHFHQWUDOP\WKRI=LPEDEZHDQ
QDWLRQDOLVP WKDWLWVGLUHFWDQWHFHGHQWOD\LQWKHULVLQJVRIDYLHZ
LPSRUWDQWO\URRWHGLQWKHYLHZVRIWKHGRFXPHQWGULYHQ%ULWLVKKLVWRULDQ
7 2 5DQJHUDQGPRVWUHFHQWO\ WKHVLJQLILFDQFHDQGYHU\H[LVWHQFHRI
WKHMfecane - WKDW VFDWWHULQJRIWKHSHRSOHVZKLFKZDV WKRXJKWWRKDYH
UHVXOWHG IURP WKH GHVWUXFWLRQ RI WKH =XOX VWDWH LQ WKH PLGQLQHWHHQWK
FHQWXU\,QWKHFDVHRIWKHULVLQJVPRGHP=LPEDEZHEHLQJDFRPSRVLWH
FXOWXUH 5DQJHU¶V QDWLRQDOLVW LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ KDV QRZ HQWHUHG WKH RUDO
UHJLVWHU RI WKH SHUVRQDOO\ LOOLWHUDWH DQG KDV WKXV EHFRPH WKH DQVZHU
Oral History
JLYHQ WR TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKRVH HYHQWV RYHUOD\LQJ DQ\ RWKHU WUDGLWLRQ
:KLOH LW PD\ EH KHOSIXO WR XQGHUVWDQG WKH UHDVRQV ZK\ WUDGLWLRQV DUH
LQYHQWHGLWLVDOVRGHSUHVVLQJWRZLWQHVVWKHORVVRIWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIHYHU
FRQVWUXFWLQJ D UHOLDEOH DFFRXQW RILPSRUWDQW HYHQWV VXFK DV WKHVH DV D
UHVXOW RILQDGHTXDWH KLVWRULRJUDSKLF WHFKQLTXH 1RU LV WKLV H[FXVHG E\
UHFRJQL]LQJWKH QHHGZKLFK VXFK DFRPPXQLW\KDVIRUZKDW LQ KLV RZQ
SKUDVH5DQJHUHOVHZKHUHFDOOHGµXVDEOHKLVWRU\¶
5HFRJQLWLRQRIWKHYXOQHUDELOLW\RIGRFXPHQWGULYHQKLVWRULDQVWRVXFK
VKLSZUHFNOHQGVSURSRUWLRQWRFRQFHUQVDERXWWKHPLVXVHRIRUDOGDWDLQ
WKHTXHVWIRUVHULDOFKURQRORJ\,QERWKFDVHVWKHVROXWLRQLVWKHRQHZLWK
ZKLFK9DQVLQDGLVPLVVHGWKH RSHUDWLF DQDORJ\ WKHXVH RIPXOWLSOH FRQ
YHUJLQJ LQGHSHQGHQW VRXUFHV:LWKUHJDUG WR FKURQRORJ\ IURPLQWHUQDO
DQDO\VLVIRUPDORUDOWUDGLWLRQVPD\\LHOGDVHTXHQFHGEXWQRWQHFHVVDULO\
FORVHO\ GDWHG KLVWRU\ )RU JUHDWHU SUHFLVLRQ RQH PXVW VHHN FRUUHODWLRQ
ZLWK H[WHUQDO VRXUFHV $UFKDHRORJLFDO HYLGHQFH HFOLSVHV RI WKH VXQ RU
PRRQRUPDMRUQDWXUDOGLVDVWHUVDUHFRPPRQSRLQWVRIUHIHUHQFH 0\WKV
RIJHQHVLV G\QDVWLF KLVWRULHV IDPLO\ KLVWRULHV RIRUGLQDU\ SHRSOH SUR
YHUEVSUDLVHSRHWU\HSLFVDQGQDUUDWLYHVPD\JLYHXVVRPHDFFHVVWRWKH
LQVLGH RID FXOWXUH DQG WLPH :KHQ NH\HG WR H[WHUQDO VRXUFHV ZH PD\
GHIHQG RXUVHOYHV DJDLQVW LQYHQWHG WUDGLWLRQ JLYH VRPH VHULDO WLPH GDWHV
DQGLQWKLVIDVKLRQUHFRQVWUXFWWKLVVRUW RISDVW
2QHVRUWRIQDUUDWLYHUHPDLQVWREHFRQVLGHUHG,WLVGHOLEHUDWHO\SODFHG
LQDVHSDUDWHFDWHJRU\EHFDXVHLWLVDERXWWKHVLQJOHLQGLYLGXDODQGKLVRU
KHUH[SHULHQFHV 6XFKSHUVRQDOUHPLQLVFHQFHLVWKHSULQFLSDOGDWDXVHGE\
KLVWRULDQV VWXG\LQJ VRFLHWLHV GRPLQDWHG E\ WKH ZULWWHQ ZRUG ,WV UHDFK
H[WHQGVIURPWKHWKUHVKROGRIELRORJLFDOSRVVLELOLW\ DERXWHLJKW\\HDUV
RQZDUGV
:KLOHLWLV WKHSULPDU\VRUW RIRUDO GDWD UHPLQLVFHQFHLV QRWWKHRQO\
W\SH LQ OLWHUDWH VRFLHWLHV )RUPDO WUDGLWLRQ LQ WKH VHQVHMXVW GLVFXVVHG
SHUVLVWV7KHFODVVLFH[DPSOHRIWKLVLVLQWKHZRUNRI,RQDDQG3HWHU2SLH
,Q The Lore and Language o f Schoolchildren WKH\ HVWDEOLVK WKDW D SOD\
JURXQG ULGGOH FDQ SDVV LQWDFW WKURXJK ORQJ FKDLQV RI WUDQVPLVVLRQ
%HFDXVH WKH JHQHUDWLRQ RI VFKRROFKLOGUHQ LV VKRUWHU WKDQ WKDW RI /R]L
VSHDNHUVRIWKHUR\DOSURYHUEVJLYHQHDUOLHUDMLQJOHZKLFKLVWUDQVPLWWHG
DFURVV \HDUVZLOOSDVVWKURXJKWZHQW\JHQHUDWLRQV RIVFKRROFKLOGUHQ
VD\ WHOOHUV HTXLYDOHQWWRPRUHWKDQ \HDUV DPRQJ DGXOWV7KLV
FDOFXODWLRQ PDNHV IRUFHIXOO\ WKH SRLQW WKDW FRQWLQXLW\ VXVWDLQHG E\ WKH
HQHUJ\RIVXFKFHDVHOHVVUHQHZDOUHTXLUHVPRUHH[SODQDWLRQWKDQFKDQJH
2I FKDQWV UHFRUGHG LQ LQ 1RUPDQ 'RXJODV¶V London Street
Games, WKH 2SLHV IRXQG LQ XVH LQ WKH V ,Q RQH FDVH D UK\PH
DERXWDJUHQDGLHUWKH2SLHVKDYHYHUVLRQVZKLFKFDUU\WKHVWDEOHFDUGLQDO
HOHPHQWVEDFNWR &RQYHUVHO\SHUVRQDOUHPLQLVFHQFHLVQRWDEVHQWLQ
QRQOLWHUDWH VRFLHW\ EXW LW LV LWV UROH LQ OLWHUDWH VRFLHW\ ZKLFK LV RI WKH
Gwyn Prins
JUHDWHVWFRQFHUQDQGLQWHUHVW,VSHUVRQDOUHPLQLVFHQFHMXVWVHQLOHGURROLQJ
DERXWWKHJRRGROGGD\V"<HVDQGQR
0XFKRIWKHFULWLFLVPE\GRFXPHQWGULYHQKLVWRULDQVLVDORQJWKHOLQHV
WKDW UHPLQLVFHQFH E\ WKH IDPRXV LV WRR HDVLO\ RSHQ WR FRQYHQLHQW VHOI
YLQGLFDWLRQex post factoDQGE\WKHXQLPSRUWDQWWRODSVHRIPHPRU\,Q
HLWKHUFDVHPHPRU\LVQRWRULRXVO\XQUHOLDEOHDQGDQXQWUXVWZRUWK\YDXOW
FRPSDUHG WR WKH LQDQLPDWH DQG XQFKDQJLQJ UHFRUGV RIGRFXPHQWV RYHU
WKRVH LQWHUYHQLQJ \HDUV 7KH ILUVW SRLQW DV VKHOYHV RISROLWLFDO DXWRELR
JUDSK\ PD\ DWWHVW LV ZHOO WDNHQ WKH VHFRQG QRW VR IRU GRFXPHQWDU\
VRXUFHV DUH QRW DV XQLQWHQWLRQDOO\ XQVHOIFRQVFLRXVO\ EHTXHDWKHG WR XV
DVRQHPLJKWWKLQN
7KH GD\V ZKHQ WKH ILIWK (DUO RI 5RVHEHU\ FRQILGHG KLV LQQHUPRVW
WKRXJKWV WR KLVMRXUQDO ZKHQ JRYHUQPHQW PHDQW WKH WKLQNLQJ DQG WKH
KDQGZULWWHQPHPRUDQGDRIDGLVFUHWH DQGLGHQWLILDEOHJURXSDQGZKHQ
KLVWRULDQVPLJKWZLWKVRPHUHDVRQDEOHFRQILGHQFHKRSHWRILQGDQGUHDG
DOO VXFK GRFXPHQWV DQG EHOLHYH WKDW WKH\ FRXOG EHOLHYH WKHP HQGHG D
FHQWXU\DJR6LQFHWKHQWKHYROXPHRIRIILFLDOSDSHUKDVFDVFDGHGEH\RQG
FRQWURO 7KHUHKDVWREHVHOHFWLRQIRUSUHVHUYDWLRQ VRWKH µZHHGHUV¶ KDYH
DOVR EHHQ V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ DW ZRUN DQG WKHUHIRUH ZKDW RIILFLDO DUFKLYHV
FRQWDLQPD\HLWKHUE\FRQVFLRXVXVXDOO\PLVFKLHYRXVLQWHQWRUE\YLUWXH
RI ZURQJ FKRLFHV LQ ZKDW WR SUHVHUYH DQG ZKDW WR EXUQ EH TXLWH DV
PLVOHDGLQJ DV RWKHU VRXUFHV $ ORQJUXQQLQJ REMHFWOHVVRQ LV SURYLGHG
E\ WKH FRQWUDVWEHWZHHQ WKH DUELWUDU\DQG LQFUHDVLQJO\ VHFUHWLYH GHSRVL
WLRQSROLF\RI%ULWLVKJRYHUQPHQWGHSDUWPHQWVDQGWKHDFFHVVDIIRUGHGWR
%ULWLVK PDWWHUV WKURXJK $PHULFDQ DUFKLYHV XQGHU WKH )UHHGRP RI
,QIRUPDWLRQ$FW$WWKHWLPHRIWKH)DONODQGV:DULQ IRUH[DPSOH
SDSHUV UHODWLQJ WR HDUOLHU GLVFXVVLRQV RI WKH LVODQGV DQG HVSHFLDOO\ D
)RUHLJQ 2IILFHRSLQLRQIURPWKH V ZKLFKFDVWGRXEWRQWKHVROLGLW\
RIWKH%ULWLVKOHJDOFODLPWR VRYHUHLJQW\ZHUHVXGGHQO\ZLWKGUDZQIURP
SXEOLF DFFHVV DOWKRXJK QRW EHIRUH DYLJLODQW DQG DV LWWXUQHG RXW FRU
UHFWO\PLVWUXVWIXO KLVWRULDQ KDG EHHQ DEOH WR PDNH D SHQFLO FRS\ RIWKH
RSLQLRQ ZKLFK ZDV VXEVHTXHQWO\ UHOHDVHG WR WKH 3UHVV PXFK WR 0UV
7KDWFKHU¶VDQJHU
7KHWULDORI2OLYHU1RUWK3UHVLGHQW5HDJDQ¶VDLGHDQGPDQDJHURIWKH
PXUN\,UDQ1LFDUDJXDQ&RQWUDDIIDLUSURYLGHGDOXULGLOOXVWUDWLRQRIWKH
FROODSVHRIWUDGLWLRQDOKLVWRULDQV¶ZRUNLQJDVVXPSWLRQVDERXWGRFXPHQWV
$ IDVFLQDWHG FRXUWURRP KHDUG RI ODWHQLJKW VKUHGGLQJ VHVVLRQV RI 0U
1RUWK¶V JODPRURXV VHFUHWDU\ WKH LPSUREDEO\QDPHG )DZQ +DOO VPXJ
JOLQJLQFULPLQDWLQJGRFXPHQWVRXW RIWKH3HQWDJRQLQKHUERRWVDQGKHU
XQGHUFORWKLQJDQGRI1RUWK¶VDWWHPSWWRDYRLGOHDYLQJDQ\GRFXPHQWWUDLO
E\XVLQJFRPSXWHUQHWZRUNVWRVHQGKLVPHVVDJHV8QIRUWXQDWHO\IRUKLP
LW SURYHG WR EH SRVVLEOH WR UHWULHYH HUDVHG PHVVDJHV IURPWKHFRPSXWHU
EDQNV %XWWKHSRLQWLVVLPSO\RIWKHVKLIWEDFNWRWKHRUDOYLDHOHFWURQLF
Oral History
PRGHV RI UHFROOHFWLRQ 7KH EHVWNQRZQ H[DPSOHV RI WKLV DUH PXVLFDO
5DOSK 9DXJKDQ :LOOLDPV 3HUF\ *UDLQJHU DQG %HQMDPLQ %ULWWHQ ZHUH
DPRQJ PDQ\ FRPSRVHUV HDUO\ LQ WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ ZKR FROOHFWHG
DQGRUXVHGIRONVRQJVLQWKHLURZQZRUNZKLFKWUDQVODWHGDQGSHUSHWX
DWHGWKHRULJLQDOVRQJVMXVWDWWKHPRPHQWRIWKHLUH[WLQFWLRQLQWKHZLOG
)XUWKHU VRPH RIWKH PRVW FHOHEUDWHG PRGHUQ FROOHFWRUV VXFK DV (ZDQ
0F&ROOZKRKDVVDYHGDQGUHLQYLJRUDWHGDODUJHQXPEHURI6FRWWLVKDQG
1RUWKHUQ (QJOLVK ZRUNLQJ SHRSOH¶V ZRUN VRQJV DQG EDOODGV ZHUH DOVR
JHQUHFRPSRVHUVDQGWKHLUQHZDQGFROOHFWHGVRQJVDUHQRWGLVWLQJXLVKHG
E\OLVWHQHUVDQGRWKHUSHUIRUPHUV7KXVZKDWLVQRZKHDUGVXQJLQDEDULQ
.HUU\ RU LQ *DOORZD\ KDV DOPRVW FHUWDLQO\ JRQH WKURXJK WKH F\FOH RI
KHUPHQHXWLF UHLQVHUWLRQ %XW WKHVH SUREOHPV FDQ ZLWK IRUHWKRXJKW EH
DQWLFLSDWHGDQGDFFRPPRGDWHGLQWKHFULWLFDOWHFKQLTXHDQGWKLVPD\EH
EHFRPLQJUHODWLYHO\HDVLHUWKDQLVWKHFDVHZLWKGRFXPHQWDU\VRXUFHV DV
WKH 5DQNHDQ VWUHDP EHFRPHV SROOXWHG E\ LQYHQWLRQ RI WUDGLWLRQ HYHQ
EHIRUH LW VSULQJV IURPWKH JURXQG ,Q WKHFDVH RIJHQHUDOUHFROOHFWLRQRI
WKHLQIRUPDQW¶VOLIHVWUXFWXUHGE\ZKDWKHWKLQNVWREHLPSRUWDQWZHPD\
KDYHZKDWLVDUJXDEO\WKHSXUHVWVRUWRIUHFRUG
7KHELRFKHPLVWU\RIPHPRU\LV VWLOORQO\SRRUO\XQGHUVWRRG %XWWHVWV
RQ GLIIHUHQW W\SHV RI PHPRU\ WHQG WR DJUHH WKDW ORQJWHUP PHPRU\
HVSHFLDOO\LQLQGLYLGXDOVZKRKDYHHQWHUHGWKDWSKDVHZKLFKSV\FKRORJLVWV
FDOOµOLIHUHYLHZ¶ FDQEHUHPDUNDEO\SUHFLVH 3HRSOH DFTXLUHDQ µLQIRUPD
WLRQ SRRO¶ ILOOHG E\ SHUVRQDO UHODWLRQVKLS ,W LV FLUFXPVFULEHG E\ WKHLU
VRFLDO FRQWH[W REYLRXVO\ IRUPV SHUVRQDO LGHQWLW\ DQG KDV UHPDUNDEOH
VWDELOLW\7KLVREVHUYHV'DYLG/RZHQWKDOLVHVSHFLDOO\WUXHRIWKHLQWHQVH
LQYROXQWDU\UHFROOHFWLRQVIURPFKLOGKRRG ZKHQ RQHVHHVDQGUHPHPEHUV
ZKDWLVWKHUHQRWDVGRDGXOWVZKDWLVH[SHFWHG/LIHUHYLHZLVWKHHQG
SURGXFWRIDOLIHWLPHRIUHPLQLVFHQFH$VWDEOHOLIHUHYLHZQDUUDWLYHLQWKH
LQIRUPDWLRQSRROLVWKH EHJLQQLQJ RIORQJWHUP RUDOWUDGLWLRQ 7KHIUDJ
PHQWJLYHQHDUOLHUDERXWP\JUDQGIDWKHU¶VWLPHDWWKH&RUQLVKELJKRXVHLV
RQHVXFKFRQVWLWXHQWFU\VWDORIWUDGLWLRQ
,WKDVEHHQWKHXVHRIMXVWVXFKUHFROOHFWLRQZKLFKKDVEHHQWKHELJJHVW
FRQWULEXWLRQ PDGH VR IDU E\ KLVWRULDQV OLNH 3DXO 7KRPSVRQ 7KH\ DUH
VRFLDO KLVWRULDQV DQG WKH\ XVH RUDO GDWD WR JLYH YRLFH WR WKRVH ZKR DUH
YRLFHOHVVLQWKHGRFXPHQWDU\UHFRUG$OWKRXJKQRWLQKHUHQWO\DUDGLFDOL]
LQJLQVWUXPHQW RUDO GDWDLQFRQWHPSRUDU\VRFLHW\ KDYHEHHQH[WHQVLYHO\
XVHGE\KLVWRULDQVZLWK UDGLFDOLQWHQW IRU DV7KRPSVRQVD\VLQWKH ILUVW
OLQHV RI The Voice o f the Past, µ$OO KLVWRU\ XOWLPDWHO\ GHSHQGV XSRQ LWV
VRFLDOSXUSRVH¶ DQGRUDOKLVWRU\EHVWUHFRQVWUXFWVWKHPLQXWHSDUWLFXODUV
RIWKHOLYHV RIRUGLQDU\SHRSOHIRUWKRVHZKRZLVKWRGRWKLV ,WLVLQWKH
WUDGLWLRQRI0D\KHZZKRUHFRUGHGWKHOLYHVRIWKH /RQGRQSRRULQ WKH
V RI&KDUOHV %RRWK ZKR VWXGLHG WKH OLIH DQG ODERXU RISHRSOH LQ
/RQGRQ EHWZHHQ DQG DQG RI6HHERKP 5RZQWUHH¶V VWXG\ RI
Oral History
SRYHUW\ LQ <RUN LQ 6XFK D SXUSRVH KDV EHHQ SURPLQHQW LQ WKH
SUDFWLFHRIRUDOKLVWRU\IURPUHPLQLVFHQFHLQPRGHUQ,WDOLDQKLVWRU\
:KDW SHUVRQDO UHPLQLVFHQFH FDQ EULQJ LV DIUHVKQHVV DQG D ZHDOWK RI
GHWDLO ZKLFK LVQRWRWKHUZLVH WR EH IRXQG ,WPDNHVSRVVLEOH VPDOOVFDOH
JURXS KLVWRULHV OLNH %LOO :LOOLDPV¶V ZRUN RQ 0DQFKHVWHU -HZU\ DQG
JHRJUDSKLFDOO\ VPDOOVFDOH ZRUN ORFDO KLVWRULHV RIYLOODJHV RU RID IHZ
VWUHHWV ,W JLYHV KLVWRULDQV WKH PHDQV WR ZULWH ZKDW WKH DQWKURSRORJLVW
&OLIIRUG *HHUW] KDV FDOOHG µWKLFN GHVFULSWLRQ¶ ULFKO\ WH[WXUHG DFFRXQWV
ZKLFKKDYH WKH GHSWK DQG WKH FRQWRXUV WRSHUPLW VXEVWDQWLDO DQWKURSR
ORJLFDODQDO\VLV
%XW LGHRORJLFDO V\PSDWK\ RU SRWHQWLDO IRU VWUXFWXUDO DQDO\VLV DSDUW
HYHQ LIRUDOKLVWRU\E\UHPLQLVFHQFH LVPRVW SRZHUIXO IRU VRFLDOKLVWRU\
VFHSWLFVVWLOOKDYHDTXHVWLRQZKLFK,PHQWLRQHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKLV
FKDSWHU ,WPD\EHKHOSIXOLWPD\EHLOOXVWUDWLYHLWPD\HYHQEHKLVWRULF
DOO\ OLEHUDWLQJ EXW LV LW IRUPDWLYH RIH[SODQDWLRQ" 2UDO WHVWLPRQ\ PD\
SHUPLWGHHSO\PRYLQJGHVFULSWLYHHYRFDWLRQRIZKDWLWLVOLNHWREHDSRRU
0H[LFDQ WKURXJK 2VFDU /HZLV¶V PDVWHUSLHFH The Children o f Sanchez,
EXWLQWKHODVWDQDO\VLVVXUHO\LWLVWUDSSHGLQWKHVPDOOVFDOHDQGLWLVQRW
WKHUHWKDWWKHSURSXOVLYHIRUFHVRIKLVWRULDQV¶H[SODQDWRU\WKHRULHVDUHWR
EHIRXQG
$ JRRG WHVW RI WKLV DVVHUWLRQ LV WR ORRN DW 3DXO 7KRPSVRQ¶V RZQ
PRQRJUDSK The Edwardians?97KLV LV DQ DWWHPSWWR UHFUHDWH WKH IDEULF
DQGIHHORIOLIHLQWKH\HDUVLPPHGLDWHO\EHIRUHWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DU,WLVD
SHULRG VXIIXVHG ZLWK URV\ URPDQWLFLVP LQ SRSXODU PHPRU\ ZKHQ WKHUH
ZDVKRQH\VWLOOIRUWHDZKHQWKH*UDQWFKHVWHUFKXUFKFORFNVWLOOVWRRG DW
WHQWRWKUHHZKHQ*RGZDVLQKLV+HDYHQDQGDOOZDVULJKWZLWKDZRUOG
DERXWWREHEURNHQLQWRIUDJPHQWVE\ZDU%XW7KRPSVRQZLVKHVWRVD\
LWVLPSO\ZDVQ¶WOLNHWKDWIRUPRUHWKDQDYHU\IHZ
7KHFHQWUDOUHVRXUFHRIWKHERRNLVDVHULHVRIILYHYLJQHWWHVRIUHPHP
EHUHG(GZDUGLDQFKLOGKRRGVFKRVHQWREHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIHDFKOHYHORI
VRFLHW\IURPWKHYHU\ULFKWRWKHYHU\SRRU 7KH\ DUHFORVHO\ WLHGWR WKH
DUFKLYDO UHFRUG E\ WKH VDPSOLQJSURFHGXUH ZKLFKOHG WR WKH VHOHFWLRQ RI
WKHLQGLYLGXDOV7KH\DUHLPPHQVHO\YLYLGEXWWKH\GRQRWFDUU\WKHPDLQ
ZHLJKWRI7KRPSVRQ¶VYLHZRIWKHVH\HDUVZKLFKKHVHHVDVWKH(GZDUGLDQ
FULVLVRIWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHFODVVHVRYHUWKH,ULVKTXHVWLRQDQGWKHSURIRXQG
DQG ZLGHVSUHDG ODERXU XQUHVW RI WR %XW ZKLOH WKH YLJQHWWHV
SURYLGH VSOHQGLGLOOXVWUDWLRQ 7KRPSVRQ¶V DQDO\VLV RIWKH GLPHQVLRQV RI
LQHTXDOLW\ LQ WKH VRFLHW\ KLV YLHZ RIZKDW GURYH WKH FULVLV DQG DOO WKH
ODUJHUVFDOH GDWD XSRQ ZKLFK WKLV OHYHO RIWKH ERRN UHVWV FRPH IURP D
VHQVLWLYHXVHRIZULWWHQVRXUFHV
6R LQ WKLV VHQVH , DFFHSW WKH FULWLFV¶ YLHZ The Edwardians LV QRW D
YLQGLFDWLRQRIWKHPRUHH[DJJHUDWHGFODLPVPDGHIRURUDOKLVWRU\ZULWWHQ
IURPSHUVRQDO UHPLQLVFHQFH %XWWKHQ DVZHVDZZDVWKHFDVH ZLWK RUDO
Gwyn Prins
WUDGLWLRQWKHH[DJJHUDWHGFODLPVFROODSVH7KHVWUHQJWKRIRUDOKLVWRU\LV
WKH VWUHQJWK RIDQ\ PHWKRGRORJLFDOO\ FRPSHWHQW KLVWRU\ ,W FRPHV IURP
WKH UDQJH DQG WKH LQWHOOLJHQFH ZLWK ZKLFK PDQ\ W\SHV RI VRXUFH DUH
KDUQHVVHGWRSXOOWRJHWKHU 1RULVWKLVDQREOLJDWLRQZKLFKOLHVDV\PPH
WULFDOO\ XSRQ RUDO KLVWRULDQV DV SUDFWLWLRQHUV RI D OHVVHU DUW , KDYH
REVHUYHGDERYHWKDWWKHPRYHWRDSRVWOLWHUDWHQHZO\JOREDOO\HOHFWURQ
LFDOO\ RUDO DQG YLVXDO FXOWXUH GHIODWHV WKH SURIHVVLRQDO VHOIHVWHHP RI
WUDGLWLRQDO GRFXPHQWGULYHQ KLVWRULRJUDSK\ $OO KLVWRULDQV DUH HTXDO
EHIRUHWKLVFKDOOHQJH
3HUVRQDO UHPLQLVFHQFH SHUPLWV WKH KLVWRULDQ WR GR WZR WKLQJV )LUVW
UDWKHU REYLRXVO\ WR EH D IXOOUDQJH KLVWRULDQ RQH ZKR FDQ GUDZ RQ
DSSURSULDWH VRXUFH PDWHULDOV WR VWXG\ WKH ZKROH UDQJH RI VFDOHV DQG
SUREOHPVLQFRQWHPSRUDU\KLVWRU\1RKLVWRULDQRIPRGHUQKLJKSROLWLFV
VWHHSHGLQWKHSXEOLFUHFRUGVFDQH[SHFWWREHUHDGZLWKFRQILGHQFHLIRUDO
VRXUFHV DQG RQH PLJKW DGG SKRWRJUDSKLF DQG ILOP VRXUFHV KDYH QRW
EHHQHPSOR\HGDQ\PRUHWKDQDVRFLDOKLVWRULDQRIJ\SVLHVZRXOGH[SHFW
WREH$V9DQVLQDVWDWHGWKHRUDOGDWDVHUYHWRFKHFNRWKHUVRXUFHVDVWKH\
VHUYH WR FKHFN LW 7KH\ DOVR FDQ JLYH PLQXWH GHWDLO ZKLFK LV RWKHUZLVH
LQDFFHVVLEOHDQGPD\WKXVVWLPXODWHWKHKLVWRULDQWRUHDQDO\VHRWKHUGDWD
LQIUHVKZD\V 7KDWLVZKDWKDSSHQHGLQ3DXO7KRPSVRQ¶V GLVFXVVLRQ RI
FODVVLQThe Edwardians.7KDWLVZKDWKDSSHQHGZKHQ0U'RQDOG5HJDQ
3UHVLGHQW 5HDJDQ¶V :KLWH +RXVH &KLHI RI 6WDII SXEOLVKHG KLV VHOI
H[FXOSDWRU\ DFFRXQW RI KLV SHULRG RI RIILFH DQG KLV EDWWOHV ZLWK 0UV
1DQF\ 5HDJDQ ZKLFK UHYHDOHG DPRQJ RWKHU FRQFUHWH WKLQJV WKDW WKH
WLPLQJRIWKHVLJQDWXUHRIWKH,QWHUPHGLDWH1XFOHDU)RUFHV7UHDW\DWWKH
VXSHUSRZHU VXPPLW RI 'HFHPEHU ZDV DFWXDOO\ JRYHUQHG E\ 0UV
5HDJDQ¶V SHUVRQDO DVWURORJHU D IDFW QRW WR EH IRXQG LQ RIILFLDO SDSHUV
7KDW LV ZKDW LV KDSSHQLQJ LQ &KULVWRSKHU /HH¶V IRUWKFRPLQJ VWXG\ RI
%ULWLVKGHIHQFHSROLF\PDNLQJVLQFH
7KLV LV D VXEMHFW IRUZKLFK WKH RIILFLDO GRFXPHQWDU\ UHFRUGLV LQ DQ\
FDVHFORVHGXQGHUWKHIOH[LEOH%ULWLVKµWKLUW\VRPHWKLQJ¶UXOHZKHUHE\WKH
JRYHUQPHQW RIWKH GD\PD\LILW VR ZLVKHV SUHVFULEH DORQJHUSHULRG RI
FORVXUHIRUVHQVLWLYHJRYHUQPHQWSDSHUV RIZKLFKGHIHQFHPDWWHUVDUHWKH
VXSUHPHH[DPSOH WKDQWKHQRUPDOWKLUW\\HDUSHULRG0UV7KDWFKHUZDV
UHSRUWHGWREHRIWKHYLHZWKDWQRWKLQJUHODWLQJWRWKH,QWHOOLJHQFHDFWLY
LWLHVRI%ULWLVKDJHQWVLQWVDULVW5XVVLDVKRXOGEHSXEOLVKHGOHVWLWJLYHDLG
DQG FRPIRUW WR HQHPLHV 6KH DQG WKH DPHQGPHQWV WR WKH 2IILFLDO
6HFUHWV$FWGLGVRZLVK,Q/HH¶VFDVHKLVPDQ\\HDUVDVWKH%%&'HIHQFH
&RUUHVSRQGHQWSXWKLPLQDSRVLWLRQWRNQRZDQGWRJDLQWKHWUXVWRIKLV
VXEMHFWV7KHWUDQVFULSWVRIKLVLQWHUYLHZVZLWKDOOWKHFHQWUDODFWRUVLQWKH
SLHFHZLOOEHFRPHWKHPVHOYHVDYLWDOGRFXPHQWDU\VRXUFH+LVERRNZLOOEH
RQHWKDWQRXQLYHUVLW\EUHGKLVWRULDQFRXOGZULWH ,WZLOOJLYHDUDGLFDOO\
GLIIHUHQWFDVWWRRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIDYLWDOSHULRGRIFKDQJHLQ%ULWDLQ¶V
Oral History
GHVFHQWIURPSRZHU2UDOPDWHULDOVHQWHUZKDW3URIHVVRU+H[WHUFDOOVWKH
µVHFRQGUHFRUG¶PRUHLPPHGLDWHO\WKDQRWKHUVRUWVRIGDWD/HH¶VDELOLW\WR
WUDFNUHDGDQGLQWHUSUHWWKHµILUVWUHFRUG¶LVFUXFLDOO\SUHGLFDWHGXSRQKLV
SRVVHVVLRQ RIDKLJKO\VSHFLILFDQG XQXVXDO µVHFRQGUHFRUG¶7KLV GRHV
QRW PDNH KLP D QHZ VRUW RI KLVWRULDQ UDWKHU WKH RSSRVLWH 0DQ\
QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\KLVWRULDQVZHUHDPDWHXUVLQWKHVHQVHWKDWWKH\ZURWH
DQG OLYHG SULQFLSDOO\ RXWVLGH $FDGHPH ,Q ERWK SDVW DQG SUHVHQW ILHOG
ZRUNLVDQLQYDOXDEOHDGMXQFWWRERRNZRUN
6HFRQGO\ WKHUHLV WKHFRQYHUVH HIIHFW 3RVVHVVLRQ RID ULFKDQGYDULHG
µVHFRQG UHFRUG¶ IRU H[DPSOH WKURXJK SHUVRQDO H[SHULHQFH UDWKHU WKDQ
YLD DQLQWHUYLHZ FDQPDNHKLVWRULDQV RXW RIRUGLQDU\SHRSOH 5DLOZD\
KLVWRULDQV DUH H[FHOOHQW H[DPSOHV RIWKLV $GULDQ 9DXJKDQ ZRUNHG DV D
VLJQDOPDQRQ%UXQHL¶VJUHDWOLQHIURP/RQGRQWRWKH:HVW&RXQWU\ +H
OLYHGWKURXJKWKHSHULRGRIFRQWUDFWLRQDQGFORVXUHLQWKHVZDWFKHG
WKH VWUDQJXODWLRQ RIWKH ROG ZD\V RIZRUNLQJ DQG WKH VSXUQLQJ RIFUDIW
VNLOOVZDVVHYHUDOWLPHVPDGHUHGXQGDQWDQGWKHQGHFLGHGWR UHFRUGWKH
ZRUOGWKDWKHKDGORVW +LVILUVWZRUNV Signalman's MorningDQGSignal-
man’s Twilight, ZHUHFRPSRVLWLRQV RIUHPLQLVFHQFH %XW DV KLV VNLOODV D
KLVWRULDQ GHYHORSHG KH GHHSHQHGKLV DQDO\VLV DQG KDV QRZ EHFRPH WKH
DXWKRU RID UHPDUNDEOH QHZ ELRJUDSK\ RI%UXQHLKLPVHOI HQULFKHG DQG
LQIRUPHGE\9DXJKDQ¶VHGXFDWLRQRQKLVVXEMHFW¶VUDLOZD\OLQH
$QRWKHUDQGILQDOH[DPSOHDJDLQRULJLQDWLQJLQDQJHUDWWKHGHVWUXFWLRQ
RIVNLOOVLVIRXQGLQDQDVWRQLVKLQJERRNRQDUFKLWHFWXUHE\DPDVWHUMRLQHU
5RJHU&ROHPDQFRPHVIURPD1RUWK/RQGRQIDPLO\RIVNLOOHGDUWLVDQV+H
EHFDPHDPDVWHUMRLQHUEXWLQWKHSURFHVVREVHUYHGDQGVXIIHUHGIURPWKH
µGHVNLOOLQJ¶RIWKHEXLOGLQJWUDGHV+HZDVDQJHUHGDWERWKWKHDUURJDQFH
DQGWKHWHFKQLFDOLQFRPSHWHQFHRIDUFKLWHFWVZKRVHZRUNKHKDGWRH[HFXWH
DQGZKRQHYHUWKRXJKWWRDVNIRUKLVRSLQLRQ7KXVGHYHORSHGWKHVXOOHQ
EDWWOH DNLQ WR WKH FRORQLDOEDWWOHV RYHU LQYHQWHG WUDGLWLRQ LQZKLFK WKH
FUDIWVPDQSUHWHQGHGWRLJQRUDQFHDQGZLWKGUHZKLVFRRSHUDWLRQDQGWKH
VRIWKDQGHGERRNOHDUQHGDUFKLWHFWVGLFWDWHG
:DV LW DOZD\V OLNH WKLV" 7ULJJHUHG E\ KLV µVHFRQG UHFRUG¶ &ROHPDQ
EHJDQ DORQJLQYHVWLJDWLRQ RIDUWDQGZRUN ,QWKHSURFHVV OLNH:LOOLDP
0RUULV KH DFTXLUHG WKHFRQYHQWLRQDO VNLOOV RIDUW KLVWRU\ DQGFULWLFLVP
%XWLQKLV ILHU\ERRN The Art o f Work: An Epitaph to Skill,WKHVHPLQDO
SDVVDJHV FRXOG QRW KDYH EHHQ ZULWWHQ IURP ERRN OHDUQLQJ DORQH 2QH
UHPDUNDEOHSDVVDJHDVNVZK\:LOOLDPRI6HQVZDVWKHRQO\PDQLQMXUHG
LQ WKH DFFLGHQW GXULQJ WKH UHVWRUDWLRQ RI &DQWHUEXU\ &DWKHGUDO 7KH
DQVZHU WKDW KH ZDV QRW RQO\ WKH FKLHIFRQWUDFWRU EXW DOVR WKH PRVW
VNLOOHGDUWLVDQ VKRZVWKDWWKHGLYLVLRQRIODERXUZDVQRWWKHQDVLWLVQRZ
,WLVZRYHQLQWRDQDFFRXQWZKLFKSDVVHVWKURXJK&ROHPDQ¶VUHFRYHU\RI
WKH VXEPHUJHG FXOWXUH RIMRLQHUV ZULWWHQ RXW RIKLV NQRZOHGJH JDLQHG
RUDOO\DQGLQDSSUHQWLFHVKLSIURPROGPHQWRDQH[SRVLWLRQXQLTXHLQP\
Gwyn Prins
UHDGLQJRIKLVRZQVNLOOV +HGHVFULEHVWKHSUDFWLFDOSURFHGXUHVLQYROYHG
LQPDNLQJDQHZZLQGRZ7ROHDUQDERXWWKHPDUNLQJXSDQGXVHRIµURGV¶
OHQJWKVRIZRRGZLWKZKLFKWKHMRLQHUWUDQVIHUVWKHH[DFWGLPHQVLRQVRI
WKHKROHLQWKHEULFNZRUNWRWKHIUDPHRIWKHZLQGRZVRXQGVSHGHVWULDQ
LIXVHIXO %XW &ROHPDQ¶V DFFRXQW VXUSULVLQJO\ GRHV PRUH -RLQHUV¶ URGV
OLQN WRJHWKHU LQ RQH IUDWHUQLW\ :LOOLDP RI6HQV 9LOODUG GH +RQQHFRXUW
WKHFDWKHGUDOGHVLJQHUDQGEXLOGHUZKRVHPHGLHYDOZRUNERRNVDUHLQD
VHQVH GLUHFWSUHFXUVRUV RI&ROHPDQ¶V RZQ WKH DQRQ\PRXV HLJKWHHQWK
FHQWXU\ FDUSHQWHUV ZKR ZRUNHG IRU 9DQEUXJK DQG -RKQ :RRG WKH
<RXQJHU DQRQ\PRXV XQOHVV \RX NQRZ ZKHUH WR ORRN IRU WKHLU KLGGHQ
PDUNV &ROHPDQ¶VROGFUDIWVPHQWHDFKHUVDQGWKHQHZZLQGRZLQTXHV
WLRQ 7KH GHVFULSWLRQ RIPDNLQJKLV FRQWHPSRUDU\ ZLQGRZ VLWXDWHV KLV
WRULFDOO\DQGDQDO\WLFDOO\HDFKDVSHFWRIWDVNVZKLFKDUHXVXDOO\LQYLVLEOH
EHFDXVHWKH\DUHXQGHUYDOXHG
6RPH KLVWRULDQV WKLQN WKDW WKHLUMRE LV WR GHVFULEH DQG SHUKDSV WR
H[SODLQ ZK\WKLQJV KDSSHQHG LQ WKH SDVW 7KLV LV D QHFHVVDU\ EXW QRW D
VXIILFLHQWUHPLW 7KHUH DUHWZRRWKHUHVVHQWLDOFRPSRQHQWV RIWKHKLVWRU
LDQ¶VWUDGH&RQWLQXLW\PXVWEHH[SODLQHG+LVWRULFDOFRQWLQXLW\HVSHFLDOO\
LQRUDOFXOWXUHVUHTXLUHVPRUHDWWHQWLRQWKDQFKDQJH7UDGLWLRQLVDSURFHVV
LWRQO\OLYHVDVLWLVFRQWLQXDOO\UHSURGXFHG,WLVHIIHUYHVFHQWO\YLWDOLQLWV
DSSDUHQW VWLOOQHVV 6HFRQGO\ WKH KLVWRULDQ¶V WDVN LV WR JLYH WKH UHDGHU
FRQILGHQFHLQKLVRUKHUPHWKRGRORJLFDOFRPSHWHQFH7RVKRZDZDUHQHVV
RIWKHSLWIDOOVRILQYHQWHGWUDGLWLRQDQGKHQFHLQWKHH[SODQDWLRQVRIIHUHG
WKHKLVWRULDQPXVWDOVRUHYHDOZKDWLWZDVOLNHWRKDYHEHHQWKHUH DEDUGLQ
+RPHULF *UHHFH D YLOODJHU LQ $IULFD EHIRUH WKH ZKLWH PDQ FDPH DQ
H[KDXVWHG9LFWRULDQHQJLQHGULYHU DFKLHIRIVWDIILQ0U5HDJDQ¶V:KLWH
+RXVH RULIWKDWFDQQRWEHGRQHWRVD\VRDQGWRH[SODLQZK\
,W LV WR WKHVH YLWDO SDUWV RI WKH KLVWRULDQ¶V WDVN WKDW RUDO KLVWRU\
WUDGLWLRQDQGUHPLQLVFHQFHSDVWDQGSUHVHQW ZLWKLWVGHWDLOLWVKXPDQ
LW\IUHTXHQWO\LWVHPRWLRQDQGDOZD\VLWVZHOOGHYHORSHGVFHSWLFLVPDERXW
WKHHQWLUHKLVWRULRJUDSKLFXQGHUWDNLQJ LVEHVWDGGUHVVHG:LWKRXWDFFHVV
WRVXFKUHVRXUFHVKLVWRULDQVLQPRGHUQPDVVOLWHUDWHLQGXVWULDOVRFLHWLHV
WKDW LV PRVW SURIHVVLRQDO KLVWRULDQV ZLOO ODQJXLVK LQ D SRRO RIXQGHU
VWDQGLQJFLUFXPVFULEHGE\WKHLURZQFXOWXUHOLNHDEDQGRQHGORYHUVVWDQG
LQJLQWKHIOLFNHULQJFLUFOHRIOLJKWXQGHUDVLQJOHODPSSRVWLQDGDUNDQG
ZLQGVZHSWVWUHHW
2UDO+LVWRU\:KDW¶V1HZ"
/RRNLQJ EDFN RYHU WKH WHQ \HDUV VLQFH WKH ILUVW HGLWLRQ RI WKLV ERRN
DSSHDUHG ZKDW LVWKHUHQRZQHZWRVD\DERXWWKH VWXG\RIRUDO KLVWRU\"
Oral History
7KH DUJXPHQW RI WKLV VHTXHO LV WKDW ZKLOH QRWKLQJ QHHG GLVWXUE WKH
HVVHQWLDO SURSRVLWLRQV RI WKH RULJLQDO HVVD\ WKLV LV QRW D FRPSODFHQW
RSLQLRQ 7KH FRQWLQXLW\ LQ YDOLGLW\ RIWKH PDMRU WKHVHV LV RID SHFXOLDU
VRUW,WLVDQDFFHOHUDWHGLQWHQVLILHGVRUWRIFRQWLQXLW\ZKLFKOLHVRQWRSRI
KXJHKHDYLQJFKDQJHVLQWKHVHOILPDJHRIZHVWHUQVRFLHW\LQVRPHRIWKH
VXEMHFWV GLVFXVVHG DQG LQ WKH PRGHV RIPRGHUQ FRPPXQLFDWLRQ ,W LV
FRQWLQXLW\EHFDXVHRI QRWWKURXJKODFNRI FKDQJH
&RPELQHG WKHVHFKDQJHVSUHVHQWELJFKDOOHQJHVWR WKRVH ZKR VHHN WR
XQGHUVWDQG FRQWHPSRUDU\ KLVWRU\ DQG WKH\ PD\ ZHOO XSHQG RWKHU
ORQJHUHVWDEOLVKHG DSSURDFKHV WR KLVWRU\ ZULWLQJ ,QGHHG WKHUH LV VRPH
HYLGHQFHWRWKDWHIIHFW<HWWKHLULPSDFWXSRQWKHSUDFWLFHRIRUDOKLVWRU
LRJUDSK\ ZKLOHJUHDW LVQRWGHVWUXFWLYH 5DWKHUWKHUHYHUVH ,IDQ\WKLQJ
WKH ODVW GHFDGH KDV VHUYHG WR VWUHQJWKHQ WKH FODLP WKDW ZDV RULJLQDOO\
PDGH IRUURXWLQHLQFOXVLRQRIRUDOKLVWRU\¶VWHFKQLTXHVZLWKLQDQ\PRG
HUQ KLVWRULDQ¶V UHTXLUHG FDQRQ µ0HPRU\ PDNHV XV ZH PDNH PHPRU\¶
ZULWHV(OL]DEHWK7RQNLQ LQ DQHVVD\ZKLFKEHDXWLIXOO\IUDPHV WKHUREXVW
SRWHQWLDO RIRUDOKLVWRULFDOPHWKRGZLWKLQDJURZLQJ VSUHDGLQJVHQVH RI
WKHIUDJLOLW\RIWUDGLWLRQDOGRFXPHQWGULYHQKLVWRULFDOZULWLQJ
$OO HYHQWV KDYH LQVLGHV DQG RXWVLGHV &ROOLQJZRRG REVHUYHG WKH
WKRXJKWV ZKLFK GURYH WKHP DQG WKH WKLQJV GRQH 7R XQGHUVWDQG WKH
DQVZHU\RXQHHGWRUHFRQVWUXFWWKHTXHVWLRQWRZKLFKLWZDVWKHDQVZHU
7RQNLQVKRZVKRZZHQHHGWRUHPHPEHUDQGDFWRQWKDWHQHUJHWLFDOO\LI
ZHKRSHWREHEHOLHYHG ,QDJHQHUDOFULVLV RIPHWKRG WKHDVVXPSWLRQV
DQG WHFKQLTXHV RI RUDO KLVWRULRJUDSK\ FDQ VKHG WKHLU ODVW UHPQDQWV RI
KHUHV\ µ7KH PHWKRGRORJ\ RI RUDO KLVWRU\ LV QRW VLPSO\ LPSRUWDQW IRU
FKHFNLQJ WKH UHOLDELOLW\ RI ROG ODGLHV¶ DQG JHQWOHPHQ¶V UHPLQLVFHQFHV¶
QRWHV (ULF +REVEDZP LQ DQ HVVD\ ZKLFK PDNHV WKLV FDVH DV SDUW RID
ZLGHUVZHHSDFURVV WKHJHQHUDOFULVLV 7KHUH DUHQHLWKHU RUWKRGR[LHV QRU
KHUHVLHVQRZEXWLQVWHDGDPRUHYLYLGDZDUHQHVVRIWKHIDFWWKDWKLVWRU\LV
SURGXFHGIRUSXUSRVHVZKLFKPXVWEHPDGHH[SOLFLW MXVWDVRUDOKLVWRU
LRJUDSK\KDVDVVHUWHGVLQFHLWVFRPEDWLYHFDPSDLJQLQJ\RXWK
0LODQ.XQGHUD¶VBook o f Laughter and ForgettingRSHQVZLWKWKHVWRU\
RIDSKRWRJUDSK,WLVRIWKH&]HFKRVORYDNFRPPXQLVWOHDGHUVKLSLQYLFWRU\
LQRQDEDOFRQ\RYHUORRNLQJWKH2OG7RZQ6TXDUHLQ3UDJXH9ODGL
PLUGHPHQWLVZKRKDGVKHOWHUHGLQWKHZHVWGXULQJWKH1D]LRFFXSDWLRQ
VWDQGVEHVLGHDQGKDGSODFHGKLVIXUFDSRQWKHKHDGRIWKHOHDGHURIWKH
0XVFRYLWHIDFWLRQDQGQHZ&]HFKOHDGHU.OHPHQW*RWWZDOG7KHSLFWXUH
EHFDPHDSRVWHU<HWVHYHUDO\HDUVODWHUGHPHQWLVZDVSXUJHG+LVLPDJH
ZDVDLUEUXVKHGRXWRIWKHSLFWXUH DOOWKDWUHPDLQV RIKLPLVKLVFDS RQ
*RWWZDOG¶VKHDG.XQGHUDGUDZVWKHPRUDOµWKHVWUXJJOHRIPDQDJDLQVW
SRZHULVWKHVWUXJJOHRIPHPRU\DJDLQVWIRUJHWWLQJ¶
7KHSUHFRORQLDO$IULFDQLVW'DYLG:LOOLDP&RKHQRSHQVKLVTXLUN\EXW
EULOOLDQWO\ SURYRFDWLYH ERRN E\FLWLQJ.XQGHUD¶VRSHQLQJ +HGRHV
Gwyn Prins
VR LQ D ZD\ ZKLFK LV DOLJQHG ZLWK WKH SOHD IRU VHOIDZDUHQHVV LQ WKH
KLVWRULDQ WKDW ZDV PDGH LQ P\ RULJLQDO HVVD\ +LVWRU\ REVHUYHV
&RKHQ LV SURGXFHG IRU PDQ\ SXUSRVHV DQG DOO WKHVH OD\HUVDUH SDUW RI
WKHZKROHWKDWPXVWEHWROG+LVWRU\LVDERXWµWKHUHFRQVWUXFWLRQDQGDOVR
FRPSUHKHQVLRQ RIWKH ODPLQDWH SURFHVVHV DQG SURJUDPV RIREOLWHUDWLRQ
DQG UHFRYHU\ ZKLFK LQFOXGH .XQGHUD¶V DFW RI QDUUDWLRQ DQG P\ RZQ
DFWRIUHDGLQJ.XQGHUDDVZHOODVWKHDFWRIDLUEUXVKLQJ¶2UDOKLVWRU\
&RKHQ DJUHHV LV WZR WKLQJV DUJXHG KHUH µODPLQDWH¶ LQ KLV XVHIXO
FRLQDJH DQGLOOXVWUDWHGZLWK$IULFDQH[DPSOHVLQ WKH RULJLQDOHVVD\WKDW
DUH XSGDWHG EHORZ DQG IRUHQVLF LQ P\ HDUOLHU WHUP IRU DPRQJ WKH
FDVHV ZKLFK &RKHQ WKHQ H[SORUHV RQH RI WKH ILUVW UHSRUWHG LV ZLWK D
GHWHFWLYH¶V LQWHUHVW LQ WKHPHWDKLVWRU\ RIWKHPLFURKLVWRU\ RIDZRPDQ¶V
VLOHQFH
$V DFKLOG &DPHOOD7HROLZDVJULHYRXVO\ LQMXUHGLQDPLOODFFLGHQW LQ
/DZUHQFH0DVVDFKXVHWWV<HWVKHQHYHUWROGKHUGDXJKWHURUVRQKRZRU
ZK\&RKHQUHSRUWVRQDKLVWRULDQ¶VUHFRYHU\RIWKHVXSSUHVVHGKLVWRU\RI
D PLOOVWULNH7KHUHFRYHU\LVDODPLQDWH DQGDPXOWLVRXUFHFURVV
EHDULQJVMRE µ0\PRWKHUGLGQ¶WWDONDERXWKHUSDVWEHFDXVHVKHWKRXJKW
LWPLJKWJHWDOORIXVLQWURXEOH¶VDLGWKHVRQWR3DXO&RZDQWKHKLVWRULDQ
ZKRVHLQTXLULHVDZDNHQLQLQWKHVRFLDODZDUHQHVVRIWKHFRPPXQLW\
WKH ORVW PHPRU\ RIWKH VWULNH &RKHQ GHVFULEHV &RZDQ GHVFULELQJ
&DPHOOD7HROLWRKHUVRQ &RZDQ¶VUROHLVSDUWRIWKHKLVWRU\WRRLQMXVW
WKHZD\ WKDW, GHVFULEHG7HUHQFH 5DQJHU¶V UROHLQWKHSURGXFWLRQ RIWKH
KLVWRU\RI=LPEDEZH %RWK&RKHQ DQG,DJUHHWKDWPHWDKLVWRULRJUDSK\
DV&RKHQPLJKWFDOOLWLVDUHTXLUHGSDUWRIWKHRUDOKLVWRULDQ¶VUHFRUGWKH
XQFRYHULQJ DQG H[SODQDWLRQ RIIRUJHWWLQJ DQG UHPHPEHULQJ IRU SUHVHQW
SXUSRVHV 7KH ODVW WHQ \HDUV KDYH SURYLGHG PRUH H[DPSOHV RI PRUH
KLVWRULDQVGRLQJWKLV )RUJHWWLQJDQGUHPHPEHULQJDOZD\VKDVWZRVLGHV
&RZDQ¶V PLOOZRUNHU¶V VLOHQFH LOOXVWUDWHG VXSSUHVVLRQ RIPHPRU\ 5DQ
JHU¶V µXVDEOHKLVWRU\¶ SRLVHG XSRQWRRQDUURZDIRRWLQJ RIVRXUFH W\SHV
LOOXVWUDWHG WKHGDQJHU RILQYHQWLRQ ZKHWKHULQWHQWLRQDO IRUSXUSRVHV RI
SURSDJDQGDRULQDGYHUWHQW WKURXJKPHWKRGRORJLFDOGHILFLHQF\
7KHHYHQWVRIWKHODVWWHQ\HDUVKDYHSURMHFWHGWKHPHVVDJHERWKGDUNO\
DQG LQ OLJKWHUYHLQ LQ $IULFD DQG EH\RQG 7KH IDLOLQJEXW DXWKRULWDULDQ
UHJLPHRI5REHUW0XJDEHKDVSURYLGHGDFOLPDWHRIIHDUDQGFRQIRUPLVP
ZLWKLQZKLFKµXVDEOH¶YHUVLRQVRI=LPEDEZH¶VSDVWKDYHWKULYHGLQVXFKD
ZD\WKDWZHPD\QHYHUQRZEHDEOHWRVHHDURXQGWKHPFOHDUO\5DQJHU¶V
RQHOHJJHG GHGXFHG DFFRXQW RI WKH UHYROW VR EULOOLDQWO\
FRQWHVWHG LQ -XOLDQ &REELQJ¶V QHYHU UHIXWHG DUWLFOHV DV GHVFULEHG LQ WKH
RULJLQDOHVVD\LVWREHVSRWWHGHPEHGGHGDQGUHF\FOHGWKURXJKILHOGZRUN
RQWKHLQGHSHQGHQFHJXHUULOODZDU7KHVRXUFHVDUHSRLVRQHG,QGHHGLQD
IXUWKHU ERRN ZLWK UHVWULFWHG PHWKRGRORJLFDO UDQJH DQG QDUURZ VRXUFHV
5DQJHU PRYHV IRUZDUG LQ WLPH DQG DGYDQFHV D YLHZ RI UHYROXWLRQDU\
Oral History
XSRQ KLV KHDG ZKHQ WKH WURXSH VKRRN WKH WUHHV 7KH 6HSWHPEHU
FROORTXLXP RQ WKH Mfecane DIWHUPDWK FRQYHQHG DW WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI
:LWZDWHUVUDQG ZKHUH&REELQJPHWKLVFULWLFViQGWKH\ZHUHPDQ\DQG
KRWDQGLQJRRGYRLFHLVDIXUWKHUVSOHQGLGXQGHUVFRULQJH[DPSOHRIWKH
RULJLQDOHVVD\¶VSURSRVLWLRQ1RWKLQJOHVVWKDQWKHVKDSHRIWKHQHZ6RXWK
$IULFD¶V VHOILPDJH H[SUHVVHG LQ WKHPRVW SRWHQW RIDOO W\SHV RIKLVWRU\
ERRN D6WDQGDUG SULPDU\VFKRROWH[WERRN ZDVDWVWDNH
:KLOH VKDGRZVKDYHFRQWLQXHG WRJDWKHULQ VRXWKHUQ $IULFD LQ .XQ
GHUD¶V HUVWZKLOH KRPHODQG $EVXUGLVWDQ WR LWV LQKDELWDQWV ODXJKWHU DQG
UHPHPEHULQJFDPHZLWK WKH9HOYHW 5HYROXWLRQWRUHSODFHWKHKDUG VHOI
SUHVHUYLQJIRUJHWWLQJRIWKHODVW\HDUVRIFRPPXQLVP$OORIDVXGGHQWKH
SUREOHPVRIUHPHPEHULQJDIUHVKKDYHEHFRPHDVFHQWUDODQGXUJHQWLQWKH
KHDUW RI(XURSH DV WKH\ DUH LQ WKH KHDUW RI$IULFD 7KH VDPH VRUWV RI
SUREOHPKDYHDSSHDUHG 7KHQHZO\OLEHUDWHGKDYHKDGWRFRPHWRWHUPV
ZLWKGLVMXQFWXUHVEHWZHHQSHUVRQDOKLVWRULHVRIWKHVHWLPHVDQGWKHKHURLF
SXEOLF YHUVLRQ 1RW HYHU\RQH ZDV D FRXUDJHRXV GLVVLGHQW PHPEHU RI
&KDUWHU QRUHYHQ DIDQRIWKHSXQN URFNEDQG3ODVWLF3HRSOH RIWKH
8QLYHUVHZKRVHVRQJVZHUHIODPLQJDUURZVLQWRWKHURRIRIWKHFDVWOH%XW
PDQ\KDGWKURQJHGWKH VWUHHWVLQ1RYHPEHU DQRQ\PRXVPHPEHUV
RIWKHDQLPDWHGFURZGVWKDWHQJDJHGLQVORZEXWFRKHUHQWPDVVFRQYHUVD
WLRQZLWKWKHOHDGHUVKLS ILUVWLQ3UDJXH WKHQLQ RWKHUFLWLHV DVEDQGV RI
DFWRUV YHFWRUHG WKH PHVVDJH RXWZDUGV IURP WKH 0DJLF /DQWHUQ WKHDWUH
ZKHUH9DFODY+DYHODQGWKHLPSURPSWXOHDGHUVKLSRI&LYLF)RUXPVDW
7KH &]HFKRVORYDNLDQ HYHQWV FDPH WRZDUGV WKH PLGGOH VSDWH RI WKH
IORRG ZKLFKEXUVW RXW RIWKH JDWHV RIWKH /HQLQ 6KLS\DUG DW *GDQVN LQ
3RODQGLQVZHSWWKH&HDXVHVFXVWRWKHLUJUDYHVMXVWEHIRUHWKHHQGRI
(XURSH¶Vannus mirabilisRIDQGGURZQHG*RUEDFKHY¶VHDUQHVWKRSH
RI WKH UHIRUPDELOLW\ RI /HQLQ¶V VRFLDOLVP LQ WKH IDLOHG FRXS RI$XJXVW
:KHQVRPXFKRIZKDWPDWWHUHGZRXOGEHORVWLIQRWFDXJKWDWWKDW
YHU\PRPHQW LW FDOOHG IRU GHIW GHSOR\PHQW RIIRUPV RIKLVWRU\ ZULWLQJ
IDPLOLDUVRXWKRIWKH6DKDUDEXWUHODWLYHO\QRYHOLQFHQWUDO(XURSH
7KUHH W\SHV RIRUDOKLVWRULFDOZRUN EORVVRPHGLQWKHUXEEOH RI6RYLHW
FRPPXQLVP GXULQJ WKH ODVW GHFDGH )LUVW WKHUH KDV EHHQ SDUWLFLSDQW
REVHUYDWLRQ RIWKH UHYROXWLRQV DV WKH\ RFFXUUHG URRWHGLQH[SHUWNQRZ
OHGJH DQG UHDFKLQJ EH\RQG IOHHWLQJ MRXUQDOLVWLF LPSUHVVLRQV RI ZKLFK
7LPRWK\ *DUWRQ $VK¶V ZULWLQJ ZDV DPRQJ WKH PRVW PHPRUDEOH DQG
SHQHWUDWLQJ DW WKH WLPH 7KHQ WKHUH ZDV SDUWLFLSDQW REVHUYDWLRQ LQ
VORZHUWLPH $SHULRG RIXQREWUXVLYH UHVLGHQFHLQ5XVVLD DV WKH VSKHUHV
WXUQHG DQGKLVVXEVHTXHQWLQYROYHPHQWLQ3UDJXHFRQVWUXFWLQJWKH&HQ
WUDO (XURSHDQ 8QLYHUVLW\ XQWLO WKH PRPHQW RIKLV XQWLPHO\ GHDWK SHU
PLWWHG (UQHVW *HOOQHU ERWK WR JLYH YRLFH WR HPHUJHQW SRVWFRPPXQLVW
LGHQWLWLHVDQGWRRIIHUWKHZLVHVWUHIOHFWLRQXSRQWKHQDWXUHDQGVLJQLILF
DQFHRIµFLYLOVRFLHW\¶ ,WZDVJUHDWJRRGIRUWXQHIRUKLVUHDGHUVDQG IRU
Oral History
KLV HDVWHUQ (XURSHDQ VXEMHFWV WKDW WKH\ ZHUH VWXGLHG E\ WKH LQQRYDWLYH
ILHOGZRUNHUZKRZURWHRQHRIWKHGHILQLQJZRUNVRI1RUWK$IULFDQVRFLDO
DQWKURSRORJ\ Saints o f the Atlas, LQ KLV \RXWK DQG ZKR KDG UHFHQWO\
UHIOHFWHG XSRQ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS RISROLWLFV DQG DQWKURSRORJ\ 7KLUGO\
XQXVXDOO\VRPHRIWKHOHDGHUVRIWKHUHYROXWLRQVDOORZHGWKHPVHOYHVWREH
FDMROHG LQWR H[SUHVVLQJ WKHLU LPSUHVVLRQV RIZKDW WKH\ KDG EHHQ GRLQJ
VRRQ DIWHU WKH\ GLG LW DQG EHIRUH HYHQWV VZHSW WKHP RIIWR RWKHU SUH
RFFXSDWLRQV RIWHQRXWRISROLWLFVDJDLQ
7KHVHDUHULVN\XQGHUWDNLQJVDVWKHRULJLQDOHVVD\ZDUQHGDQG*DUWRQ
$VK¶VFDVHIRUµKLVWRU\RIWKHSUHVHQW¶KDVQRWEHHQHDVLO\DFFHSWHG%XWKLV
SODLQO\ SDVVLRQDWH UHSRUWDJH FDQ EH GHIHQGHG QRW LQ LWV RZQ WHUPV RI
DQDO\VLV RU IURP WKH EHDXW\ RI WKH SURVH EXW EHFDXVH OLNH .ULJHU LQ
=LPEDEZHZHPD\VHHDQGMXGJHKLVVNLOOVDQGVRXUFHV 7KHLPSRUWDQFH
RIWKLVDFFHVVLVPRVWHYLGHQWLQLWVDEVHQFHDQGWKHSDVWGHFDGHZDVTXLFN
WRIXUQLVKDQDVW\H[DPSOH
7KH IORRG UHDFKHG WKH %DONDQV DQG WKH PHWDPRUSKRVLV ZKLFK LW
EURXJKWZDVFRUURVLYH$IWHUWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQIRUHLJQPLQLVWHUVIDLOHG
WR KRQRXU WKHLU WKUHDW WR VWRS 0LORVHYLF E\ IRUFH IURP ERPEDUGLQJ
'XEURYQLN LQ 1RYHPEHU KH KDG WKHLU QXPEHU DQG IRUJHG RQ
:LWK EHZLOGHULQJ VSHHG WKH LQKDELWDQWV RIFRVPRSROLWDQ 6DUDMHYR ZHUH
SLWFKHGLQWRIRUFHGIUDWULFLGH7KHGHDWKRI<XJRVODYLDJUHDWO\SX]]OHGWKH
UHOXFWDQWO\ HQJDJHG RXWVLGH ZRUOG WRR DQG WKHUHIRUH WKH DWWUDFWLRQ RI
FOHDUFXW H[SODQDWLRQ ZDV DOO WKH JUHDWHU 7KHMRXUQDOLVW 5REHUW .DSODQ
YLVLWHG WKH UHJLRQ DQG FRQGXFWHG LQWHUYLHZV LQ DPDQQHU ZKLFK ORRNHG
VXSHUILFLDOO\OLNH*DUWRQ$VK¶VWHFKQLTXHRIµSUHVHQWKLVWRU\¶EXWZLWKRXW
WKH ODQJXDJHV RU IRXQGDWLRQ LQ ORFDO NQRZOHGJH +LV YLHZV ZHUH SXE
OLVKHG WRFRQVLGHUDEOH SXEOLFQRWLFH QRW OHDVW LQ WKH 2YDO 2IILFH RIWKH
:KLWH +RXVH LQ D ERRN ZKLFK JDYH ZKDW :LOOLDP +DJDQ KDV NLQGO\
GHVFULEHG DV DQ µHVVHQWLDOL]HG¶ YLHZ RI HWKQLF YLROHQFH LQ WKH UHJLRQ
Balkan GhostsWROGXVWKDWZHZHUHGHDOLQJZLWKWKHPRVWUHFHQWHUXSWLRQ
RIDQDQFLHQWYROFDQRRIKDWUHGDQGWKDWYLHZFHUWDLQO\LQIOXHQFHGZHVWHUQ
SROLF\ WRZDUGV WKH UHJLRQ DW D VHQVLWLYH PRPHQW MXVW DV LQ RXUHDUOLHU
H[DPSOH5DQJHU¶VZRUNKDGDQHIIHFWXSRQWKHWDFWLFVRIWKH5KRGHVLDQ
PLOLWDU\LQWKHEXVKZDU ,IWKHVHSHRSOHZHUHKRSHOHVVO\VXQNLQHWKQLF
KDWUHGZK\WU\WRLQWHUYHQH"
,Q IDFW DV *OHQQ\ GRFXPHQWHG DQG +DJDQ QRWHG WKHUH ZHUH TXLWH
KLVWRULFDOO\ VSHFLILF UHDVRQV ZK\ LQWHOOHFWXDOV LQ ODWH QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\
%DONDQ ODQGV DIWHU WKH 2WWRPDQ FROODSVH DGYDQFHG WKHPVHOYHV EHVW E\
IRVWHULQJZKDW+DJDQQDPHVDµQDWLRQDOLVWPRGHRISURGXFWLRQ JHWWLQJ
ULFKHU DQG DFFXPXODWLQJ VWDWXV E\ VHUYLQJ WKH EXUJHRQLQJ QDWLRQDO
VWDWH¶ )XUWKHUPRUH WKH WHQGHQF\ RI WKH YH[HG RXWVLGHUV WR ORRN
VHTXHQWLDOO\ DW DQG WKHQ IXPEOH ZLWK HDFK FULVLV DUHD DV LW EXUVW WKH
.UDMLQD WR WKH 'DOPDWLDQ FRDVW WR VRXWKHUQ %RVQLD WR 6DUDMHYR WR
Gwyn Prins
6UHEHQLFD WR .RVRYR WR 0RQWHQHJUR RU ZKHUHYHU QH[W FDXVHG WKHP WR
PLVVWKHSRLQWWKDWWKH%DONDQVDUHDFRQQHFWHGHQWLW\ZKHUHSUHVVLQJLQ
RQH SODFH SURGXFHV HIIHFWV HOVHZKHUHA 7R NQRZ WKLV PHDQV NQRZLQJ
VRPHWKLQJ TXLWH FRQYHQWLRQDO DQG ZULWWHQ DQG GHWDLOHG DERXWWKHKLV
WRU\RIWKH%DONDQV1RPHWKRGKDVDPRQRSRO\RQYLUWXH 9LYLGQDUUD
WLYHVEDQJLQJDURXQGZLWKRXWPRRULQJVFDQGRDORWRIGDPDJH,WPD\EH
PRUHIXQWRWHOOUHFRUGDQGUHDGVWRULHVWKDQWRGRRQH¶VKRPHZRUNEXW
WKH FRQVHTXHQFHV DUH GLUH 2QH PD\ EH FRQGHPQHG WR OHDUQ WKH RYHU
ORRNHGOHVVRQVDWVRPHRQHHOVH¶V SRVVLEO\IDWDO H[SHQVH
:LWKMDXQGLFHGH\HDQGDFLGSHQ*DUWRQ$VKGHVFULEHVWKHWUDIILFMDPV
RILQWHUQDWLRQDO DLG EXUHDXFUDWV LQ VKLQ\MHHSV FKHHN E\MRZO ZLWK WKH
XWWHUO\EHUHIWEHJJDUVRQWKHSDYHPHQW ULFKXQFRPSUHKHQGLQJDQGYHU\
EXV\WUDQVLHQWYLVLWRUVLQ3ULVWLQD 5HTXLUHGVWXG\IRUWKRVHZLVKLQJWR
KHOS LQ VXFK VLWXDWLRQV VKRXOG EH WKH PDQXDO RQ KRZ WR FROOHFW RUDO
WHVWLPRQ\ DV D IRXQGDWLRQ IRU SDUWLFLSDWRU\ GHYHORSPHQW SURGXFHG
MRLQWO\ E\ D OHDGLQJ DXWKRULW\ RQ GLVDVWHU UHOLHI DQG RQH RIWKH GULYLQJ
IRUFHVLQRUDOKLVWRULRJUDSK\ ,WKDVWKHQLFHO\DPELJXRXVWLWOHListening
for a Changed
+XJR6OLPDQG3DXO7KRPSVRQKDYHZULWWHQWKHLUVSLULWHGERRNLQWKH
IRXQGLQJ WUDGLWLRQ RI WKH RUDO KLVWRU\ PRYHPHQW WR JLYH YRLFH WR WKH
RWKHUZLVHYRLFHOHVV EXWDOVRDVDFRUUHFWLYHWR GRLQJWKHUHVHDUFKEDGO\
UDWKHU WKDQ QRW DW DOO 7KHLU SURMHFW ERWK LQVWUXFWV DQG ZDUQV µ7KHUH
DUHPDQ\ZD\V WR EHQHILWIURPWKHNQRZOHGJH WKDWEHORQJVWR WKHSRRU
WR PLQRULWLHV WR WKH SRZHUOHVV¶ WKH\ ZULWH µ7KH DQWKURSRORJ\ VWXGHQW
JDLQV D 3K' DQG DFDGHPLF DGYDQFHPHQW WKH GHYHORSPHQW FRQVXOWDQW
VLJQVDQRWKHUWD[IUHHFRQWUDFWWKHSKRWRMRXUQDOLVWFRS\ULJKWVWKHH[RWLF
KXPDQ LPDJH WKH HQYLURQPHQWDOLVW ZLQV D SULPHWLPH VRXQGELWH %XW
ZKDW RIWKRVH ZKR IUHHO\ VKDUH WKHLU YLHZV DQG H[SHULHQFH"¶ $ KHDOWK\
PLVWUXVWRIH[SHUWV[LVDQXQNQRZQTXDQWLW\DQGDVSXUWLVDGULSXQGHU
SUHVVXUH¶KDV EHHQ DFKDUWHU VHQWLPHQW VKDUHG E\ ILHOGZRUNHUVRIPDQ\
GLVFLSOLQHV DOZD\V ZRUWK UHLWHUDWLQJ EXW ZKDW LV QRWHZRUWK\ IRU WKH
SXUSRVHV RIWKLV HVVD\ LV WKH FRQYHUJHQFH EHWZHHQ WKDW ULJKWHRXV DQJHU
DQG VFHSWLFLVP DQG WKH JHQHUDO FULVLV RIKLVWRULRJUDSKLF PHWKRG LQ WKH
V
2UDO KLVWRU\¶V FRQFHUQV DQG QHHGV DV DUWLFXODWHG LQ WKH RULJLQDO HVVD\
KDYHEHFRPHLQWHJUDOO\ZRYHQLQWRWKHIDEULFRIKLVWRU\WHDFKLQJ:KHQ
XQGHUWKHVWLPXOXVRI-RKQ 6ODWHU RQHRIWKHJUHDWHVWDQGODVWRIWKH
+0,&KLHI,QVSHFWRUVRI+LVWRU\LQWKHDZNZDUGO\LQGHSHQGHQWWUDGLWLRQ
RI0DWWKHZ$UQROG WKHµ%OXH%RRN¶ZDVSXEOLVKHGLQLWERWKIHOW
DQGZDVVHHQWREHSDUWRIDEDWWOHEHWZHHQIDFWXDOQDUUDWLYHUHFLWDODQG
HPSDWKHWLFKLVWRULFDOLPDJLQDWLRQ7KDWSUHVXPHGFRQIURQWDWLRQKDVEHHQ
WUDQVFHQGHG %RWKQDUUDWLYHDQGHPSDWK\DUHHTXDOO\DWULVNLQWKHJHQ
HUDOFULVLV7KHSXEOLFDWLRQLQ RIWKH+0,ERRN¶VLQWHOOHFWXDOLIQRW
Oral History
LQVWLWXWLRQDOVXFFHVVRUE\RQHRIWRGD\¶VOHDGLQJVSHFLDOLVWVLQWKHSHGD
JRJ\RIKLVWRU\WHDFKLQJVKRZVKRZIDUWKHURXWLQL]DWLRQRIRUDOKLVWRU\¶V
DVVXPSWLRQVDQGPHWKRGVPD\EHVHHQWRKDYHSURFHHGHG
-DQ9DQVLQDPXFKFLWHGLQWKHRULJLQDOHVVD\LVGHVFULEHGRQWKHFRYHU
RIKLVDXWRELRJUDSK\DVWKH µFXOWXUHKHUR¶ RI$IULFDQKLVWRU\ &HQWUDOWR
KLVSUDFWLFHRIKLVWRULFDOUHVHDUFKLVUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHSRZHURIV\VWHPDWLF
GRXEWLWVHGJHVKDUSHQHGZKHQIROORZLQJWKHIUDJLOHRUDOSDWKZD\VRIWKH
UDLQIRUHVW,WVHWIRUWKµZKDW,EHOLHYHGWREHWKHIRXQGDWLRQVIRUUHDVRQLQJ
DQG UHVHDUFK LQ KLVWRU\ DQG SODFHG WKH ³XQXVXDO´ VRXUFHV RI$IULFDQ
KLVWRU\LQWKDWFRQWH[W¶ 5HIOHFWLQJXSRQKLVFDUHHU LWZDV WKHPHWKRGR
ORJLFDO LQQRYDWLRQ RIZKLFK KH ZDV PRVW SURXG $QG LW LV QRW LQ WKH
FRQWH[W RI$IULFD EXW LQ WKH PDLQVWUHDP RIKLVWRU\ WHDFKLQJLQ %ULWDLQ
WKDW LW LV FLWHG E\ &KULV +XVEDQGV IRU LWV DELOLW\ WR JLYH VWUHQJWK WR
H[SODQDWLRQ DQG XQGHUVWDQGLQJ XQGHU VWUHVV DQG DV WKH EHVW ZD\ WR
UHOHDVH Dschool-child’sKLVWRULFDO LPDJLQDWLRQ VDIHO\ &DQ RQH LPDJLQH D
KLJKHUFRPSOLPHQW"7KHFRPPRQWKHPHFLWHGIURP-RKQ6ODWHULVWKDW
µKLVWRULFDOWKLQNLQJLVSULPDULO\PLQGRSHQLQJQRWVRFLDOL]LQJ¶7KHYLHZ
VWDQGVLQKDUPRQ\ZLWK&ROOLQJZRRG¶VWKDWµZHGRFDOOWKHSDVWas such,
LQWR EHLQJ E\ UHFROOHFWLQJ DQG WKLQNLQJ KLVWRULFDOO\ EXW ZH GR WKLV E\
GLVHQWDQJOLQJ LW RXW RI WKH SUHVHQW LQ ZKLFK LW DFWXDOO\ H[LVWV¶ 2UDO
KLVWRU\¶V QHFHVVDU\ REVHVVLRQZLWKWUDQVSDUHQF\LQPHWKRGDQG HYLGHQFH
KDVEHFRPHFRPPRQFDXVHLQWKHJHQHUDOGHIHQFH
$PRQJ RUDO KLVWRULDQV WKH ODVW GHFDGH KDV VHHQ FRQWLQXLQJ LQGHHG
DFFHOHUDWHG SURGXFWLRQ RIPLFURKLVWRULHV ZKLFK VHHN WR VFDQ WKH VWDUV
IURP WKH JXWWHU +RZHYHU DV $OHVVDQGUR 3RUWHOOL DUJXHV FRQWLQXLQJ
WKHWKHPHRIWKLV VHTXHO WKHFDVHIRUWKLV W\SH RIVLQJOHOLIHH[SORUDWLRQ
LI GRQH LQ SURSHUO\ µODPLQDWH¶ IDVKLRQ LV ERWK PRUH VHOIFRQILGHQW
DQG VWUHQJWKHQHG ZLWKLQ WKH KLHUDUFK\ DPRQJ JHQUHV H[SHULHQFLQJ
RWKHUSUROLIHUDWLQJ GRXEWV,Q WKH GHFDGH RQH RIWKHPRVWIRUPLGDEOH
DPRQJVRFLDOKLVWRULDQVKDVXVHGWKHOLIHRIDVKDUHFURSSHU FRQVWUXFWHG
IURPDQH[KDXVWLYHDVVHPEODJHRIFURVVEHDULQJHYLGHQFHV WR LOOXPLQDWH
WKH WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ UXUDO 6RXWK $IULFDQ H[SHULHQFH LQ D PDQQHU DQG
ZLWK D ILGHOLW\ WR GLUHFW H[SHULHQFH WKDW KDV UDUHO\ SUHYLRXVO\ EHHQ
H[SHULHQFHG ,W LV LQWLPDWH QDUUDWLYH ZKLFK LQ (OL]DEHWK 7RQNLQ¶V
WHUPVSURYLGHVDIXOFUXPXSRQZKLFKWKHZKROHXQLYHUVHRIVRFLDOPHP
RU\FDQEHPRYHG
:KDW LV LWWKDWFDXVHV D VHHPLQJO\ VSRQWDQHRXVPLJUDWLRQDPRQJKLV
WRULDQV WRZDUGV WKLV VRUW RIKLVWRU\" 6XUHO\ D VHQVH WKDW WKH JURXQG LV
PRYLQJXQGHURXUIHHW"7KHRULJLQDOHVVD\IRXQG-DFN*RRG\¶VERUURZLQJ
IURP0DU[RIWKHQRWLRQRIDPRGHRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQFRPSRVHGRIERWK
PHDQVDQGUHODWLRQVKLSRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQWREHKHOSIXO7KHODVWGHFDGH
KDVVHHQUHYROXWLRQDU\FKDQJHVLQWKHPHDQVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQZKLFKKDV
LQ WXUQUDLVHG XQUHVROYHGTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHLPSDFWXSRQ UHODWLRQVKLSV
Gwyn Prins
RIFRPPXQLFDWLRQLQWKHQDUURZHUVHQVHDQGRISROLWLFDODVVRFLDWLRQDQG
DJHQF\LQWKHODUJHU 8QGRXEWHGO\WKHUHKDVEHHQZKDW-RKQ7KRPSVRQ
KDVFDOOHGDµWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIYLVLELOLW\¶DVDUHVXOWRIWKHQHZPHDQV%XW
WRZKDWSROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOHQG"7KHTXHVWLRQLVRIFDUGLQDOLPSRUWDQFH
IRUPRGHUQ KLVWRULDQV EHFDXVH LW PLJKW WKUHDWHQ WKH EDVLV RIFRPPRQ
SODFHGHGXFWLRQIURPHYLGHQFHWR H[SODQDWLRQ KHQFH , VXJJHVW WKHSUX
GHQW EXUURZLQJ LQWR GDWD RIWKH PLQXWH WH[WXUH DQG ULFKQHVV WKDW YDQ
2QVHOHQDVVHPEOHVDQGGLVSOD\V %XWWKHLVVXHKDVDZLGHUUHVRQDQFH
$OO JRYHUQPHQWV HVSHFLDOO\ RQHPLJKWOLNH WRIHHO GHPRFUDWLFRQHV
IRUEHQLJQ UHDVRQV QHHG WR IRUP D YLHZ RQ KRZ DWWLWXGHV PD\ VKDSH
SROLWLFV VR WKH JHQHUDO FULVLV DERXW WKH VWDWXV RIDQG KLHUDUFK\ ZLWKLQ
KLVWRULFDO VRXUFHV PDWWHUV LQFUHDVLQJO\ RXWVLGH WKH F R P P X Q LW\ RI DFD
GHPLFKLVWRULDQV7KHUHDVRQ ZK\LVHDVLO\LOOXVWUDWHG 7KHUHLV DFRP
PRQO\IRXQGDVVXPSWLRQ WKDWWKHSUROLIHUDWLRQ LQPHDQVRIERWKEURDG
DQG QDUURZFDVWLQJ RYHUULGH SUHYLRXV PHWKRGV RISROLWLFDO DFWLRQ DQG
IRUPV RI VRFLDELOLW\ ,I WUXH WKLV KDV SURIRXQG LPSRUWDQFH IRU KRZ
LQGLYLGXDOVFDQDQG GR FRQFHLYH RIWKHPVHOYHV DQG IRUP WKHLUQHWZRUNV
RIUHODWLRQVKLSV<HW-HQV5HLFK RQH RIWKHOHDGHUVRINeues Forum DW
WKH*HUPDQPRPHQWRIWKHUHYROXWLRQVIHOWWKDWWKHDFWXDOSDWWHUQ
RISROLWLFDO PRELOL]DWLRQ LQ WKH ''5 VLPSO\ GLGQ¶W VXSSRUW WKH PHGLD
GULYHQ WKHVLV RIUHYROXWLRQ (TXDOO\ WKH DUULYDO RIUDGLR 79 DQG WDSH
UHFRUGHUVDPRQJWKH$ZODG$OL:HVWHUQ'HVHUW%HGRXLQRI(J\SWGLGQ¶W
DSSHDU WR GHVWUR\ EXW UDWKHU WR UHLQIRUFH SUHH[LVWLQJ SDWWHUQV RIVRFL
DELOLW\ UDWKHUFRQILUPLQJ (UQHVW *HOOQHU¶VYLHZWKDW RIWKHJUHDW ZRUOG
UHOLJLRQV ,VODP ZDV EHVW FRQVWUXFWHG WR UHVLVW GHVWUXFWLRQ XQGHU WKH
LPSDFW RIKRPRJHQL]LQJ JOREDOL]LQJ IRUFHV +RZHYHU VLQFH WKHQ WKH
PHGLD UHYROXWLRQ KDV URDUHG IRUZDUG 7KH UROH RIWKH ID[ PDFKLQHZDV
DWWHVWHGLQHQDEOLQJWKHSURGHPRFUDF\VWXGHQWVRI7LHQDQPHQ6TXDUHWR
EUHDFKWKHEDPERRFXUWDLQ7KHLQWHUQHWZDVLQVWUXPHQWDOERWKLQDGYHU
WLVLQJ DQG LQ RUJDQL]LQJ WKH &KLDSDV UHYROWLQ 0H[LFR LQ-DQXDU\
DQGHYHQPRUH VR LQWKHDQWL:RUOG7UDGH2UJDQL]DWLRQGHPRQVWUDWLRQV
DW 6HDWWOH LQ %XW WKH HYLGHQFHLVQRWDOOSRLQWLQJRQHZD\ 3ODLQO\
FULPLQDOVFRQVSLUHLQF\EHUVSDFHZKLFKLVREYLRXVO\QHZEXWWKHZD\VLQ
ZKLFKWKH\RUJDQL]HWKHPVHOYHVVHHPWRIROORZZHOONQRZQPDILDPRGHOV
GHVSLWHUKHWRULFDERXWµOHDGHUOHVVUHVLVWDQFH¶6RWKHDQVZHULVWKDWZHGR
QRW DW SUHVHQW NQRZ ZLWK PXFK FRQILGHQFH KRZ WKH PRGH RI FRP
PXQLFDWLRQPD\LQIOXHQFHWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQDWWLWXGHDQGSROLWLFV
,WFHUWDLQO\GRHVQRWVFDOHV\PPHWULFDOO\
7KH RULJLQDO HVVD\ HQGHG ZLWK DFRXSOH RIZKLPVLFDO H[DPSOHV RIWKH
ZD\LQZKLFKWKHSUHVXPHGKLHUDUFK\RIVRXUFHVKDG EHHQ LQYHUWHG 7KH
SRLQWFDQ EHUHVWDWHGZLWK DYHQJHDQFHWHQ\HDUV RQ 1RWRQO\LVLWQRZ
DSSDUHQW WKDW ZULWWHQ RIILFLDO GRFXPHQWV VKRXOG EH SUHVXPHG WR EH
FRQFHLYHGIRUWKHUHFRUGEHIRUHDOOHOVHXQOHVVLWFDQEHVKRZQRWKHUZLVH
Oral History
1 2 7 ( 6
)RUWKHYLHZIURPDGLIIHUHQWURXWHZKLFKVWDUWVIURPWKLVVDPHSRLQWVHH+HQN
:HVVHOLQJ µ:KDWLV 2YHUVHDV +LVWRU\¶ HK RIWKLV YROXPH
3 7KRPSVRQ The Voice o f the Past: Oral History2[IRUG S
- 9DQVLQD Oral Tradition as History0DGLVRQ:LV S
' ) 0F.HQ]LH µ7KH6RFLRORJ\R ID7H[W 2UDO&XOWXUH /LWHUDF\DQG3ULQWLQ
(DUO\ 1HZ =HDODQG¶ LQ 3 %XUNH DQG 5 3RUWHU HGV The Social History o f
Language &DPEULGJH SS
,URQ ZDV DOVR LQGHSHQGHQWO\ WDPHG LQ 7KDLODQG DQG SUREDEO\ QHDU WKH *UHDW
/DNHVLQ&HQWUDO$IULFDWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKH1HDU(DVWHUQGLVFRYHU\OLHVLQLWV
FRPELQDWLRQZLWKKRUVHDQGJUDLQ
7KLVJULGLVERUURZHG IURP- 9DQVLQD µ2QFH XSRQD7LPH 2UDO7UDGLWLRQVDV
+LVWRU\LQ$IULFD¶ Daedalus, VSULQJ SS S
)RUIXUWKHUH[SRVLWLRQR IWKHYLVLEOHDQGWKHKLGGHQLQ/R]LKLVWRU\VHH*3ULQV
The Hidden Hippopotamus. Reappraisal in African History: The Early Colonial
Experience in Western Zambia &DPEULGJH
Oral History
)RU IXUWKHU GLVFXVVLRQ RIWKH VLJQLILFDQFH DQG XVHIXOQHVV RISURYHUEV VHH -
2EHONHYLFK µ3URYHUEV DQG 6RFLDO +LVWRU\¶ LQ %XUNH DQG 3RUWHU The Social
History o f Language,SS
'DYLG: &RKHQDQG( 6$WLHQR2GKLDPER Siyaya: The Historical Anthro-
pology o f an African Landscape /RQGRQ DQG D UHYLHZ LQ African
Affairs, 2FW SS
0 , )LQOH\ The World o f Odysseus+DUPRQGVZRUWK S
- *RRG\ The Domestication o f the Savage M ind&DPEULGJH S
- 9DQVLQD Paths in the Rain-forest0DGLVRQ:LV
( ( (YDQV3ULWFKDUG The Nuer 2[IRUG ( 3 7KRPSVRQ µ7LPH
:RUN 'LVFLSOLQH DQG ,QGXVWULDO &DSLWDOLVP¶ LQ 0 : )OLQQ DQG 7 &
6PRXW HGV Essays in Social History 2[IRUG SS 6HH DOVR
-DFTXHV /H *RII µ$X 0R\HQ$JH WHPSVGHO¶(JOLVH HW WHPSV GXPDUFKDQG¶
Annales, SS
' +HQLJH The Chronology o f Oral Tradition: Quest for a Chimera 2[IRUG
'&DQQDGLQHµ7KH&RQWH[W3HUIRUPDQFHDQG0HDQLQJR I5LWXDO7KH%ULWLVK
0RQDUFK\ DQGWKH ³,QYHQWLRQ RI7UDGLWLRQ´¶ LQ7 2 5DQJHUDQG ( +REV
EDZP HGV The Invention o f Tradition &DPEULGJH SS WKH
VDPHSRLQWLVPDGHE\:HVVHOLQJRQS DERYH
3ULPR/HYL The Drowned and the Saved/RQGRQ 0LFKDHO,JQDWLHIIµ$
&U\IRU+HOS RUR I5HOHDVH¶ Observer, $SULO RQWKHVXLFLGHRI%UXQR
%HWWHOKHLPRQ 0DUFK
*HRIIUH\ $ +RVNLQJ µ0HPRU\ LQ D 7RWDOLWDULDQ 6RFLHW\ 7KH &DVH RI WKH
6RYLHW 8QLRQ¶LQ7KRPDV%XWOHUHG Memory2[IRUG S
µ2QWKH3ROLWLFDODQG/HJDO$VVHVVPHQWR IWKH6RYLHW*HUPDQ1RQ$JJUHVVLRQ
7UHDW\ R I ¶ 5HSRUW WR WKH 6HFRQG &RQJUHVV R I 3HRSOH¶V 'HSXWLHV E\
&RPPLVVLRQ&KDLUPDQ $OH[DQGHU<DNRYOHY 'HF 0RVFRZ
History in the Primary and Secondary Years: An H M I View /RQGRQ
0DUWLQ .HWWOH µ7KH *UHDW %DWWOH RI +LVWRU\¶ Guardian $SULO S
UHYLHZLQJ WKH SROLWLFDO IXURUH RYHU WKH +LVWRU\ :RUNLQJ *URXS 5HSRUW
SXEOLVKHGDIWHUORQJGHOD\RQ $SULO
' & 'RUZDUG µ(WKQRJUDSK\ DQG $GPLQLVWUDWLRQ 7KH 6WXG\ R I $QJOR
7LY ³ZRUNLQJ PLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJ´ ¶ Journal o f African History,
SS
- &REELQJ µ7KH (YROXWLRQ R I WKH 1GHEHOH $PDEXWKR¶ Journal o f African
History, SS LG µ7KH$EVHQW3ULHVWKRRG $QRWKHU /RRN DW
WKH 5KRGHVLDQ 5LVLQJV R I¶ Journal o f African History, SS
LG µ7KH0IHFDQH DV $OLEL 7KRXJKWV RQ 'LWKDNRQJ DQG 0ERORPSR¶
Journal o f African History, SS 7 2 5DQJHU Revolt in
Rhodesia, 1896-7, SDSHUEDFNHGLWLRQ/RQGRQ
7 2 5DQJHU µ7RZDUGV D 8VDEOH $IULFDQ 3DVW¶ LQ & )\IH HG African
Studies since 1945: A Tribute to Basil Davidson/RQGRQ SS
, DQG 3 2SLH The Lore and Language o f Schoolchildren2[IRUG S
5 6NLGHOVN\ Politicians and the Slump: The Labour Government o f 1929-31,
/RQGRQ
' /RZHQWKDO The Past is a Foreign Country&DPEULGJH SS
Gwyn Prins
*/HYL/3DVVHULQLDQG/6FDUDIILQLµ9LWDTXRWLGLDQDLQXQTXDUWLHUHRSHUDLR
GL7RULQRIUDOHGXHJXHUUHO¶RSSRUWRGHOODVWRULDRUDOH¶SS/%HUJRQ
]LQLµ/HIRQWLRUDOHFRPHYHULILFDGHOODWHVWLPRQLDQ]HVFULWWHLQXQDULFHUFDVXOOD
DQWLIDVFLVPRHODUHVLVWHQ]DERORJQHVH¶SSERWKLQ%%HUQDUGL&3RQL
DQG$7ULXO]LHGVFonti Orale: Antropologia e Storia0LODQ
2VFDU /HZLV The Children o f Sanchez: Autobiography o f a Mexican Family
/RQGRQ
3 7KRPSVRQ The Edwardians: The Remaking o f British Society /RQGRQ
& 5 /HH Whitehall Warriors: Postwar Defence Policy Decision-making
IRUWKFRPLQJ
$ 9DXJKDQ Signalman’s Morning /RQGRQ DQG Signalman’s Twilight
/RQGRQ %RWK YROXPHV LQ D SDSHUEDFN RPQLEXV HGLWLRQ /RQGRQ
LGIsambard Kingdom Brunei/RQGRQ
5 &ROHPDQ The Art o f Work: An Epitaph to Skill/RQGRQ
( 7RQNLQ Narrating our Pasts: The Social Construction o f Oral History
&DPEULGJH SS 5 * &ROOLQJZRRG An Autobiography
2[IRUG SS
( +REVEDZP µ2Q +LVWRU\ IURP %HORZ¶ LQ On History /RQGRQ
S
' : &RKHQ The Combing o f History &KLFDJR S [LY
' /DQ Guns and Rain: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe 2[IRUG
725DQJHUPeasant Consciousness and Guerrilla War in Zimbabwe: A
Comparative Study%HUNHOH\
1 - .ULJHU Zimbabwe’s Guerrilla War: Peasant Voices &DPEULGJH
SS FK µ3HDVDQW5HYROXWLRQV 7KHRULHVDQG 0HWKRGV¶ SS DQG
µ$SSHQGL[)LHOG5HVHDUFK¶SS $QHDUOLHUH[DPSOHDQGSOHDIRUHYHU\
RQHWRJLYHVXFKDQDSSHQGL[LVµ$ERXWWKH)LHOG:RUN¶SS²LQP\RZQ
ERRN RQ ZHVWHUQ =DPELD VHH Q DERYH ,WLV UHDVVXULQJ WR ILQG PRUH LQ WKH
VDPH YHLQ +RZHYHU LQ WKLV UHVSHFW WKH PDMRU HYHQW RIWKH GHFDGH ZDV WKH
SXEOLFDWLRQ E\ WKH VLQJOH PRVWLQIOXHQWLDO $IULFDQLVW RIKLV JHQHUDWLRQ R IKLV
RZQµODPLQDWH¶DXWRELRJUDSK\ZKLFKLOOXPLQDWHVKLVRZQH[SHULHQFHR I$IULFD
R I$IULFDQKLVWRU\DQGR IWKH µ$IULFD¶R IWKH$FDGHP\ -9DQVLQD Living with
Africa 0DGLVRQ :LV 7KH µXVDEOH KLVWRU\¶ GRFWULQH ZKLFK 9DQVLQD
FDOOV µ5DQJHULVP¶ LVGLVFXVVHGDWSS
.ULJHUSS
6HHQ DERYH
- &REELQJ µ*UDVSLQJWKH1HWWOH 7KH6ODYH7UDGHDQGWKH (DUO\=XOX¶066
6HSW
- &REELQJ µ'HEDWLQJ SRVW-Mfecane KLVWRU\ $ 5HSO\ WR (OL]DEHWK (OGULGJH
DQG &DURO\Q +DPLOWRQ¶ 06 DQG µ2YHUWXUQLQJ WKH Mfecane: $ 5HSO\ WR
(OL]DEHWK(OGULGJH¶ 06SDSHUDWWKH V\PSRVLXP ,DPJUDWHIXOWR-XOLDQ
&REELQJ IRU VHYHUDO PHPRUDEOH GLVFXVVLRQV ZKLOH ZDONLQJ LQ WKH KLOOV QHDU
*UDKDPVWRZQLQ UHIOHFWLQJRQ WKHEDWWOHVRYHUWKHMfecane,
- 8UEDQ µ&]HFKRVORYDNLD 7KH 3RZHU DQG 3ROLWLFV R I +XPLOLDWLRQ¶ LQ *
3ULQV HG Spring in Winter: The 1989 Revolutions 0DQFKHVWHU HVS
SS
Oral History
,Q IDFW WKH WLJKWHQLQJ FRQWUROV RQ ILHOGZRUN LQ $IULFD KDG DOUHDG\ FDXVHG
VRFLDO DQWKURSRORJLVWV HVSHFLDOO\ WKRVH LQ WKH &DPEULGJH GHSDUWPHQW WR
UHRULHQWWKHLURZQDQGWKHQWKHLUVWXGHQWV¶H\HV WRZDUGVQRUWKHUQDQGHDVWHUQ
(XURSH 7KHUHIRUH ZKHQ (UQHVW *HOOQHU DUULYHG WR OHDG WKH GHSDUWPHQW LW
DOUHDG\ KDG IRUJHG D QHZ LGHQWLW\ WKURXJKWKH ILHOGZRUN RIVFKRODUV VXFK DV
5D\ $EUDKDPV D UHRULHQWHG $IULFDQLVW &KULV +DQQ DQG &DUROLQH +XP
SKUH\DQGWKHLUSXSLOVDQGSURMHFWV7KHUHLVDQLQWHUHVWLQJPHWDKLVWRULFDORUDO
KLVWRU\GRFWRUDOWRSLFWR EHXQGHUWDNHQ VWXG\LQJWKLVDQGLWVORFDOHIIHFWV RQ
WKH PRGHO R I$GDP .XSHU¶V Anthropologists and Anthropology: The British
School 1922-72+DUPRQGVZRUWK
7 *DUWRQ$VK We the People: The Revolutions o f 1989 Witnessed in Warsaw,
Budapest, Berlin and Prague, &DPEULGJH $QRWKHULQWHUHVWLQJH[DPSOH
R IWKHJHQUHDQGWKHPRPHQWLQ:(FKLNVRQLighting the Night: Revolution in
Eastern Europe /RQGRQ , KDYH DOZD\V DGPLUHG 1 $VFKHUVRQ The
Polish August: What has Happened in Poland+DUPRQGVZRUWK DV DQ
LPSHFFDEOHH[DPSOH RIKRZWKLVW\SHR IZRUN VKRXOGEHGRQH
( *HOOQHUEncounters with Nationalism2[IRUG Conditions o f Liberty:
Civil Society and its Rivals/RQGRQ
( *HOOQHU Saints o f the Atlas /RQGRQ HVS µ1RWHV RQ 0HWKRG¶ SS
VHH DOVR GLVFXVVLRQ LQ WKH RULJLQDO HVVD\ Anthropology and Politics:
Revolution in the Sacred Grove2[IRUG
7KHSpring in WinterHVVD\VPHQWLRQHGLQQ DERYH
7 *DUWRQ$VK History o f the Present: Essays, Sketches and Dispatches from
Europe in the 1990s/RQGRQ 7KH VDPH LV WUXHIRU0LFKDHO,JQDWLHII¶V
Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism /RQGRQ
ZKLFKVWDQGVLQ DVLPLODUWUDGLWLRQ
7KLV LV QRW DQ HVVD\ DERXW WKDW EXW LW ZRXOG EH SHUYHUVH WR OHDYH DQXQVXS
SRUWHGUHIHUHQFH )RUWKHFRQWH[WVHH0 *OHQQ\ The Fall o f Yugoslavia: The
Third Balkan War +DUPRQGVZRUWK UG HGQ / 6LOEHU DQG $
/LWWOH The Death o f Yugoslavia +DUPRQGVZRUWK/RQGRQ DQG *
3ULQV European Horizons o f Diplomatic/Military Operations /RQGRQ
SS
5 ' .DSODQ Balkan Ghosts: A Journey through History1HZ<RUN
:: +DJDQµ7KH%DONDQV¶/HWKDO1DWLRQDOLVPV¶Foreign Affairs,-XO\
$XJ S
+DJDQ µ%DONDQV¶1DWLRQDOLVPV¶ S
0 *OHQQ\ The Balkans: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, 1809-1999
/RQGRQ
7*DUWRQ$VK µ.RVRYR$QDUFK\DQG0DGQHVV¶New York Review o f Books,
)HE SS
+ 6OLPDQG37KRPSVRQListening for a Change: Oral Testimony and Devel-
opment/RQGRQ
6HHQ DERYH
& +XVEDQGV What is History Teaching? Language, Ideas and Meaning in
Learning about the Past %XFNLQJKDP
- 9DQVLQDµ7KH3RZHUR I6\VWHPDWLF'RXEWLQ+LVWRULFDO(QTXLU\¶History in
Africa SS Living with Africa, S
Gwyn Prins
+XVEDQGV What is History Teaching?, SS
- 6ODWHU µ7KH 3ROLWLFV R I +LVWRU\ 7HDFKLQJ $ +XPDQLW\ 'HKXPDQLVHG"¶
6SHFLDO3URIHVVLRQDO /HFWXUH /RQGRQ,QVWLWXWHR I(GXFDWLRQ FLWHGLELG
S YL 5 * &ROOLQJZRRG µ6RPH 3HUSOH[LWLHV DERXW 7LPH DQGDQ$WWHPSWHG
6ROXWLRQ¶ Proceedings o f the Aristotelian Society, Q V FLWHG
LELG S
$ 3RUWHOOL µ7KH %HVW *DUEDJH 0DQ LQ 7RZQ /LIH DQG 7LPHV R I 9DOWpUR
3HSSRORQL :RUNHU¶ LQ The Death o f Luigi Trastulli and Other Stories: Form
and Meaning in Oral History$OEDQ\ 1 < SS
& YDQ 2QVHOHQ The Seed is Mine: The Life o f Kas Maine, a South African
Sharecropper, 1894-19852[IRUG
- % 7KRPSVRQ The Media and Modernity&DPEULGJH SS
7RWKLVHQGEHJLQQLQJLQ DJHQFLHVR IWKH%ULWLVKJRYHUQPHQWOHGE\WKH
&HQWUHIRU'HIHQFH$QDO\VLVLQWKH 'HIHQFH(YDOXDWLRQDQG5HVHDUFK$JHQF\
R I WKH 0LQLVWU\ R I 'HIHQFH KDYH EHHQ GHYHORSLQJ DQG WHVWLQJ PHWKRGV IRU
ORQJUDQJH VWUDWHJLFDVVHVVPHQWVR IOLNHOLKRRGWKDWDUHJURXQGHGLQDQXQGHU
VWDQGLQJ R IWKLV KLVWRULDQV¶ GHEDWH * 3ULQV µ+RZ :LOO $WWLWXGH 6KDSH
3ROLWLFV"¶ 5HSRUW &'$+/6:3 '(5$ )DUQERURXJK 1RY
VLWXDWHVWKHFRQFHUQVR IWKLVHVVD\LQWKDWFRQWH[WHVSHFLDOO\$QQH[% µ%HOLHIV
$WWLWXGHVDQG9DOXHV¶7KHGHEDWHDERXWLQWHUSUHWLQJWKHPHGLDUHYROXWLRQDVLW
ZDVWKHQ VHHQLVDWSS
$ *LGGHQV Modernity and Self-identity: S elf and Society in the Late Modern
Age&DPEULGJH
- 5HLFK µ5HIOHFWLRQV RQ %HFRPLQJDQ(DVW*HUPDQ'LVVLGHQW RQ/RVLQJWKH
:DOO DQG D &RXQWU\¶ LQ 3ULQV Spring in Winter; / $EX/XJKRG µ%HGRXLQV
&DVVHWWHV DQG 7HFKQRORJLHV R I 3XEOLF &XOWXUH Middle East Report,
SS ( *HOOQHU Muslim Society&DPEULGJH
0-R\FH+DVKDPConspiracies on the Internet,5,,$IRUWKFRPLQJ'0DQQ
DQG 0 6XWWRQ µ1HWFULPH 0RUH &KDQJH LQ WKH 2UJDQLVDWLRQ RI7KLHYLQJ¶
British Journal o f Criminology, VSULQJ SS
$OLYHO\H[SORUDWLRQR IWKLVFDQEHIRXQGLQ-1DXJKWRQA Brief History o f the
Future: Origins o f the Internet/RQGRQ
& $QGUHZ DQG ' 'LONV HGV The Missing Dimension: Governments and
Intelligence Communities in the 20th Century8UEDQD )++LQVOH\
DQG $ 6WULSS Codebreakers: The Inside Story o f Bletchley Park 2[IRUG
1RWDEO\WZR DXWKRUV &KDSPDQ3LQFKHU DQG µ1LJHO:HVW¶ 3 :ULJKW ZLWK3
*UHHQJUDVV Spycatcher5LFKPRQG$XVWUDOLD KDGWKHGHOLFLRXVDWWUDF
WLRQ R Isamizdat VWDWXV DIWHUWKH %ULWLVK JRYHUQPHQW¶V KDPILVWHG DWWHPSWV WR
VXSSUHVVLWVSXEOLFDWLRQ EXWLWUHDGOLNHDGHPHQWHGUDQW ZKLFKLWWXUQHGRXW
WREH
&$QGUHZDQG9 0LWURNKLQ The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and
the West/RQGRQ
+LVWRU\RI5HDGLQJ
Robert D amt on
2YLGRIIHUVDGYLFHRQKRZWRUHDGDORYHOHWWHUµ,I\RXUORYHUVKRXOGPDNH
RYHUWXUHV E\PHDQV RIVRPHZRUGV LQVFULEHGRQ WDEOHWVGHOLYHUHGWR\RX
E\DFOHYHUVHUYDQWPHGLWDWHRQWKHPFDUHIXOO\ZHLJKKLVSKUDVHVDQGWU\
WR GLYLQH ZKHWKHUKLV ORYH LV RQO\ IHLJQHG RU ZKHWKHU KLV SUD\HUV UHDOO\
FRPHIURPDKHDUWVLQFHUHO\LQORYH¶,WLVH[WUDRUGLQDU\7KH5RPDQSRHW
PLJKWEHRQH RIXV +HVSHDNVWRDSUREOHPWKDWFRXOGDULVHLQDQ\DJH
WKDWDSSHDUVWRH[LVWRXWVLGHRIWLPH,QUHDGLQJDERXWUHDGLQJLQ The Art
o f Love, ZH VHHP WR KHDU D YRLFH WKDW VSHDNV GLUHFWO\ WR XV DFURVV D
GLVWDQFHRIWZRWKRXVDQG\HDUV
%XW DV ZH OLVWHQ IXUWKHU WKH YRLFH VRXQGV VWUDQJHU 2YLG JRHV RQ WR
SUHVFULEHWHFKQLTXHVIRUFRPPXQLFDWLQJZLWKDORYHUEHKLQGDKXVEDQG¶V
EDFN
,W LV FRQVRQDQW ZLWK PRUDOLW\ DQG WKH ODZ WKDW DQ XSULJKW ZRPDQ VKRXOG
IHDU KHU KXVEDQG DQG EH VXUURXQGHG E\ D VWULFW JXDUG %XW VKRXOG \RX
KDYH DVPDQ\JXDUGLDQV DV$UJXV KDV H\HV \RXFDQGXSH WKHP DOO LI\RXU
ZLOOLVILUPHQRXJK )RUH[DPSOHFDQDQ\RQHVWRS\RXUVHUYDQWDQGDFFRP
SOLFH IURP FDUU\LQJ\RXU QRWHV LQ KHU ERGLFH RU EHWZHHQ KHU IRRW DQG WKH
VROH RIKHU VDQGDO" /HW XV VXSSRVH WKDW \RXU JXDUGLDQ FDQ VHH WKURXJK DOO
WKHVHUXVHV 7KHQKDYH\RXUFRQILGDQWHRIIHUKHUEDFNLQSODFHR IWKHWDEOHWV
DQGOHW KHUERG\EHFRPH DOLYLQJOHWWHU
7KH ORYHU LV H[SHFWHG WR VWULS WKH VHUYDQW JLUO DQG UHDG KHU ERG\ QRW
H[DFWO\ WKH NLQG RIFRPPXQLFDWLRQ WKDWZH DVVRFLDWH ZLWK OHWWHUZULWLQJ
WRGD\ 'HVSLWH LWV DLU RI EHJXLOLQJ FRQWHPSRUDQHLW\ The Art o f Love
FDWDSXOWV XVLQWRDZRUOG ZHFDQ EDUHO\ LPDJLQH7RJHW WKH PHVVDJH ZH
Robert Darnton
PXVWNQRZVRPHWKLQJDERXW5RPDQP\WKRORJ\ZULWLQJWHFKQLTXHVDQG
GRPHVWLFOLIH:HPXVWEHDEOHWRSLFWXUHRXUVHOYHVDVWKHZLIHRID5RPDQ
SDWULFLDQDQGWRDSSUHFLDWHWKHFRQWUDVWEHWZHHQIRUPDOPRUDOLW\DQGWKH
ZD\VRIDZRUOGJLYHQRYHUWRVRSKLVWLFDWLRQDQGF\QLFLVPDWDWLPHZKHQ
WKH6HUPRQRQWKH 0RXQWZDVEHLQJSUHDFKHGLQDEDUEDULDQWRQJXHIDU
EH\RQGWKH5RPDQV¶UDQJHRIKHDULQJ
7RUHDG2YLGLVWRFRQIURQWWKHP\VWHU\RIUHDGLQJLWVHOI%RWKIDPLOLDU
DQG IRUHLJQ LW LV DQ DFWLYLW\ WKDW ZH VKDUH ZLWK RXU DQFHVWRUV \HW WKDW
QHYHU FDQ EH WKH VDPH DV ZKDW WKH\ H[SHULHQFHG :H PD\ HQMR\ WKH
LOOXVLRQRIVWHSSLQJRXWVLGHRIWLPHLQRUGHUWRPDNHFRQWDFWZLWKDXWKRUV
ZKR OLYHG FHQWXULHV DJR %XW HYHQ LIWKHLU WH[WV KDYH FRPH GRZQ WR XV
XQFKDQJHG DYLUWXDO LPSRVVLELOLW\ FRQVLGHULQJWKH HYROXWLRQ RIOD\RXW
DQG RIERRNV DVSK\VLFDO REMHFWV RXUUHODWLRQWRWKRVH WH[WV FDQQRWEH
WKH VDPHDVWKDWRIUHDGHUVLQWKHSDVW 5HDGLQJKDVDKLVWRU\ %XWKRZ
FDQZHUHFRYHULW"
:H FRXOG EHJLQ E\ VHDUFKLQJ WKH UHFRUG IRU UHDGHUV &DUOR *LQ]EXUJ
IRXQGRQHDKXPEOHPLOOHUIURPVL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\)ULXOLLQWKHSDSHUVRI
WKH,QTXLVLWLRQ3URELQJIRUKHUHV\WKHLQTXLVLWRUDVNHGKLVYLFWLPDERXW
KLVUHDGLQJ 0HQRFFKLRUHSOLHGZLWKDVWULQJRIWLWOHVDQGHODERUDWHFRP
PHQWV RQ HDFK RIWKHP %\ FRPSDULQJ WKH WH[WV DQG WKH FRPPHQWDU\
*LQ]EXUJ GLVFRYHUHG WKDW 0HQRFFKLR KDG UHDG D JUHDW GHDO RIELEOLFDO
VWRULHV FKURQLFOHV DQG WUDYHO ERRNV RI WKH NLQG WKDW H[LVWHG LQ PDQ\
SDWULFLDQ OLEUDULHV 0HQRFFKLR GLG QRW VLPSO\ UHFHLYH PHVVDJHV WUDQV
PLWWHGGRZQWKURXJKWKHVRFLDORUGHU+HUHDGDJJUHVVLYHO\WUDQVIRUPLQJ
WKHFRQWHQWVRIWKHPDWHULDODWKLVGLVSRVLWLRQLQWRDUDGLFDOO\QRQ&KULV
WLDQ YLHZ RIWKH ZRUOG :KHWKHU WKDW YLHZ FDQ EH WUDFHG WR DQ DQFLHQW
SRSXODU WUDGLWLRQ DV *LQ]EXUJFODLPV LV DPDWWHU RIGHEDWH EXW *LQ]
EXUJ FHUWDLQO\ GHPRQVWUDWHG WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI VWXG\LQJ UHDGLQJ DV DQ
DFWLYLW\DPRQJWKHFRPPRQSHRSOHIRXUFHQWXULHVDJR
,UDQDFURVVDVROLGO\PLGGOHFODVVUHDGHULQP\RZQUHVHDUFKRQHLJKW
HHQWKFHQWXU\)UDQFH+HZDVDPHUFKDQWIURP/D5RFKHOOHQDPHG-HDQ
5DQVRQ DQG DQ LPSDVVLRQHG 5RXVVHDXLVW 5DQVRQ GLG QRW PHUHO\ UHDG
5RXVVHDXDQGZHHSKHLQFRUSRUDWHG5RXVVHDX¶VLGHDVLQWKHIDEULFRIKLV
OLIH DV KH VHW XS EXVLQHVV IHOO LQ ORYH PDUULHG DQG UDLVHG KLV FKLOGUHQ
5HDGLQJDQGOLYLQJUXQSDUDOOHODVOHLWPRWLIVLQDULFKVHULHVRIOHWWHUVWKDW
5DQVRQ ZURWHEHWZHHQ DQG DQG WKDWVKRZKRZ5RXVVHDXLVP
EHFDPHDEVRUEHGLQWKHZD\RIOLIHRIWKHSURYLQFLDOERXUJHRLVLHXQGHUWKH
2OG 5HJLPH 5RXVVHDXKDG UHFHLYHG D IORRGRIOHWWHUV IURP UHDGHUV OLNH
5DQVRQDIWHUWKHSXEOLFDWLRQRILa nouvelle Héloise.,WZDV,EHOLHYHWKH
ILUVWWLGDOZDYHRIIDQPDLOLQWKHKLVWRU\RIOLWHUDWXUHDOWKRXJK5LFKDUG
VRQKDGDOUHDG\SURGXFHGVRPHLPSUHVVLYHULSSOHVLQ(QJODQG 7KHPDLO
UHYHDOVWKDWUHDGHUVUHVSRQGHGDV5DQVRQGLGHYHU\ZKHUHLQ)UDQFHDQG
IXUWKHUPRUH WKDW WKHLU UHVSRQVHV FRQIRUPHG WR WKRVH 5RXVVHDX KDG
History o f Reading
FDOOHGIRULQWKHWZRSUHIDFHVWRKLVQRYHO +HKDGLQVWUXFWHGKLVUHDGHUV
KRZWRUHDGKLP +HKDGDVVLJQHGWKHPUROHVDQGSURYLGHGWKHPZLWKD
VWUDWHJ\IRUWDNLQJLQKLVQRYHO 7KHQHZZD\RIUHDGLQJZRUNHGVRZHOO
WKDWLa nouvelle Héloi'seEHFDPHWKHJUHDWHVWEHVWVHOOHURIWKHFHQWXU\WKH
PRVW LPSRUWDQW VLQJOH VRXUFH RIURPDQWLF VHQVLELOLW\ 7KDW VHQVLELOLW\ LV
QRZH[WLQFW1RPRGHUQUHDGHUFDQZHHSKLVZD\WKURXJKWKHVL[YROXPHV
RILa nouvelle HéloíseDVKLVSUHGHFHVVRUVGLGWZRFHQWXULHVDJR%XWLQKLV
GD\5RXVVHDXFDSWLYDWHGDQHQWLUHJHQHUDWLRQRIUHDGHUVE\UHYROXWLRQL]
LQJUHDGLQJLWVHOI
7KH H[DPSOHV RI 0HQRFFKLR DQG 5DQVRQ VXJJHVW WKDW UHDGLQJ DQG
OLYLQJFRQVWUXLQJWH[WVDQGPDNLQJVHQVHRIOLIHZHUHPXFKPRUHFORVHO\
UHODWHG LQ WKH HDUO\ PRGHUQ SHULRG WKDQ WKH\ DUH WRGD\ %XW EHIRUH
MXPSLQJWRFRQFOXVLRQVZHQHHGWRZRUNWKURXJKPRUHDUFKLYHVFRPSDU
LQJUHDGHUV¶DFFRXQWVRIWKHLUH[SHULHQFHZLWKWKHSURWRFROVRIUHDGLQJLQ
WKHLUERRNVDQGZKHQSRVVLEOHZLWKWKHLUEHKDYLRXU,WZDVEHOLHYHGWKDW
The Sorrows o f Young Werther WRXFKHG RIID ZDYH RIVXLFLGHV LQ *HU
PDQ\ ,V QRW WKH Wertherfieber ULSH IRU IUHVK H[DPLQDWLRQ" 7KH 3UH
5DSKDHOLWHV LQ (QJODQG SURYLGH VLPLODULQVWDQFHV RIOLIH LPLWDWLQJDUW D
WKHPHWKDWFDQEHWUDFHGIURPDon QuixoteWRMadame BovaryDQGMiss
Lonelyhearts.,QHDFKFDVHWKHILFWLRQFRXOGEHIOHVKHGRXWDQGFRPSDUHG
ZLWKGRFXPHQWV DFWXDO VXLFLGH QRWHV GLDULHV DQG OHWWHUV WR WKH HGLWRU
7KH FRUUHVSRQGHQFH RI DXWKRUV DQG WKH SDSHUV RISXEOLVKHUV DUH LGHDO
VRXUFHV RILQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW UHDO UHDGHUV 7KHUH DUH GR]HQV RIOHWWHUV
IURPUHDGHUVLQWKHSXEOLVKHGFRUUHVSRQGHQFHRI9ROWDLUHDQG5RXVVHDX
DQGKXQGUHGVLQWKHXQSXEOLVKHGSDSHUV RI%DO]DFDQG=ROD
,QVKRUWLWVKRXOGEHSRVVLEOHWRGHYHORSDKLVWRU\DVZHOODVDWKHRU\RI
UHDGHU UHVSRQVH 3RVVLEOH EXW QRW HDV\ IRU WKH GRFXPHQWV UDUHO\ VKRZ
UHDGHUVDWZRUN IDVKLRQLQJPHDQLQJIURPWH[WV DQG WKHGRFXPHQWV DUH
WH[WVWKHPVHOYHVZKLFKDOVRUHTXLUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ )HZRIWKHPDUHULFK
HQRXJK WR SURYLGH HYHQ LQGLUHFW DFFHVV WR WKH FRJQLWLYH DQG DIIHFWLYH
HOHPHQWVRIUHDGLQJ DQGDIHZH[FHSWLRQDOFDVHVPD\QRWEHHQRXJKIRU
RQHWRUHFRQVWUXFWWKHLQQHUGLPHQVLRQVRIWKDWH[SHULHQFH%XWKLVWRULDQV
RIWKHERRNKDYHDOUHDG\WXUQHGXSDJUHDWGHDORILQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKH
H[WHUQDO KLVWRU\ RIUHDGLQJ +DYLQJ VWXGLHG LW DV D VRFLDO SKHQRPHQRQ
WKH\FDQDQVZHUPDQ\RIWKHµZKR¶WKHµZKDW¶WKHµZKHUH¶DQGWKHµZKHQ¶
TXHVWLRQV ZKLFK FDQ EH RI JUHDW KHOS LQ DWWDFNLQJ WKH PRUH GLIILFXOW
µZK\V¶DQGµKRZV¶
6WXGLHV RI ZKR UHDG ZKDW DW GLIIHUHQW WLPHV IDOO LQWR WZR PDLQ W\SHV
WKHPDFURDQGWKHPLFURDQDO\WLFDO 0DFURDQDO\VLVKDVIORXULVKHGDERYH
DOO LQ )UDQFH ZKHUH LW IHHGV RQ D SRZHUIXO WUDGLWLRQ RI TXDQWLWDWLYH
VRFLDO KLVWRU\ +HQUL-HDQ 0DUWLQ ) UDQ FLV )XUHW 5REHUW (VWLYDOV DQG
)UpGpULF %DUELHU KDYH WUDFHG WKH HYROXWLRQ RI UHDGLQJ KDELWV IURP
Robert Darnton
WKH VL[WHHQWK FHQWXU\ WR WKH SUHVHQW XVLQJ ORQJWHUP VHULHV FRQVWUXFWHG
IURP WKHdépöt légal, UHJLVWHUV RIERRN SULYLOHJHV DQG WKH DQQXDOBiblio-
graphic de la France. 2QH FDQ VHH PDQ\ LQWULJXLQJ SKHQRPHQD LQ WKH
XQGXODWLRQV RIWKHLU JUDSKV WKH GHFOLQH RI/DWLQ WKH ULVH RIWKH QRYHO
WKH JHQHUDO IDVFLQDWLRQ ZLWK WKH LPPHGLDWH ZRUOG RI QDWXUH DQG WKH
UHPRWH ZRUOGV RIH[RWLF FRXQWULHV WKDW VSUHDG WKURXJKRXW WKH HGXFDWHG
SXEOLFEHWZHHQWKHWLPHRI'HVFDUWHVDQGWKDWRI%RXJDLQYLOOH7KH*HU
PDQV KDYH FRQVWUXFWHG D VWLOO ORQJHU VHULHV RI VWDWLVWLFV WKDQNV WR D
SHFXOLDUO\ ULFK VRXUFH WKH FDWDORJXHV RI WKH )UDQNIXUW DQG /HLS]LJ
ERRN IDLUV ZKLFK H[WHQG IURP WKH PLGVL[WHHQWK WR WKH PLGQLQHWHHQWK
FHQWXU\ 7KH )UDQNIXUW FDWDORJXH ZDV SXEOLVKHG ZLWKRXW LQWHUUXSWLRQ
IURPWRDQGWKH/HLS]LJFDWDORJXHZKLFKGDWHVIURPFDQ
EH UHSODFHGIRUWKHSHULRGDIWHU E\WKH Hinrichssche Verzeichnisse.)
$OWKRXJK WKH FDWDORJXHV KDYH WKHLU GUDZEDFNV WKH\ SURYLGH D URXJK
LQGH[ WR *HUPDQ UHDGLQJ VLQFH WKH 5HQDLVVDQFH DQG WKH\ KDYH EHHQ
PLQHG E\ D VXFFHVVLRQ RI*HUPDQ ERRN KLVWRULDQV VLQFH -RKDQQ *ROG
IULHGULFKSXEOLVKHGKLVPRQXPHQWDOGeschichte des deutschen Buchhandels
LQ DQG 7KH(QJOLVKUHDGLQJZRUOGKDVQRFRPSDUDEOHVRXUFH
EXW IRU WKH SHULRG DIWHU ZKHQ /RQGRQ EHJDQ WR GRPLQDWH WKH
SULQWLQJ LQGXVWU\ WKH SDSHUV RIWKH /RQGRQ 6WDWLRQHUV¶ &RPSDQ\ KDYH
SURYLGHG+ 6 %HQQHWW : : *UHJDQGRWKHUVZLWK SOHQW\RIPDWHULDO
WR WUDFH WKH HYROXWLRQ RIWKH (QJOLVK ERRN WUDGH $OWKRXJK WKH %ULWLVK
WUDGLWLRQRIELEOLRJUDSK\KDV QRWIDYRXUHG WKHFRPSLODWLRQ RIVWDWLVWLFV
WKHUH LV D JUHDW GHDO RITXDQWLWDWLYH LQIRUPDWLRQ LQ WKH VKRUWWLWOH FDWD
ORJXHV WKDW UXQ IURP *LOHV %DUEHU KDV GUDZQ VRPH )UHQFKOLNH
JUDSKVIURPFXVWRPVUHFRUGV DQG5REHUW:LQDQVDQG* 7KRPDV7DQ
VHOOH KDYH WDNHQ WKH PHDVXUH RIHDUO\ $PHULFDQ UHDGLQJ E\ UHZRUNLQJ
&KDUOHV(YDQV¶VHQRUPRXVAmerican BibliographyHQWULHVIRUWKH
SHULRG LQFOXGLQJ XQIRUWXQDWHO\ DQ XQGHWHUPLQHG SRSXODWLRQ
RIµJKRVWV¶
$OO WKLV FRPSLOLQJ DQG FRPSXWLQJ KDV SURYLGHG VRPH JXLGHOLQHV WR
UHDGLQJKDELWVEXWWKHJHQHUDOL]DWLRQVVRPHWLPHVVHHPWRRJHQHUDOWREH
VDWLVI\LQJ7KHQRYHOOLNHWKHERXUJHRLVLHDOZD\VVHHPVWREHULVLQJDQG
WKHJUDSKVGURSDWWKHH[SHFWHGSRLQWV PRVWQRWDEO\GXULQJWKH 6HYHQ
<HDUV¶:DUDWWKH/HLS]LJIDLUDQGGXULQJWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DULQ)UDQFH
0RVWRIWKHTXDQWLILHUVVRUWWKHLUVWDWLVWLFVLQWRYDJXHFDWHJRULHVOLNHµDUWV
DQG VFLHQFHV¶ DQG µEHOOHVOHWWUHV¶ ZKLFK DUH LQDGHTXDWH IRU LGHQWLI\LQJ
SDUWLFXODU SKHQRPHQD OLNH WKH 6XFFHVVLRQ &RQWURYHUV\ -DQVHQLVP WKH
(QOLJKWHQPHQW RU WKH *RWKLF 5HYLYDO WKH YHU\ VXEMHFWV WKDW KDYH
DWWUDFWHGWKHPRVWDWWHQWLRQDPRQJOLWHUDU\VFKRODUVDQGFXOWXUDOKLVWRU
LDQV 7KH TXDQWLWDWLYH KLVWRU\ RIERRNVZLOOKDYH WR UHILQHLWVFDWHJRULHV
DQG VKDUSHQ LWV IRFXV EHIRUH LWFDQ KDYH D PDMRU LPSDFW RQ WUDGLWLRQDO
VWUDLQVRIVFKRODUVKLS
History o f Reading
<HWWKHTXDQWLILHUVKDYHXQFRYHUHGVRPHVLJQLILFDQWVWDWLVWLFDOSDWWHUQV
DQG WKHLU DFKLHYHPHQWV ZRXOG ORRN HYHQ PRUH LPSUHVVLYH LIWKHUH ZHUH
PRUHRIDQHIIRUWWRPDNHFRPSDULVRQVIURPRQHFRXQWU\WRDQRWKHU)RU
H[DPSOHWKHVWDWLVWLFVVXJJHVWWKDWWKHFXOWXUDOUHYLYDORI*HUPDQ\LQWKH
ODWH HLJKWHHQWK FHQWXU\ ZDV FRQQHFWHG ZLWK DQ HSLGHPLFOLNH IHYHU IRU
UHDGLQJ WKH VRFDOOHG Lesewut RU Lesesucht. 7KH /HLS]LJ FDWDORJXH GLG
QRWUHDFKWKHOHYHOLWKDGDWWDLQHGEHIRUHWKH7KLUW\<HDUV¶:DUXQWLO
ZKHQLWLQFOXGHG WLWOHVRIQHZO\SXEOLVKHGERRNV:LWKWKHRQVHWRI
Sturm und Drang, LW URVH WR WLWOHVLQ WKHQ LQ DQG
LQ 7KH)UHQFKIROORZHGDGLIIHUHQWSDWWHUQ%RRNSURGXFWLRQ
JUHZ VWHDGLO\ IRU D FHQWXU\ DIWHU WKH 3HDFH RI :HVWSKDOLD D
FHQWXU\ RI JUHDW OLWHUDWXUH IURP &RUQHLOOH WR WKH Encyclopédie, ZKLFK
FRLQFLGHGZLWKWKHGHFOLQHLQ*HUPDQ\ %XWLQWKHQH[WILIW\\HDUVZKHQ
WKH*HUPDQILJXUHVVRDUHG WKH)UHQFKLQFUHDVHORRNVUHODWLYHO\PRGHVW
$FFRUGLQJ WR 5REHUW (VWLYDOV UHTXHVWV IRU DXWKRUL]DWLRQV WR SXEOLVK
QHZ ERRNV (privileges DQG permissions tacites) FDPH WR LQ
LQ DQG RQO\ LQ DQG WKH QHZ WLWOHV VXEPLWWHG WR WKH
dépðt légalLQ WRWDOOHG7REHVXUHGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRIGRFXPHQWV
DQG VWDQGDUGV RIPHDVXUHPHQW FRXOG SURGXFH GLIIHUHQW UHVXOWV DQG WKH
RIILFLDO VRXUFHV H[FOXGH WKH HQRUPRXV SURGXFWLRQ RI LOOHJDO )UHQFK
ERRNV %XW ZKDWHYHU WKHLU GHILFLHQFLHV WKH ILJXUHV LQGLFDWH D JUHDW OHDS
IRUZDUG LQ *HUPDQ OLWHUDU\ OLIH DIWHU D FHQWXU\ RI)UHQFK GRPLQDWLRQ
*HUPDQ\DOVRKDGPRUHZULWHUVDOWKRXJKWKHSRSXODWLRQRIWKH)UHQFK
DQG *HUPDQVSHDNLQJ DUHDV ZDV URXJKO\ WKH VDPH $ *HUPDQ OLWHUDU\
DOPDQDF Das gelehrte Teutschland, OLVWHG OLYLQJ DXWKRUV LQ
DQGLQ$FRPSDUDEOH)UHQFKSXEOLFDWLRQLa France littéraire,
LQFOXGHG DXWKRUV LQ DQG LQ :KLOH 9ROWDLUH DQG
5RXVVHDX ZHUH VLQNLQJ LQWR ROG DJH *RHWKH DQG 6FKLOOHU ZHUH ULGLQJ
D ZDYH RI OLWHUDU\ FUHDWLYLW\ WKDW ZDV IDU PRUH SRZHUIXO WKDQ RQH
P LJKW WKLQN LI RQH FRQVLGHUHG RQO\ WKH FRQYHQWLRQDO KLVWRULHV RIOLWHU
DWXUH
&URVVVWDWLVWLFDO FRPSDULVRQV DOVR SURYLGH KHOS LQ FKDUWLQJ FXOWXUDO
FXUUHQWV $IWHU WDEXODWLQJ ERRN SULYLOHJHV WKURXJKRXW WKH HLJKWHHQWK
FHQWXU\ )UDQTRLV )XUHW IRXQG D PDUNHG GHFOLQH LQ WKH ROGHU EUDQFKHV
RIOHDUQLQJHVSHFLDOO\WKHKXPDQLVWDQGFODVVLFDO/DWLQOLWHUDWXUHWKDWKDG
IORXULVKHG D FHQWXU\ HDUOLHU DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH VWDWLVWLFV RI +HQUL-HDQ
0DUWLQ 1HZHU JHQUHV VXFK DV WKH ERRNV FODVVLILHG XQGHU WKH UXEULF
µVFLHQFHVHWDUWV¶ SUHYDLOHGDIWHU 'DQLHO 5RFKHDQG0LFKHO0DULRQ
QRWLFHDVLPLODUWHQGHQF\LQVXUYH\LQJ3DULVLDQQRWDULDODUFKLYHV1RYHOV
WUDYHO ERRNV DQG ZRUNV RQ QDWXUDO KLVWRU\ WHQGHG WR FURZG RXW WKH
FODVVLFVLQWKHOLEUDULHVRIQREOHPHQDQGZHDOWK\ERXUJHRLV$OOWKHVWXGLHV
SRLQW WR D VLJQLILFDQW GURS LQ UHOLJLRXV OLWHUDWXUH GXULQJ WKH HLJKWHHQWK
FHQWXU\ 7KH\ FRQILUP WKH TXDQWLWDWLYH UHVHDUFK LQ RWKHUDUHDV RIVRFLDO
Robert Darnton
KLVWRU\ 0LFKHO9RYHOOH¶VRQIXQHUDOULWXDOVIRUH[DPSOHDQG'RPLQLTXH
-XOLD¶VLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIFOHULFDORUGLQDWLRQVDQGWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFHV
7KH WKHPDWLF VXUYH\V RI *HUPDQ UHDGLQJ FRPSOHPHQW WKRVH RI WKH
)UHQFK 5XGROI-HQW]VFKDQG$OEHUW:DUGIRXQGDVWURQJGURSLQ/DWLQ
ERRNV DQG D FRUUHVSRQGLQJ LQFUHDVH LQ QRYHOV LQ WKH IDLU FDWDORJXHV RI
/HLS]LJ DQG )UDQNIXUW %\ WKH ODWH QLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ DFFRUGLQJ WR
(GXDUG 5H\HU DQG 5XGROI 6FKHQGD ERUURZLQJ SDWWHUQV LQ *HUPDQ
(QJOLVKDQG$PHULFDQOLEUDULHVKDGIDOOHQLQWRDVWULNLQJO\VLPLODUSDWWHUQ
WR SHU FHQW RIWKH ERRNV FDPH IURP WKH FDWHJRU\ RIOLJKW ILFWLRQ
PRVWO\QRYHOV SHUFHQWFDPHIURPKLVWRU\ELRJUDSK\DQGWUDYHODQG
OHVVWKDQ SHUFHQWFDPHIURPUHOLJLRQ ,QOLWWOHPRUHWKDQWZRKXQGUHG
\HDUV WKHZRUOGRIUHDGLQJKDGEHHQWUDQVIRUPHG 7KHULVHRIWKHQRYHO
KDGEDODQFHGDGHFOLQHLQUHOLJLRXVOLWHUDWXUHDQGLQDOPRVWHYHU\FDVHWKH
WXUQLQJSRLQW FRXOG EHORFDWHG LQ WKH VHFRQG KDOIRIWKH HLJKWHHQWKFHQ
WXU\HVSHFLDOO\WKH V WKH\HDUVRIWKH Wertherfieber. Die Leiden des
jungen WerthersSURGXFHGDQHYHQPRUHVSHFWDFXODUUHVSRQVHLQ*HUPDQ\
WKDQLa nouvelle HéloiseKDGGRQH LQ)UDQFHRUPamelaLQ (QJODQG $OO
WKUHHQRYHOVPDUNHGWKHWULXPSKRIDQHZOLWHUDU\VHQVLWLYLW\DQGWKHODVW
VHQWHQFHV RI Werther VHHPHG WR DQQRXQFH WKH DGYHQW RID QHZ UHDGLQJ
SXEOLFDORQJZLWKWKHGHDWKRIDWUDGLWLRQDO&KULVWLDQFXOWXUHµ+DQGZHU
NHUWUXJHQLKQ .HLQ*HLVWOLFKHUKDWLKQEHJOHLWHW¶
7KXVIRUDOOWKHLUYDULHW\DQGRFFDVLRQDOFRQWUDGLFWLRQVWKHPDFURDQD
O\WLFDOVWXGLHV VXJJHVWVRPHJHQHUDOFRQFOXVLRQV VRPHWKLQJDNLQWR 0D[
:HEHU¶V µGHP\VWLILFDWLRQ RIWKH ZRUOG¶ 7KDW PD\ VHHP WRR FRVPLF IRU
FRPIRUW7KRVHZKRSUHIHUSUHFLVLRQPD\WXUQWRPLFURDQDO\VLVDOWKRXJK
LWXVXDOO\JRHVWR WKHRSSRVLWHH[WUHPH H[FHVVLYHGHWDLO :HKDYH KXQ
GUHGV RIOLVWVRIERRNV LQOLEUDULHVIURPWKH0LGGOH$JHVWR WKHSUHVHQW
PRUH WKDQ DQ\RQHFDQ EHDU WR UHDG <HWPRVW RIXV ZRXOGDJUHH WKDWD
FDWDORJXH RID SULYDWH OLEUDU\ FDQ VHUYH DV D SURILOH RID UHDGHU HYHQ
WKRXJKZHGRQ¶WUHDGDOOWKHERRNVZHRZQDQGZHGRUHDGPDQ\ERRNV
WKDWZHQHYHUSXUFKDVH7RVFDQWKHFDWDORJXHRIWKHOLEUDU\LQ0RQWLFHOOR
LVWRLQVSHFWWKHIXUQLVKLQJVRI-HIIHUVRQ¶VPLQG$QGWKHVWXG\RISULYDWH
OLEUDULHVKDVWKHDGYDQWDJHRIOLQNLQJWKHµZKDW¶ZLWKWKHµZKR¶RIUHDGLQJ
7KH)UHQFKKDYHWDNHQWKHOHDGLQWKLVDUHDWRR'DQLHO0RUQHW¶VHVVD\
RIµ/HVHQVHLJQHPHQWVGHVELEOLRWKpTXHVSULYpHV¶GHPRQVWUDWHGWKDW
WKHVWXG\RIOLEUDU\FDWDORJXHVFRXOGSURGXFHFRQFOXVLRQVWKDWFKDOOHQJHG
VRPHRIWKHFRPPRQSODFHVRIOLWHUDU\KLVWRU\$IWHUWDEXODWLQJWLWOHVIURP
HLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ FDWDORJXHV KH IRXQG RQO\ RQH FRS\ RIWKH ERRN
WKDW ZDV WR EH WKH %LEOH RIWKH )UHQFK 5HYROXWLRQ 5RXVVHDX¶V Social
Contract. 7KHOLEUDULHV EXOJHGZLWK WKH ZRUNV RIDXWKRUVZKR KDG EHHQ
FRPSOHWHO\IRUJRWWHQ DQG WKH\SURYLGHG QR EDVLVIRUFRQQHFWLQJFHUWDLQ
NLQGVRIOLWHUDWXUHWKHZRUNRIWKHphilosophes,IRUH[DPSOHZLWKFHUWDLQ
FODVVHV RIUHDGHUV WKH ERXUJHRLVLH 6HYHQW\ \HDUV ODWHU 0RUQHW¶V ZRUN
History o f Reading
VWLOO ORRNVLPSUHVVLYH %XW D YDVW OLWHUDWXUH KDV JURZQXS DURXQG LW :H
QRZ KDYH VWDWLVWLFV RQ WKH OLEUDULHV RI QREOHPHQ PDJLVWUDWHV SULHVWV
DFDGHPLFLDQV EXUJKHUV DUWLVDQV DQG HYHQ VRPH GRPHVWLF VHUYDQWV 7KH
)UHQFK VFKRODUV KDYH VWXGLHG UHDGLQJ DFURVV WKH VRFLDO VWUDWD RIFHUWDLQ
FLWLHV WKH&DHQRI-HDQ&ODXGH3HUURWWKH3DULVRI0LFKHO0DULRQ DQG
WKURXJKRXWHQWLUHUHJLRQV WKH1RUPDQG\RI-HDQ4XpQLDUWWKH/DQJXH
GRFRI0DGHOHLQH9HQWUH)RUWKHPRVWSDUWWKH\UHO\RQinventaires aprés
dices, QRWDULDO UHFRUGV RIERRNV LQ WKH HVWDWHV RIWKH GHFHDVHG 6R WKH\
VXIIHU IURP WKH ELDV EXLOW LQWR WKH GRFXPHQWV ZKLFK JHQHUDOO\ QHJOHFW
ERRNV RIOLWWOHFRPPHUFLDOYDOXHRUOLPLWWKHPVHOYHVWRYDJXHVWDWHPHQWV
OLNHµDSLOHRIERRNV¶ %XWWKHQRWDULDOH\HWRRNLQDJUHDWGHDOLQ)UDQFH
IDUPRUH WKDQLQ*HUPDQ\ZKHUH5XGROI6FKHQGDFRQVLGHUVLQYHQWRULHV
ZRHIXOO\ LQDGHTXDWH DV D JXLGH WR WKH UHDGLQJ KDELWV RI WKH FRPPRQ
SHRSOH7KHPRVWWKRURXJK*HUPDQVWXG\LVSUREDEO\:DOWHU:LWWPDQQ¶V
VXUYH\ RILQYHQWRULHV IURPWKH ODWH HLJKWHHQWK FHQWXU\ LQ )UDQNIXUW DP
0DLQ ,WLQGLFDWHGWKDWERRNVZHUHRZQHGE\ SHUFHQWRIWKHKLJKHU
RIILFLDOV SHUFHQWRIWKHWUDGHVPHQ SHUFHQWRIWKHPDVWHUDUWLVDQV
DQGSHUFHQWRIWKHMRXUQH\PHQ'DQLHO5RFKHIRXQGDVLPLODUSDWWHUQ
DPRQJ WKH FRPPRQ SHRSOH RI 3DULV RQO\ SHU FHQW RI WKH VDODULHG
ZRUNHUV DQG GRPHVWLF VHUYDQWV ZKR DSSHDU LQ WKH QRWDULDO DUFKLYHV
DURXQG RZQHGERRNV %XW5RFKHDOVRGLVFRYHUHGPDQ\LQGLFDWLRQV
RIIDPLOLDULW\ ZLWK WKH ZULWWHQ ZRUG %\ DOPRVW DOO WKH GRPHVWLF
VHUYDQWVFRXOGVLJQWKHLUQDPHVRQWKHLQYHQWRULHV$JUHDWPDQ\ RZQHG
GHVNV IXOO\ HTXLSSHG ZLWK ZULWLQJ LPSOHPHQWV DQG SDFNHG ZLWK IDPLO\
SDSHUV 0RVWDUWLVDQVDQGVKRSNHHSHUVVSHQWVHYHUDO\HDUVRIWKHLUFKLOG
KRRGLQVFKRRO%HIRUH3DULVKDGSULPDU\VFKRROVRQHIRUHYHU\
LQKDELWDQWV DOO PRUH RU OHVV IUHH 3DULVLDQV ZHUH UHDGHUV 5RFKH
FRQFOXGHVEXWUHDGLQJGLGQRWWDNHWKHIRUPRIWKHERRNVWKDWVKRZXSLQ
LQYHQWRULHV ,WLQYROYHGFKDSERRNV EURDGVLGHV SRVWHUV SHUVRQDO OHWWHUV
DQGHYHQWKHVLJQVRQWKHVWUHHWV3DULVLDQVUHDGWKHLUZD\WKURXJKWKHFLW\
DQGWKURXJKWKHLUOLYHVEXW WKHLUZD\V RIUHDGLQJGLGQRWOHDYH HQRXJK
HYLGHQFHLQWKHDUFKLYHVIRUWKHKLVWRULDQWRIROORZFORVHO\RQWKHLUKHHOV
7KHKLVWRULDQPXVWWKHUHIRUHVHDUFKIRURWKHUVRXUFHV6XEVFULSWLRQOLVWV
KDYHEHHQD IDYRXULWH WKRXJK WKH\QRUPDOO\ FRYHURQO\ UDWKHUZHDOWK\
UHDGHUV )URPWKHODWHVHYHQWHHQWKWRWKHHDUO\QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\PDQ\
ERRNVZHUHSXEOLVKHGE\VXEVFULSWLRQLQ%ULWDLQDQGFRQWDLQHGOLVWVRIWKH
VXEVFULEHUV 5HVHDUFKHUV DWWKH3URMHFWIRU+LVWRULFDO%LRELEOLRJUDSK\ DW
1HZFDVWOHXSRQ 7\QHKDYHXVHGWKHVHOLVWV WRZRUNWRZDUGVDKLVWRULFDO
VRFLRORJ\RIUHDGHUVKLS 6LPLODUHIIRUWVDUHXQGHUZD\LQ*HUPDQ\HVSH
FLDOO\DPRQJVFKRODUVRI.ORSVWRFNDQG:LHODQG3HUKDSVDVL[WKRIQHZ
*HUPDQ ERRNV ZHUHSXEOLVKHG E\ VXEVFULSWLRQ EHWZHHQ DQG
ZKHQ WKH SUDFWLFH UHDFKHG LWV SHDN %XW HYHQ GXULQJWKHLU Blutezeit, WKH
VXEVFULSWLRQOLVWVGRQRWSURYLGHDQDFFXUDWHYLHZRIUHDGHUVKLS7KH\OHIW
Robert Darnton
D GHYRWLRQDO ZRUN RU WZR DQG WKH\ UHDG WKHP RYHU DQG RYHU DJDLQ
XVXDOO\ DORXG DQG LQ JURXSV VR WKDW D QDUURZ UDQJH RI WUDGLWLRQDO
OLWHUDWXUHEHFDPHGHHSO\LPSUHVVHGRQWKHLUFRQVFLRXVQHVV %\ PHQ
ZHUH UHDGLQJ µH[WHQVLYHO\¶ 7KH\ UHDG DOO NLQGV RI PDWHULDO HVSHFLDOO\
SHULRGLFDOV DQGQHZVSDSHUV DQG UHDG LWRQO\RQFH WKHQ UDFHGRQWR WKH
QH[WLWHP (QJHOVLQJGRHVQRWSURGXFHPXFKHYLGHQFHIRUKLVK\SRWKHVLV
,QGHHGPRVWRIKLVUHVHDUFKFRQFHUQV RQO\DVPDOOVDPSOLQJRIEXUJKHUV
LQ %UHPHQ %XW LW KDV DQ DWWUDFWLYH EHIRUHDQGDIWHU VLPSOLFLW\ DQG LW
SURYLGHV D KDQG\ IRUPXOD IRU FRQWUDVWLQJ PRGHV RIUHDGLQJ YHU\ HDUO\
DQGYHU\ODWH LQ (XURSHDQ KLVWRU\ ,WVPDLQ GUDZEDFN DV , VHH LW LVLWV
XQLOLQHDUFKDUDFWHU 5HDGLQJ GLG QRW HYROYH LQ RQH GLUHFWLRQ H[WHQVLYH
QHVV ,WDVVXPHGPDQ\ GLIIHUHQW IRUPV DPRQJGLIIHUHQWVRFLDO JURXSV LQ
GLIIHUHQWHUDV 0HQDQGZRPHQKDYHUHDGLQRUGHUWRVDYHWKHLUVRXOVWR
LP SURYH WKHLUPDQQHUVWRUHSDLUWKHLUPDFKLQHU\ WR VHGXFHWKHLU VZHHW
KHDUWV WR OHDUQ DERXW FXUUHQW HYHQWV DQG VLPSO\ WR KDYH IXQ ,Q PDQ\
FDVHVHVSHFLDOO\DPRQJWKHSXEOLFVRI5LFKDUGVRQ5RXVVHDXDQG*RHWKH
WKH UHDGLQJ EHFDPH PRUH LQWHQVLYH QRW OHVV %XW WKH ODWH HLJKWHHQWK
FHQWXU\GRHVVHHPWRUHSUHVHQWDWXUQLQJSRLQWDWLPHZKHQPRUHUHDGLQJ
PDWWHU EHFDPH DYDLODEOH WR D ZLGHU SXEOLF ZKHQ RQHFDQ VHHWKHHPHU
JHQFH RIDPDVV UHDGHUVKLSWKDWZRXOGJURZWRJLDQW SURSRUWLRQVLQWKH
QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ZLWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIPDFKLQHPDGHSDSHUVWHDP
SRZHUHGSUHVVHVOLQRW\SHDQGQHDUO\XQLYHUVDOOLWHUDF\$OOWKHVHFKDQJHV
RSHQHGXSQHZSRVVLELOLWLHVQRWE\GHFUHDVLQJLQWHQVLW\EXWE\LQFUHDVLQJ
YDULHW\
,PXVWWKHUHIRUHFRQIHVVWRVRPHVFHSWLFLVPDERXWWKH µUHDGLQJUHYROX
WLRQ¶<HWDQ$PHULFDQKLVWRULDQRIWKHERRN'DYLG+DOOKDVGHVFULEHGD
WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ LQ WKH UHDGLQJ KDELWV RI1HZ (QJODQGHUV EHWZHHQ
DQG LQ DOPRVW H[DFWO\ WKH VDPH WHUPV DV WKRVH XVHG E\ (QJHOVLQJ
%HIRUH 1HZ (QJODQGHUV UHDG D VPDOO FRUSXV RIYHQHUDEOH µVWHDG\
VHOOHUV¶ WKH %LEOH DOPDQDFV WKHNew England Primer, 3KLOLS'RGGULG
JH¶V Rise and Progress o f Religion, 5LFKDUG %D[WHU¶V Call to the Uncon-
verted - DQGUHDGWKHP RYHUDQG RYHU DJDLQ DORXG LQJURXSV DQGZLWK
H[FHSWLRQDOLQWHQVLW\ $IWHU WKH\ZHUH VZDPSHG ZLWKQHZNLQGV RI
ERRNV QRYHOVQHZVSDSHUVIUHVKDQGVXQQ\YDULHWLHVRIFKLOGUHQ¶VOLWHUDW
XUH DQG WKH\ UHDG WKURXJK WKHP UDYHQRXVO\ GLVFDUGLQJ RQH WKLQJ DV
VRRQDVWKH\FRXOGILQGDQRWKHU$OWKRXJK+DOODQG(QJHOVLQJKDGQHYHU
KHDUG RI RQH DQRWKHU WKH\ GLVFRYHUHG D VLPLODU SDWWHUQ LQ WZR TXLWH
GLIIHUHQWDUHDV RIWKHZHVWHUQZRUOG 3HUKDSV DIXQGDPHQWDOVKLIWLQWKH
QDWXUHRIUHDGLQJWRRNSODFHDWWKHHQGRIWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ ,WPD\
QRWKDYHEHHQDUHYROXWLRQEXWLWPDUNHGWKHHQGRIDQ2OG5HJLPH WKH
UHLJQRI7KRPDVi.HPSLV-RKDQQ$UQGWDQG-RKQ%XQ\DQ
7KH µZKHUH¶ RI UHDGLQJ LV PRUH LPSRUWDQW WKDQ RQH PLJKW WKLQN
EHFDXVHE\SODFLQJUHDGHUV LQWKHLUVHWWLQJLWFDQSURYLGHKLQWVDERXWWKH
Robert Dam ton
QDWXUHRIWKHLUH[SHULHQFH,QWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI/HLGHQWKHUHKDQJVDSULQW
RI WKH XQLYHUVLW\ OLEUDU\ GDWHG ,W VKRZV WKH ERRNV KHDY\ IROLR
YROXPHVFKDLQHGRQKLJKVKHOYHVMXWWLQJRXWIURPWKHZDOOVLQDVHTXHQFH
GHWHUPLQHGE\WKHUXEULFVRIFODVVLFDOELEOLRJUDSK\Jurisconsulti, Medici,
HistoriciDQG VR RQ 6WXGHQWV DUH VFDWWHUHG DERXW WKH URRP UHDGLQJWKH
ERRNV RQ FRXQWHUV EXLOW DW VKRXOGHU OHYHO EHORZ WKH VKHOYHV 7KH\ UHDG
VWDQGLQJXSSURWHFWHGDJDLQVWWKHFROGE\WKLFNFORDNVDQGKDWVRQHIRRW
SHUFKHG RQ D UDLO WR HDVH WKH SUHVVXUH RQ WKHLU ERGLHV 5HDGLQJFDQQRW
KDYHEHHQFRPIRUWDEOHLQWKHDJHRIFODVVLFDOKXPDQLVP,QSLFWXUHVGRQH
DFHQWXU\ DQG D KDOIODWHU La lecture DQG La liseuse E\ )UDJRQDUG IRU
H[DPSOHUHDGHUVUHFOLQHLQFKDLVHVORQJXHVRUZHOOSDGGHGDUPFKDLUVZLWK
WKHLUOHJV SURSSHG RQIRRWVWRROV 7KH\ DUH RIWHQZRPHQZHDULQJORRVH
ILWWLQJ JRZQV NQRZQ DWWKH WLPHDV liseuses. 7KH\ XVXDOO\KROG DGDLQW\
GXRGHFLPRYROXPHLQWKHLUILQJHUVDQGKDYHDIDUDZD\ORRNLQWKHLUH\H
)URP )UDJRQDUG WR 0RQHW ZKR DOVR SDLQWHG D Liseuse, UHDGLQJPRYHV
IURPWKHERXGRLUWRWKH RXWGRRUV7KHUHDGHUEDFNSDFNVERRNVWRILHOGV
DQGPRXQWDLQWRSVZKHUHOLNH5RXVVHDXDQG+HLQHKHFDQFRPPXQHZLWK
QDWXUH 1DWXUHPXVWKDYHVHHPHGRXWRIMRLQWDIHZJHQHUDWLRQVODWHULQ
WKH WUHQFKHV RIWKH )LUVW:RUOG :DU ZKHUH WKH \RXQJOLHXWHQDQWV IURP
*RWWLQJHQ DQG 2[IRUGVRPHKRZIRXQGURRP IRUDIHZ VOLPYROXPHV RI
SRHWU\2QHRIWKHPRVWSUHFLRXVERRNVLQP\RZQVPDOOFROOHFWLRQLVDQ
HGLWLRQ RI +|OGHUOLQ¶V Hymnen an die Ideale der Menschheit, LQVFULEHG
µ$GROI1RHOOH -DQXDU QRUG)UDQNUHLFK¶ D JLIW IURP D *HUPDQ
IULHQGZKRZDVWU\LQJWRH[SODLQ*HUPDQ\,¶PVWLOOQRWVXUH,XQGHUVWDQG
EXW,WKLQNWKHJHQHUDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIUHDGLQJZRXOGEHDGYDQFHGLIZH
WKRXJKWKDUGHUDERXWLWVLFRQRJUDSK\DQGDFFRXWUHPHQWVLQFOXGLQJIXU
QLWXUHDQGGUHVV
7KHKXPDQHOHPHQWLQWKHVHWWLQJPXVWKDYHDIIHFWHGWKHXQGHUVWDQG
LQJRIWKHWH[WV1RGRXEW*UHX]HVHQWLPHQWDOL]HGWKHFROOHFWLYHFKDUDFWHU
RI UHDGLQJ LQ KLV SDLQWLQJ RI Un pére de famille qui lit la Bible á ses
enfants. 5HVWLI GH OD %UHWRQQH SUREDEO\ GLG WKH VDPH LQ WKH IDPLO\
%LEOHUHDGLQJVGHVFULEHGLQLa vie de mon pére:µ-HQHVDXUDLVPHUDSSHOHU
VDQV DWWHQGULVVHPHQW DYHF TXHOOH DWWHQWLRQ FHWWH OHFWXUH pWDLW pFRXWpH
FRPPH HOOH FRPPXQLTXDLW i WRXWH OD QRPEUHXVH IDPLOOH XQ WRQ GH
ERQKRPLHHWGHIUDWHUQLWpGDQVODIDPLOOHMHFRPSUHQGVOHVGRPHVWLTXHV
0RQ SpUH FRPPHQJDLW WRXMRXUV SDU FHV PRWV ³5HFXHLOORQVQRXV PHV
HQIDQWV F¶HVWO¶(VSULW 6DLQW TXLYDSDUOHU´¶ %XW IRUDOOWKHLU VHQWLPHQW
DOLW\ VXFK GHVFULSWLRQV SURFHHG IURP D FRPPRQ DVVXPSWLRQ IRU WKH
FRPPRQ SHRSOH LQ HDUO\PRGHUQ (XURSH UHDGLQJ ZDV D VRFLDO DFWLYLW\
,WWRRNSODFHLQZRUNVKRSVEDPVDQGWDYHUQV,WZDVDOPRVWDOZD\VRUDO
EXW QRW QHFHVVDULO\ HGLI\LQJ 7KXV WKH SHDVDQW LQ WKH FRXQWU\ LQQ
GHVFULEHG ZLWK VRPH URVH WLQWLQJ DURXQG WKH HGJHV E\ &KULVWLDQ 6FKX
EDUWLQ
History o f Reading
8QGEULFKWGLH$EHQG]HLWKHUHLQ
6R WULQN LFKKDOWPHLQ 6FK|SSOH:HLQ
'DEHVWGHU+HUU6FKXOPHLVWHUPLU
:DV1HXHV DXVGHU=HLWXQJIXU
7KH PRVW LPSRUWDQW LQVWLWXWLRQ RI SRSXODU UHDGLQJ XQGHU WKH 2OG
5HJLPH ZDV D ILUHVLGH JDWKHULQJ NQRZQ DV WKH veilléeLQ )UDQFH DQG WKH
SpinnstubeLQ*HUPDQ\:KLOHFKLOGUHQ SOD\HG ZRPHQ VHZHG DQGPHQ
UHSDLUHG WRROV RQH RIWKH FRPSDQ\ ZKR FRXOG GHFLSKHU D WH[W ZRXOG
UHJDOHWKHPZLWKWKHDGYHQWXUHVRILes quatre fils Aymon, Till Eulenspie-
gel, RU VRPH RWKHU IDYRXULWH IURP WKH VWDQGDUG UHSHUWRU\ RIWKH FKHDS
SRSXODU FKDSERRNV 6RPH RIWKHVH SULPLWLYH SDSHUEDFNV LQGLFDWHG WKDW
WKH\ ZHUH PHDQW WR EH WDNHQ LQ WKURXJK WKH HDUV E\ EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK
SKUDVHV VXFK DV µ:KDW \RX DUH DERXW WR KHDU ¶ ,Q WKH QLQHWHHQWK
FHQWXU\ JURXSV RI DUWLVDQV HVSHFLDOO\ FLJDU PDNHUV DQG WDLORUV WRRN
WXUQV UHDGLQJ RU KLUHG D UHDGHU WR NHHS WKHPVHOYHV HQWHUWDLQHG ZKLOH
WKH\ ZRUNHG (YHQ WRGD\ PDQ\ SHRSOH JHW WKHLU QHZV E\ EHLQJ UHDGWR
E\ D WHOHFDVWHU 7HOHYLVLRQ PD\ EH OHVV RIDEUHDN ZLWK WKH SDVW WKDQ LV
JHQHUDOO\ DVVXPHG ,Q DQ\ FDVH IRU PRVW SHRSOH WKURXJKRXW PRVW RI
KLVWRU\ ERRNV KDG DXGLHQFHV UDWKHU WKDQ UHDGHUV 7KH\ ZHUH EHWWHU
KHDUGWKDQVHHQ
5HDGLQJ ZDV DPRUH SULYDWH H[SHULHQFH IRU WKH PLQRULW\ RIHGXFDWHG
SHUVRQVZKRFRXOGDIIRUGWREX\ERRNV%XWPDQ\RIWKHPMRLQHGUHDGLQJ
FOXEV cabinets littéraires RU Lesegesellschaften, ZKHUH WKH\ FRXOG UHDG
DOPRVW DQ\WKLQJ WKH\ ZDQWHG LQ D VRFLDEOH DWPRVSKHUH IRU D VPDOO
PRQWKO\SD\PHQW )UDQJRLVH3DUHQW/DUGHXUKDVWUDFHGWKHSUROLIHUDWLRQ
RIWKHVHFOXEV LQ3DULVXQGHUWKH 5HVWRUDWLRQEXW WKH\ZHQWEDFNZHOO
LQWR WKH HLJKWHHQWK FHQWXU\ 3URYLQFLDO ERRNVHOOHUV RIWHQ WXUQHG WKHLU
VWRFNLQWR DOLEUDU\DQGFKDUJHGGXHV IRUWKH ULJKW WR IUHTXHQWLW *RRG
OLJKW VRPHFRPIRUWDEOHFKDLUV DIHZSLFWXUHV RQWKHZDOO DQGVXEVFULS
WLRQV WR D KDOIGR]HQ QHZVSDSHUV ZHUH HQRXJK WR PDNH D FOXE RXW RI
DOPRVW DQ\ ERRNVKRS 7KXV WKH cabinet littéraire DGYHUWLVHG E\ 3 -
%HUQDUGDPLQRUERRNVHOOHULQ/XQpYLOOHµ8QHPDLVRQFRPPRGHJUDQGH
ELHQ pFODLUpH HW FKDXIIpH TXL VHUDLW RXYHUWH WRXV OHVMRXUV GHSXLV QHXI
KHXUHVGXPDWLQMXVTX¶iPLGLHWGHSXLVXQHKHXUHMXVTX¶iGL[RIIULUDLWGpV
FHW LQVWDQW DX[ DPDWHXUV GHX[PLOOH YROXPHV TXL VHUDLHQW DXJPHQWpV GH
TXDWUHFHQWVSDUDQQpH¶ %\1RYHPEHU WKHFOXEKDGPHPEHUV
PRVWO\RIILFHUVIURPWKHORFDOgendarmerie. )RUWKHPRGHVWVXPRIWKUHH
OLYUHVD\HDUWKH\KDGDFFHVVWRERRNVWKLUWHHQMRXUQDOVDQGVSHFLDO
URRPVVHWDVLGHIRUFRQYHUVDWLRQDQGZULWLQJVHHDSSHQGL[S
*HUPDQ UHDGLQJ FOXEV SURYLGHG WKH VRFLDO IRXQGDWLRQ IRU D GLVWLQFW
YDULHW\RIERXUJHRLVFXOWXUHLQWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ DFFRUGLQJWR2WWR
'DQQ 7KH\ VSUDQJXS DW DQDVWRXQGLQJUDWH HVSHFLDOO\ LQ WKH QRUWKHUQ
Robert Darnton
7KXVZHDOUHDG\NQRZDJRRGGHDODERXWWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOEDVHVRIUHDGLQJ
:HKDYHVRPHDQVZHUVWRWKHµZKR¶µZKDW¶µZKHUH¶DQGµZKHQ¶TXHVWLRQV
%XWWKHµZK\V¶DQGµKRZV¶HOXGHXV:HKDYHQRW\HWGHYLVHGDVWUDWHJ\IRU
XQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHLQQHUSURFHVVE\ZKLFKUHDGHUVPDGHVHQVHRIZRUGV:H
GRQRWHYHQXQGHUVWDQGWKHZD\ZHUHDGRXUVHOYHVGHVSLWHWKHHIIRUWVRI
SV\FKRORJLVWV DQGQHXURORJLVWV WR WUDFH H\H PRYHPHQWV DQG WR PDS WKH
KHPLVSKHUHVRIWKHEUDLQ,VWKHFRJQLWLYHSURFHVVGLIIHUHQWIRU&KLQHVHZKR
UHDGSLFWRJUDSKVDQGIRUZHVWHUQHUVZKRVFDQOLQHV")RU,VUDHOLVZKRUHDG
ZRUGVZLWKRXWYRZHOVPRYLQJIURPULJKWWROHIWDQGIRUEOLQGSHRSOHZKR
WUDQVPLWVWLPXOLWKURXJKWKHLUILQJHUV")RU6RXWKHDVW$VLDQVZKRVHODQ
JXDJHV ODFN WHQVHV DQG RUGHUUHDOLW\ VSDWLDOO\ DQGIRU$PHULFDQ ,QGLDQV
ZKRVH ODQJXDJHV KDYH EHHQ UHGXFHG WR ZULWLQJ RQO\ UHFHQWO\ E\ DOLHQ
VFKRODUV" )RU WKH KRO\ PDQ LQ WKH SUHVHQFH RIWKH :RUG DQG IRU WKH
FRQVXPHUVWXG\LQJODEHOVLQDVXSHUPDUNHW"7KHGLIIHUHQFHVVHHPHQGOHVV
IRUUHDGLQJLVQRWVLPSO\DVNLOOEXWDZD\RIPDNLQJPHDQLQJZKLFKPXVW
YDU\IURPFXOWXUHWRFXOWXUH ,WZRXOGEHH[WUDYDJDQWWRH[SHFWWRILQGD
IRUPXOD WKDW FRXOG DFFRXQW IRU DOO WKRVH YDULDWLRQV %XW LW VKRXOG EH
SRVVLEOHWRGHYHORSDZD\WRVWXG\WKHFKDQJHVLQUHDGLQJZLWKLQRXURZQ
FXOWXUH,ZRXOGOLNHWRVXJJHVWILYHDSSURDFKHVWRWKHSUREOHP
)LUVW , WKLQNLWVKRXOGEHSRVVLEOHWROHDUQPRUHDERXWWKHLGHDOV DQG
DVVXPSWLRQVXQGHUO\LQJUHDGLQJLQWKHSDVW:HFRXOGVWXG\FRQWHPSRU
DU\GHSLFWLRQVRIUHDGLQJLQILFWLRQ DXWRELRJUDSKLHVSROHPLFDOZULWLQJV
OHWWHUV SDLQWLQJV DQG SULQWV LQ RUGHU WR XQFRYHU VRPH EDVLF QRWLRQV RI
ZKDW SHRSOHWKRXJKWWRRNSODFHZKHQWKH\UHDG &RQVLGHU IRUH[DPSOH
WKH JUHDW GHEDWH DERXW WKH FUD]H IRU UHDGLQJ LQ ODWH HLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\
*HUPDQ\ 7KRVHZKRGHSORUHG WKHLesewut GLGQRW VLPSO\FRQGHPQLWV
HIIHFWVRQPRUDOVDQGSROLWLFV7KH\IHDUHGLWZRXOGGDPDJHSXEOLFKHDOWK
,QDWUDFWRI-* +HLQ]HPDQQOLVWHGWKHSK\VLFDOFRQVHTXHQFHVRI
H[FHVVLYH UHDGLQJ µVXVFHSWLELOLW\ WR FROGV KHDGDFKHV ZHDNHQLQJ RIWKH
H\HV KHDW UDVKHV JRXW DUWKULWLV KDHPRUUKRLGV DVWKPD DSRSOH[\ SXO
PRQDU\ GLVHDVH LQGLJHVWLRQ EORFNLQJ RIWKH ERZHOV QHUYRXV GLVRUGHU
History o f Reading
7KH UHSRUWV RIFHQVRUV DOVR FDQ EH UHYHDOLQJ DW OHDVW LQ WKH FDVH RI
ERRNVIURPHDUO\PRGHP)UDQFHZKHUHFHQVRUVKLSZDVKLJKO\GHYHORSHG
LIQRW HQRUPRXVO\ HIIHFWLYH $ W\SLFDO WUDYHO ERRN Nouveau voyage aux
isles de l ’Amérique3DULV E\-% /DEDW FRQWDLQV IRXUµDSSURED
WLRQV¶SULQWHGRXWLQIXOOQH[WWRWKHSULYLOHJH2QHFHQVRUH[SODLQVWKDWWKH
PDQXVFULSWSLTXHGKLVFXULRVLW\µ,WLVGLIILFXOWWREHJLQUHDGLQJLWZLWKRXW
IHHOLQJ WKDW PLOG EXW DYLG FXULRVLW\ WKDW LPSHOV XV WR UHDG IXUWKHU¶
$QRWKHUUHFRPPHQGVLWIRULWVµVLPSOHDQGFRQFLVHVW\OH¶ DQGDOVRIRULWV
XWLOLW\µ1RWKLQJLQP\RSLQLRQLVVRXVHIXOWRWUDYHOOHUVWRWKHLQKDELWDQWV
RIWKDW FRXQWU\ WR WUDGHVPHQ DQG WR WKRVH ZKR VWXG\ QDWXUDO KLVWRU\¶
$QGDWKLUGVLPSO\IRXQGLWDJRRGUHDG 7KDGJUHDWSOHDVXUHLQUHDGLQJ
LW ,W FRQWDLQV D PXOWLWXGH RIFXULRXV WKLQJV¶ &HQVRUV GLG QRW VLPSO\
KRXQGRXWKHUHWLFVDQGUHYROXWLRQDULHV DVZHWHQGWRDVVXPHLQORRNLQJ
EDFN WKURXJK WLPH DFURVV WKH ,QTXLVLWLRQ DQG WKH (QOLJKWHQPHQW 7KH\
JDYHWKHUR\DOVWDPSRIDSSURYDOWRDZRUNDQGLQGRLQJVRWKH\SURYLGHG
FOXHV DV WR KRZ LW PLJKW EH UHDG 7KHLU YDOXHV FRQVWLWXWHG DQ RIILFLDO
VWDQGDUGDJDLQVWZKLFKRUGLQDU\UHDGLQJVPLJKWEHPHDVXUHG
%XWKRZGLGRUGLQDU\UHDGHUVUHDG"0\VHFRQGVXJJHVWLRQIRUDWWDFNLQJ
WKDWSUREOHPFRQFHUQVWKHZD\VUHDGLQJZDVOHDUQHG ,QVWXG\LQJOLWHUDF\
LQ VHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\ (QJODQG 0DUJDUHW 6SXIIRUG GLVFRYHUHG WKDW D
JUHDW GHDO RIOHDUQLQJWRRN SODFH RXWVLGHWKH VFKRROURRP LQZRUNVKRSV
DQGILHOGVZKHUHODERXUHUVWDXJKWWKHPVHOYHVDQGRQHDQRWKHU ,QVLGHWKH
VFKRRO (QJOLVK FKLOGUHQ OHDUQHG WR UHDG EHIRUH WKH\ OHDUQHG WR ZULWH
LQVWHDG RI DFTXLULQJ WKH WZR VNLOOV WRJHWKHU DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKHLU
HGXFDWLRQ DVWKH\GRWRGD\7KH\RIWHQMRLQHGWKHZRUNIRUFHEHIRUHWKH
DJH RIVHYHQ ZKHQ LQVWUXFWLRQV LQ ZULWLQJ EHJDQ 6R OLWHUDF\ HVWLPDWHV
EDVHGRQWKHDELOLW\WRZULWHPD\EHPXFKWRRORZDQGWKHUHDGLQJSXEOLF
PD\KDYHLQFOXGHGDJUHDWPDQ\SHRSOHZKRFRXOGQRWVLJQWKHLUQDPHV
%XWµUHDGLQJ¶IRUVXFKSHRSOHSUREDEO\PHDQWVRPHWKLQJTXLWHGLIIHUHQW
IURP ZKDW LW PHDQV WRGD\ ,Q HDUO\ PRGHP )UDQFH WKH WKUHH 5V ZHUH
OHDUQHGLQVHTXHQFH ILUVWUHDGLQJWKHQZULWLQJWKHQDULWKPHWLF MXVWDV
LQ (QJODQG DQG LW VHHPV DOO RWKHU FRXQWULHV LQ WKH ZHVW 7KH PRVW
FRPPRQSULPHUV IURP WKH 2OG 5HJLPH $%&V OLNH WKH Croix de Jésus
DQG WKH Croix de par Dieu - EHJLQ DV PRGHP PDQXDOV GR ZLWK WKH
DOSKDEHW %XW WKH OHWWHUV KDG GLIIHUHQW VRXQGV 7KH SXSLOSURQRXQFHG D
IODWYRZHOEHIRUHHDFKFRQVRQDQWVRWKDWSFDPHRXWDVµHKS¶UDWKHUWKDQ
µSp¶ DV LW LV WRGD\ :KHQ VDLG DORXG WKH OHWWHUV GLG QRW OLQN WRJHWKHU
SKRQHWLFDOO\ LQ FRPELQDWLRQV WKDW FRXOG EH UHFRJQL]HG E\ WKH HDU DV
V\OODEOHV RID ZRUG 7KXVp-a-t LQpater VRXQGHG OLNH µHKSDKHQW¶ %XW
WKH SKRQHWLF IX]]LQHVV GLG QRW UHDOO\ PDWWHU EHFDXVH WKH OHWWHUV ZHUH
PHDQW DV D YLVXDO VWLPXOXV WR WULJJHU WKH PHPRU\ RI D WH[W WKDW KDG
DOUHDG\ EHHQ OHDUQHG E\ KHDUW DQG WKH WH[W ZDV DOZD\V LQ /DWLQ 7KH
ZKROH V\VWHP ZDV EXLOW RQ WKH SUHPLVH WKDW )UHQFK FKLOGUHQ VKRXOG QRW
History o f Reading
EHJLQWRUHDGLQ)UHQFK7KH\SDVVHGGLUHFWO\IURPWKHDOSKDEHWWRVLPSOH
V\OODEOHVDQGWKHQWRWKHPater Noster, Ave Maria, CredoDQGBenedicite.
+DYLQJOHDUQHGWRUHFRJQL]HWKHVHFRPPRQSUD\HUVWKH\ZRUNHGWKURXJK
OLWXUJLFDOUHVSRQVHVSULQWHGLQVWDQGDUGFKDSERRNV$WWKLVSRLQWPDQ\RI
WKHPOHIWVFKRRO7KH\KDGDFTXLUHGHQRXJKPDVWHU\RIWKHSULQWHGZRUG
WR IXOILO WKH IXQFWLRQV H[SHFWHG RI WKHP E\ WKH &KXUFK WKDW LV WR
SDUWLFLSDWH LQ LWV ULWXDOV %XW WKH\ KDG QHYHU UHDG D WH[W LQ D ODQJXDJH
WKH\FRXOGXQGHUVWDQG
6RPHFKLOGUHQ ZHGRQ¶WNQRZKRZPDQ\SHUKDSVDPLQRULW\LQWKH
VHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\DQGDPDMRULW\LQWKHHLJKWHHQWK UHPDLQHGLQVFKRRO
ORQJHQRXJKWROHDUQWRUHDGLQ)UHQFK(YHQWKHQKRZHYHUUHDGLQJZDV
RIWHQ D PDWWHU RIUHFRJQL]LQJ VRPHWKLQJ DOUHDG\ NQRZQ UDWKHU WKDQ D
SURFHVVRIDFTXLULQJQHZNQRZOHGJH1HDUO\DOORIWKHVFKRROVZHUHUXQE\
WKH &KXUFK DQG QHDUO\ DOO RI WKH VFKRROERRNV ZHUH UHOLJLRXV XVXDOO\
FDWHFKLVPV DQGSLRXVWH[WERRNVOLNHWKHEscole paroissialeE\-DFTXHVGH
%DWHQFRXU ,Q WKH HDUO\ HLJKWHHQWK FHQWXU\ WKH )UpUHV GHV (FROHV &KUp
WLHQQHVEHJDQWRSURYLGHWKHVDPHWH[WWRVHYHUDOSXSLOVDQGWRWHDFKWKHP
DVDJURXS DILUVWVWHS WRZDUGVVWDQGDUGL]HGLQVWUXFWLRQZKLFKZDVWR
EHFRPHWKHUXOHDKXQGUHG\HDUVODWHU $WWKHVDPHWLPHDIHZWXWRUVLQ
DULVWRFUDWLFKRXVHKROGV EHJDQWR WHDFK UHDGLQJ GLUHFWO\LQ)UHQFK 7KH\
GHYHORSHG SKRQHWLF WHFKQLTXHV DQG DXGLRYLVXDO DLGV OLNH WKH SLFWRULDO
IODVKFDUGV RIWKHDEEp %HUWKDXGDQGWKHbureau typographiqueRI/RXLV
'XPDV %\ WKHLUH[DPSOHKDG VSUHDG WR VRPHSURJUHVVLYHSULPDU\
VFKRROV %XW PRVW FKLOGUHQ VWLOO OHDUQHG WR UHDG E\ VWDQGLQJ EHIRUH WKH
PDVWHU DQG UHFLWLQJ SDVVDJHV IURP ZKDWHYHU WH[W WKH\ FRXOG JHW WKHLU
KDQGV RQ ZKLOH WKHLU FODVVPDWHV VWUXJJOHG ZLWK D PRWOH\ FROOHFWLRQ RI
ERRNOHWV RQ WKH EDFN EHQFKHV 6RPH RIWKHVH µVFKRROERRNV¶ ZRXOG UH
DSSHDULQWKHHYHQLQJDWWKHveillée,EHFDXVHWKH\ZHUHSRSXODUEHVWVHOOHUV
IURPWKHbibliothéque bleue.6RUHDGLQJDURXQGWKHILUHVLGHKDGVRPHWKLQJ
LQFRPPRQZLWKUHDGLQJLQWKHFODVVURRP LWZDV DUHFLWDORIDWH[WWKDW
HYHU\RQH DOUHDG\ NQHZ ,QVWHDG RI RSHQLQJ XS OLPLWOHVV YLVWDV RIQHZ
LGHDV LW SUREDEO\ UHPDLQHG ZLWKLQ D FORVHG FLUFXLW H[DFWO\ ZKHUH WKH
SRVW7ULGHQWLQH &KXUFK ZDQWHG WR NHHS LW µ3UREDEO\¶ KRZHYHU LV WKH
JRYHUQLQJZRUG LQWKDWSURSRVLWLRQ :HFDQRQO\JXHVV DWWKHQDWXUH RI
HDUO\ PRUQLQJ SHGDJRJ\ E\ UHDGLQJ WKH IHZSULPHUV DQG WKH VWLOO IHZHU
PHPRLUV WKDW KDYH VXUYLYHG IURP WKDW HUD :H GRQ¶W NQRZ ZKDW UHDOO\
KDSSHQHGLQWKHFODVVURRP$QGZKDWHYHUKDSSHQHGWKHSHDVDQWUHDGHU
OLVWHQHUV PD\ KDYH FRQVWUXHG WKHLU FDWHFKLVP DV ZHOO DV WKHLU DGYHQWXUH
VWRULHVLQZD\VWKDWFRPSOHWHO\HVFDSHXV
,IWKHH[SHULHQFHRIWKHJUHDWPDVVRIUHDGHUVOLHVEH\RQGWKHUDQJHRI
KLVWRULFDOUHVHDUFKKLVWRULDQVVKRXOGEHDEOHWRFDSWXUHVRPHWKLQJRIZKDW
UHDGLQJPHDQWIRUWKHIHZSHUVRQVZKROHIWDUHFRUGRILW$WKLUGDSSURDFK
FRXOG EHJLQ ZLWK WKH EHVWNQRZQ DXWRELRJUDSKLFDO DFFRXQWV WKRVH RI
Robert Darnton
ZULWHUVKDYHUHDGWKHPXVLQJWKHDQQRWDWLRQVLQFROOHFWRUV¶LWHPVVXFKDV
'LGHURW¶V FRS\ RI WKH Encyclopédie DQG 0HOYLOOH¶V FRS\ RI (PHUVRQ¶V
HVVD\V %XWWKHLQTXLU\QHHGQ¶WEHOLPLWHGWR JUHDWERRNVRUWR ERRNV DW
DOO 3HWHU %XUNH LV FXUUHQWO\ VWXG\LQJ WKH JUDIILWL RI5HQDLVVDQFH ,WDO\
:KHQVFULEEOHGRQWKHGRRURIDQHQHP\WKH\RIWHQIXQFWLRQHGDVULWXDO
LQVXOWVZKLFKGHILQHGWKHOLQHVRIVRFLDOFRQIOLFWGLYLGLQJQHLJKERXUKRRGV
DQGFODQV:KHQDWWDFKHGWRWKHIDPRXVVWDWXHRI3DVTXLQRLQ5RPHWKLV
SXEOLF VFULEEOLQJ VHW WKH WRQH RI D ULFK DQG LQWHQVHO\ SROLWLFDO VWUHHW
FXOWXUH $ KLVWRU\ RIUHDGLQJ PLJKW EH DEOH WR DGYDQFH E\ JUHDW OHDSV
IURP WKH 3DVTXLQDGH DQG WKH &RPPHGLD GHOO¶$UWH WR 0ROLpUH IURP
0ROLpUHWR5RXVVHDXDQGIURP5RXVVHDXWR5REHVSLHUUH
0\ IRXUWK VXJJHVWLRQ FRQFHUQV OLWHUDU\ WKHRU\ ,W FDQ , DJUHH ORRN
GDXQWLQJHVSHFLDOO\WRWKHRXWVLGHU,WFRPHVZUDSSHGLQLPSRVLQJODEHOV
VWUXFWXUDOLVPGHFRQVWUXFWLRQKHUPHQHXWLFVVHPLRWLFVSKHQRPHQRORJ\
DQGLW JRHV DV UDSLGO\ DV LWFRPHV IRUWKH WUHQGV GLVSODFH RQH DQRWKHU
ZLWKEHZLOGHULQJVSHHG7KURXJKWKHPDOOKRZHYHU UXQVDFRQFHUQWKDW
FRXOGOHDGWRVRPHFROODERUDWLRQEHWZHHQOLWHUDU\FULWLFVDQGKLVWRULDQVRI
WKHERRN WKHFRQFHUQIRUUHDGLQJ:KHWKHUWKH\XQHDUWKGHHSVWUXFWXUHV
RUWHDUGRZQ V\VWHPV RIVLJQVFULWLFVKDYHLQFUHDVLQJO\WUHDWHGOLWHUDWXUH
DVDQDFWLYLW\UDWKHUWKDQDQHVWDEOLVKHGERG\ RIWH[WV7KH\LQVLVWWKDWD
ERRN¶VPHDQLQJLVQRWIL[HGRQLWVSDJHVLWLVFRQVWUXHGE\LWVUHDGHUV6R
UHDGHUUHVSRQVHKDVEHFRPHWKHNH\SRLQWDURXQGZKLFKOLWHUDU\DQDO\VLV
WXUQV
,Q *HUPDQ\ WKLV DSSURDFK KDV OHG WR D UHYLYDO RIOLWHUDU\ KLVWRU\ DV
RezeptionsásthetikXQGHUWKHOHDGHUVKLSRI+DQV5REHUW-DXVVDQG:ROI
JDQJ ,VHU ,Q )UDQFH LW KDV WDNHQ D SKLORVRSKLFDO WXUQ LQ WKH ZRUN RI
5RODQG%DUWKHV 3DXO5LF°XU7]YHWDQ7RGRURYDQG*HRUJHV3RXOHW ,Q
WKH8QLWHG6WDWHVLWLVVWLOOLQWKHPHOWLQJSRWVWDJH:D\QH%RRWK3DXOGH
0DQ -RQDWKDQ &XOOHU *HRIIUH\ +DUWPDQ - +LOOLV 0LOOHU DQG 6WDQOH\
)LVKKDYHVXSSOLHGLQJUHGLHQWVIRUDJHQHUDOWKHRU\EXWQRFRQVHQVXVKDV
HPHUJHGIURPWKHLUGHEDWHV 1RQHWKHOHVV DOOWKLVFULWLFDODFWLYLW\SRLQWV
WRZDUGVDQHZWH[WRORJ\DQGDOOWKHFULWLFVVKDUHDZD\RIZRUNLQJZKHQ
WKH\LQWHUSUHWVSHFLILFWH[WV
&RQVLGHUIRUH[DPSOH:DOWHU2QJ¶VDQDO\VLVRIWKHILUVWVHQWHQFHVLQA
Farewell to Arms:
:KDW\HDU":KDWULYHU"2QJDVNV+HPLQJZD\GRHVQRWVD\%\XQRUWKR
GR[XVHRIWKHGHILQLWHDUWLFOH µWKHULYHU¶LQVWHDGR IµDULYHU¶ DQGVSDUVH
Robert Darn ton
GHSOR\PHQW RI DGMHFWLYHV KH LPSOLHV WKDW WKH UHDGHU GRHV QRW QHHG D
GHWDLOHG GHVFULSWLRQ RIWKH VFHQH $ UHPLQGHU ZLOO EH HQRXJK EHFDXVH
WKHUHDGHULVGHHPHGWRKDYHEHHQWKHUHDOUHDG\ +HLVDGGUHVVHGDVLIKH
ZHUHDFRQILGDQWDQGIHOORZWUDYHOOHUZKRPHUHO\QHHGVWREHUHPLQGHGLQ
RUGHUWRUHFROOHFWWKHKDUGJOLQWRIWKHVXQWKHFRDUVHWDVWHRIWKHZLQHDQG
WKHVWHQFKRIWKHGHDGLQ)LUVW:RUOG:DU,WDO\6KRXOGWKHUHDGHUREMHFW
DQG RQH FDQ LPDJLQH PDQ\ UHVSRQVHV VXFK DV µ, DP D VL[W\\HDUROG
JUDQGPRWKHUDQG,GRQ¶WNQRZDQ\WKLQJDERXWULYHUVLQ,WDO\¶ VKHZRQ¶W
EHDEOHWRµJHW¶WKHERRN%XWLIVKHDFFHSWVWKHUROHLPSRVHGRQKHUE\WKH
UKHWRULF KHUILFWLRQDOL]HG VHOIFDQ VZHOO WR WKH GLPHQVLRQV RIWKH +HPL
QJZD\KHUR DQG VKHFDQ JR WKURXJKWKHQDUUDWLYH DV WKH DXWKRU¶VFRP
SDQLRQLQDUPV
(DUOLHU UKHWRULFXVXDOO\ RSHUDWHG LQ WKH RSSRVLWH PDQQHU ,W DVVXPHG
WKDWWKHUHDGHUNQHZQRWKLQJDERXWWKHVWRU\DQGQHHGHGWREHRULHQWHG
E\ULFKGHVFULSWLYHSDVVDJHVRULQWURGXFWRU\REVHUYDWLRQV7KXVWKHRSHQ
LQJRIPride and Prejudice
7KLVNLQGRIQDUUDWLYHPRYHVIURPWKHJHQHUDOWRWKHSDUWLFXODU,WSODFHV
WKHLQGHILQLWHDUWLFOHILUVWDQGKHOSVWKHUHDGHUJHWKLVEHDULQJE\GHJUHHV
%XWLWDOZD\VNHHSVKLPDWDGLVWDQFHEHFDXVHKHLVSUHVXPHGWRHQWHUWKH
VWRU\DVDQRXWVLGHUDQGWREHUHDGLQJIRULQVWUXFWLRQDPXVHPHQWRUVRPH
KLJKPRUDOSXUSRVH$VLQWKHFDVHRIWKH+HPLQJZD\QRYHOKHPXVWSOD\
KLVUROHIRUWKHUKHWRULFWRZRUNEXWWKHUROHLVFRPSOHWHO\GLIIHUHQW
:ULWHUVKDYHGHYLVHGPDQ\RWKHUZD\VWRLQLWLDWHUHDGHUVLQWRVWRULHV$
YDVWGLVWDQFHVHSDUDWHV0HOYLOOH¶Vµ&DOOPH,VKPDHO¶IURP0LOWRQ¶VSUD\HU
IRU KHOS WR µMXVWLI\ WKH ZD\V RI*RG WR PHQ¶ %XW HYHU\ QDUUDWLYH SUH
VXSSRVHV D UHDGHU DQG HYHU\ UHDGLQJ EHJLQV IURP D SURWRFRO LQVFULEHG
ZLWKLQ WKH WH[W 7KH WH[WPD\XQGHUFXW LWVHOI DQG WKH UHDGHU PD\ ZRUN
DJDLQVWWKHJUDLQ RUZULQJQHZPHDQLQJIURPIDPLOLDU ZRUGV KHQFHWKH
HQGOHVVSRVVLELOLWLHV RILQWHUSUHWDWLRQSURSRVHG E\WKHGHFRQVWUXFWLRQLVWV
DQGWKHRULJLQDOUHDGLQJVWKDWKDYHVKDSHGFXOWXUDOKLVWRU\ 5RXVVHDX¶V
UHDGLQJ RI Le misanthrope, IRU H[DPSOH RU .LHUNHJDDUG¶V UHDGLQJ RI
*HQHVLV %XW ZKDWHYHU RQH PDNHV RI LW UHDGLQJ KDV UHHPHUJHG DV
WKHFHQWUDO IDFWRIOLWHUDWXUH
History o f Reading
,IVRWKHWLPHLVULSHIRUPDNLQJDMXQFWXUHEHWZHHQOLWHUDU\WKHRU\DQG
WKH KLVWRU\ RI ERRNV 7KH WKHRU\ FDQ UHYHDO WKH UDQJH LQ SRWHQWLDO
UHVSRQVHV WR D WH[W WKDW LV WR WKH UKHWRULFDO FRQVWUDLQWV WKDW GLUHFW
UHDGLQJ ZLWKRXW GHWHUPLQLQJ LW 7KH KLVWRU\ FDQ VKRZ ZKDW UHDGLQJV
DFWXDOO\ WRRN SODFH WKDW LV ZLWKLQ WKH OLPLWV RIDQ LPSHUIHFW ERG\ RI
HYLGHQFH %\ SD\LQJ KHHG WR KLVWRU\ WKH OLWHUDU\ FULWLFV PD\ DYRLG WKH
GDQJHURIDQDFKURQLVP IRU WKH\ VRPHWLPHV VHHPWR DVVXPH WKDW VHYHQ
WHHQWKFHQWXU\ (QJOLVKPHQ UHDG 0LOWRQ DQG %XQ\DQ DV LI WKH\ ZHUH
WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ FROOHJH SURIHVVRUV %\ WDNLQJ DFFRXQW RIUKHWRULF WKH
KLVWRULDQVPD\ILQGFOXHVWREHKDYLRXUWKDWZRXOGRWKHUZLVHEHEDIIOLQJ
VXFK DV WKH SDVVLRQV DURXVHG IURP Clarissa WR La nouvelle Héloise DQG
IURP WertherWRRené.,ZRXOGWKHUHIRUHDUJXHIRUDGXDOVWUDWHJ\ZKLFK
ZRXOG FRPELQH WH[WXDO DQDO\VLV ZLWK HPSLULFDO UHVHDUFK ,Q WKLV ZD\ LW
VKRXOGEH SRVVLEOHWR FRPSDUH WKHLPSOLFLWUHDGHUV RIWKH WH[WVZLWKWKH
DFWXDO UHDGHUV RI WKH SDVW DQG E\ EXLOGLQJ RQ VXFK FRPSDULVRQV WR
GHYHORSDKLVWRU\DVZHOO DVDWKHRU\RIUHDGHUUHVSRQVH
6XFK D KLVWRU\ FRXOG EH UHLQIRUFHG E\ D ILIWK PRGH RIDQDO\VLV RQH
EDVHGRQDQDO\WLFDOELEOLRJUDSK\ %\VWXG\LQJERRNVDVSK\VLFDOREMHFWV
ELEOLRJUDSKHUVKDYHGHPRQVWUDWHGWKDWWKHW\SRJUDSKLFDOGLVSRVLWLRQRID
WH[WFDQWRDFRQVLGHUDEOHH[WHQWGHWHUPLQHLWVPHDQLQJDQGWKHZD\LWZDV
UHDG,QDUHPDUNDEOHVWXG\RI&RQJUHYH')0F.HQ]LHKDVVKRZQWKDW
WKH EDZG\ QHR(OL]DEHWKDQ SOD\ZULJKW NQRZQ WR XV IURP WKH TXDUWR
HGLWLRQVRIWKHODWHVHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\XQGHUZHQWDW\SRJUDSKLFDOUHELUWK
LQKLVROGDJHDQGHPHUJHGDVWKHVWDWHO\QHRFODVVLFDODXWKRURIWKHWKUHH
YROXPHRFWDYR WorksSXEOLVKHGLQ,QGLYLGXDOZRUGVUDUHO\FKDQJHG
IURP RQH HGLWLRQ WR DQRWKHU EXW D WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ LQ WKH GHVLJQ RIWKH
ERRNVJDYHWKHSOD\VDQHQWLUHO\QHZIODYRXU %\DGGLQJVFHQHGLYLVLRQV
JURXSLQJFKDUDFWHUVUHORFDWLQJOLQHVDQGEULQJLQJRXWliaisons des scenes,
&RQJUHYHILWWHGKLVROGWH[WVLQWRWKHQHZFODVVLFDOPRGHOGHULYHGIURPWKH
)UHQFK VWDJH 7R JR IURPWKH TXDUWR WR WKH RFWDYR YROXPHV LV WRPRYH
IURP(OL]DEHWKDQWR*HRUJLDQ(QJODQG
5RJHU&KDUWLHUKDVIRXQGVLPLODUEXWPRUHVRFLRORJLFDOLPSOLFDWLRQVLQ
WKHPHWDPRUSKRVHVRID6SDQLVKFODVVLFHistoria de la vida del BuscónE\
)UDQFLVFRGH4XHYHGR 7KH QRYHOZDV RULJLQDOO\LQWHQGHGIRUD VRSKLVW
LFDWHGSXEOLF ERWKLQ6SDLQZKHUHLW ZDV ILUVWSXEOLVKHGLQ DQGLQ
)UDQFHZKHUHLWFDPHRXWLQDQHOHJDQWWUDQVODWLRQLQ%XWLQWKHPLG
VHYHQWHHQWK FHQWXU\ WKH 2XGRW DQG *DPLHUKRXVHV RI7UR\HV EHJDQ WR
SXEOLVKDVHULHVRIFKHDSSDSHUEDFNHGLWLRQVZKLFKPDGHLWDVWDSOHRIWKH
SRSXODUOLWHUDWXUHNQRZQ DVWKHbibliothéque bleueIRUWZRFHQWXULHV7KH
SRSXODU SXEOLVKHUV GLG QRW KHVLWDWH WR WLQNHU ZLWK WKH WH[W EXW WKH\
FRQFHQWUDWHGSULPDULO\RQERRNGHVLJQ ZKDW&KDUWLHUFDOOV WKH µPLVH HQ
OLYUH¶7KH\ EURNHWKHVWRU\ LQWRVLPSOH XQLWV VKRUWHQLQJVHQWHQFHV VXE
GLYLGLQJ SDUDJUDSKV DQG PXOWLSO\LQJ WKH QXPEHU RIFKDSWHUV 7KH QHZ
Robert Darnton
7KH%RG\RI
%)UDQNOLQ 3ULQWHU
/LNHWKHFRYHURIDQROG%RRN
,WV&RQWHQWVWRUQRXW
$QGVWULSWRILWV/HWWHULQJ *LOGLQJ
/LHVKHUH)RRGIRU:RUPV
%XWWKH:RUNVKDOOQRWEHORVW
)RULWZLOODVKHEHOLHY¶G
$SSHDURQFHPRUH
,QDQHZDQGPRUHHOHJDQW(GLWLRQ
&RUUHFWHGDQGLPSURYHG
%\WKH$XWKRU
, GRQ¶W ZDQW WR PDNH WRR PXFK RIWKH PHWDSKRU VLQFH )UDQNOLQ KDV
DOUHDG\ IORJJHG LW WR GHDWK EXW UDWKHU WR UHWXUQ WR D SRLQW VR VLPSOH
WKDWLWPD\HVFDSH RXUQRWLFH 5HDGLQJKDVDKLVWRU\ ,W ZDVQRWDOZD\V
DQGHYHU\ZKHUHWKHVDPH:HPD\WKLQNRILWDVDVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGSURFHVV
RIOLIWLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ IURP D SDJH EXW LIZH FRQVLGHUHG LW IXUWKHU ZH
ZRXOG DJUHH WKDW LQIRUPDWLRQ PXVW EH VLIWHG VRUWHG DQG LQWHUSUHWHG
,QWHUSUHWLYHVFKHPHVEHORQJWRFXOWXUDOFRQILJXUDWLRQVZKLFKKDYHYDULHG
HQRUPRXVO\RYHUWLPH$VRXUDQFHVWRUVOLYHGLQGLIIHUHQWPHQWDOZRUOGV
WKH\PXVW KDYH UHDGGLIIHUHQWO\ DQG WKH KLVWRU\ RIUHDGLQJ FRXOG EH DV
FRPSOH[DVWKHKLVWRU\RIWKLQNLQJ ,WFRXOGEH VRFRPSOH[ LQ IDFWWKDW
WKH ILYH VWHSV VXJJHVWHG KHUH PD\ OHDG LQ GLVSDUDWH GLUHFWLRQV RU VHW XV
FLUFOLQJ DURXQGWKHSUREOHPLQGHILQLWHO\ZLWKRXWSHQHWUDWLQJWR LWV FRUH
7KHUHDUHQRGLUHFWURXWHVRUVKRUWFXWVEHFDXVHUHDGLQJLVQRWDGLVWLQFW
WKLQJ OLNH DFRQVWLWXWLRQ RU DVRFLDO RUGHU WKDW FDQEHWUDFNHG WKURXJK
WLPH ,WLVDQDFWLYLW\LQYROYLQJDSHFXOLDUUHODWLRQ RQWKHRQHKDQGWKH
UHDGHU RQ WKH RWKHU WKH WH[W $OWKRXJK UHDGHUV DQG WH[WV KDYH YDULHG
DFFRUGLQJWRVRFLDODQGWHFKQRORJLFDOFLUFXPVWDQFHVWKHKLVWRU\RIUHDG
LQJVKRXOG QRWEHUHGXFHGWRDFKURQRORJ\RIWKRVHYDULDWLRQV ,WVKRXOG
Robert Darnton
JR EH\RQG WKHP WR FRQIURQW WKH UHODWLRQDO HOHPHQW DW WKH KHDUW RIWKH
PDWWHU KRZGLGFKDQJLQJUHDGHUVKLSVFRQVWUXHVKLIWLQJWH[WV"
7KHTXHVWLRQVRXQGVDEVWUXVHEXWDJUHDWGHDOKDQJVRQLW7KLQNKRZ
RIWHQ UHDGLQJ KDV FKDQJHG WKH FRXUVH RIKLVWRU\ /XWKHU¶V UHDGLQJ RI
3DXO 0DU[¶V UHDGLQJ RI+HJHO 0DR¶V UHDGLQJ RI0DU[ 7KRVH SRLQWV
VWDQG RXW LQ D GHHSHU YDVWHU SURFHVV PDQ¶V XQHQGLQJ HIIRUW WR ILQG
PHDQLQJLQWKHZRUOGDURXQGKLPDQGZLWKLQKLPVHOI,IZHFRXOGXQGHU
VWDQG KRZ KHKDV UHDG ZH FRXOGFRPH FORVHU WR XQGHUVWDQGLQJKRZ KH
PDGH VHQVH RIOLIH DQG LQ WKDW ZD\ WKH KLVWRULFDO ZD\ ZH PLJKW HYHQ
VDWLVI\VRPHRIRXURZQFUDYLQJIRUPHDQLQJ
$1RWHRQ5HFHQW+LVWRULHVRI5HDGLQJ3%
,Q WKH ODVW GHFDGH ZH KDYH VHHQ D YHULWDEOH H[SORVLRQ RIVWXGLHV RIWKH
KLVWRU\RIUHDGLQJLQWKHVHQVHLQZKLFK5REHUW'DUQWRQGHILQHGLWLQKLV
FKDSWHUDOWKRXJKWKHROGHUKLVWRU\RIWKHERRNDOVRFRQWLQXHVWRIORXULVK
6RPHRIWKHQHZVWXGLHVDUHPRQRJUDSKLF EXWFROOHFWLYHKLVWRULHVRIWKH
ERRN LQ %ULWDLQ DQG WKH 86$ DUH LQ SURJUHVV 7KH )UHQFK SLRQHHUV
QRWDEO\ +HQUL-HDQ 0DUWLQ 'DQLHO 5RFKH DQG 5RJHU &KDUWLHU KDYH
FRQWLQXHGWR FRQWULEXWH WR WKLVILHOG ZKLOH 5REHUW 'DUQWRQKLPVHOIKDV
SURGXFHGDQHZVWXG\RIZKDWKHFDOOVWKH µIRUELGGHQEHVWVHOOHUVRISUH
UHYROXWLRQDU\)UDQFH¶:RUNRQ,WDO\*HUPDQ\6SDLQDQGRWKHUFRXQ
WULHVFRQWLQXHV ZKLOH DQXQXVXDO QXPEHURIUHFHQWVWXGLHV KDYHIRFXVHG
RQUHDGLQJLQ(QJODQGWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQRIOLEUDULHVWKHSODFHVSULYDWHRU
SXEOLFLQZKLFKUHDGLQJWRRNSODFHDQGHYHQWKHSRVWXUHVWDNHQE\UHDG
HUVZKHWKHUWKH\VWRRG VDWRUOD\GRZQ
2QHIUXLWIXOGHYHORSPHQWKDVEHHQWRJLYHPRUHDWWHQWLRQWRWKHUHDGLQJ
SUDFWLFHVRILQGLYLGXDOV /LVD-DUGLQHDQG$QWKRQ\*UDIWRQKDYHVWXGLHG
KRZ*DEULHO+DUYH\DQGKLVFLUFOHUHDG/LY\&DHVDUDQGRWKHUWH[WVµIRU
DFWLRQ¶LQRWKHUZRUGVIRUDGYLFHZKLFKFRXOGEHDSSOLHGWRFRQWHPSRU
DU\SROLWLFV :LOOLDP6KHUPDQKDVVWXGLHG-RKQ'HHDVDUHDGHUWKURXJK
WKHXQGHUOLQLQJ DQG PDUJLQDOQRWHV LQ KLVERRNV -RKQ %UHZHUKDV DQD
O\VHGWKHGLDU\²LQVHYHQWHHQYROXPHV²RIDQHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\(QJOLVK
ZRPDQ $QQD 0DUJDUHWWD /DUSHQW QRWLQJ µKHU SUHGLOHFWLRQ IRU ZRPHQ
DXWKRUVDQGIRUZRUNVZLWKIHPDOHSURWDJRQLVWV¶
$QDOWHUQDWLYHVWUDWHJ\RIDQDO\VLVLVWRIRFXVRQGLIIHUHQWUHDGHUVRIWKH
VDPHWH[W'DUQWRQKLPVHOIRQFHH[DPLQHGWKHUHVSRQVHVRIUHDGHUVWRWKH
ZRUNRI5RXVVHDXRQWKHEDVLVRIVXUYLYLQJOHWWHUVWRWKHSXEOLVKHU:KHUH
WKHVH VRXUFHV DUHODFNLQJ KLVWRULDQVPD\WXUQWRWUDQVODWLRQVDQGLPLWD
WLRQVRIDJLYHQWH[WVXFKDVWKHCourtierRI%DOGDVVDUH&DVWLJOLRQHRUWKH
SpectatorRI-RVHSK$GGLVRQDQG5LFKDUG6WHHOHDVGRFXPHQWHGH[DPSOHV
RIUHDGHUUHVSRQVH
History o f Reading
$ORQJ WKH OLQHV VXJJHVWHG E\ WKH ODWH 'RQ 0F.HQ]LH WKH SK\VLFDO
DSSHDUDQFH RIERRNV KDV EHHQ VWXGLHG DV D FOXH WR WKH ZD\V LQ ZKLFK
WKH\ZHUHUHDGWKHµVRFLRORJ\RIWH[WV¶$ODUJHIROLRZKLFKQHHGHGWREH
VWXGLHGDWDOHFWHUQDQGDVPDOOGXRGHFLPRZKLFKFRXOGEHFDUULHGLQWKH
SRFNHWRUUHDG LQ EHGRIIHUHGYHU\GLIIHUHQWH[SHULHQFHVRIUHDGLQJ 7KH
VRFDOOHG µSDUDWH[W¶ LQRWKHUZRUGV WKH VXUURXQGLQJPDWWHU VXFK DVSUH
IDFHVGHGLFDWLRQVWDEOHVRIFRQWHQWVPDUJLQDOQRWHVDQGLQGH[HVRIIHUHG
PDQ\FXHVWRUHDGHUVFRQFHUQLQJWKHPHVVDJHRIWKHERRN
2QH RIWKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW QHZ GHYHORSPHQWV KDV EHHQ WR OLQN WKH
KLVWRU\ RIWKHERRNZLWK WKHKLVWRU\ RIVFLHQFH )RUH[DPSOH $QQ%ODLU
KDV VWXGLHG WKH UHFHSWLRQ RI -HDQ %RGLQ¶V Theatre o f Nature
PDNLQJ D VXUYH\ RIWKH VXUYLYLQJ FRSLHV PRUH WKDQ RIWKHP DQG
DQDO\VLQJWKHDQQRWDWLRQVPDGHE\UHDGHUVDPRQJWKHPWKHVFKRODU,VDDF
&DVDXERQ $GULDQ -RKQVKDV H[DPLQHGZKDWKH FDOOV WKH µFXOWXUHRIWKH
SULQWHGERRN¶ DQGWKH µSK\VLRORJ\ RIUHDGLQJ¶ LQHDUO\PRGHUQ /RQGRQ
DVVHVVLQJ WKH H[SHULHQFH RI UHDGLQJ DQG WKH SODFH RI UHDGLQJ LQ WKH
LQWHOOHFWXDO GHYHORSPHQW RI LQGLYLGXDOV VXFK DV WKH YLUWXRVR 5REHUW
%R\OH
7KHPXOWLSOLFDWLRQRIFDVHVWXGLHVKDVTXDOLILHGLIQRWGHPROLVKHGROGHU
YLHZVDERXWFKDQJHVLQUHDGLQJRYHUWLPH,WQRORQJHUVHHPVDVFOHDUDVLW
GLGWKDWPHGLHYDOUHDGHUVDOZD\VVSRNHWKHZRUGVRQWKHSDJHDORXG RU
WKDW D µ5HDGLQJ 5HYROXWLRQ¶ WRRN SODFH LQ WKH ODWHU HLJKWHHQWK FHQWXU\
VXEVWLWXWLQJ µH[WHQVLYH¶ UHDGLQJRWKHUZLVHNQRZQDV µVNLPPLQJ¶IRUWKH
LQWHQVLYHVWXG\RIWH[WV ,WQRZDSSHDUVPRUHOLNHO\WKDWVRPHUHDGHUVDW
OHDVWPDGHXVHRIPRUHWKDQRQHRIWKHVHGLIIHUHQWUHDGLQJVW\OHVDFFRUG
LQJWRWKHERRNRUWKHRFFDVLRQ7KDWWKH\HDUVDURXQG ZHUHQHYHU
WKHOHVV D ZDWHUVKHG LQ WKH KLVWRU\ RIUHDGLQJ DW OHDVW LQ *HUPDQ\ KDV
EHHQDUJXHGLQDKLJKO\RULJLQDOVWXG\E\(ULFK6FK|QZKLFKH[DPLQHV
D P R Q J RWKHUWRSLFV FKDQJHVLQOLJKWLQJ IXUQLWXUHDQGWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQ
RIWKHGD\GLYLGHGPRUHFOHDUO\WKDQEHIRUHLQWRKRXUVRIZRUNDQGKRXUV
RIOHLVXUH DV ZHOO DV WKH ULVH RI D PRUH HPSDWKHWLF PRGH RIUHDGLQJ
HVSHFLDOO\ZRUNVRIILFWLRQ
2WKHUDWWHPSWVDWDQHZV\QWKHVLV RUDWOHDVWDWDQ RYHUYLHZ DUHQRW
ODFNLQJ $ JHQHUDO VWXG\ E\ WKH $UJHQWLQLDQ ZULWHU $OEHUWR 0DQJXHO LV
QRWDEOH IRU LWV FKDUP DQG WKH VHQVXRXV PDQQHU LQ ZKLFK WKH DXWKRU
HYRNHV WKH µYLFDULRXV SOHDVXUH RI KROGLQJ LQ RXU KDQGV D YROXPH WKDW
RQFH EHORQJHG WR DQRWKHU UHDGHU FRQMXUHG XS OLNH D JKRVW WKURXJK WKH
ZKLVSHURIDIHZVFULEEOHGZRUGVRQWKHPDUJLQDVLJQDWXUHRQWKHIO\OHDI
D GULHG OHDI OHIW DV D PDUNHU D WHOOWDOH ZLQHVWDLQ¶ $ PXOWLYROXPH
History o f the Book in BritainLVXQGHUZD\DQGDFROOHFWLRQRIHVVD\VRQ
WKHKLVWRU\RIUHDGLQJLQ(QJODQGKDVDOUHDG\FRPHIURPWKHSUHVV
)RU D JHQHUDO YLHZ RI WKH SUHVHQW VWDWH RI WKH ILHOG WRJHWKHU ZLWK
SHUFHSWLYH VXJJHVWLRQV DERXW IXWXUH GHYHORSPHQWV LW ZLOO EH GLIILFXOW WR
Robert Darnton
GR EHWWHU WKDQ D UHFHQW LQWHUQDWLRQDO YHQWXUH DQ DFFRXQW E\ WKLUWHHQ
VFKRODUVRIWKHKLVWRU\RIUHDGLQJLQWKHZHVWIURPDQFLHQW*UHHFHWRWKH
SUHVHQWLQZKLFKDFDVHLVDUJXHGIRUQRIHZHUWKDQWKUHHµUHYROXWLRQV¶LQ
UHDGLQJEHWZHHQ DQG
%\ FRQWUDVW WKH KLVWRU\ RIUHDGLQJ LQ QRQZHVWHUQ FXOWXUHV KDV EHHQ
QHJOHFWHG DOWKRXJKWKHUHDUHVLJQV WKDWWKHVLWXDWLRQLVFKDQJLQJ ,QWKH
FDVHRI&KLQDDUHFHQWVWXG\RIµERRNFXOWXUH¶GUHZDWWHQWLRQWRWKHµUXOHV
RI UHDGLQJ¶ IRUPXODWHG LQ WKH WZHOIWK FHQWXU\ E\ WKH QHR&RQIXFLDQ
SKLORVRSKHU =KX ;L 7KH EDG KDELWV KH FRQGHPQHG LQFOXGHG UHDGLQJ
VLOHQWO\ WRR TXLFNO\ DQG WRR VXSHUILFLDOO\ DV ZHOO DV WKH SUDFWLFH RI
FKDSWHUKRSSLQJ UDWKHU WKDQ UHDGLQJ FRQWLQXRXVO\ ,Q -DSDQ WRR WKHVH
SUHFHSWV ZHUH WDNHQ VHULRXVO\ DQG DQ HLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ WH[W RQ WKH
XSEULQJLQJ RIFKLOGUHQ WROG UHDGHUV WR ZDVK WKHLUKDQGV EHIRUHKDQG WR
NQHHO DQGWRUHDGUHYHUHQWO\DQG VORZO\ DQGIRUEDGH WKHPWR VWHS RYHU
ERRNV XVH WKHP DV SLOORZV RU IROG EDFN WKH SDJHV ,Q WKH KLVWRU\ RI
UHDGLQJ DV LQ RWKHU FXOWXUDO GRPDLQV LW ZRXOG EH DPLVWDNH WR DVVXPH
WKDWLQQRYDWLRQLVDZHVWHUQPRQRSRO\
7KHIROORZLQJFLUFXODUOHWWHUSURYLGHVDUDUHJOLPSVHLQWRDcabinet littér-
aireRUUHDGLQJFOXELQSUHUHYROXWLRQDU\)UDQFH,WZDVDGGUHVVHGE\3-
%HUQDUGDERRNVHOOHULQ/XQpYLOOHWRWKHRIILFHUVRIWKHORFDOgendarmerie
LQ 6HSWHPEHU %HUQDUG ZDQWHG WR SHUVXDGH WKH gendarmes WR EX\
PHPEHUVKLSLQKLVcabinetDQGWKHUHIRUHVWUHVVHGLWVXVHIXOQHVVIRUPLOLWDU\
RIILFHUV %XW LW SUREDEO\ UHVHPEOHG VLPLODU HVWDEOLVKPHQWV VFDWWHUHG
WKURXJKRXWSURYLQFLDO)UDQFH7KHFLUFXODUFRPHVIURP%HUQDUG¶VGRVVLHU
LQWKHSDSHUVRIWKH6RFLpWpW\SRJUDSKLTXHGH1HXFKiWHOLQWKH%LEOLRWKp
TXH SXEOLTXH HWXQLYHUVLWDLUH RI1HXFKiWHO 6ZLW]HUODQG ,WV VSHOOLQJ KDV
QRWEHHQPRGHUQL]HGRUFRUUHFWHG
$0HVVLHXUVOHV*HQGDUPHV
0HVVLHXUV
/H6U %HUQDUGSURSULpWDLUHGX&DELQHW/LWWpUDLUH GHOD*HQGDUPHULH
DXWRULVp SDU 0RQVLHXU OH 0DUTXLV G¶$XWLFKDPS D O¶KRQQHXU GH YRV
UHSUpVHQWHU TX¶HQFRXUDJp SDU OH VXIIUDJH GH VHV DERQQpV LO GpVLUHURLW
IRQGHUXQpWDEOLVVHPHQWSOXVpWHQGXHWSOXVXWLOH
,, YRXGURLWTX¶DXPR\HQG¶XQDERQQHPHQWFHUWDLQ LQYDULDEOH 0HV
VLHXUVOHV*HQGDUPHVWURXYDVVHQWFKpVOXLWRXVOHVVHFRXUVOLWWpUDLUHVTX¶LOV
SHXYHQWGpVLUHU 8QHPDLVRQFRPPRGHJUDQGHELHQpFODLUpH FKDXIIpH
TXLVHURLWRXYHUWHWRXVOHMRXUVGHSXLVQHXIKHXUHVGXPDWLQMXVTX¶iPLGL
History o f Reading
'HX[MRXUQDX[GH/LQJXHW 'HX[*D]HWWHVGH)UDQFH
'HX[0HUFXUHV 'HX[*D]HWWHVGH/H\GH
'HX[-RXUQDX[PLOLWDLUHV 'HX[*D]HWWHVGH/D+D\H
'HX[-RXUQDX[GHVDIIDLUHVGH 'HX[*D]HWWHVGH%UX[HOOHV
O¶$PpULTXH GHO¶$QJOHWHUUH 'HX[&RXUULHUVGX%DV5KLQ
'HX[(VSULWVGHVMRXUQDX[ 'HX[&RXUULHUVGH'HX[3RQWV
'HX[&RXUULHUVGHO¶(XURSH 'HX[%XOOHWLQV
127(6
9LVXDO+LVWRU\
Ivan Gaskell
9LVXDO0DWHULDO
YDULHGWKDQPLJKWKDYHEHHQWKHFDVHLQWKHUHFHQWSDVW<HWDUWKLVWRU\DQG
RWKHUIRUPV RIVWXG\ RIYLVXDOPDWHULDO VXFK DV DHVWKHWLFV DQGFXOWXUDO
PHGLDRUPXVHXPVWXGLHVDUHODUJHO\DQGOHJLWLPDWHO\DKLVWRULFDO)XUWKHU
PRUHPXFKLQWHUSUHWDWLYHZRUNFRQFHUQHGZLWKDUWDQGRWKHUYLVXDOPDWHU
LDOGRHVQRWWDNHZULWWHQIRUPRUZULWWHQIRUPDORQH7KHSUHVHQWDWLRQDQG
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RIYLVXDO PDWHULDO E\PXVHXPV DQG JDOOHULHV VXERUGLQDWHV
WH[WVWR WKH DFWXDO DUUDQJHPHQW RIVXFKPDWHULDO $OWKRXJKSXEOLFDWLRQV
DFFRPSDQ\LQJ H[KLELWLRQV DUH RIWHQ YHKLFOHV IRU WKH PRVW XSWRGDWH
VFKRODUVKLSRQWKHLUVXEMHFWVVXFKSXEOLFDWLRQVEHDUDQHTXLYRFDOUHODWLRQ
VKLSWRWKHH[KLELWLRQVWKHPVHOYHVLQZKLFKLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVDUHDUWLFXODWHG
ZKROO\YLVXDOO\E\PHDQVRIVHOHFWLRQDQGDUUDQJHPHQW
,Q ZHVWHUQ FXOWXUH WKH FRQVWLWXWLRQ RI YLVXDO PDWHULDO DQG HTXDOO\
LPSRUWDQWO\ LWV LQWHUQDO ERXQGDULHV DQG KLHUDUFKLHV LV GHILQHG E\ WKH
SUDFWLFHV RID EHZLOGHULQJ YDULHW\ RISHRSOH DQG LQVWLWXWLRQV 6HHPLQJO\
GLVSDUDWH WKLV DUW ZRUOG DFWXDOO\ IXQFWLRQV DV D FRPSOH[ V\VWHP ZLWK
QXPHURXVLQWHUGHSHQGHQFLHV7KHVHLQFOXGHQRWRQO\FROOHJHVXQLYHUVLWLHV
DQG DUW PXVHXPV EXW DOVR DXFWLRQ KRXVHV FRPPHUFLDO JDOOHULHV DQG
SXEOLVKHUV%HKLQGWKHPOLHJRYHUQPHQWGHSDUWPHQWVDQGDJHQFLHVIRXQGD
WLRQVDQGWUXVWV VSRQVRUV DQGLQYHVWRUVLQGLYLGXDOO\DQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOO\
:HPXVW DOVR WDNHLQWR DFFRXQWFROOHFWRUV DPDWHXUDQGIUHHODQFH VFKR
ODUVHGLWRUVDQDO\WLFDOVFLHQWLVWV HYHQDUWLVWV0DQ\ZLWKLQWKHVHLQVWLWX
WLRQVDQGJURXSVOLNHWRKDYHDVOLWWOHWRGRZLWKHDFKRWKHUDVSRVVLEOH
DQGVXFFHHG WKRXJKWKHUHLVFRQVLGHUDEOHH[FKDQJHDPRQJWKHPDWPDQ\
OHYHOV IURP WKDW RILGHDV DQG DVVXPSWLRQV WR WKDW RIPRQH\ 7KH\ DUH
ZRYHQ WRJHWKHU LQ FRPSOH[ QHWV RI VKDUHG LQWHUHVW DQG FRPSHWLWLRQ
UHVSHFW DQG FRQWHPSW 7KH\ DUH DOO HTXDOO\ SDUW RI WKH VDPH V\VWHP
GLVFUHWHO\ GHILQHG 7KHLU EHKDYLRXU GHILQHV YLVXDO PDWHULDO LQ SUDFWLFH
DQG LQ UHFHLYHG RSLQLRQ :LWKLQ WKH YDVW DQG GLVSDUDWH ERG\ RIYLVXDO
PDWHULDOWKHSULPDU\GLVWLQFWLRQLVEHWZHHQ µDUW¶ DQGµRWKHU¶:LWKLQµDUW¶
WKHUH LV DGLVWLQFWLRQ EDVHG RQ FODVVLFDOO\ GHULYHG 5HQDLVVDQFH KXPDQLVW
FULWHULD EHWZHHQ µILQH DUW¶ DV DQ H[SUHVVLRQ RILQGLYLGXDO KXPDQ LQYHQ
WLRQ DQG µGHFRUDWLYH¶ RU µDSSOLHG DUW¶ 7KH ODWWHU LV VHHQ SULQFLSDOO\ DV
PHFKDQLFDOUDWKHUWKDQDVLQWHOOHFWXDOO\LQYHQWLYHHYHQWKRXJKWKHSHUVRQ
XVXDOO\ UHVSRQVLEOH IRU WKH SK\VLFDO UHDOL]DWLRQ RIDQ DUWHIDFW KDG DOVR
FRQFHLYHGLW$WKLUGFDWHJRU\LVµGHVLJQ¶ODUJHO\FRQILQHGWRWKHPRGHUQ
HUDLQZKLFKDVKDUSGLVWLQFWLRQLVGUDZQEHWZHHQWKHGHVLJQHUUHVSRQVLEOH
IRUWKHFRQFHSWLRQRIDSURGXFWDQGWKRVHZKRSK\VLFDOO\UHDOL]HLWRIWHQ
ZLWK WKH DLG RIPDFKLQHU\ 7KHVH GLVWLQFWLRQV FDQ RQO\ HYHU KDYH EHHQ
HTXLYRFDODWEHVW7KH\DUHLQFUHDVLQJO\VXEMHFWWRTXHVWLRQLQJQRWRQO\LQ
WKHRU\DVWKHGLVFXVVLRQRIFDQRQLFLW\EHORZZLOOH[SORUHEXWDOVRLQWKH
FRPPRQ SUDFWLFH RIWKH ZLGHU DUW ZRUOG SDUWLFXODUO\ DVDXFWLRQ KRXVHV
DQGGHDOHUVVHHNIXUWKHUWRHQKDQFHWKHVWDWXV DQGKHQFHWKHYDOXH RI
WKHGHFRUDWLYHDUWV
Visual History
6WDQGLQJ WR RQH VLGH LV DQ DFWLYLW\ WKH VWDWXV RIZKLFK KDV FKDQJHG
VRPHZKDWVR DVWREHFRPH DPELJXRXV DUFKLWHFWXUH ,WDOLDQ5HQDLVVDQFH
ZULWHUV VXFK DV /HRQ %DWWLVWD $OEHUWL DQG *LRUJLR 9DVDUL IROORZHG WKH
5RPDQ DUFKLWHFW DQG WKHRULVW9LWUXYLXV LQ FRQFHLYLQJRIDUFKLWHFWXUH DV
WKHSLQQDFOHRIWKHYLVXDODUWVRZLQJWRLWVFRPELQDWLRQRIIXQFWLRQDODQG
DEVWUDFW FRQVWLWXHQWV JLYLQJVFRSHIRULQGLYLGXDO LQYHQWLYHQHVV ,QPDQ\
VXEVHTXHQW DUW KLVWRULFDO DQDO\VHV WKH HPSKDVLV LV SODFHG OHVV XSRQ WKH
SUDFWLFDORUVRFLDOIXQFWLRQ RIEXLOGLQJVWKDQXSRQLQYHQWLRQE\WUHDWLQJ
VWUXFWXUHV DQG WKHLU UHODWHG SODQV DOPRVW H[FOXVLYHO\ DV YHKLFOHV RILQGL
YLGXDO DUWLVWLF H[SUHVVLRQ DQ DSSURDFK DOVR XOWLPDWHO\ GHULYHG IURP
9LWUXYLXV(De architectura,,,LL2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHFXUUHQWSUDFWLFH
RIDUFKLWHFWXUHLV JHQHUDOO\ VHHQ DVWKH SUHVHUYH RIDVHSDUDWHSURIHVVLRQ
ZKRVH PHPEHUV DQG ZKRVH FULWLFV WHQG WR WUHDW WKH GHILQLWLRQ RI WKH
UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ SUDFWLFDO DQG H[SUHVVLYH FRQVLGHUDWLRQV DPELJX
RXVO\ 7KHUH LV D WHQGHQF\ WR WUHDW WKH FXUUHQW SUDFWLFH RIDUFKLWHFWXUH
QRW DV DILQH DUW DVLWPD\ KDYHEHHQFRQFHLYHGZKHQ0LFKHODQJHOR E\
WXUQ FDUYHG VWDWXHV SDLQWHG SLFWXUHV DQG GHVLJQHG EXLOGLQJV EXW DV
GHVLJQ RQ D JUDQG VFDOH WKRXJK UHWDLQLQJYHVWLJHV RIWKH SUHVWLJH RILWV
HDUOLHUDVVRFLDWLRQV
$OVR EHWZHHQ µDUW¶ DQG µRWKHU¶ LQ D SRVLWLRQ RIFXULRXVO\ XQUHVROYHG
VWDWXV WKRXJKLQTXLWH DGLIIHUHQWZD\ IURP WKDWRIDUFKLWHFWXUHVWDQGV
SKRWRJUDSK\ $OWKRXJK WKH UDQJH RILPDJHVZKLFKFDQ EH SURGXFHG E\
WKLV WHFKQLTXH LV LQ RQH VHQVH QRW YHU\ JUHDW LWV VSHFWUXP RIFXOWXUDO
VLJQLILFDQFH LV FRQVLGHUDEOH EHLQJ WUHDWHG DW RQH HQG DV D WUDQVSDUHQW
PHDQV RI FRQYH\LQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG DW WKH RWKHU DV DQ RSDTXH DUW
PHGLXP 7KH FXOWXUDO LPSDFW RI SKRWRJUDSK\ RYHU WKH ODVW \HDUV
ERWKLQLWVHOIDQGLQWKHIRUPRIWKHPRYLQJYLVXDOLPDJHWRZKLFKLWKDV
DOVR JLYHQULVHKDVEHHQLPPHQVHFRPSOHWHO\FKDQJLQJWKHYLVXDOHQYLU
RQPHQW DQG PHDQV RI H[FKDQJH RI LQIRUPDWLRQ RI D ODUJH SDUW RIWKH
SRSXODWLRQ RIWKH JOREH 3KRWRJUDSK\ KDV VXEWO\ UDGLFDOO\ DQG GLUHFWO\
WUDQVIRUPHGWKHGLVFLSOLQHRIDUWKLVWRU\DQGWKHSUDFWLFHRIWKHHQWLUHDUW
ZRUOGUHJDUGOHVVRIZKHWKHUWKHREMHFWVRIFRQFHUQZHUHFUHDWHGEHIRUHRU
DIWHU LWV LQYHQWLRQ $OPRVW DOO PDNHGDLO\ XVH RILW ZKHWKHU DV LOOXVWUD
WLRQV DV DLGV WR PHPRU\ RU DV VXEVWLWXWHV IRU REMHFWV GHSLFWHG E\ LWV
PHDQV +RZHYHUPRVWPHPEHUVRIWKHDUWZRUOGKDYHDYRLGHGH[SOLFLWO\
FRQVLGHULQJWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRISKRWRJUDSK\DVLWDIIHFWVWKHLURZQZRUN
DV ZHOO DV RQ D ODUJHU VFDOH 7KH FRQVHTXHQFHV RI WKH FKDQJH IURP
DQDORJXH UHJLVWUDWLRQ RISKRWRJUDSKLF DQGYLGHR LPDJHV WR GLJLWDO WHFK
QRORJ\DUHHTXDOO\IDUUHDFKLQJDOORZLQJLQWHUQHWWUDQVPLVVLRQDQGHQG
OHVV PDQLSXODWLRQ 7KH LQILQLWHO\ UHSOLFDEOH DQG UHYLVDEOH YLVXDO DUWHIDFW
QRZ EHFRPLQJ LQFUHDVLQJO\ IDPLOLDUYLD FRPSXWHU VFUHHQV ZLOO SURJUHVV
LYHO\FKDQJHWKHVWDWXVRIWKHYLVXDOLQWHUPVRILQIRUPDWLRQDQGHSLVWHPR
ORJ\
Ivan Gaskell
7KH FDWHJRU\ LQDGHTXDWHO\ GHVLJQDWHG DERYH DV µRWKHU¶ LV LQ SUDFWLFH
ODUJHO\GHILQHGE\PXVHXPVDQGFRPPHUFH$FRQFHUQIRUWKHORFDOSDVW
KDV ORQJ PDGH ORFDO PXVHXPV DQG KLVWRULFDO VRFLHWLHV GHSRVLWRULHV RI
REMHFWV 2EVROHWH GRPHVWLF LWHPV HYRNLQJ SDVW SUDFWLFHV URXWLQHV DQG
HYHQ VRFLDO UHODWLRQVKLSV FDPH WR EH GLVSOD\HG LQ DGGLWLRQ WR ZRUNV RI
DUWDUFKDHRORJ\DQGQDWXUDOKLVWRU\WKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HGWKHORFDOPXVHXPV
IRXQGHGLQ%ULWDLQLQWKH\HDUVIROORZLQJWKH0XVHXPV$FWRIDQGLQ
$PHULFDQ ORFDOKLVWRULFDO VRFLHWLHV $VHULRXVFRPPLWPHQWWRYHUQDFXODU
LWHPV GDWHV EDFN GHFDGHV WKH SLRQHHULQJ LQVWLWXWLRQV EHLQJ RSHQDLU
PXVHXPVRIEXLOGLQJVJDWKHUHGRQDVLQJOH VLWHVXFKDV6NDQVHQ 6WRFN
KROP 6ZHGHQ IRXQGHGLQ ,QWKH86$(OHFWUD+DYHPH\HU:HEE¶V
6KHOEXUQH0XVHXPLQ9HUPRQWIRXQGHGLQ LVDSURPLQHQWH[DPSOH
RIGHYRWLRQWRYHUQDFXODUDUWHIDFWV<HWVLQFHWKH VDJUHDWHUFRQFHUQ
ZLWK µSRSXODU¶ DQG µPDWHULDO FXOWXUH¶ KDV YHVWHG WKHVH DUWHIDFWV ZLWK DQ
HQKDQFHG PRUH VWULFWO\ KLVWRULFDOO\ RULHQWDWHG VLJQLILFDQFH 7KH HQWLUH
DUHDZDVSURPRWHGIURPWKHIULQJHV RIIRONORUH VWXGLHV WR WDNHLWVSODFH
ZLWKLQ D UHYLYLILHG H[DPLQDWLRQ RI SRSXODU FXOWXUH FORVHO\ UHODWHG WR
FRQFXUUHQW GHYHORSPHQWV LQ KLVWRULFDO ZULWLQJ UHSUHVHQWHG LQ %ULWDLQ E\
3HWHU %XUNH¶V Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe DQG LQ
$PHULFDE\ WKH VFKRODUVKLSDGYDQFHG E\ DPRQJRWKHUV WKH:LQWHUWKXU
0XVHXP 'HODZDUH 7KHQHZ VWDWXV DFFRUGHGWR WKH VWXG\ RIWKH QRQ
DUFKDHRORJLFDO PDWHULDO UHPDLQV RIQRQHOLWH VHFWLRQV RISDVWVRFLHWLHV LV
HSLWRPL]HG LQ PXVHXP GLVSOD\ WHUPV E\ WKH ODYLVK FRQVWUXFWLRQ RIWKH
0XVpH1DWLRQDOHGHV$UWVHW7UDGLWLRQV3RSXODLUHVLQ3DULV:KLOHYLWULQHV
FRQWDLQ DJULFXOWXUDOLPSOHPHQWV RUFUDIW WRROVGLVSOD\LQJUHJLRQDOYDULD
WLRQ DQG WKH YDOXH RI DQRQ\PRXV FUDIWVPDQVKLS WKH SULQW URRP LV D
UHSRVLWRU\RIWKHSUHGRPLQDQWO\ DQRQ\PRXVEURDGVKHHWDQGFDWFKSHQQ\
SULQWVZKLFKZHUHSURGXFHGIRUSRSXODUFRQVXPSWLRQIURPWKHVL[WHHQWK
FHQWXU\ RQZDUGV 1RWRQO\LQPXVHXPV EXWLQDFDGHPLFSXEOLVKLQJWKH
ILHOGRIPDWHULDOFXOWXUHKDVEXUJHRQHGLQWKHODVWWHQ\HDUVSURGXFLQJD
YDVWELEOLRJUDSK\ZRUOGZLGH
7KH HQJDJHPHQW RIFRPPHUFHZLWK WKLV ZLGH YDULHW\ RIµRWKHU¶ YLVXDO
PDWHULDOLVFHUWDLQO\QRWGHILQHGE\WKHJURZLQJVFKRODUO\SDUWLFLSDWLRQLQ
GHEDWHV FRQFHUQLQJ WKH FXOWXUDO VLJQLILFDQFH RI VXFK REMHFWV (YHQ WKH
OHDGLQJ DXFWLRQ KRXVHV KDYH WDNHQ FRQVLGHUDEOH SDLQV WR GHYHORS WKH
DUHD NQRZQ DV µFROOHFWDEOHV¶ SDVWH SRW OLGV URFNDQGUROO PHPRUDELOLD
WR\V HWF ,QGHHG WKH LPSDFW RIFRPPHUFH RQ WKLV DUHD RIWKH YLVXDO
HQYLURQPHQW DQG RQ SHRSOH¶V SHUFHSWLRQ RIWKH SDVW LV SUREDEO\ PRUH
FRQVLGHUDEOH WKDQ WKDW RI WKH VFKRODUVKLS RIPXVHXP VWDII DQG VRFLDO
KLVWRULDQV 7KLV UHPDLQV WKH FDVH LQ VSLWH RIDYDVW LQFUHDVH LQ VFKRODUO\
DWWHQWLRQ WR WKHSKHQRPHQRQ RIFROOHFWLQJRYHUWKHODVWGHFDGHH[HPSOL
ILHG E\ -RKQ (LVQHU DQG 5RJHU &DUGLQDO¶V DQWKRORJ\ The Cultures o f
Collecting7KHVXEMHFWRIFROOHFWLQJVHHVWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQRIYDULRXV
Visual History
FRQFHUQV )LUVW LW DSSHDOV WR D VHQVH RI RUGHULQJ DQG LW VHUYHV DV D
UHFUHDWLRQDO HTXLYDOHQW WR FRPPHUFLDO WHFKQLTXHV RI DXGLWLQJ DQG
H[FKDQJH EXW XQOLNHWKHFROOHFWRU¶VEXVLQHVVLQWHUHVWVLWSURPLVHVHYHQ
WXDOFRPSOHWLRQDQGFORVXUH 6WDPSFROOHFWLQJLVLWVSDUDGLJP 6HFRQGO\
µFROOHFWDEOHV¶DSSHDOWRDQRWKHUFRPPHUFLDOLPSXOVHWKHDFFUXDORIYDOXH
E\ WKH FRPSOHWLRQ RI GHILQHG VHWV DQG WKH H[SHFWDWLRQ RI UHWXUQ RQ
LQYHVWPHQW 7KLUGO\ FROOHFWLQJLVSRVWXODWHG RQ WKH LPSOLFLW QRWLRQ WKDW
NQRZOHGJH FRQFHUQLQJ WKH REMHFWV LV RVWHQVLEO\ ILQLWH WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQGRHVQRWHQWHUWKHPHQWDOVHW)RXUWKO\ DQGPRVWLPSRUW
DQWO\ IRU WKH KLVWRULDQ FROOHFWLQJ RI WKLV NLQG LPSOLHV D SDUWLFXODU
UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK WKH SDVW 7ZR RILWV HOHPHQWV DUH QRVWDOJLD EDVHG RQ
DQREMHFW¶VSHUFHLYHGV\QHFGRFKLFDOTXDOLWLHV D0DWFKER[WR\HYRNLQJD
V%ULWLVKFKLOGKRRG IRUH[DPSOHDQGWKHVXSSRVHGDGKHUHQFHRIDQ
LPPXWDEOHTXDOLW\RZLQJWRSHUVRQDOFRQWDFWZLWKDFHOHEUDWHGRUUHYHUHG
SHUVRQ D SDLU RI ERRWV RZQHG E\ (OYLV 3UHVOH\ RU WKH ILUVW 'XNH RI
:HOOLQJWRQIRUH[DPSOH,QGHHGZKHQWKLVDWWLWXGHUHGROHQWRIV\PSDWK
HWLF PDJLF LV LQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG DV LW LV LQ DQ LQFUHDVLQJO\ ZLGHVSUHDG
P D Q Q HU ZH PD\ ZRQGHU ZKHWKHU D GLVWLQFWLRQ FDQ EH GUDZQ EHWZHHQ
VD\*UDFHODQGDQG$SVOH\+RXVHVLQFHERWKLPSO\DSURIRXQGO\XQDQD
O\WLFDO DWWLWXGHWRDSDVWGRPLQDWHG E\JUHDWPHQUDUHO\ZRPHQZKRVH
HVVHQFHFDQEHNQRZQWKURXJKWKHSHUXVDORIWKHREMHFWVZLWKZKLFKWKH\
VXUURXQGHGWKHPVHOYHV
+DYLQJ PDGH VRPH LQURDGV LQWR WKH YDVW DPRXQW RIYLVXDO PDWHULDO
µDUW¶PDWWHURIXQUHVROYHGVWDWXVVXFKDVDUFKLWHFWXUHDQGSKRWRJUDSK\
DQGWKHµRWKHU¶LQFOXGLQJFHUWDLQFDWHJRULHVRIDUWHIDFWDQGµFROOHFWDEOHV¶
DUULYDODWWKHFRQMXQFWLRQRIDOOWKHVHSKHQRPHQDLQWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG
SUHVHQWDWLRQ RIKHURHV 3UHVOH\ DV µWKH .LQJ¶ :HOOLQJWRQ DV µWKH ,URQ
'XNH¶PD\EHWKHSRLQWDWZKLFKWRDGGUHVVWKHSUREOHPRIKRZNQRZ
OHGJHDERXWYLVXDOPDWHULDOFDQEHHVWDEOLVKHGVRWKDWLWFDQEHGHSOR\HG
IRU YDULRXV SXUSRVHV HQWHUWDLQPHQW SURSDJDQGD PDNLQJ PRQH\ DQG
UHODWLQJWKHSUHVHQWWRWKHSDVW ,VKDOO DWWHPSWWRH[SORUHRQO\WKUHH RI
WKH YDULRXV DVSHFWV RIVSHFXODWLRQ ZLWK UHIHUHQFH WR VHOHFWHG VLJQLILFDQW
SXEOLFDWLRQV DXWKRUVKLS FDQRQLFLW\DQGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
<HWEHIRUHWXUQLQJWRWKHILUVWRIWKHVHZHPD\GRZHOOWREHDULQPLQG
D WKHRUHWLFDOSUREOHPZKLFKKDV JURZQHYHUPRUH DFXWH GXULQJWKHODVW
GHFDGH ,WFRQFHUQV WKHQDWXUH RIWKH REMHFW ZLWKLQ WKHFDWHJRU\ µYLVXDO
PDWHULDO¶DQGWKHQDWXUHRIWKHVXEMHFWZKRXVHVLW7KHGLVVROXWLRQRIWKH
XQLILHG FRKHUHQW LQGLYLGXDO KXPDQ VXEMHFW SURSRVHGLQPXFKFRQWHP
SRUDU\FULWLFDOWKHRU\ VHHIRUH[DPSOH*LOOHV'HOHX]HDQG)HOL[*XDW
WDUL Qu’est-ce que la philosophic? WUDQVODWHG DV What Is
Philosophy? KDV DIIHFWHG FHUWDLQ DUW KLVWRULDQV¶ DQG FXOWXUDO
VWXGLHV VSHFLDOLVWV¶ FRQFHSWLRQV RIZKDW PLJKW FRQVWLWXWH WKH PDNHU RI
REMHFWV DQGWKHLUXVHUVFRQFHSWLRQVZKLFKLQWXUQGHSHQGRQHYHUPRUH
Ivan Gaskell
FRPSOH[XQGHUVWDQGLQJVRIWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQVRIWKRVHREMHFWVWKHPVHOYHV
9DULRXV VRPHWLPHV PXWXDOO\ H[FOXVLYH DWWHPSWV WR DUWLFXODWH WKH FKDU
DFWHURIREMHFWVDQGWKHVXEMHFWVWRZKLFKWKH\LQVRPHVHQVHUHODWHVKDUH
WKHVWUDWHJ\RIDVFULELQJDJHQF\WRWKRVHREMHFWV $PRQJWKHPRVWLQWHU
HVWLQJ UHFHQW GLVFXVVLRQV E\ DUW KLVWRULDQV ZKLFK IROORZ WKLV FRXUVH
WKRXJK LQ ZLGHO\ GLIIHULQJ ZD\V DUH -DPHV (ONLQV The Object Stares
Back: On the Nature o f Seeing0LFKDHO$QQ+ROO\Past Looking:
Historical Imagination and the Rhetoric o f the ImageDQG9LFWRU,
6WRLFKLWD L ’instauration du tableau. Métapeinture á I’aube des temps
modernes WUDQVODWHG DV The Self-Aware Image: An Insight into
Early Modern Meta-Painting ,WVHHPVZRUWK UHPDUNLQJWKDWWKLV
VWUDWHJ\ DULVHV IURP WKHYHU\UHDO GLIILFXOW\ RIGHILQLQJ WKH EDIIOLQJFRQ
FHSWXDOSHUFHSWXDODQGDIIHFWLYHFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHREMHFW2XUWDVNPXVW
EHWRGLVFRYHUDPHDQVRIGHILQLQJWKDWFRPSOH[LW\ZLWKRXWUHFRXUVHWRWKH
DVFULSWLRQRISURSHUWLHVVXFK DV DJHQF\ZKLFKFDQRQO\EHIDOVHDQGRI
UKHWRULFDOHIILFDF\DORQH 6XIILFHLWWRQRWHIRURXUSXUSRVHVRIKLVWRULFDO
GLVFXVVLRQWKDWDQ REMHFWWKDWPLJKW EHFDWHJRUL]HGDVYLVXDOPDWHULDO LV
QHYHUVLPSO\ZKDWRQHVHHVRUZKDWRWKHUVKDYHVHHQ
$XWKRUVKLS
FRQQRLVVHXUVWHQGWRFRQIXVHWKHTXDOLWLHVRIREMHFWVZLWKDFRQVLGHUDWLRQ
RIWKHHIIHFWV RIWKRVHREMHFWVXSRQWKHPDVYLHZHUV , VKDOOFRQILQHP\
UHPDUNV WR D FRQVLGHUDWLRQ RIWKH IRUPHU EXW HYHQ VR PDQ\ SUREOHPV
DULVH
&RQQRLVVHXUVKLS¶VDSRORJLVWVFDQQRWKHOSEXWUHYHDOLWVLQWHUQDOFRQWUD
GLFWLRQV ,Q WKHFDWDORJXH RIWKHH[KLELWLRQFHOHEUDWLQJ3KLOLS 3RXQFH\¶V
ORQJFDUHHULQPXVHXPVDQGWKHWUDGHDVDVWXGHQWRI,WDOLDQ5HQDLVVDQFH
GUDZLQJV The Achievement o f a Connoisseur: Philip Pouncey-RKQ
*HUH GHVFULEHG 3RXQFH\¶V µFODULW\ DFFXUDF\ FRQFLVLRQ DQG H[DFWQHVV RI
H[SUHVVLRQ DWWHQWLRQ WR VKDGHV RI PHDQLQJ WKH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ
K\SRWKHVLV DQGIDFW DQGWKH UHOHYDQW DQG WKH LUUHOHYDQW DQGWKHH[SUHV
VLRQRIDVVHQWDQGGLVVHQWLQJUDGXDWHGWHUPV¶+HFRQWLQXHVµ0U3RXQ
FH\LVDVFKRODUIRUZKRPDFFXUDF\LVQRWDYLUWXHEXWDGXW\¶2YHU
WKHSDJH WKRXJK *HUHUHYHDOVWKHGRXEOHVWDQGDUGVRIFRQQRLVVHXUVKLS
VWDWLQJ µ,W LV RQH WKLQJ WR PDNH D VDWLVIDFWRU\ DWWULEXWLRQ EXW TXLWH
DQRWKHU WR H[SODLQ LW VDWLVIDFWRULO\¶ DQG KH IXUWKHU GHVFULEHV 3RXQFH\¶V
XVH RIJHVWXUH LQ UHVSRQVH WR WKLV SUREOHP µ8QIRUJHWWDEOH HYHQ DIWHU
WKLUW\\HDUVZDVKLVZD\ RIGHPRQVWUDWLQJWKH ³&RUUHJLRVLW\´ RIQR
LQWKHSUHVHQWH[KLELWLRQE\WKURZLQJKLPVHOILQWRWKHSRVHRI6W 6HEDV
WLDQLQWKHGUDZLQJ¶$QLQDELOLW\WRDUWLFXODWHUHDVRQVIRUFRQQRLVVHXUVKLS
SURSRVDOVLVDFRQVHTXHQFH RIWKHXOWLPDWHLUUHFRQFLODELOLW\RIWKHYLVXDO
DQGWKHOLQJXLVWLFDQGZHVKRXOG WUHDW WKHSUREOHPV\PSDWKHWLFDOO\ <HW
IRUPDQ\DUWKLVWRULDQV WKH IDFWWKDW SDQWRPLPH DQG PRUH VHULRXVO\
µEULHIDQQRWDWLRQVRQWKHPRXQWVRIGUDZLQJV¶VKRXOGEHWKHFRQQRLVVHXU¶V
PDLQPRGH RIH[SUHVVLRQGHVFULEHGE\ *HUHDV µWKHWDQJLEOHPRQXPHQW
RI KLV >3RXQFH\¶V@ PRVW UHPDUNDEOH OLIHZRUN¶ LV FRPSURPLVHG E\ LWV
HYDVLRQ RI UDWLRQDO DUJXPHQW DQG LWV DSSHDO WR SHUVRQDO UHSXWDWLRQ
0DQ\ ILQG GLIILFXOW\ LQ DFFHSWLQJ SXUH DVVHUWLRQ DV VFKRODUVKLS $V D
FRQVHTXHQFH DQXPEHURIDUWKLVWRULDQVDQGWKHRULVWVZKR KDYHULVHQWR
SRVLWLRQV RILQVWLWXWLRQDO HPLQHQFH LQ XQLYHUVLWLHV RSHQO\ GHQLJUDWH FRQ
QRLVVHXUVKLS DV DQ XQWUXVWZRUWK\ DFWLYLW\ ZKLFK VLPSO\ EROVWHUV WKH DUW
PDUNHW DQGIRVWHUV WKH HYDVLRQ RIPDMRU LVVXHV E\FRQFHQWUDWLQJ H[FOXV
LYHO\RQPLQXWLDH,QUHWXUQPDQ\FRQQRLVVHXUVQRZFRQFHQWUDWHGLQDUW
PXVHXPVDQGWKHWUDGHKDYHVFDQWUHJDUGIRUDUWKLVWRULDQVZKRVHVSHFXO
DWLRQVFRQFHUQLVVXHVRWKHUWKDQDXWKRUVKLS $QLGHRORJLFDOSRODUL]DWLRQ
H[LVWV
&RQQRLVVHXUVKLS GHVHUYHV FORVHU H[DPLQDWLRQ UDWKHU WKDQ GLVPLVVDO
DQGZHVKRXOGEHJLQE\DFNQRZOHGJLQJWKHGLIILFXOWLHVLQKHUHQWLQGHPRQ
VWUDWLQJ DQ DUJXPHQW ZKLFK GHSHQGV H[FOXVLYHO\ RQ ILQH H[FOXVLYHO\
YLVXDOGLVWLQFWLRQV *HUHLQWKHLQWURGXFWLRQFLWHGDERYHJLYHVDQH[FHO
OHQW GHILQLWLRQ RI WKH WUDGLWLRQDO FRQFHSWLRQ RI FRQQRLVVHXUVKLS ,W LV
ZRUWK TXRWLQJ LQ IXOO , QXPEHU *HUH¶V FULWHULD IRU HDVH RIVXEVHTXHQW
UHIHUHQFH
Ivan Gaskell
&RQQRLVVHXUVKLS LQWKHWHFKQLFDO VHQVHR ILGHQWLI\LQJWKHDXWKRUV RIZRUNV
RIDUW LV QRW H[DFWO\ D VFLHQFH LQ WKH VHQVH RIEHLQJ D UDWLRQDO V\VWHP RI
LQIHUHQFHIURPYHULILDEOHGDWDQRULVLWH[DFWO\DQDUW ,WVWDQGV VRPHZKHUH
EHWZHHQ WKH WZR DQG LW FDOOV IRU D SDUWLFXODU FRPELQDWLRQ R ITXDOLWLHV R I
PLQG VRPH PRUH VFLHQWLILF WKDQ DUWLVWLF DQG RWKHUV PRUH DUWLVWLF WKDQ
VFLHQWLILF>@DYLVXDOPHPRU\IRUFRPSRVLWLRQVDQGGHWDLOVRIFRPSRVLWLRQV
>@H[KDXVWLYHNQRZOHGJHR IWKHVFKRRORUSHULRGLQTXHVWLRQ >@ DZDUHQHVV
R IDOO WKHSRVVLEOH DQVZHUV >@ D VHQVH RIDUWLVWLF TXDOLW\ >@ DFDSDFLW\ IRU
DVVHVVLQJHYLGHQFH >@DSRZHUR IHPSDWK\ZLWKWKHFUHDWLYHSURFHVVRIHDFK
LQGLYLGXDODUWLVWDQG>@DSRVLWLYHFRQFHSWLRQR IKLPDVDQLQGLYLGXDODUWLVWLF
SHUVRQDOLW\
YDULRXVWLPHVDQGLQYDULRXVFXOWXUHVKRZHYHUKLHUDUFKLFDOO\GHIHUHQWLDO
VKRXOG SURPSW FDXWLRQ LQ RXU DVFULELQJ DQ\ JLYHQ REMHFWPDGH LQ VXFK
FLUFXPVWDQFHVWR D VLQJOH LGHQWLILDEOH JUHDW DUWLVW )RULQVWDQFH -HQQLIHU
0RQWDJX¶V SXEOLFDWLRQV RQ VFXOSWRUV¶ ZRUNVKRSV LQ VHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\
5RPH Roman Baroque Sculpture: The Industry o f ArtDQGGold,
Silver, and Bronze: Metal Sculpture o f the Roman Baroque KDYH
SURPSWHGRWKHUVWRWUHDWWKHTXHVWLRQRILQGLYLGXDODXWKRUVKLSLQUHODWLRQ
WR WKH FROODERUDWLYH UHDOL]DWLRQ RIODUJHVFDOH DUW SURMHFWV ZLWK H[WUHPH
FDXWLRQ,WVSUDFWLWLRQHUVVKRXOGDFNQRZOHGJHQRWRQO\ WKHFKDUDFWHURI
WKHFRQQRLVVHXUVKLSV\VWHPFRPPRQO\LQXVHEXWDOVRWKHFRQWLQJHQF\RI
LWV HIIHFWLYH DSSOLFDELOLW\ 5DWKHU WKDQ DSSO\LQJ LW ZLWKRXW UHJDUG WR
DUWLVWV¶ ZRUNLQJPHWKRGV VFKRODUV VKRXOGDGDSWWKHPRGHOWRSDUWLFXODU
KLVWRULFDO FLUFXPVWDQFHV )RU H[DPSOH FRQQRLVVHXUVKLS FRQFHUQLQJ %HU
QLQLPD\LQYROYHTXLWHGLIIHUHQWFULWHULDIURPFRQQRLVVHXUVKLSFRQFHUQLQJ
0LFKHODQJHOR
2YHUWKHODVWWZRGHFDGHVDQLQIOXHQWLDOQXPEHURIFRQQRLVVHXUVKDYH
WDNHQ D QHZ GLUHFWLRQ :KLOH UHPDLQLQJ VLOHQW DERXW WKH P\WK RI WKH
UHILQHG DQG VRSKLVWLFDWHG µH\H¶ ZKLFK IXQFWLRQV LQ D PDQQHU H[SOLFLWO\
DFNQRZOHGJHG WR EH VRPHWKLQJ FORVH WR LQWXLWLRQ WKH QHZFRQQRLVVHXUV
SODFH WKHLU IDLWK LQ WHFKQLFDO DQG VFLHQWLILF H[DPLQDWLRQ 7KLV KDV EHHQ
PDGHSRVVLEOHE\GHYHORSPHQWVLQFRQVHUYDWLRQSUDFWLFHDQGWKHDSSOLFD
WLRQRIVFLHQWLILFWHFKQLTXHVWRWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKHFRPSRQHQWVRIZRUNVRI
DUW7KHDSSOLFDWLRQRIDQDO\WLFDOWHFKQLTXHVIURPRWKHUILHOGVWRWKHVWXG\
RIZRUNV RIDUWWR LQFUHDVHWKHGDWDDWWKHFRQQRLVVHXU¶VFRPPDQG JRHV
EDFN GHFDGHV WKH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI;UDGLRJUDSK\ WR SDLQWLQJV ZDV SLR
QHHUHGE\$ODQ%XUURXJKVDWWKH)RJJ$UW0XVHXPIURPRQZDUGV
\HWRQO\UHFHQWO\KDVVXFKDFULWLFDOPDVVGHYHORSHGWKDWSUDFWLWLRQHUVQRZ
WDON RIWHFKQLFDO DUW KLVWRU\ DV D GLVWLQFW EUDQFK RIWKH GLVFLSOLQH )RU
H[DPSOHLQIUDUHGUHIOHFWRJUDSK\LVVHQVLWLYHWRDSDUWLFXODUUDQJHRIWKH
LQYLVLEOHVSHFWUXPDQGE\LWVPHDQVWKHGHWDLOHGGUDZLQJVKLGGHQEHQHDWK
PDQ\ HDUO\1HWKHUODQGLVKSDQHO SDLQWLQJV XQGHUGUDZLQJV FDQEHVHHQ
5HFHQW DGYDQFHV LQ FRPSXWHU LPDJH FDSWXUH DQG DPDOJDPDWLRQ KDYH
HQDEOHG UHVHDUFKHUV WR SURGXFH VLQJOH LPDJHV RI HQWLUH XQGHUGUDZLQJV
ZKLFK LQ HIIHFW FRQVWLWXWH QHZ DUWHIDFWV IRU FRQQRLVVHXUVKLS DQG RWKHU
IRUPV RI VFKRODUVKLS 7KLV LQ WXUQ KDV DOWHUHG WKH ZD\ LQ ZKLFK DUW
KLVWRULDQV WKLQN RILQGLYLGXDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRU ILIWHHQWK DQG HDUO\ VL[
WHHQWKFHQWXU\ 1HWKHUODQGLVK SDLQWLQJV ZRUNVKRSV DQG µJURXSV¶ KDYH
VXSHUVHGHG WKH LQGLYLGXDO WR DQ DSSUHFLDEOH H[WHQW 7KH IRXQGLQJ WH[W
LQPDQ\ UHVSHFWVLVScientific Examination of Early Netherlandish Paint-
ing, HGLWHG E\ - 3 )LOHGW .RN ZKLOH WKH LPSRUWDQW VHULHV µ/H
GHVVLQ VRXVMDFHQW GDQV OD SHLQWXUH¶ KDV EHHQ SXEOLVKHG E\ WKH &DWKROLF
8QLYHUVLW\ RI/RXYDLQ VLQFH 0XVHXPVKDYHDGGHGVLJQLILFDQWO\ WR
WKLVERG\RINQRZOHGJHLQFUHDVLQJO\LQFRUSRUDWLQJWHFKQLFDOPDWHULDOLQWR
Ivan Gaskell
QHJDWLYH UDWKHU WKDQ SRVLWLYH VWDWHPHQWV µDQDO\VLV KDV VKRZQ WKDW QR
PDWHULDOV ZKLFK DUH DQDFKURQLVWLF IRU D VHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\ SLFWXUH DUH
HPSOR\HG¶ &RPSDUDWLYH DQDO\VLV FDQ HVWDEOLVK SDWWHUQV RIZRUNVKRS
SUDFWLFH )RULQVWDQFH DFDQYDVZLWKRXWDGLVWLQFWLYHGRXEOHJURXQGGLV
FHUQLEOHLQSDLQWOD\HUFURVVVHFWLRQVPDGHIRUPLFURVFRSLFH[DPLQDWLRQLV
XQOLNHO\WRKDYHEHHQSUHSDUHGLQ5HPEUDQGW¶VZRUNVKRS $OOWKH WHFK
QLTXHVDYDLODEOHIURPDXWRUDGLRJUDSK\WR;UD\GLIIUDFWLRQDQDO\VLVFDQ
EH DQGDUHXVHGWR HVWDEOLVKSDUDPHWHUVZLWKLQZKLFKZRUNV FDQEHGLV
FXVVHGE\OHJLWLPDWHSURFHVVHVRIFRPSDULVRQDQGH[FOXVLRQ1RQHWKHOHVV
WKHSULQFLSDODLPRIWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIVXFKUHVXOWVE\DUWKLVWRULDQVDQG
FXUDWRUV DOPRVWDOZD\V UHPDLQV WKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI RUGLVTXDOLILFDWLRQ
IURPWKHFRUSXVRIDQLQGLYLGXDODUWLVWHYHQLIHTXLYRFDWLRQLVLQFUHDVLQJO\
DFFRPPRGDWHG 7KH SURFHVV RI PDNLQJ FRQQRLVVHXUVKLS GHFLVLRQV
UHPDLQV IXQGDPHQWDOO\ XQDOWHUHG ZKHQ WHFKQLFDO PDWHULDO LV SOHQWLIXOO\
DYDLODEOHWKHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHEHLQJWKDWPRUHGDWDDUHDWWKHFRQQRLVVHXU¶V
GLVSRVDO7KHVLJQLILFDQFHRIWKLVKRZHYHULVUDUHO\SUHFLVHHQRXJKIRUKLV
RUKHUUHTXLUHPHQWV\HWRQHLPSRUWDQWHIIHFWKDVEHHQWRHPEROGHQVRPH
FRQVHUYDWRUVWRDGYDQFHFRQQRLVVHXUVKLSRSLQLRQVHYHQDWWLPHVSXEOLFO\
FRQWUDGLFWLQJFXUDWRUV 1RWRULRXVO\ ZKHQWKH0HWURSROLWDQ0XVHXPRI
$UW1HZ<RUNPRXQWHGWKHH[KLELWLRQRembrandt/Not Rembrandt in the
Metropolitan Museum o f Art: Aspects o f Connoisseurship LQ WKH
FDWDORJXHZDVSXEOLVKHGLQWZRYROXPHVZLWKWZRVHWVRIFDWDORJXHHQWULHV
WRDFFRPPRGDWHWKHFRQIOLFWLQJYLHZVRIWKHFXUDWRUDQGDFRQVHUYDWRU
7KH XVH RIWHFKQLFDO DQDO\VLV FRQWLQXHV WR HVFDODWH ZLWKRXW GXH FRQ
VLGHUDWLRQ RI WKH HSLVWHPRORJLFDO LPSOLFDWLRQV 6RPH RI WKH SURSRVDOV
PDGHE\WKH5HPEUDQGW5HVHDUFK3URMHFWKDYHEHHQSODFHGLQ GRXEWDV
DUHVXOWRIVXEVHTXHQWWHFKQLFDODQG VFLHQWLILFH[DPLQDWLRQVIRULQVWDQFH
WKRVH SHUIRUPHG RQ WKH 5HPEUDQGW KROGLQJV RI WKH 1DWLRQDO *DOOHU\
/RQGRQ SXEOLVKHGLQWKH FDWDORJXH RIWKH H[KLELWLRQ Art in the
Making: RembrandtQ ,WVLPSOLFDWLRQZDVWKDWWKHH[WHQVLYHDQGGHWDLOHG
WHFKQLFDOLQIRUPDWLRQXVHGE\WKH5HPEUDQGW5HVHDUFK3URMHFWLVDFWXDOO\
LQDGHTXDWH,IVRZKHUHGRHVRQHVWRSDQGDWZKDWSRLQWFDQGHFLVLRQVEH
PDGH"1HXWURQDFWLYDWLRQDXWRUDGLRJUDSK\ZKLFKUHYHDOVWKHGLVSRVLWLRQ
RILQGLYLGXDOSDLQWFRQVWLWXHQWVLQDVHULHVRIUDGLRJUDSKLFLPDJHVZDVD
WHFKQLTXH XQDYDLODEOH WR WKH 1DWLRQDO *DOOHU\ WHDP \HW D QXPEHU RI
SDLQWLQJV DWWULEXWHG WR 5HPEUDQGW VXIILFLHQW WR SURYLGH FRPSDUDWLYH
PDWHULDOKDYHEHHQDQDO\VHGLQWKLVPDQQHU:RXOG VLPLODUH[DPLQDWLRQ
RI WKH 1DWLRQDO *DOOHU\ SDLQWLQJV XSVHW LWV DWWULEXWLYH K\SRWKHVHV" 2U
VKRXOG UDWKHU WKH OLPLWDWLRQV RI FRQQRLVVHXUVKLS KRZHYHU H[WHQVLYH
WKH WHFKQLFDO GDWD DW WKH FRQQRLVVHXU¶V GLVSRVDO EH H[DPLQHG DQG WKH
HQWLUHSURMHFWRIDWWULEXWLYHVSHFXODWLRQSXUVXHGWKHUHDIWHURQDQHZEDVLV
DEDVLVLQZKLFKK\SRWKHVLVLVUHFRJQL]HGIRUZKDWLWLVDQGRSLQLRQLVQRW
SUHVHQWHGDVVHFXUHNQRZOHGJH"
Ivan Gaskell
7KH&DQRQ
7KHUKHWRULFDOO\H[DJJHUDWHGGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQEHWZHHQNQRZOHGJHDQGRSLQ
LRQLQWKHSUHYLRXVVHFWLRQLVRIFRXUVHIDUIURPDGHTXDWHIRUWKHDQDO\VLV
RI FULWLFDO DQG KLVWRULFDO SURFHGXUH ZKHUH WKH FRQVLGHUDWLRQ RI YLVXDO
PDWHULDO LV FRQFHUQHG 'LVHQWDQJOLQJ NQRZOHGJH IURP RSLQLRQ LV QRW D
VLPSOH PDWWHU DV )UDQN .HUPRGH DUJXHG LQ Forms o f Attention
ZKHQH[DPLQLQJWKHIRUPDWLRQDQGSHUSHWXDWLRQRIFDQRQVLQERWKOLWHUD
WXUH DQGWKHYLVXDODUWV +H GHPRQVWUDWHGWKDWLOOLQIRUPHGRSLQLRQ DQG
IDVKLRQ UDWKHUWKDQ ILQHFULWLFDOMXGJHPHQW FDQ FUHDWH FLUFXPVWDQFHV LQ
ZKLFKDQDUWLVWFDQEHµUHGLVFRYHUHG¶ DQGKLVRUKHUZRUNDGPLWWHGWRWKH
FDQRQ RIPDWHULDO VXEMHFWWR UHSHDWHGVFKRODUO\ DQG FULWLFDO UHH[DPLQD
WLRQ .HUPRGH GHVFULEHG WKH FDVH RI6DQGUR %RWWLFHOOL ZKRVH SDLQWLQJV
ZHUHODUJHO\LJQRUHGEHWZHHQWKHVL[WHHQWKDQGODWHUQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXULHV
+HFRJHQWO\DUJXHG WKDWQHLWKHUWKH LQWHUHVWRI+HUEHUW +RUQH ZKR GLG
PXFKWRGHILQHWKHFRUSXVRI%RWWLFHOOL¶VSDLQWLQJVE\FRQQRLVVHXUVKLSDQG
DUFKLYDO UHVHDUFK QRU $E\ :DUEXUJ ZKR H[DPLQHG DVSHFWV RI%RWWL
FHOOL¶V ZRUN LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI KLV RZQ V\VWHPDWLF WKHRULHV RI FXOWXUDO
KLVWRU\ZRXOGKDYHEHHQDURXVHGKDGWKHUHQRWEHHQDSRSXODUFXOWXUDO
VKLIW WKDW DFFRPPRGDWHG D WDVWH IRUZRUN DWWULEXWHG WR %RWWLFHOOL %RWK
+RUQH DQG:DUEXUJZHUHLQHIIHFW VZLPPLQJZLWKWKHfin-de siécleWLGH
7KH FRQVHTXHQFH ZDV WKDW %RWWLFHOOL¶V ZRUN ZDV LQ JHQHUDO WHUPV DG
HTXDWHO\GLVWLQJXLVKHG IURPWKDWRIKLVFRQWHPSRUDULHV SXSLOVDQGLPLW
DWRUV DQ DFKLHYHPHQW ZKLFK VKRXOG QRW EH XQGHUHVWLPDWHG DQG DQ
µDUWLVWLFSHUVRQDOLW\¶GHILQHG
7KRVHSDLQWLQJVGHVLJQDWHG%RWWLFHOOL¶VPDVWHUSLHFHV QRWDEO\WKHBirth
of Venus DQGWKHPrimaveraµ6SULQJ¶ ERWKLQWKH*DOOHULDGHJOL8IIL]L
)ORUHQFHKDYHMRLQHGWKHWRWHPLFJURXSRIPDVVLYHO\UHSURGXFHGLPDJHV
IDPLOLDU WR D ZLGH SXEOLF WKURXJK PDQ\ IRUPV RI UHSURGXFWLRQ 7KH
Primavera KDV EHHQ DSRWKHRVHG DV WKH GHILQLWLYH µJUHDWHVW WUHDVXUH¶ RI
WKH8IIL]L*DOOHU\ LWVFHQWUDOIHPDOHILJXUHVDSSHDULQJ RQWKHFRYHURID
YLVLWRUV¶ KDQGERRN SXEOLVKHG LQ QXPHURXV ODQJXDJHV $ OHQJWK\ DQG
H[WHQVLYH FRQVHUYDWLRQ WUHDWPHQW RI WKLV SDLQWLQJ ZDV FRPSOHWHG LQ
,W ZDV UHSUHVHQWHG WR WKH SXEOLF DV WKH FOLPD[ RIWKH H[KLELWLRQ
Metodo e scienza. Operativitá e ricerca nel restauro 3DOD]]R 9HFFKLR
)ORUHQFH ZKHQLWZDVH[KLELWHGE\LWVHOILQDGDUNURRPGUDPDW
LFDOO\OLWOLNHDFLQHPDVFUHHQDFDOFXODWHGO\DZHLQVSLULQJVSHFWDFOH7KH
HQWU\LQWKHFDWDORJXHDFFRPSDQ\LQJWKLVH[KLELWLRQSSZDVWKH
ORQJHVW\HWGHYRWHGLQWKLVIRUPRISXEOLFDWLRQWRWKHWHFKQLFDOGHVFULSWLRQ
RIDVLQJOHSDLQWLQJ:HKDYHVHHQWKDWWHFKQLFDOLQIRUPDWLRQLVHPSOR\HG
LQWKHVHUYLFHRIFRQQRLVVHXUVKLS +RZHYHUWKHSUHVHQWDWLRQWRWKHSXEOLF
Ivan Gaskell
GLVFXVVHGEHORZDQGDQWHULRUWRWKHLUSRVVLEOHDFWLYHHIIHFWVLQWKHSUHVHQW
WKH VWXIIRIFULWLFLVP DQG RQH UHVSRQVLELOLW\ RIDUW PXVHXPV <HW IDU
IURP VLPSO\ HQKDQFLQJ D KLVWRULFDO DWWLWXGH WR WKH FLUFXPVWDQFHV LQ
ZKLFK DUW IXQFWLRQV WKLV ZRUN KDV KHOSHG WR HIIHFW D WKRURXJK FULWLFDO
UHDSSUDLVDO RIWKH SUHVHQWDWLRQ RIWKH DUW RIWKH SDVW LQ PXVHXPV 7KLV
GHYHORSPHQWLQ SXEOLFDUW LQVWLWXWLRQV FDQ EH VHHQ DV DQ LQKHUHQWO\ DQG
DWWLPHVH[SOLFLWO\QRQ0RGHUQLVWDSSURDFKWRFDQRQLFLW\)RULQVWDQFHLW
ZRXOG EH GLIILFXOW WR LPDJLQH WKH UHYLYDO RI VHULRXV DUWKLVWRULFDO DQG
PXVHRORJLFDOLQWHUHVWLQQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\)UHQFKDFDGHPLFDUWZLWKRXW
WKHZRUN RI DPRQJ RWKHUV )UDQFLV +DVNHOO DQG$OEHUW %RLPHZKLFK
KDV FXOPLQDWHG LQ WKH HODERUDWLRQ RI D QRQ0RGHUQLVW QLQHWHHQWK
FHQWXU\LQWKH0XVpH G¶2UVD\ 3DULV ,QVSLWH RIPDMRUH[KLELWLRQVVXFK
DV WKDW GHYRWHG WR &p]DQQH LQ LQ 3DULV /RQGRQ DQG 3KLODGHO
SKLD WKH WHOHRORJ\ ZKLFK VXVWDLQHG WKH 0RGHUQLVW SURMHFW OHQGLQJ
UHWURVSHFWLYH FULWLFDO SULYLOHJH WR &RXUEHW 0DQHW WKH ,PSUHVVLRQLVWV
DQG &p]DQQH LV QR ORQJHU XQZDYHULQJO\ XSKHOG )RU D QHZ JHQHUDWLRQ
RIPXVHXPYLVLWRUV WR YHQXHV VXFK DV WKH 0XVpH G¶2UVD\ DQG WKH QLQH
WHHQWKFHQWXU\(XURSHDQSDLQWLQJV DQGVFXOSWXUHJDOOHULHVDWWKH 0HWUR
SROLWDQ0XVHXPRI$UW1HZ<RUNFRPSUHKHQVLYHO\UHLQVWDOOHGLQ
WKHQDPHV RI&RXWXUH *pUèPH DQG %RXJXHUHDXPD\ DFKLHYHFDQRQLFDO
VWDWXV
7KHJURZWKRIWKHKLVWRU\RIWDVWHLPSOLHVDQHZDWWLWXGHWRFDQRQLFLW\
,WSDUDGR[LFDOO\ XQLWHV DQHZHFOHFWLFLVPZKLFKLPSOLFLWO\ FKDOOHQJHV WKH
WHOHRORJLFDODUWKLVWRULFDOFDQRQZLWKD SHWULILFDWLRQ RILQGLYLGXDOFROOHF
WLRQVVXFKDVWKH:DOODFH&ROOHFWLRQLQ/RQGRQDQGWKH,VDEHOOD6WHZDUW
*DUGQHU0XVHXPLQ%RVWRQWRSURGXFHDQDOWHUQDWLYHFULWHULRQRIFDQRQ
LFLW\WKHFROOHFWLRQLWVHOI2WKHUDSSURDFKHVKDYHFRPELQHGWRPRGLI\WKH
FDQRQLQUHFHQW\HDUVWKHUXQQLQJEHLQJPDGHLQRIWHQYHU\GLIIHUHQWZD\V
LQ XQLYHUVLWLHV DQG DUW PXVHXPV UHVSHFWLYHO\ 7KH EURDGHQLQJ RI WKH
FKDUDFWHU RIYLVXDOPDWHULDO WRZKLFK VFKRODUVSD\ VHULRXVDWWHQWLRQ LQ D
JHQHUDO DUWKLVWRULFDO FRQWH[W UDWKHU WKDQ IRU VSHFLDOL]HG LQWURVSHFWLYH
VWXG\LQFOXGHVWKHKXJHUDQJHRIWKHGHFRUDWLYHDUWVZLWKLQDUWPXVHXPV
DQG ZKDW LV RIWHQ WHUPHG µPDWHULDO FXOWXUH¶ LQ XQLYHUVLW\ FRQWH[WV 7KLV
EURDGHQLQJRFFXUV DORQJ WZR D[HV 2QH LQYROYHVDQLPSOLFLWGLVFUHGLWLQJ
RI WKH VHOIHYLGHQW DSSOLFDELOLW\ WR DUW RI DOO WLPHV RI WKH 5HQDLVVDQFH
GLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQILQHDQGDSSOLHGDUWV7KHRWKHULQYROYHVDEUHDNGRZQ
RIWKH FULWLFDO DQG VRFLDO GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ µKLJK¶ DUW SURGXFHG IRU D
VRFLDO HOLWH DQG µORZ¶ DUW SURGXFHG E\ RU IRU QRQHOLWH SRSXODWLRQV
2QFHWKHFUDIWRIWKHJROGVPLWKIRUH[DPSOHLVVHHQDVQROHVVGHSHQGHQW
XSRQLQYHQWLRQDQGDEVWUDFWLRQWKDQWKDWRIWKHVFXOSWRU WKHGLVWLQFWLRQ
EHWZHHQ D PHFKDQLFDO DQG OLEHUDO DUW VHHPV DW EHVW HTXLYRFDO 2QFH
WKHSDUDPRXQWLQGLYLGXDOLW\ RIWKHDUWLVW LVODLGRSHQWRTXHVWLRQE\WKH
SHUFHSWLRQ RI UHODWLRQVKLSV ZLWK DSSUHQWLFHV DQG SXSLOV ZRUNVKRS
Ivan Gaskell
$PHULFDQDUWLVWLFDFKLHYHPHQWVPRUHJHQHUDOO\VXFKDV5LFKDUG3RZHOO¶V
Black Art and Culture in the 20th Century
6XFKFXOWXUDOGLYHUVLW\ZLWKLQDVLQJOHSROLW\ WKH86$ UHQGHUVLWLQ
VRPH UHVSHFWV D VHOHFWLYH PLFURFRVP RIWKH ZRUOG DV D ZKROH DV IDU DV
VWXG\RIYLVXDOPDWHULDODQGWKHH[SDQVLRQRIWKHFDQRQLVFRQFHUQHG7KH
H[SDQVLRQ RIZRUOG DUWKLVWRU\ WR VXEYHUW DQG VXSHUVHGH D (XURFHQWULF
VFKRODUO\WUDGLWLRQKDVDGYDQFHGFRQVLGHUDEO\LQUHFHQW\HDUV3UDJPDWLF
VXFFHVVGHSHQGVRQHLWKHUDGGUHVVLQJWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKDWFRQVWLWXWHVDUW
LQDZRUOGZLGHFRQWH[WYHU\VRSKLVWLFDWHGO\RUEHJJLQJLWHQWLUHO\5HOD
WLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQDUWKLVWRULDQVDQGDQWKURSRORJLVWVRQWKHRQHKDQGDQG
DUFKDHRORJLVWVRQWKH RWKHU OHWDORQHZLWKKLVWRULDQV RIWHQUHPDLQDW
FURVVSXUSRVHVHYHQLIFRQYHUVDWLRQVDPRQJWKHPKDYHOHGWRDQH[SDQ
VLRQRIWKHLUUHVSHFWLYHFDQRQVRIYLVXDOPDWHULDO2WKHUIRUFHVDUHDOVRDW
ZRUNPRGLI\LQJRUXQGHUPLQLQJERWKWKHFDQRQDQGWKHQRWLRQRIFDQRQ
LFLW\ 6RPHRIWKHVHDUHFHQWUHGXSRQQRWLRQVRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQPHDQLQJ
DQGLQWHQWLRQ
,QWHUSUHWDWLRQ
)URPWKHFDQRQGHILQHGE\DXWKRUE\FROOHFWLRQDQGE\VRFLDORUFXOWXUDO
FULWHULD , QRZ WXUQ WR PHDQLQJ DQGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ +HUH DJDLQZH VKDOO
FRQIURQW VRPH QRZ IDPLOLDU WKHPHV µ,IKLVWRULFLVP SUHYDLOV¶ DUJXHV DQ
HGLWRULDOLQWKHBurlington Magazine,µWKHLQGLYLGXDOZRUNRIDUWLVORFNHG
LQLWVSHULRGDQGFDQQRWEUHDNRXWWRPHHWWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\H\H¶7KH
GLUHFWSUHVHQWDWLRQRIYLVXDOPDWHULDOLVLQFUHDVLQJO\DIIHFWHGE\WKHDSSOLFD
WLRQRIµKLVWRU\RIWDVWH¶FULWHULD+RZHYHULQDFDGHPLFGLVFRXUVHWKLVKDV
OLWWOHSODFHUDWKHUWKHEDWWOHOLQHVDUHEURDGO\EHWZHHQKLVWRULFDOUHWULHYDO
WKHDWWHPSWWRLQWHUSUHWYLVXDOPDWHULDODVLWPLJKWKDYHEHHQZKHQLWZDV
ILUVWPDGH ZKHWKHU E\ WKH PDNHU KLV RUKHU FRQWHPSRUDULHV RUERWK
DQG GLUHFW FULWLFDO HQJDJHPHQW RIVHYHUDO RIWHQ PXWXDOO\ LUUHFRQFLODEOH
NLQGV 7KHVHLQFOXGH ILUVW WKH DSSURDFK ZKLFKDGPLWVWKH SRVVLELOLW\RI
GLUHFW LQWXLWLYH DFFHVV WR WKH µDUWLVWLF SHUVRQDOLW\¶ DQG WKH µFUHDWLYHSUR
FHVV¶ ZKLFKZHKDYHDOUHDG\HQFRXQWHUHGLQWKHVHFWLRQRQFRQQRLVVHXU
VKLSVHFRQGDFRQFHUQZLWKYLVXDOKHUPHQHXWLFVLQIRUPHGE\WKHRULHVRI
VHPLRWLFV GHFRQVWUXFWLRQ RU SV\FKRDQDO\VLV DQG WKLUG DQ DSSURDFK
ZKLFKVWUHVVHVWKHHVVHQWLDOFRQWLQXLW\RIDUWVRWKDWWKHDUWRIDQ\SHULRG
LQ WKH SDVW FDQQRW EH XQGHUVWRRG EH\RQG WKH FRQWH[W RILWV UHODWLRQ WR
FXUUHQWSUDFWLFHLQDUWDQGE\H[WHQVLRQLQDQ\YLVXDOPHGLXP
,QWHUSUHWDWLRQDO FRQIOLFWV KDYH EHHQ LQFUHDVLQJO\ SROLWLFL]HG 6\PSWR
PDWLF ZDV DQ LPSDVVLRQHG DUWLFOH HQWLWOHG µ7KH 'HDWK RI %ULWLVK $UW
+LVWRU\¶ LQ ZKLFK WKH DFDGHPLF DUW KLVWRULDQ 0LFKDHO 5RVHQWKDO
Ivan Gaskell
UHYLHZHGWKHSROLWLFDORYHUWRQHVRIHYHQWVLQWKHDUWZRUOGLQWKHFRQWH[WRI
DGHQXQFLDWLRQRIDFDGHPLFV¶SUHVXPHGIDLOXUHWRHQJDJHLQEURDGO\EDVHG
FXOWXUDO DQGSROLWLFDO GHEDWH 5RVHQWKDO UHH[DPLQHG WKH IXURUH LQ
RYHU WKH H[KLELWLRQ RIWKH ZRUN RIWKH HLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ %ULWLVK ODQG
VFDSHSDLQWHU5LFKDUG:LOVRQDWWKH7DWH *DOOHU\ /RQGRQ $Q DWWHPSW
ZDVPDGHGLVFUHHWO\LQWKHH[KLELWLRQ LWVHOIDQGLQ DWKRURXJK VFKRODUO\
PDQQHU LQ WKH DFFRPSDQ\LQJFDWDORJXH E\ 'DYLG 6RONLQ WR ORFDWH:LO
VRQ¶V LGHDO ODQGVFDSHV ZLWKLQ WKH VRFLDO DQG FXOWXUDO FRQWH[W RI WKHLU
FUHDWLRQDQGLQLWLDOFRQVXPSWLRQ7KLVZDVGHQRXQFHGLQVHYHUDOLQIOX
HQWLDORUJDQV LQFOXGLQJD/RQGRQGDLO\QHZVSDSHU WKHDaily Telegraph,
DV 0DU[LVW VXEYHUVLRQ 7ZR \HDUV SUHYLRXVO\ WKH OLWHUDU\ VFKRODU -RKQ
%DUUHOO KDG SXEOLVKHG D VLPLODUO\ TXHVWLRQLQJ KLVWRULFDO H[DPLQDWLRQ RI
HLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ SDLQWLQJV RI UXUDO VXEMHFWV LQ The Dark Side o f the
Landscape: The Rural Poor in English Painting, 1730-1840%DUUHOO
H[DPLQHGWKHLGHRORJ\LPSOLFLWLQWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIUXUDOODERXUHUVLQ
WKH SDLQWLQJV RI 7KRPDV *DLQVERURXJK *HRUJH 0RUODQG DQG -RKQ
&RQVWDEOH VXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKHLUFRQGLWLRQLVVKRZQ WR EHQDWXUDO UDWKHU
WKDQ VRFLDOO\ GHWHUPLQHG +H RSSRVHG D QRVWDOJLF P\WKRORJ\ ZLWK DQ
DSSHDOWRKLVWRU\DUJXLQJWKDWµZHVKRXOGORRNWZLFHDWDQRWLRQRIQDWXUH
E\ZKLFKLWVHHPV³QDWXUDO´WKDWVRPHPHQVKRXOGZRUNZKLOHRWKHUVGR
QRW¶ S %HLQJ DQ DFDGHPLF WH[W DQG IXUWKHUPRUH QRW HVSHFLDOO\
ZHOOLQIRUPHG DERXW WKH UROH RI DUWLVWLF WUDGLWLRQ LQ WKH JHQHUDWLRQ RI
LPDJHU\%DUUHOO¶VERRNXQOLNH6RONLQ¶VH[KLELWLRQPDGHOLWWOHLPPHGLDWH
SXEOLFLPSUHVVLRQ1HLO0F:LOOLDPDQG$OH[3RWWVSHUFHSWLYHO\H[SODLQHG
ZK\ 6RONLQ¶V FRQWULEXWLRQ WR VRFLDO DUWKLVWRU\ZDV QRW VLPLODUO\ VLPSO\
LJQRUHG6RONLQKDGEURNHQWKHUXOHVE\LQILOWUDWLQJWKHLQVWLWXWLRQRIWKH
µSUHVWLJLRXV ROG PDVWHU H[KLELWLRQ KHOG DW D PDMRU QDWLRQDO JDOOHU\¶
0F:LOOLDP DQG 3RWWV ZHQW RQ µ(YHQ UDWKHU IDGHG FXOWXUDO WUHDVXUHV
VXFKDV WKH(QJOLVKHQMR\PHQWRIODQGVFDSHDQGWKHVXSSRVHGWDVWH DQG
UHILQHPHQW RI WKH *HRUJLDQ HUD KDV WR EH GHIHQGHG LI FKDOOHQJHG RQ
WHUULWRU\ZKHUHWKH\VWLOOVHHPHGYDJXHO\FUHGLEOH¶
$VLPLODUEXWHYHQPRUHSXEOLFO\YRFLIHURXVURZZDVRFFDVLRQHGE\WKH
H[KLELWLRQ The West as America: Reinterpreting Images o f the Frontier,
1820-1920DWWKH1DWLRQDO0XVHXPRI$PHULFDQ$UW:DVKLQJWRQ'&LQ
$VLQWKH5LFKDUG:LOVRQH[KLELWLRQDQDWLRQDOPXVHXPUHYLVLWHGD
WRSLFWKHP\WKRORJ\RIZKLFKVWLOOKDGFXUUHQF\DVDQLWHPRIVRFLDOIDLWK,W
FRQFHUQHG WKH µPDQLIHVW GHVWLQ\¶ RISHRSOH RI(XURSHDQ RULJLQ WR VHWWOH
ODQGVWRWKHZHVWLQFRUSRUDWLQJWKHPLQWRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVRI$PHULFD
$OWKRXJKWKLVLGHRORJ\KDGORQJEHHQFKDOOHQJHGLQDFDGHPLFFLUFOHVZKHQ
VXFK FKDOOHQJHV VSLOOHG IURP DFDGHPLF WH[WV WR PXVHXPZDOO ODEHOV WKH
UHDFWLRQ RIWKRVH RIIHQGHG ZDVVZLIW DQG YLWXSHUDWLYH7KLV H[SHULHQFH
FDQEHVHHQ DVSDUWRIWKH86$¶VFRQWLQXLQJµFXOWXUHZDUV¶ RIWKH V
7KH\ HUXSWHG RQFH DJDLQ LQ WKH YLVXDO VSKHUH LQ ZKHQ SROLWLFDO
Visual History
SUHVVXUHH[SUHVVHGWKURXJK&RQJUHVVDQGIURPYHWHUDQV¶JURXSVOHGWRWKH
FDQFHOODWLRQRIWKH6PLWKVRQLDQ,QVWLWXWLRQ¶VH[KLELWLRQWRPDUNWKHILIWLHWK
DQQLYHUVDU\ RI WKH GURSSLQJ RI WKH ILUVW DWRPLF ERPE RQ +LURVKLPD
$QRWKHU D[LRPDWLF RSLQLRQ WKDWWKH DWWDFNZDV DVWUDWHJLFQHFHVVLW\
ZDVUHSXWHGO\DERXWWREHKHOGXSWRTXHVWLRQLQDQDWLRQDOPXVHXP
7KHKLVWRULFDODSSURDFKWRYLVXDOPDWHULDOLVQRWFRQILQHGWRWKHDVFULS
WLRQRILGHRORJLFDOVLJQLILFDQFHVXFKDVZDVGLVFHUQHGULJKWO\RUZURQJO\
E\ WKH RUJDQL]HUV RIWKH WKUHH H[KLELWLRQV FLWHG DERYH DQG WKHLU FULWLFV
6LJQLILFDQFHDWWKHWLPHRISURGXFWLRQJRHVEH\RQGDQRIWHQXQFRQVFLRXV
FRQIRUPLW\ ZLWK WKH VRFLRSROLWLFDO LGHRORJ\ RIWKH FRQVXPHUWR HQFRP
SDVV PRGHV RI SHUFHSWLRQ ZKLFK DUH QRW OLDEOH WR SURYRNH SROLWLFDOO\
PRWLYDWHGDWWHQWLRQLQWKHSUHVHQWGD\7KHLUHOXFLGDWLRQKDVDORQJDQG
GLVWLQJXLVKHG KLVWRULRJUDSK\ ZKLFK ZDV H[DPLQHG LQ D EURDGHU DUW
KLVWRULFDO FRQWH[W E\ 0LFKDHO 3RGUR LQ The Critical Historians o f Art
DQG LQ D PRUH WKHRUHWLFDOO\ FRQWHQWLRXV PDQQHU E\ 0LFKDHO
$QQ +ROO\ LQ Past Looking PHQWLRQHG DERYH 2QH RI WKH IRUHPRVW
SUDFWLWLRQHUV RIWKLV NLQG RIUHWULHYDO DUW KLVWRU\ LV 0LFKDHO %D[DQGDOO
ZKRVHERRNPainting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy LV
WHOOLQJO\ VXEWLWOHGA Primer in the Social History o f Pictorial Style. %D[
DQGDOO VRXJKW WR JR EH\RQG VLPSOH LFRQRJUDSKLFDO DQDO\VLV +H ZURWH
µ6RPHRIWKHPHQWDOHTXLSPHQWDPDQRUGHUVKLVYLVXDOH[SHULHQFHZLWKLV
YDULDEOHDQGPXFKRIWKLVYDULDEOHHTXLSPHQWLVFXOWXUDOO\UHODWLYHLQWKH
VHQVHRIEHLQJGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHVRFLHW\ZKLFKKDVLQIOXHQFHGKLVH[SHUL
HQFH¶ 7KH KLVWRULDQ¶V WDVN WKHUHIRUH LV WR UHFRYHU WKH µSHULRG H\H¶ WKH
FXOWXUDOO\ VSHFLILFZD\RIVHHLQJSHFXOLDUWR VD\ HDUO\ VL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\
VRXWK *HUPDQ OLPHZRRG VFXOSWRUV DQG WKHLU FOLHQWV DV %D[DQGDOO
DWWHPSWHG LQ The Limewood Sculptors o f Renaissance Germany
2WKHUVFKRODUVKDYHDSSOLHGWKHLURZQYHUVLRQVRI%D[DQGDOO¶VDSSURDFK
WR RWKHU YLVXDO FXOWXUHV RQH RIWKH PRVW FRQWURYHUVLDO EHLQJ 6YHWODQD
$OSHUV¶V H[DPLQDWLRQ RI'XWFK DUW LQ WKH VHYHQWHHQWK FHQWXU\ The Art
o f Describing$OSHUVDUJXHGWKDWLWZDVFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIWKH'XWFK
LQWKHVHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\ WR VHHN WR NQRZ WKH ZRUOG WD[RQRPLFDOO\ E\
DFFXUDWH SLFWRULDO GHVFULSWLRQFRPSUHKHQGLQJPDSSLQJ PLFURVFRS\ DQG
WKHUHDOLVWLFUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDO WUDQVFULSWLRQ RIREVHUYHG UHDOLW\ 7KLV VKH
DUJXHG VKRXOG WDNH SUHFHGHQFH RYHU DQ\ DOOXVLRQ RU DOOHJRU\ LQ WKH
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI'XWFKYLVXDOPDWHULDO DYLHZZKLFKSURYRNHGDYLJRU
RXV GHEDWH ZLWK RWKHU VFKRODUVLQWKHILHOG 7KLV GHEDWH GHPRQVWUDWHG
WKDWVSHFXODWLRQ RQ VXSHUVHGHGFRJQLWLYHSURFHVVHVFDQEHPRUHFRQWUR
YHUVLDOWKDQVHHNLQJWRHOXFLGDWHWKHRULJLQDOSLFWRULDOPHDQLQJRILQGLYL
GXDOZRUNVE\FRPSDULQJREMHFWVZLWKHDFKRWKHUDQGZLWKFRQWHPSRUDU\
WH[WVDQRUWKRGR[DUWKLVWRULFDOSURFHGXUH
$OO WKHVH IRUPV RIUHWULHYDO DUW KLVWRU\ DUH XQGHU DWWDFN IURP WKUHH
QRWDEOHGLUHFWLRQV6RPHRIWKRVHZKRDUHLQWHUHVWHGLQYLVXDOKHUPHQHXWLFV
Ivan Gaskell
TXHVWLRQ WKH QRWLRQ WKDW FXOWXUDO VLJQLILFDQFH FDQ EH HQFRGHG LQ YLVXDO
PDWHULDO DQG VXEVHTXHQWO\ GHFRGHG E\ DODWHULQWHUSUHWHU WR SURGXFH DQ
DGHTXDWH µPHDQLQJ¶ +DQV %HOWLQJ IRULQVWDQFH LQ Das Ende der Kunst-
geschichte? QRWHG KRZ WKLV RVWHQVLEO\ V\PPHWULFDO SURFHVV RI
HQFRGLQJDQGGHFRGLQJGHJHQHUDWHV LQWRWKH µKXPDQLVWSDUORXUJDPH¶ RI
5HQDLVVDQFHLFRQRORJ\ZKHUHE\SLFWRULDOLPDJHVDUHKHOGWREHLQWHUSUHW
DEOHE\UHIHUHQFHWRRVWHQVLEO\HTXLYDOHQWOLWHUDU\WH[WVRIWHQSURJUDPPHV
GHYLVHG E\ KXPDQLVW VFKRODUV IRU WUDQVODWLRQ LQWR SLFWRULDO WHUPV LQ
GHFRUDWLYH VFKHPHV )XUWKHUPRUH WKH PRGHO RISLFWRULDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
GHULYHGIURP(UZLQ3DQRIVN\¶VGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHSUHLFRQRJUDSKLF
LFRQRJUDSKLF DQG LFRQRORJLFDO OHYHOV LW ZDV ORQJ DJR WKHRUHWLFDOO\
VXSHUVHGHGE\WKHUHDOL]DWLRQWKDWGHQRWDWLRQLVXOWLPDWHO\LQGLVWLQJXLVK
DEOHIURPFRQQRWDWLRQDQGWKDWHYHQWKHVLPSOHVWPHDQLQJWKHLPDJHRI
D SLSH WR VLJQLI\ µSLSH¶ IRU LQVWDQFH LV FXOWXUDOO\ FRQWLQJHQW 6HH IRU
H[DPSOHWKHRSHQLQJVHFWLRQRI5RODQG%DUWKHVS/Z, DQG0LFKDHO
)RXFDXOW Ceci n ’est pas une pipe, 2QH RI WKH PRVW LQWHUHVWLQJ
SRVLWLRQV DYDLODEOH WKRXJK VXUH WR SURPRWH GHVSDLU DPRQJ KLVWRULDQV
LV WKDW WKHYLVXDOPDWHULDO RIWKH SDVW VSHFLILFDOO\ LWV DUW FDQ RQO\ EH
DGHTXDWHO\LQWHUSUHWHGE\WKHFUHDWLRQRIQHZYLVXDOPDWHULDO DUWDVSDUW
RIDILHOGRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDOEHKDYLRXU ZKLFKLVULJRURXVO\FRQFHSWXDOO\
GLVFLSOLQHG8QGHUWKLVSUHPLVHWKHFXOWXUDOWKHRULVWDQGWKHDUWLVWEHFRPH
RQHDQGWKHVDPH 7ZRH[DPSOHV RIDUWLVWVZKR DUHDOVRWKHRULVWVRIWKLV
NLQGDUH9LFWRU%XUJLQZKRVHZRUNZDVDSWO\GHVFULEHGE\&KULV0LOOHU
DV µLGHRORJLFDO FRXQWHUDEXVH RI³DSSURSULDWHG LPDJHU\´ IURP DGYHUWLV
LQJ¶DQG-RVHSK.RVXWK %XUJLQ¶VSXEOLFDWLRQVLQFOXGHBetween
The End o f Art Theory: Criticism and PostmodernityDQGIn/differ-
ent Spaces: Place and Memory in Visual Culture .RVXWK¶V FRO
OHFWHGZULWLQJVIURP RQZDUGVZHUHSXEOLVKHGDVArt after Philosophy
and AfterLQ EXWPXFKRIKLVWKHRUHWLFDOZRUNWDNHVYLVXDOIRUPLQ
PXVHXPV DQG JDOOHULHV VXFK DV KLV LQVWDOODWLRQ DW WKH %URRNO\Q
0XVHXP The Play o f the Unmentionable
$FHUWDLQ TXHVWLRQLQJRIUHWULHYDO DUWKLVWRU\FRPHVIURPPRUH RUWKR
GR[ DUWKLVWRULFDO VRXUFHV WRR DPRQJWKHP0LFKDHO %D[DQGDOO ,QPat-
terns o f Intention: On the Historical Explanation o f Pictures
%D[DQGDOOGHVFULEHV*LRUJLR9DVDUL¶VXVHRIZKDWLVSUREDEO\DKLVWRULFDO
ILFWLRQ LQ RUGHUWR PDNHDSXUHO\FULWLFDOSRLQWDERXWWKH DSSHDUDQFH RI
GUDSHU\LQSDLQWLQJVE\3LHURGHOOD)UDQFHVFD
µ3LHURZDVYHU\IRQGR IPDNLQJFOD\PRGHOVZKLFKKHZRXOGGUDSHZLWKZHW
FORWKV DUUDQJHG LQ YHU\ PDQ\ IROGV DQG WKHQ XVH IRU GUDZLQJ DQG VLPLODU
SXUSRVHV¶ $Q\DWWHQWLYHUHDGHUR I9DVDULOHDPVWR UHFRJQL]HWKLVVRUWRI
UHPDUNDV 9DVDULFKDQFLQJKLVLQIHUHQWLDODUP LWLV XQOLNHO\KHKDGWKHVRUW
R IHYLGHQFH IRUWKLV SUDFWLFH WKDW ZRXOG OHW XV QRZDGD\V IHHO KDSS\ DERXW
Visual History
,QKLVHVVD\RQFRQQRLVVHXUVKLS*DU\6FKZDUW]UHPDUNHGWKDWµ$UWKLVWRU
LDQV WUDLQHG IURP WKH VWDUW WR WRJJOH EDFN DQG IRUWK EHWZHHQ KLVWRULFDO
DQGDKLVWRULFDODSSURDFKHVWRDUW QHYHUVHHPWRQRWLFHWKHEDVLFFRQWUD
GLFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHP¶2QHPLJKWLQIHUIURP%D[DQGDOO¶VWH[WWKDWWKLV
FRQWUDGLFWLRQFDQEHUHFRQFLOHGE\DFNQRZOHGJLQJWKDWKLVWRULFDOYHUDFLW\
LVFRQWLQJHQWDQGWKDWWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIKLVWRULFDOFULWHULDWRWKHVWXG\RI
YLVXDO PDWHULDO SURGXFHV ILFWLRQV ZKLFK DUH QRW QHFHVVDULO\ HSLVWHPROR
JLFDOO\ GLVWLQJXLVKDEOH IURP DKLVWRULFDO FULWLFDO FRPPHQWDULHV 3ODFLQJ
GLVFXVVLRQ RI DUW ZLWKLQ D KLVWRULFDO IUDPHZRUN WKHUHIRUH LV QR PRUH
WKDQZKDW%D[DQGDOOWHUPVDµVSHFLDOWDVWH¶KLVWRULFDOUHWULHYDODQGFULWLFDO
DSSUDLVDO DUH LQKHUHQWO\ QR EHWWHU WKDQ RQH DQRWKHU LQGHHG LQVRIDU DV
KLVWRULFDOUHWULHYDOLVEDVHGRQFRQWLQJHQWFULWHULDLWLVQRWKLQJRWKHUWKDQ
D VSHFLDO IRUP RI FULWLFDO DSSUDLVDO 2QH PLJKW WKHUHIRUH VXJJHVW WKDW
FULWLFLVPZKLFKRSHQO\HQJDJHVZLWKFXUUHQWFXOWXUDODQGVRFLDOFRQFHUQV
DQGZKLFK GRHV QRW FODLPXQGHPRQVWUDEOH DFFHVV WR XQLYHUVDO DQG SHU
SHWXDO µWUXWKV¶ PD\ EH OHVV OLNHO\ WR PLVOHDG YLHZHUV DQG UHDGHUV WKDQ
PLJKW RVWHQVLEO\ SXUHO\ KLVWRULFDO DFFRXQWV 3HUKDSV ZH FDQ RQO\ HYHU
NQRZ WKH DUW RIWKH SUHVHQW VRPH RIZKLFK LV ZKDW VXUYLYHV IURP WKH
SDVWSURYLGLQJ RQO\WKHPRVWWHQXRXVDQGXQWUXVWZRUWK\ DFFHVV WRWKDW
SDVW7KHPHDQLQJRIYLVXDOPDWHULDOFKDQJHVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVGLIIHUDFURVV
FKURQRORJLFDO DQG FXOWXUDO ERXQGDULHV WKRVH ZKLFK ZH NQRZ FDQ RQO\
HYHUEHWKH RQHVZHJHQHUDWH RXUVHOYHV 3HUKDSV WKRXJK WKLV VXUPLVH LV
XQGXO\SHVVLPLVWLFDQGWRRLPSOLFLWO\GHSHQGHQWRQDIODZHGUHODWLYLVP,Q
WKHILUVWSODFHFRQWLQJHQF\FDQHQFRPSDVVORQJDVZHOODVUHODWLYHO\EULHI
SHULRGVRIWLPHWKRXVDQGVRI\HDUVDVZHOODVDVLQJOHJHQHUDWLRQ3ODWR¶V
GLDORJXHV IRULQVWDQFH ZRXOGEH DQWLTXDULDQ FXULRVLWLHV WR XV ZHUH WKLV
QRWWKHFDVH 6HFRQGO\ LWVHHPVSUDJPDWLFDOO\DQGHWKLFDOO\LQHIILFDFLRXV
WRDVVXPHWKDWDOOYDOXHVDQGSUHPLVHVDUHQHFHVVDULO\QDUURZO\ORFDO:H
H[SORUHYLVXDOPDWHULDO DQGWKHSDVW LGHDOO\LQRUGHUQRWWRFRQILUPRXU
RZQ SUHMXGLFHV EXW WR FKDOOHQJH WKHP 7KH GHYHORSPHQW RIKLVWRULFDO
XQGHUVWDQGLQJ LV RQH PHDQV RI DSSURDFKLQJ JHQHUDO WUXWKV KRZHYHU
IXJLWLYHDQGGLIILFXOWRIDFFHVVWKH\PD\EH(YHQLIDUWKLVWRULFDOUHWULHYDO
DVJHQHUDOO\SUDFWLVHGSURGXFHVILFWLRQVKLVWRULFDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJLVQRQH
Ivan Gaskell
WKHOHVVREWDLQDEOHDWOHDVWLIZHWDNHWKHFDYHDWVDJDLQVWDVVXPLQJDJOLE
WUDQVODWDELOLW\IURPWKHSDVWWRWKHSUHVHQWIXOO\LQWRDFFRXQW
2QH TXDOLW\ RI DUW ZKLFK GLVWLQJXLVKHV LW IURP VRPH RWKHU W\SHV RI
YLVXDO PDWHULDO LV LWV SURSHQVLW\ WR VWLPXODWH DIIHFWLYH UHVSRQVHV LQ WKH
YLHZHU2QHUDQJHRIVXFKDIIHFWLYHUHVSRQVHVLVWKHSURYLQFHRIDHVWKHWLFV
EXWDIIHFWLYHUHVSRQVHVDUHQRWFRQILQHGWRWKLVILHOG7KH\FDQEHFXOWXU
DOO\ZLGHO\DSSOLFDEOHDQGYHU\ORQJOLYHGWRWKHH[WHQWWKDWFHUWDLQW\SHV
RIDIIHFWLYH UHVSRQVH PLJKW EH WKRXJKW RIDV HIIHFWLYHO\ XQLYHUVDO 7KLV
DVSHFW RIKXPDQ EHLQJV¶ UHODWLRQV WR YLVXDO PDWHULDO ZDV WKH VXEMHFW RI
'DYLG )UHHGEHUJ¶V FRPSOH[ ERRN The Power o f Images: Studies in the
History and Theory o f Response 7KHQRWLRQ RILQVWDQWHPRWLRQDO
UHVSRQVH WRYLVXDOPDWHULDO WKRXJK LVRSHQWRPDQLSXODWLRQ DQGDEXVH
2QHIRUPRIDEXVHLVWRSURSRVH WKDWWKHSDVWLVHLWKHUUHDGLO\DFFHVVLEOH
YLDWKHLQVWDQWHPRWLRQDOUHVSRQVHWRYLVXDOPDWHULDO RUYLDWKHµKHULWDJH
LQGXVWU\¶ LQZKLFKWKH µLQVWDQWHPRWLRQDOUHVSRQVH¶ LVRIWHQH[SORLWHG ,Q
The Heritage Industry: Britain in a Climate o f Decline 5REHUW
+HZLVRQRIIHUVDWUHQFKDQWFULWLTXHRIWKHJURZWKRIµKHULWDJH¶DVDVRFLDO
DQG LQFUHDVLQJO\ SROLWLFDO IDFWRU LQ WKH %ULWLVK FXOWXUDO IDEULF , VKDOO
PHQWLRQ RQO\ WZR SRLQWV UDLVHG E\ +HZLVRQ¶V ERRN µKHULWDJH¶ LV SUR
IRXQGO\XQDQDO\WLFDO DQGLWLPSOLHV WKDWKLVWRU\ DV DSURFHVV RIFKDQJH
LV RU VKRXOG EH RYHU 7KH SURGXFWLRQ RID SRSXODWLRQ FDSDEOH RI
YLHZLQJWKHSDVWRQO\LQWHUPVRIQRVWDOJLDDQGSDWULRWLVPKHOSVWRHQVXUH
SROLWLFDOGRFLOLW\
,Q%ULWDLQWKHPDWHULDO RIKHULWDJHLVµWUHDVXUH¶ DQGLWVSDUDGLJPLVWKH
FRXQWU\KRXVH7KHFRXQWU\KRXVHLVLQYHVWHGQRWRQO\ZLWKDVRFLDOEXW
ZLWKDQDHVWKHWLFP\VWLTXH)RULQVWDQFHµ7KHFRXQWU\KRXVHDVDFROOHFW
LYHZRUNRIDUWLVRQHRI%ULWDLQ¶VPRVWLPSRUWDQWFRQWULEXWLRQVWRZHVWHUQ
FLYLOL]DWLRQ¶ LV IRXQG RQ WKH EDFN FRYHU RIWKH FDWDORJXH DFFRPSDQ\LQJ
WKHKXJHH[KLELWLRQ The Treasure Houses o f Britain: Five Hundred Years
o f Private Patronage and Art Collecting 1DWLRQDO *DOOHU\ RI $UW
:DVKLQJWRQ '& D )HGHUDO *RYHUQPHQW LQVWLWXWLRQ EXW LWVHOI
IRXQGHG RQ SULYDWH SDWURQDJH DQG DUW FROOHFWLQJ 7KLV H[KLELWLRQ ZDV
GHVFULEHG LQ The Economist DV µD VKDPHOHVV VDOHV SLWFK IRU WKH %ULWLVK
KHULWDJH¶ 2WKHUV VHHN WR VROLFLWPRQH\ OHVV GLUHFWO\ E\ LQVSLULQJ V\P
SDWK\E\VXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKHFRXQWU\KRXVHLVDQLQVWLWXWLRQXQGHUWKUHDW
RIWHQLQWKLQO\YHLOHGSROLWLFDOWHUPV7KHRSHQLQJZRUGVRIWKHILUVWHVVD\
LQ WKH FDWDORJXH DFFRPSDQ\LQJ WKH H[KLELWLRQ FRQFHUQLQJ WKH 1DWLRQDO
+HULWDJH 0HPRULDO )XQG KHOGDW WKH %ULWLVK 0XVHXP LQ Treas-
ures for the Nation: Conserving our HeritageDUH µ+DUGO\ DZHHNSDVVHV
ZKHQRQHGRHVQRW VHHWKHDXFWLRQHHU¶VQRWLFHRIWKHLPSHQGLQJVDOHDQG
GLVVROXWLRQ RI VRPH ELJ HVWDWH¶ &RQWLQXLQJ WR TXRWH : * +RVNLQV
0DUFXV %LQQH\ JRHV RQ µ7KH +RXVH LV VHL]HG E\ WKH GHPROLWLRQ FRQ
WUDFWRUV LWV SDUN LQYDGHG DQG FKXUQHG XS¶ DQG VR RQ 7KLV P\WKRORJ\
Visual History
RIGHVWUXFWLRQVSRQVRUHGE\PXVHXPJUDQGHHVVXFKDV5R\6WURQJLQWKH
H[KLELWLRQ DQG LWV FDWDORJXH The Destruction o f the Country House,
9LFWRULD $OEHUW0XVHXP/RQGRQDQGSROLWLFLDQVVXFKDV3DWULFN
&RUPDFN{Heritage in Danger, SURYLGHVDFRQYHQLHQWVPRNHVFUHHQ
EHKLQG ZKLFK SRZHU DQG SULYLOHJH FRQWLQXH WR RSHUDWH ,Q The Latest
Country Houses-RKQ0DUWLQ5RELQVRQGLVFORVHGWKDWPRUHWKDQ
QHZFRXQWU\KRXVHVKDYHEHHQEXLOWLQ%ULWDLQVLQFHWKH6HFRQG:RUOG
:DU,WLVVLPSO\SUXGHQWDQGPLJKWEULQJWD[DGYDQWDJHVIRUWKRVHZKR
HQMR\SULYDWHZHDOWKWRSOD\WKHUROHRIJXDUGLDQVRIDµQDWLRQDOKHULWDJH¶
SDUWRIZKLFKLVGLVSOD\HGWRWKHSXEOLFDVWKHHSLWRPHRIJRRGWDVWHDQG
DQ XQYDU\LQJO\ µJRRG¶ SDVW ZKLFK VKRXOG EH SUHVHUYHG XQFULWLFDOO\ IRU
HYHUPRUH 7KHUH LV QR LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ PHUHO\ DFFXPXODWLRQ ZKLFK VDQF
WLRQVDVRFLDODQGDHVWKHWLFstatus quo.
,QWKH86$E\FRQWUDVWWKHVLWXDWLRQLVGLIIHUHQWEXWLQWHUQDOO\YDULHG
&KDQJHLVDQH[SHFWHGDQGHYHQYDOXHGDVSHFWRISHUVRQDODQGVRFLDOOLIH
7XUQRYHULQZHDOWKDQGLWVGLVSOD\LVWDNHQIRUJUDQWHGLQFOXGLQJGHFOLQH
HLWKHUDWWKHH[SLU\ RIDJHQHUDWLRQ RUZLWKLQWKHVSDFH RIDIHZJHQHUD
WLRQV7KHUHJLRQLQZKLFKWKHGLVSOD\RIWKHFRXQWU\KRXVH RUSODQWDWLRQ
LVSHUKDSV PRVW VLPLODU WR WKH %ULWLVK VLWXDWLRQ LV WKH 6RXWKZKHUHLWV
DVVRFLDWLRQLVZLWKQRVWDOJLD\HDUQLQJDQGWKHFXOWXUDOORVVRIDZD\RIOLIH
WKDWFKDQJHGXWWHUO\LQ ZLWKWKHGHIHDWRIWKH&RQIHGHUDF\ ,WGRHV
QRWFRQFHUQFRQWLQXLW\1HZ(QJODQGVWDQGVLQFRQWUDVW'LVFRQWLQXLW\LV
PRUH VXEWO\ GLVJXLVHG 7KH µVXPPHUFRWWDJHV¶ RIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\
1HZ <RUN SOXWRFUDWV LQ 1HZSRUW 5KRGH ,VODQG DQG RWKHU PRUH GLV
SHUVHGFRXQWU\SURSHUWLHVVXFKDVWKH*UHDW+RXVH&DVWOH+LOOEXLOWE\
WKH &KLFDJR SOXPELQJ PDJQDWH 5LFKDUG 7HOOHU &UDQH -U DW ,SVZLFK
0DVVDFKXVHWWVDUHUXQE\FKDULWDEOHRUJDQL]DWLRQVVXFKDVWKH3UHVHUYD
WLRQ6RFLHW\RI1HZSRUW&RXQW\WKH7UXVWHHVRI5HVHUYDWLRQVRQZKLFK
WKH (QJOLVK 1DWLRQDO 7UXVWZDV PRGHOOHG DQG WKH 6RFLHW\ IRU WKH 3UH
VHUYDWLRQ RI1HZ (QJODQG $QWLTXLWLHV (PRWLRQDO LQYHVWPHQW LV ODUJHO\
DEVHQW7KDWLVUHVHUYHGIRUVLWHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKSDWULRWLFSROLWLFDOSULGH
WKH 3DXO 5HYHUH +RXVH LQ %RVWRQ IRU LQVWDQFH EXW HYHQ WKHQ LW LV
PXWHG DQG PD\ HYHQ EH LQWHQWLRQDOO\ VXEYHUWHG 7KLV LV WKH FDVH DW
3OLPRWK 3ODQWDWLRQ WKH UHFUHDWLRQ RI WKH Mayflower SDVVHQJHUV¶ ILUVW
VHWWOHPHQWRQWKH0DVVDFKXVHWWVFRDVW ZKHUHFRVWXPHGLQWHUSUHWHUVVXU
SULVH PDQ\YLVLWRUV ZLWK WKHLUFRPSOHWH ODFN RIFRQVFLRXVQHVV RID WHOH
RORJ\OHDGLQJWRWKHELUWKRIWKH5HSXEOLF,QVWDQWHPRWLRQDOUHVSRQVHWR
YLVXDOPDWHULDO DSSHDUVGHPRFUDWLF UHVSHFWLQJZHDOWKDQGLWV ILFNOHQHVV
EXWRIWHQILOOLQJRWKHUFKDQQHOV)HZIRULQVWDQFHFRXOGWDNHD1DWLRQDO
+LVWRULF 3DUN UDQJHUOHG WRXU RIWKH 6HFRQG :RUOG :DU GHVWUR\HU WKH
866 Cassin Young, PRRUHG DV D IORDWLQJ PXVHXP LQ %RVWRQ ZLWKRXW
H[SHULHQFLQJ DQ LQWHQVH HPRWLRQDO V\PSDWK\ IRU WKH RIILFHUV DQG PHQ
ZKRVHUYHGLQKHUZKLFKSURPRWHVSURIRXQGO\DKLVWRULFDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJ
Ivan Gaskell
RIWKHQDWXUHRIPLGWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\QDYDOZDUIDUHDQGLWVVRFLDOUDPL
ILFDWLRQV
$ZDONWKURXJKYLVXDO DUWHIDFW WKH VL]H RIDQDYDO GHVWUR\HU LV DW WKH
ODUJHVWHQGRIWKHVFDOHRIYLVXDOPDWHULDOZHDUHFRQVLGHULQJ3KRWRJUDSKV
DUHDWWKHPRVWPRGHVWHQG3KRWRJUDSK\LVWKHYLVXDOPHGLXPLQZKLFK
SDVWHYHQWVDUHRIWHQKHOGWREHPRVWDFFHVVLEOHYLDWKHLQVWDQWHPRWLRQDO
UHVSRQVH7KLVLVEHFDXVHWKHSKRWRJUDSKEHDUVDPDWHULDOFDXVDOUHODWLRQ
WRLWVVXEMHFW3DUWRIRXUUHVSRQVHWRWKHSKRWRJUDSKLVDVDUHDOWUDFHRI
DQHYHQW 7KHDSRORJLVWVRISKRWRMRXUQDOLVPJR VRIDUDVWR VXJJHVWWKDW
WKHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWDQ\JLYHQHYHQWFRQYH\HGE\DSKRWRJUDSKJLYHVXV
YLWDO NQRZOHGJH RILW ,QGHHG WKH UHFHQW SDVW LV LQFUHDVLQJO\ NQRZQ E\
PHDQV RISDUWO\ IRUWXLWRXV LQVWDQWDQHRXV LPDJHV $V WKH IRUPHU QHZV
SDSHUHGLWRU +DUROG (YDQVH[SUHVVHGLW µ2XULPSUHVVLRQV RIPDMRU DQG
FRPSOH[ HYHQWV PD\ EH SHUPDQHQWO\ IDVKLRQHG E\ D VLQJOH QHZV SKRWR
JUDSK¶ DQREVHUYDWLRQTXRWHG RQWKHLQWURGXFWRU\SDQHOLQWKHH[KLEL
WLRQ Eyewitness: 30 Years of World Press Photography DW WKH 1DWLRQDO
0XVHXP RI 3KRWRJUDSK\ )LOP DQG 7HOHYLVLRQ %UDGIRUG (QJODQG
+RZHYHU FHUWDLQ SRLQWV DUH QRZ PRUH REYLRXV DQG KDYH EHHQ
UHKHDUVHGUHSHDWHGO\QRWOHDVWLQWKHSHUPDQHQWGLVSOD\VRIWKDWPXVHXP
WKH DUUHVWHG LQVWDQW QHHG WHOO WKH REVHUYHU OLWWOH RU QRWKLQJ RIDQ HYHQW
ZKLFK WDNHV SODFH LQ WLPH SKRWRJUDSKV DUH VXEMHFW WR PDQ\ IRUPV RI
PDQLSXODWLRQWKH H[FLVLRQ RIILJXUHV FURSSLQJ DQG WRQLQJWR DIIHFWWKH
REVHUYHU¶VLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ DQGUHDGLO\OHJLEOHPHDQLQJLVRIWHQRQO\JHQ
HUDWHG E\ FRPELQDWLRQ ZLWK D FDSWLRQ 'LIIHUHQW FDSWLRQV IRU WKH VDPH
SKRWRJUDSKRIWHQSURGXFHUDGLFDOO\GLIIHUHQWRUHYHQFRQWUDGLFWRU\PHDQ
LQJV 7KH FHUWDLQ LQIRUPDWLRQ SURYLGHG E\ D SKRWRJUDSK PD\ EH RI
WDQJHQWLDOXVHLQDQDQDO\WLFDODFFRXQWRIDSDVWHYHQW\HW E\SUHVHUYLQJ
D GHWDLO ZKLFKPLJKW RWKHUZLVH EH LJQRUHG QHZOLQHV RIQRW QHFHVVDULO\
VWULFWO\ KLVWRULFDO FXULRVLW\ DERXW WKH SDVW PD\ EH RSHQHG XS :K\ IRU
LQVWDQFH GLG WKH ZRPDQ ZKR DGPLQLVWHUHG WKH SUHVLGHQWLDO RDWK WR
/\QGRQ-RKQVRQRQERDUGAirforce OneRQ1RYHPEHU DIWHUWKH
DVVDVVLQDWLRQRI-RKQ) .HQQHG\SODFHKHUWKXPERQWKHOLWWOHILQJHURI
WKHKDQGLQZKLFKKHKHOGWKH%LEOHDVLVWREHVHHQLQ&HFLO6WRXJKWRQ¶V
SKRWRJUDSKRIWKHHYHQW"
2QHRIWKHPRVWLQWHUHVWLQJDUHDVRIGLVFXVVLRQDERXWSUHVVDQGGRFX
PHQWDU\SKRWRJUDSK\FRQFHUQVWKHUROHRIWKHSKRWRJUDSKHULQWKHHYHQWV
KHRUVKHGHSLFWV,WFDQEHDUJXHGWKDWWKHQRWLRQRIWKHµLQQRFHQWH\H¶LV
QR ORQJHU WHQDEOH DQG WKH FDPHUD LV DOZD\V DQ LQWUXVLYH SUHVHQFH $
SKRWRJUDSKVXFKDV6DGD\XNL0LNDPL¶VRIJULHYLQJUHODWLYHVRISDVVHQJHUV
NLOOHGRQERDUG.RUHDQ$LUOLQHVIOLJKWPDGHLQ6HSWHPEHU RQD
ERDWZKHUHWKHSODQHSOXQJHGLQWRWKHVHDPLJKWEHLQWHUSUHWHGDVWDNLQJ
LQWUXVLRQ DV LWV VXEMHFW OHQVHV DUH WKUXVW WRZDUGV WKH IDFHV RI WKH
ZHHSLQJ UHODWLYHV LQFOXGLQJ E\ LPSOLFDWLRQ WKDW RIWKH PDNHU RIWKLV
Visual History
SKRWRJUDSK,VDED\RQHWWKUXVWLQWRDYLFWLP¶VVWRPDFKEHFDXVHDSKRWR
JUDSKHU 0LFKHO /DXUHDW LV SUHVHQW RUZRXOG LW KDYH KDSSHQHG LQ DQ\
FDVHRUKDVWKHSUHVHQFHRIDSKRWRJUDSKHUGHWHUUHGZRXOGEHDVVDLODQWV
IURPWKUXVWLQJRWKHUED\RQHWVLQWRRWKHUVWRPDFKV":KDWHYHUWKHDQVZHU
LQDQ\JLYHQ LQVWDQFH LWLVGLIILFXOWQRWWR UHJDUGWKHSKRWRJUDSKHUDV D
SDUWLFLSDQW
+LVWRU\
)URPWKH IRUHJRLQJ WKH UHDGHUPD\ LQIHU WKDW , GR QRW EHOLHYH WKDW WKH
KLVWRULDQLVEHVWSODFHGWRGHDOZLWKYLVXDOPDWHULDOKHRUVKHLVQDWXUDOO\
HQRXJK SULPDULO\ RFFXSLHG ZLWK LQWHUSUHWLQJ WKH SDVW QRW ZLWK FXUUHQW
YLVXDOSUDFWLFHDQGFULWLFDOLVVXHV +RZHYHUKLVWRULDQVKDYHUDLVHGLVVXHV
UHJDUGLQJYLVXDOPDWHULDOLQGLVWLQFWZD\VZKLFKFDQUHPLQGWKRVHZKRDUH
SULPDULO\ FRQFHUQHGZLWK DUW DQG RWKHUYLVXDOPDWHULDO WKDW DOOPDWHULDO
IURPWKHSDVWLVSRWHQWLDOO\DGPLVVLEOHDVHYLGHQFHIRUWKHKLVWRULDQ
%RE6FULEQHU¶VFor the Sake o f Simple Folk: Popular Propagandafor the
German ReformationLVDQH[DPSOHRIWKHUHIUHVKLQJOHYHOOLQJHIIHFW
DKLVWRULDQ¶VJD]HFDQEULQJWRDPDVVRIPDWHULDO HDUO\VL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\
*HUPDQZRRGFXWV WKDW DUWKLVWRULDQV FDQQRWKHOS EXW WUHDWLQ DKLHU
DUFKLFDOPDQQHUDFFRUGLQJWRSHUFHLYHGDUWLVWLFPHULW6FULEQHUDWWHPSWHG
WR HOXFLGDWH WKH LFRQRJUDSKLF DQG IRUPDO FRQYHQWLRQV ZKLFK DOORZHG
SLFWRULDOSURSDJDQGD IRU DQG DJDLQVW UHOLJLRXV UHIRUPWR EHXQGHUVWRRG
E\ RUGLQDU\ SHRSOH +H DSSHDOV WR WKH LPDJHU\ WR UHYHDO WKHLU UDQJH RI
FXOWXUDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGWKHQRWLRQVZLWKLQLWWKH$QWLFKULVWWKHZRUOG
WXUQHGXSVLGHGRZQWRZKLFKUHIRUPHUVFRXOGUHIHU,WLVDSSURSULDWHIRU
KLPWRWUHDWZRUNVE\'LLUHUDQGWKH&UDQDFKVLQWKHVDPHWHUPVDVSULQWV
E\WKHLUFRQWHPSRUDULHVZKLFKDUWKLVWRULDQVPLJKWGLVPLVVDVFRDUVHDQG
RIOLWWOHLQWULQVLFLQWHUHVWDOWKRXJKZKHQWKHVXFFHVVRILPDJHU\LVDVVHVVHG
LQ WHUPV RI WKH LPLWDWLRQ RU HPXODWLRQ RI PRWLIV DQG YLVXDO GHYLFHV
TXDOLW\ DUWLVWU\ DQGWKHUROHRIH[LVWLQJYLVXDOWUDGLWLRQRXJKWDOVRWREH
FRQVLGHUHG DV VKRXOGGLIIHUHQWSUREDEOHPDUNHWVIRULPDJHVRIGLIIHUHQW
TXDOLW\
$VHFRQGH[DPSOHRIDERRNLQZKLFKDKLVWRULDQPDNHV VRSKLVWLFDWHG
XVH RIYLVXDOPDWHULDOLV 6LPRQ 6FKDPD¶V The Embarrassment o f Riches:
An Interpretation o f Dutch Culture in the Golden Age ,Q KLV
GHVFULSWLRQ RIPLGGOHFODVV 'XWFK VRFLDO KDELWV DQG EHOLHIV FRQFHUQLQJ
QDWLRQDO LGHQWLW\ GRPHVWLF SURELW\ WKH GXWLHV RIZRPHQ DQG GRPHVWLF
VHUYDQWV DQG WKH UHDULQJ RI FKLOGUHQ 6FKDPD SUHVVHV D YDVW UDQJH RI
PDWHULDOLQWRVHUYLFHLQFOXGLQJSRHWU\FKRURJUDSK\WUDYHOOHUV¶DFFRXQWV
QRWDULDO GRFXPHQWV FRXUW UHFRUGV SULQWV DQG SDLQWLQJV ,Q GRLQJ VR KH
Ivan Gaskell
UHODWHGWRFDUQLYDORUIHVWLYLW\RIWHQDSSHDUWREHDFFHVVLEOH7KLVKDVOHG
WRDWHQGHQF\WRWUHDWLFRQRFODVPDVDQXQYDU\LQJSKHQRPHQRQDWWHQWLRQ
EHLQJJLYHQWRIDFWRUVFRPPRQWRYDULRXVLQVWDQFHVUDWKHUWKDQWRGLIIHU
HQFHVDPRQJWKHP1RZVRFLDOKLVWRULDQVDUHLQFUHDVLQJO\WXUQLQJWRZKDW
KDVEHHQFDOOHGPLFURSROLWLFVRUWKHVWXG\RILQGLYLGXDOHYHQWVLQWKHOLJKW
RIZKLFKWKH\ DUH OHDUQLQJ WR PRGLI\ WKHRUHWLFDO IUDPHZRUNV DOORZLQJD
JUHDWHUDWWHQWLRQWRQXDQFHV7KLVLVWREHVHHQ IRULQVWDQFHLQWKHZRUN
RI/HH 3DOPHU :DQGHO RQ GLVWLQFWLRQV LQ WKH SUDFWLFH RILFRQRFODVP LQ
YDULRXVFLWLHVLQKHUERRN Voracious Idols and Violent Hands: Iconoclasm
in Renaissance Zurich, Strasbourg, and Basel
$OHVVGUDPDWLFWKRXJKQROHVVUHZDUGLQJH[DPSOHRIZKDWWKHKLVWRULDQ
FDQGRWRSODFHYLVXDOPDWHULDOLQDVRFLRHFRQRPLFFRQWH[WRISURGXFWLRQ
DQGFRQVXPSWLRQLVSURYLGHGE\WKHZRUNRIWKHHFRQRPLVW-RKQ0LFKDHO
0RQWLDV+LVVWXG\Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Study o f
the Seventeenth CenturyUHPLQGVUHDGHUVWKDWILQHDUWSDLQWLQJZDVD
PDWWHURIFODVVGHWHUPLQHGILQDQFLDORSSRUWXQLW\ERWKIRUSXUFKDVHUDQG
IRUSUDFWLWLRQHU$VZHOODVWUDFLQJWKHIRUWXQHVRI'HOIW¶VSDLQWHUV0RQWLDV
GHVFULEHG WKH SURWRLQGXVWULDO FDSLWDOLVW RUJDQL]DWLRQ RILWV SULQWHUV DQG
IDLHQFLHUV,QFRQWUDVWWRSUDFWLWLRQHUVRIWKHODWWHUWZRFUDIWVWKHSDLQWHUV
QHHGHGOLWWOHLQWKHZD\RIFDSLWDOLQYHVWPHQW\HWUDWKHUWKDQEHLQJDQRSHQ
SURIHVVLRQ0RQWLDVIRXQGWKDWWKHH[SHQVHRIWKHVL[\HDUDSSUHQWLFHVKLS
HIIHFWLYHO\ OLPLWHG HQWUDQWV WR WKHFKLOGUHQ RIRQO\ WKH PRVW SURVSHURXV
FUDIWVPHQ QRWDULHV DQG ODZ\HUV DQG RI SDLQWHUV WKHPVHOYHV &KLOGUHQ
VSRQVRUHGE\WKH2USKDQ&KDPEHU E\FRQWUDVWZHUHPRUHOLNHO\ WR EH
DSSUHQWLFHGWRDIDLHQFLHUDQGDOWKRXJKLQWKHVDPHJXLOGDVWKHSDLQWHUV
ZRXOGEHXQOLNHO\WRULVHRXWRIWKHUDQNVRIDQDVFHQWSUROHWDULDW
$V 0RQWLDV¶V ERRN VKRZV WKH NLQG RI VWXG\ LQ ZKLFK WKH GLVWLQFW
LQWHUHVWV RI WKH KLVWRULDQ DQG WKH DUW KLVWRULDQ PLJKW EHVW FRQYHUJH
ZRXOG VHHP WR EH RQ WKH PLFURUDWKHU WKDQ WKH PDFUROHYHO 7KLV LV
FRQILUPHG E\ WKH VDPH DXWKRU¶V ODWHU ERRN Vermeer and his Milieu: A
Web o f Social HistoryH[DPLQLQJWKHVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFFLUFXP
VWDQFHVRIWKH'HOIWSDLQWHU-RKDQQHV9HUPHHUKLVIDPLO\DQGDVVRFLDWHV
0RQWLDV JLYHV QRW RQO\ D KLVWRULFDO SRUWUDLW RI D VSDUVHO\ GRFXPHQWHG
JUHDW DUWLVW EXW DOVR DQ DFFRXQW RI D VRFLHW\ LQ ZKLFK JUHDW IDLWK ZDV
SODFHG LQ WKH HIILFDF\ RIWKH VZRUQ ZULWWHQ ZRUG SUHVHUYHG LQ QRWDULDO
UHFRUGV ,QGLYLGXDO DUWLVWV QHHG QRW EH WKH RQO\ VXEMHFW RIVXFK PLFUR
KLVWRULFDO VWXGLHV FUDIW WHFKQLTXHV DQG PDWHULDOV FDQ SURYLGH D ZLQGRZ
RQWR DQHQWLUH VRFLHW\ DV6X]DQQH% %XWWHUVGHPRQVWUDWHGLQKHUVWXG\
The Triumph o f Vulcan: Sculptors’ Tools, Porphyry, and the Prince in
Ducal Florence 3RUSK\U\ D NLQG RI VWRQH KLJKO\ YDOXHG VLQFH
DQWLTXLW\ WKRXJKGHHSO\UHFDOFLWUDQWDQGKDUGWRZRUN SURYLGHVDWRSLF
ZKLFKLOOXVWUDWHVQRWRQO\KXPDQLQJHQXLW\LQWHFKQLFDOGHYHORSPHQWEXW
WKH LQWHUVHFWLRQ RIVRFLDOSROLWLFDO DQGDUWLVWLFDPELWLRQV
Ivan Gaskell
1 2 7(6,
,VKRXOGOLNHWRUHLWHUDWHP\WKDQNVWR3DWULFLD5XELQIRUKHUSHUFHSWLYHFRPPHQWV
RQ D GUDIW RIWKH ILUVW HGLWLRQ RIWKLV FKDSWHU SXEOLVKHG DV µ+LVWRU\ R I,PDJHV¶
7KDQNV WRR WR %UHQGDQ 'RROH\ ZKR FRPPHQWHG RQ D GUDIW RI WKH UHYLVHG
YHUVLRQIRUWKH VHFRQGHGLWLRQ
2Q WKLV TXHVWLRQ VHH IXUWKHU ,YDQ*DVNHOO µ0DJQDQLPLW\DQG3DUDQRLD LQWKH
%LJ %DG $UW :RUOG¶ LQ &KDUOHV : +D[WKDXVHQ HG The Two Art Histories:
The Academy and the Museum IRUWKFRPLQJ
$UHYHDOLQJH[FHSWLRQLVWKHVWXG\R IDUWKLVWRULDQV¶PHWKRGVXQGHUWDNHQE\WKH
*HWW\ $UW +LVWRU\ ,QIRUPDWLRQ 3URJUDP DQG WKH ,QVWLWXWH R I 5HVHDUFK LQ
,QIRUPDWLRQ DQG 6FKRODUVKLS DW %URZQ 8QLYHUVLW\ ,5,6 2QH R ILWV WRSLFV LV
VFKRODUV¶ DWWLWXGHV WRZDUGV RULJLQDO ZRUNV R IDUW DQG SKRWRJUDSKLFUHSURGXF
WLRQV (OL]DEHWK %DNHZHOO :LOOLDP 2 %HHPDQ &DURO 0F0LFKDHO 5HHVH DQG
0DULO\Q 6FKPLWW HGV Object. Image. Inquiry: The Art Historian at Work
6DQWD0RQLFD
6HH IRU H[DPSOH 0 * 4XLPE\ HG Material Culture and the Study o f
American Life WKH VW:LQWHUWKXU &RQIHUHQFH 1HZ<RUN
* 6FKZDUW] µ&RQQRLVVHXUVKLS 7KH 3HQDOW\ RI $KLVWRULFLVP¶ International
Journal o f Museum Management and Curatorship, 1 SS
'DYLG 3KLOOLSV Exhibiting Authenticity 0DQFKHVWHU DQG 1HZ <RUN
HVSHFLDOO\ SS
Visual History
6HH ,YDQ *DVNHOO DQG +HQU\ /LH HGV Sketches in Clay fo r Projects by Gian
Lorenzo Bernini&DPEULGJH 0DVV
- 3 )LOHGW.RNHGScientific Examination o f Early Netherlandish Painting:
Applications in Art History (Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek
%XVVXP
- %UX\Q % +DDN 6 + /HYLH 3 - - YDQ 7KLHO DQG ( YDQ GH :HWHULQJ A
Corpus o f Rembrandt Paintings, YRO 1625-1631 7KH +DJXH DQG %RVWRQ
YRO 1631-16347KH+DJXHDQG%RVWRQ YRO 1634-16397KH
+DJXHDQG%RVWRQ
6HHOHWWHUV WRWKHHGLWRUIURP- %UX\Q % +DDN 6 + /HYLH DQG3 - - YDQ
7KLHO Burlington Magazine, S DQGIURP( YDQGH:HWHULQJ
Burlington Magazine, SS DOVR (UQVW YDQ GH :HWHULQJ DQG 3DXO
%URHNKRII µ1HZ GLUHFWLRQV LQ WKH 5HPEUDQGW 5HVHDUFK 3URMHFW 3DUW , WKH
VHOISRUWUDLW LQ WKH 5R\DO &ROOHFWLRQ¶ Burlington Magazine,
SS
µ)RU WKH VDNH RI VFKRODUVKLS LW QRZ VHHPV SUHIHUDEOH WR SUHVHQW DOO WKH
DUJXPHQWV IRU DQG DJDLQVW DWWULEXWLRQ WR 5HPEUDQGW ZLWKRXW WKH QHHG WR
IRUFH LQGLYLGXDO SDLQWLQJV LQWR WKH VWUDLJKWMDFNHW R ID VLPSOH ³\HV´ RU ³QR´¶
(UQVW YDQ GH :HWHULQJ OHWWHU FLWHG LQ Q DERYH S )RU DQ DSSURDFK
ZKLFK SURSRVHV D GLIIHUHQW SDUDGLJP GHPRWLQJ WKH LPSRUWDQFH R IWKH LQGL
YLGXDODQGVWUHVVLQJZRUNVKLSUHVSRQVLELOLW\VHHSketches in Clay,FLWHGDWQ
DERYH
'DYLG %RPIRUG &KULVWRSKHU %URZQ DQG $VKRN 5R\ Art in the Making:
Rembrandt1DWLRQDO*DOOHU\ /RQGRQ
7KHK\SRWKHWLFDOQDWXUHRIFRQQRLVVHXUV¶DWWULEXWLRQV KRZHYHUZHOOLQIRUPHG
E\ WHFKQLFDO PDWHULDO ZDV DFNQRZOHGJHG LQ E\ WKH KHDG RI WKH
5HPEUDQGW 5HVHDUFK 3URMHFW (UQVW YDQ GH :HWHULQJ OHWWHU FLWHG LQ Q
DERYH S
+ +RUQH Alessandro Filipepi called Sandro Botticelli, Painter o f Florence
/RQGRQ QHZ HGLWLRQ ZLWK DQ LQWURGXFWLRQ E\ -RKQ 3RSH+HQQHVV\
/RQGRQ
$ :DUEXUJ Sandro Botticellis ‘Geburt der Venus’ und ‘Frúhling’. Eine Unter-
suchung iiber die Vorstellungen von der Antike in der italieniscshen Fruhrenais-
sance+DPEXUJ :DUEXUJ¶VZRUNVZHUHFROOHFWHGLQWZRYROXPHVDVDie
Erneuerung der heidnischen Antike /HLS]LJ EXW ZHUH QRW DYDLODEOH LQ
(QJOLVK XQWLO The Renewal o f Pagan Antiquity: Contributions to the
Cultural History o f the European Renaissance,WUDQV'DYLG%ULWW/RV$QJHOHV
5RQDOG/LJKWERZQSandro Botticelli: Life and Work with Complete Catalogue,
YROV %HUNHOH\ &DO LV QRZ WKH VWDQGDUG WH[W FRPSOHPHQWHGE\ KLV
Sandro Botticelli: Life and Work1HZ<RUN
7KLVZDVPDGHFOHDUGXULQJWKHURXQGWDEOHGLVFXVVLRQDPRQJWKHGLUHFWRUVRI
VHYHUDO PDMRU (XURSHDQ DQG$PHULFDQ DUW PXVHXPV DQG RWKHU VFKRODUV ZLWK
ZKLFKWKHFRQIHUHQFHLQ RQWKHKLVWRU\DQGIXWXUHRIWKH8IIL]LFRQFOXGHG
$QHGLWHGWUDQVFULSWZDVVXEVHTXHQWO\SXEOLVKHGLQGli Uffizi. Quattro secoli di
una galleria, HG 3DROD %DURFFKL DQG *LRYDQQD 5DJLRQHUL )ORUHQFH
YRO SS
Ivan Gaskell
3ULPDULO\ LQ LWV VHFRQG HGLWLRQ * 9DVDUL Le vite de' piu eccellenti pittori,
scultori ed architettori
6HH LQ SDUWLFXODU 3DWULFLD /HH 5XELQ Giorgio Vasari: Art and History 1HZ
+DYHQ &RQQ DQG /RQGRQ
7KH IRXQGLQJ WH[W LQ PDQ\ UHVSHFWV LV 5R]VLND 3DUNHU DQG *ULVHOGD 3ROORFN
Old Mistresses: Women, Art, and Ideology /RQGRQ WKRXJK LW ZDV
SUHFHGHG E\ WKH FDWDORJXH R IWKH H[KLELWLRQ Women, Artists, 1550-1950, E\
$QQ 6XWKHUODQG+DUULV DQG/LQGD1RFKOLQ /RV$QJHOHV&RXQW\ 0XVHXPR I
$UW 0XFK RI/LQGD 1RFKOLQ¶V ZRUN VXFK DV Women, Art, and Power
and Other Essays 1HZ <RUN EUHDNV ZLWK 9DVDULDQ DVVXPSWLRQV LQ D
ZD\WKDWIRUH[DPSOH0DU\'*DUUDUG¶VArtemisia Gentileschi: The Image o f
the Female Hero in Italian Baroque Art3ULQFHWRQ1- GRHVQRW
$OEHUW %RLPH The Academy and French Painting in the Nineteenth Century
/RQGRQ LG Thomas Couture and the Eclectic Vision 1HZ +DYHQ
&RQQDQG/RQGRQ 0RUHUHFHQWO\%RLPHKDVDWWHQGHGWR$PHULFDQDUW
The Magisterial Gaze: Manifest Destiny and American Landscape Painting,
c. 1830-1865 :DVKLQJWRQ '& DQG The Unveiling o f the National
Icons: A Plea fo r Patriotic Iconoclasm in a Nationalist Era &DPEULGJH DQG
1HZ <RUN RQ SXEOLF PRQXPHQWV IURP WKH 6WDWXH RI /LEHUW\ WR WKH
9LHWQDP0HPRULDO
)UDQJRLVH &DFKLQ DQG -RVHSK 5LVKHO Cézanne *UDQG 3DODLV 3DULV 7DWH
*DOOHU\ /RQGRQ 3KLODGHOSKLD 0XVHXPR I$UW
6HHWKH0HWURSROLWDQ0XVHXP¶VSXEOLFDWLRQE\WKHFXUDWRUUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKH
UHLQVWDOODWLRQ *DU\ 7LQWHURZ The New Nineteenth-Century European Paint-
ings and Sculpture Galleries 1HZ<RUN
6HH IRU H[DPSOH ' 6 &KDPEHUV A Renaissance Cardinal and his Worldly
Goods: The Will and Inventory o f Francesco Gonzaga (1444-1483) /RQGRQ
DQG&ODUH5REHUWVRQII Gran Cardinale: Alessandro Farnese, Patron o f
the Arts 1HZ+DYHQ &RQQ DQG /RQGRQ
6HH5DPRQD0$XVWLQ µ'HILQLQJWKH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ&DQH¶LQ*HRUJH+
0H\HUZLWK .D\ :KLWH 0H\HU American Folk Art Canes: Personal Sculpture
0XVHXP RI$PHULFDQ )RON$UW1HZ<RUN SS
µ7KH KDQJLQJ¶VWRRJRRGIRUWKHP¶ Burlington Magazine, SS
Art Monthly, $SULO SS
'DYLG 6RONLQ Richard Wilson: The Landscape o f Reaction 7DWH *DOOHU\
/RQGRQ
,Q WKH QHZ LQWURGXFWRU\ VHFWLRQ WR WKHLU DUWLFOH µ7KH /DQGVFDSH R I5HDFWLRQ
5LFKDUG :LOVRQ DQG KLV FULWLFV¶ LQ $ / 5HHV DQG )UDQFHV
%RU]HOOR HGV The New Art History /RQGRQ SS RULJLQDOO\
SXEOLVKHGLQHistory Workshop, SS
7KH ZDOO ODEHOV D JHQUH ZKLFK FDQ RQO\ DGPLW JUDGDWLRQ RI H[SUHVVLRQ RI
RSLQLRQZLWKJUHDWGLIILFXOW\ ZHUHWKHFDXVHRIRXWUDJHUDWKHUWKDQWKHPRUH
VXEWO\DUJXHGFDWDORJXHHGLWHGE\:LOOLDP + 7UXHWWQHU
)RUWKH KRVWLOH UHDFWLRQWR$OSHUV E\WKH OHDGLQJ'XWFK LFRQRORJLVW (GG\ GH
-RQJK VHH KLV UHYLHZ LQ Simiolus, SS 0\ RZQ UHYLHZ ZDV
MXGJHG E\ RWKHUV WR EH V\PSDWKHWLFWR $OSHUV EXWLV DFWXDOO\FULWLFDO WKRXJK
QRW DORQJ µSDUW\ OLQHV¶ Oxford Art Journal, SS )RU DQ
Visual History
RYHUYLHZVHH(JEHUW+DYHUNDPS%HJHPDQQµ7KH6WDWHR I5HVHDUFKLQ1RUWK
HUQ %DURTXH$UW¶Art Bulletin, SS HVSHFLDOO\SS
(UZLQ3DQRIVN\µ,QWURGXFWRU\¶LQStudies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in
the Art o f the Renaissance 1HZ <RUN DQG WKH VDPH DXWKRU¶V µ,FRQR
JUDSK\ DQG ,FRQRORJ\ DQ ,QWURGXFWLRQ WR WKH 6WXG\ R I5HQDLVVDQFH $UW¶ LQ
Meaning in the Visual Arts*DUGHQ&LW\1 < 7KH µSUHLFRQRJUDSKLF¶
FRQFHUQV WKH YLHZHU¶V UHFRJQLWLRQ RIDQ REMHFW RU DFWUHSUHVHQWHG WKH µLFRQR
JUDSKLF¶ WKH SODFH R ID UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ ZLWKLQD VHW R IFRQYHQWLRQV WR SURGXFH
UHFRJQL]DEOH VSHFLILF VLJQLILFDQFH IRU H[DPSOH VDLQWV¶ LQGLYLGXDO DWWULEXWHV
WKH µLFRQRORJLFDO¶ FRQFHUQVWKH DUWLVW¶V LQQRYDWRU\ RUXQLTXH KDQGOLQJRIVXE
MHFW PDWWHU ZLWKLQ FXOWXUDOO\ FRQWLQJHQW SDUDPHWHUV WR JHQHUDWH LPSOLFLW VLJ
QLILFDQFHUHTXLULQJDQLPDJLQDWLYHUHVSRQVHIURPWKHYLHZHUIRULWVHOXFLGDWLRQ
European Photography, S
$FFRPSDQLHG E\WKHSXEOLFDWLRQ The Play o f the Unmentionable: An Installa-
tion by Joseph Kosuth at the Brooklyn Museum, HVVD\ E\ 'DYLG )UHHGEHUJ
6FKZDUW] µ&RQQRLVVHXUVKLS¶ Q DERYH S
4XRWHGE\5REHUW+HZLVRQ The Heritage Industry /RQGRQ S
Burlington Magazine, SS
$Q H[FHSWLRQ LV 'DYLG )UHHGEHUJ IRU H[DPSOH KLV Iconoclasts and their
Motives 0DDUVVHQ 6HH DOVR +DQV %HOWLQJ¶V GLVFXVVLRQ R I %\]DQWLQH
LFRQRFODVP LQ KLV Bild und Kult. Eine Geschichte des Bildes vor dem Zeitalter
der Kunst 0XQLFK WUDQVODWHG E\ (GPXQG -HSKFRWW DV Likeness and
Presence: A History o f the Image before the Era o f Art&KLFDJR
+LVWRU\RI3ROLWLFDO7KRXJKW
Richard Tuck
µFODVVLFWH[WV¶)RULIWKHZKROHSRLQWR IVXFKDVWXG\LVFRQFHLYHGLQWHUPVRI
UHFRYHULQJWKH µWLPHOHVVTXHVWLRQV DQGDQVZHUV¶ SRVHG LQWKH µJUHDWERRNV¶
DQGVRR IGHPRQVWUDWLQJWKHLUFRQWLQXLQJµUHOHYDQFH¶LWPXVWEHQRWPHUHO\
SRVVLEOHEXWHVVHQWLDOIRUWKHKLVWRULDQWRFRQFHQWUDWHVLPSO\RQZKDWHDFK
R IWKH FODVVLF ZULWHUV KDV saidDERXW HDFK RIWKHVH µIXQGDPHQWDO FRQFHSWV¶
DQGµDELGLQJTXHVWLRQV¶ 7KHDLPLQVKRUWPXVWEHWRSURYLGHDµUHDSSUDL
VDO RIWKHFODVVLF ZULWLQJV TXLWH DSDUW IURP WKHFRQWH[W R IKLVWRULFDOGHYHO
RSPHQW DV SHUHQQLDOO\ LPSRUWDQW DWWHPSWV WR VHW GRZQ XQLYHUVDO
SURSRVLWLRQV DERXW SROLWLFDO UHDOLW\¶ )RU WR VXJJHVW LQVWHDG WKDW D NQRZ
OHGJHR IWKH VRFLDOFRQWH[WLV DQHFHVVDU\FRQGLWLRQIRUDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI
WKHFODVVLFWH[WV LV HTXLYDOHQWWR GHQ\LQJWKDWWKH\ GRFRQWDLQ DQ\HOHPHQWV
R IWLPHOHVV DQG SHUHQQLDO LQWHUHVW DQG LV WKXV HTXLYDOHQW WR UHPRYLQJ WKH
ZKROH SRLQWRIVWXG\LQJZKDWWKH\ VDLG S
$Q DUUD\ RI PDLQO\ $PHULFDQ SROLWLFDO VFLHQWLVWV ZHUH OLVWHG LQ WKH
IRRWQRWHV WR WKLV SDVVDJH 3HWHU 0HUNO +DQV - 0RUJHQWKDX 0XOIRUG
4 6LEOH\ :LOOLP 7 %OXKP * ( * &DWOLQ $QGUHZ +DFNHU 5 *
0F&ORVNH\ .DUO -DVSHUV /HRQDUG1HOVRQ &KDUOHV 5 1 0F&R\ /HR
6WUDXVVDQG-RVHSK&URSVH\
$OWKRXJK'XQQGLGQRWLVVXHDQ\FRPSDUDEOHOLVWRISHRSOHLWLVFOHDU
WKDWKHKDGKDGWKHWKHLUNLQGRIDSSURDFKLQPLQGZKHQLQWKHSUHYLRXV
\HDUKHKDGFRPSODLQHGWKDW
$V DQ DOWHUQDWLYH WR WKLV ERWK 6NLQQHU DQG 'XQQ HPSKDVL]HG WKDW WKH
SURSHUZD\ WR UHDG DKLVWRULFDO WH[W LVDV D KLVWRULFDOSURGXFW LQZKLFK
WKH DFWXDO LQWHQWLRQV RIWKH DXWKRU LQ VR IDU DV WKH\ FDQUHDVRQDEO\ EH
UHFRQVWUXFWHGVKRXOGEHRXUSULQFLSDOJXLGHDVWRZK\WKHWH[WWRRNWKH
SDUWLFXODU IRUP LW GLG WKRXJK RIFRXUVH QHLWKHU RIWKHPVXSSRVHG WKDW
LQWHQWLRQZDVDsufficientJXLGH IDLOXUHQHHGVUHFRJQLWLRQDQGH[SODQD
WLRQWRR
7KRXJK DQ DUJXPHQW RI WKLV VRUW KDG QRW EHHQ 3RFRFN¶V SULPDU\
LQWHQWLRQ KLVHVVD\RIVL[\HDUVHDUOLHUFRXOGEHUHFUXLWHGLQWRWKLVFDXVH
DQG 6NLQQHU KDV DOZD\V JHQHURXVO\ DFNQRZOHGJHG 3RFRFN¶V LQIOXHQFH
DORQJ ZLWK WKDW RI 5 * &ROOLQJZRRG $ODVGDLU 0DF,QW\UH DQG 3HWHU
Richard Tuck
/DVOHWW3RFRFN¶VHVVD\ZDVLQHIIHFWDQDSSHDOZLWKLQWKHSURIHVVLRQRIWKH
KLVWRU\ RILGHDV WR WDNH VHULRXVO\ DV WKH PDWHULDO WR EH XQGHUVWRRG DQG
H[SODLQHGWKHZKROHVHWRIZULWLQJVRURWKHUSURGXFWVRQSROLWLFVDYDLODEOH
IURP D SDUWLFXODU VRFLHW\ ZKDW KH FDOOHG WKH µVWHUHRW\SHV¶ DQG µODQ
JXDJHV¶ DQG ZKDW KH KDV VXEVHTXHQWO\ WHUPHG µSDUDGLJPV¶ +LV RZQ
ZRUN The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law KDG EHHQ D
GD]]OLQJLOOXVWUDWLRQRIZKDWKHPHDQW WKDWPDMRUSROLWLFDOSKLORVRSKHUV
FRXOG RQO\ EH UHDG DJDLQVW D UDWKHU PLQXWHO\ VSHFLILHG DQG KLVWRULFDOO\
SDUWLFXODUEDFNJURXQGRIOLQJXLVWLFSUDFWLFHVLQWKLVFDVH WKHSUDFWLFHRI
KLVWRULFDO DVVXPSWLRQV ZLWKLQWKHFRPPRQODZWUDGLWLRQ DQGWKDWRQO\
LQVXFKDZD\FRXOGWKHLURULJLQDOLW\RUFRQYHQWLRQDOLW\EHDSSUHKHQGHG
,WZDVWUXH3RFRFNDFNQRZOHGJHGWKDW
7KLVVWRU\DERXWWKH VKDVQRZEHHQWROGPDQ\WLPHVVWXGHQWVKDYH
DYDLODEOHFRSLRXVVXPPDULHVRIWKHLVVXHVLQYROYHGLQWKLVPHWKRGRORJLFDO
FRQWHVWRIWKHIDFXOWLHV7KHUHKDYHEHHQPDQ\VOLJKWO\SHHYLVKUHVSRQVHV
WR 'XQQ 3RFRFN DQG 6NLQQHU DQG VRPH GHIHQVLYH UHMRLQGHUV IURP WKH
SULQFLSDOVWKHPVHOYHV %XWWRWKRVH RIXVIURPD UDWKHU\RXQJHU JHQHUD
WLRQ IRU ZKRP WKLV VWUXJJOH KDG WKH FXULRXVO\ UHPRWH TXDOLW\ WKDW WKH
DIIDLUVRIHOGHUEURWKHUVDOZD\VSRVVHVVWKHSX]]OHZDVDOZD\VWRXQGHU
VWDQGZKDWWKHSRLQWKDGEHHQRIDQRQKLVWRULFDOLQ'XQQ¶VVHQVHVWXG\
RIWKHKLVWRU\RILGHDV,WZDVREYLRXVWRXVWKDWDV&ROOLQJZRRGKDGSXW
LW GHYDVWDWLQJO\ WKLUW\ \HDUV HDUOLHU LI RQH ZDQWHG WR XQGHUVWDQG WKH
KLVWRU\RIVRPHWKLQJ RQHKDGDFWXDOO\WRGRWKHUHOHYDQWZRUN RILQYHV
WLJDWLQJHYLGHQFHDQGZRUNLQJRXWZKDWWKHSHRSOHFRQFHUQHGZHUHXSWR
6EORRG¶ VD\V +DPOHW µGR \RX WKLQN , DP HDVLHU WR EH SOD\HG RQ WKDQ D
SLSH"¶ 7KRVH HPLQHQW SKLORVRSKHUV 5RVHQFUDQW] DQG *XLLGHQVWHUQ WKLQN
History o f Political Thought
tout bonnement WKDW WKH\ FDQ GLVFRYHU ZKDW WKH Parmenides LV DERXW E\
PHUHO\UHDGLQJLWEXWLI\RXWRRNWKHPWRWKHVRXWKJDWHR I+RXVHVWHDGVDQG
VDLG µ3OHDVH GLVWLQJXLVK WKH YDULRXV SHULRGV R I FRQVWUXFWLRQ KHUH DQG
H[SODLQ ZKDW SXUSRVH WKH EXLOGHUV RI HDFK SHULRG KDG LQ PLQG¶ WKH\
ZRXOGSURWHVWµ%HOLHYHPH,FDQQRW¶' RWKH\WKLQNWKHParmenidesLVHDVLHU
WRXQGHUVWDQGWKDQDURWWHQOLWWOH5RPDQIRUW" ¶6EORRG
,IWKLVZDVVRREYLRXVLQZK\GLGLWQHHGVD\LQJDJDLQDOEHLWZLWKD
GLIIHUHQWVHWRISKLORVRSKLFDOFRQVLGHUDWLRQVLQ "
2IWKHFRPPHQWDWRUVRQWKHVHLVVXHV RQO\*XQQHOOKDVGHDOWZLWKWKLV
TXHVWLRQ VHHLQJ LW ULJKWO\ DV D TXHVWLRQ DERXW WKH FKDUDFWHU RIPLG
WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\SROLWLFDOVFLHQFH%XWWKHSDUWLFXODUDQVZHUZKLFK*XQ
QHOOJDYHWRWKHTXHVWLRQZDVOHVVSODXVLEOHDQG,VKDOOVXJJHVWDGLIIHUHQW
RQH$VSDUWRIKLVWUHDWPHQWRIWKHPDWWHU*XQQHOOVNHWFKHGDKLVWRU\LQ
ZKLFK WKH GHYHORSPHQWRIµEHKDYLRXULVP¶ LQSROLWLFDO VFLHQFHGXULQJ WKH
V DQG V OHG WR DWWDFNV RQWKHZULWLQJRIWKHKLVWRU\ RISROLWLFDO
WKRXJKWDVDQDFWLYLW\RIOLWWOHLPSRUWDQFH*XQQHOOFLWHG'DYLG(DVWRQLQ
FRPSODLQLQJ WKDW WUDGLWLRQDO ZHVWHUQ SROLWLFDO WKLQNLQJ KDG EHHQ
UHSODFHGE\LQYHVWLJDWLRQVLQWRWKHKLVWRU\RISROLWLFDOWKRXJKWDQDFWLYLW\
ZKLFKOLYHG µSDUDVLWLFDOO\¶ RQ SDVW LGHDV DQG QR ORQJHU VRXJKW HLWKHU WR
SURYLGHDSURSHUHPSLULFDOSROLWLFDOVFLHQFHRUWRFRQVWUXFWµDYDOXDWLRQDO
frame o fUHIHUHQFH¶*XQQHOOPolitical Theory,S
µ%HKDYLRXULVP¶ KHUH VWRRG IRU DZLGH QRWLRQ RIDQ HPSLULFDO SROLWLFDO
VFLHQFHPDUNHGE\RIWHQTXDQWLWDWLYHVWXGLHVRIJHQHUDOTXDVLVFLHQWLILF
ODZVRIKXPDQEHKDYLRXUDQGDVWULFWGLYRUFHEHWZHHQIDFWVDQGYDOXHV
µHWKLFDO HYDOXDWLRQ DQG HPSLULFDOH[SODQDWLRQ LQYROYH WZR NLQGV RISUR
SRVLWLRQWKDWIRUWKHVDNHRIFODULW\VKRXOGEHNHSWDQDO\WLFDOO\GLVWLQFW¶
LELGS *XQQHOO WRRNWKHSULQFLSDOSRLQWRI(DVWRQ¶VFULWLTXHRIWKH
KLVWRU\ RISROLWLFDO WKRXJKW WR EH DQ LPSOLFLWFDOO IRUHPSLULFDO SROLWLFDO
VFLHQFH WR EHFRPH WKH GRPLQDQW PRGH RI WKLQNLQJ DERXW SROLWLFV KH
FRQMHFWXUHG WKDW µWKH UHVSRQVH RI KLVWRULDQV RI SROLWLFDO WKHRU\ WR WKH
FKDOOHQJH E\ EHKDYLRXULVWV UHJDUGLQJ WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI VWXG\LQJ WKH
WUDGLWLRQZDVQRWPHUHO\WRUHDIILUPWKDWLWLV UHOHYDQWIRUERWKSROLWLFDO
VFLHQFH DQGSROLWLFV EXW WR PDLQWDLQ WKDW LWZDV QRZ DEVROXWHO\ FUXFLDO¶
LELGS 7KHLGHDRIDJUHDWWUDGLWLRQRISROLWLFDOGHEDWH LQZHVWHUQ
(XURSHQRZEHFDPH *XQQHOODUJXHGWKHlocusIRUDFULWLTXHRIWKHNLQG
RIPRGHUQDWWLWXGHUHSUHVHQWHGE\(DVWRQDQGFRPSDQ\WKHLUUHSXGLDWLRQ
RIWKH KLVWRU\ RISROLWLFDO WKRXJKW ZDV PDGHLQWR DKLVWRULF DQWDJRQLVP
EHWZHHQDZD\RIWKLQNLQJDERXWSROLWLFVH[SUHVVLEOHRQO\LQWKHODQJXDJH
RIWKHFLYLOL]DWLRQFDSWXUHGLQWKHFODVVLFWH[WVIURP3ODWRWR0DU[DQGD
ZD\ RIWKLQNLQJ H[SUHVVHG LQ WKH SVHXGRVFLHQFH RIV\VWHPV DQDO\VLV RU
ZKDWHYHU µEHKDYLRXUDOLVI WKHRU\ZDVLQ IDYRXU :ULWHUVVXFKDV 6WUDXVV
9RHJHOLQ RU $UHQGW ZHUH *XQQHOO¶V SULPH H[DPSOHV RI WKHRULVWV ZKR
Richard Tuck
HVSRXVHGWKLVLGHDRIWKHWUDGLWLRQ DQGRIFRXUVHLQDWOHDVW6WUDXVV¶VFDVH
WKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKLVWUDGLWLRQDQGWKHLUUHGXFLELOLW\RILWVFRQWHQWWRVRPH
VWUDLJKWIRUZDUGO\ REMHFWLYH DQG PRGHUQ VHW RI XWWHUDQFHV ZDV LQGHHG
FHQWUDOWRDSROLWLFDOYLVLRQ
*XQQHOO WKXV H[SODLQHG WKH PRYHPHQW ZKLFK 6NLQQHU 'XQQ DQG
3RFRFNDWWDFNHGDVDUHVSRQVHWRWKHKRVWLOLW\RISRVWZDUSROLWLFDOVFLHQFH
WRWKHZULWLQJRIKLVWRULHVRISROLWLFDOWKRXJKW DQGDVDQDVVHUWLRQRIWKH
FRQWLQXHG UHOHYDQFH RI D QRQTXDQWLWDWLYH QRQEHKDYLRXULVW SROLWLFDO
VFLHQFH 7KHUH ZHUH KRZHYHU WZR SUREOHPV DERXW *XQQHOO¶V DFFRXQW
7KHILUVWZDVWKDWKHDVVXPHGWKDWLWZDVWKLVLGHDRIDµWUDGLWLRQ¶ZKLFK
ZDV WKH SULPH WDUJHW RI 6NLQQHU DQG WKH RWKHUV DQG KH FRQVHTXHQWO\
FULWLFL]HG WKHLUUHPDUNV RQPHWKRGRORJ\ DV D IDLOXUH WR VHH WKH SRLQWRI
WKH FULWLTXH RIPRGHUQLW\ DQG PRGHUQ SROLWLFDO VFLHQFH LPSOLFLW LQ WKH
ZULWLQJV RISHRSOH OLNH 6WUDXVV LELG S ,Q IDFW DV ZH KDYH VHHQ
WKRXJK WKHLU UHPDUNV ZHUH DSSOLFDEOH WR 6WUDXVV RU $UHQGW WKH DFWXDO
REMHFWV RI WKHLU H[SOLFLW FULWLFLVP ZHUH PRUH FRPPRQO\ WKH PXQGDQH
ILJXUHV RIWKH VZKR ZURWH RQWKHKLVWRU\ RISROLWLFDO WKRXJKW IURP
DFRQYHQWLRQDOSROLWLFDOVFLHQWLILFYLHZSRLQW VXFKDV0HUNODQG+DFNHU
7KH VHFRQG SUREOHP DERXW *XQQHOO¶V DFFRXQW ZDV WKDW KH KLPVHOI
UHFRJQL]HG DQG IXOO\ GRFXPHQWHG WKH IDFW WKDW WKH NLQG RIZULWLQJ RQ
WKHKLVWRU\RISROLWLFDOWKRXJKWZKLFK(DVWRQDWWDFNHGZDVLWVHOIWKHFKLOG
RIDSRVLWLYLVWDQGYLUWXDOO\ µEHKDYLRXULVW¶ YLHZ RISROLWLFVJRLQJEDFNDW
OHDVW WR WKH EHJLQQLQJ RIWKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ 7KHUH DUH D QXPEHU RI
VWULNLQJLQVWDQFHVRIWKLVRQHRIWKHEHVWEHLQJWKHZRUNRI*HRUJH&DWOLQ
RQHRIWKHDXWKRUVVLQJOHGRXWIRUDWWDFNE\6NLQQHULQ ZKRZURWH
ERWK D KLVWRU\ RI WKH SROLWLFDO SKLORVRSKHUV DQG DOVR VRPH VWDUWLQJO\
SRVLWLYLVW ZRUNV RQ WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI D JHQXLQHO\ µVFLHQWLILF¶ VWXG\ RI
SROLWLFV &RQVHTXHQWO\ DV *XQQHOOFRQFHGHG µLWLVGLIILFXOW WR GLVFHUQLQ
WKLVOLWHUDWXUHXSWKURXJKWKHODWHVWKHVRXUFHRI(DVWRQ¶VSRUWUD\DO
RIHLWKHUWKHFKDUDFWHURIVFKRODUVKLSLQWKHKLVWRU\RISROLWLFDOWKHRU\RU
WKHLQWHQWLRQVDQGFRQFHUQVWKDWJDYHULVHWRLW¶SZKLFKOHDYHVERWK
WKHVXSSRVHGEHKDYLRXULVWRQVODXJKWRQWKHKLVWRU\RISROLWLFDOWKRXJKWLQ
WKH V DQG WKH UHWDOLDWRU\ LQVLVWHQFH RQ D JUHDW WUDGLWLRQ E\ DQWL
SRVLWLYLVWVORRNLQJUDWKHUSRLQWOHVV
*XQQHOO¶V PLVWDNH DQG WKH PLVWDNH PDGH E\ PDQ\ ZULWHUV RQ WKHVH
LVVXHV ZDV QRW WR WDNH VHULRXVO\ WKH FODLPV E\ EHKDYLRXULVWV VXFK DV
(DVWRQ WKDW WKH VWXG\ RISROLWLFV KDG WR LQYROYH ERWK IDFWV DQG YDOXHV
EXW WKDW WKHVH EHORQJ WR WZR ORJLFDOO\ GLVWLQFW UHDOPV WKH IDFWYDOXH
GLVWLQFWLRQZKLFKJRHVEDFNLQLWVVWURQJIRUPWR.DQWDQGZKLFKLVDQ
HVVHQWLDOIRXQGDWLRQIRUWKHPRGHUQKXPDQVFLHQFHV ,WLVWUXHWKDWPRVW
KXPDQ VFLHQWLVWV WRRN WKHLU TXRWLGLDQ SURIHVVLRQDO SUDFWLFH WR EH WKH
H[SORUDWLRQRIWKHµIDFW¶VLGHRIWKLVGLVWLQFWLRQEXWWKH\DOODFNQRZOHGJHG
LQ WKHLU PRUH UHIOHFWLYH PRPHQWV WKDW SROLWLFDO µYDOXHV¶ KDG DOVR WR EH
History o f Political Thought
JHQHUDWHGLQVRPHZD\7KHFRPELQDWLRQRIWKLVDFNQRZOHGJHPHQWZLWKD
YHU\IHHEOH DWWHPSWDFWXDOO\ WR FRQVLGHU KRZYDOXHV PLJKW DSSHDURUEH
MXVWLILHGLVWKHPRVWVWULNLQJIHDWXUHRI$QJOR$PHULFDQDQGSDUWLFXODUO\
$PHULFDQSROLWLFDOVFLHQFHLQWKHILUVWKDOIRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ :H
PLJKWGHVFULEHLWDV.DQWLDQLVPZLWKRXW.DQW¶VHWKLFDOWKHRU\WKRXJKWKH
SDUWLFLSDQWVWKHPVHOYHVPRUHRIWHQGHVFULEHGLWDV+XPHDQLVP WKDWLV
DQDFFHSWDQFHRIWKHORJLFDOGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQHPSLULFDODQGHYDOXDWLYH
VWDWHPHQWV EXW D UHMHFWLRQ RIWKH WUDQVFHQGHQWDO GHGXFWLRQ RIPRUDOLW\
DFWXDOO\WREHIRXQGLQWKH Groundwork o f the Metaphysics o f Morals.
0RVWFRPPRQO\WKHVHKXPDQVFLHQWLVWVDVVXPHGWKDWLQVRPHPRUHRU
OHVVXQVSHFLILHGZD\µWKHFLWL]HQU\¶ZRXOGGHFLGH
µ%HDXW\ LV LQ WKH H\H R I WKH EHKROGHU¶ LV DQ DSKRULVP UHPLQGLQJ XV WKDW
MXGJHPHQWV RIEHWWHU RU ZRUVH LQYROYH subjective YDOXDWLRQV %XW WKLV GRHV
QRWGHQ\WKDWRQHSHUVRQ¶VQRVHPD\ EH objectivelyVKRUWHUWKDQ DQRWKHU¶V
6LPLODUO\ WKHUHDUHHOHPHQWVR IYDOLG UHDOLW\LQDJLYHQHFRQRPLFVLWXDWLRQ
KRZHYHU KDUG LW PD\ EH WR UHFRJQL]H DQG LVRODWH WKHP 7KHUH LV QRW RQH
WKHRU\ R I HFRQRPLFV IRU 5HSXEOLFDQV DQG RQH IRU 'HPRFUDWV RQH IRU
ZRUNHUV DQG RQH IRU HPSOR\HUV RQH IRUWKH 5XVVLDQV DQG VWLOO DQRWKHU IRU
WKH&KLQHVH 2QPDQ\EDVLFSULQFLSOHV FRQFHUQLQJSULFHV DQGHPSOR\PHQW
PRVW QRWDOO HFRQRPLVWVDUH LQIDLUO\FORVHDJUHHPHQW
7KLVVWDWHPHQWGRHVQRWPHDQWKDWHFRQRPLVWV DJUHHFORVHO\LQWKHpolicy
ILHOG (FRQRPLVW$ PD\ EH IRU IXOO HPSOR\PHQW DW DQ\ FRVW (FRQRPLVW %
PD\QRWFRQVLGHULWRIDVYLWDOLPSRUWDQFHDVSULFHVWDELOLW\ %DVLFTXHVWLRQV
FRQFHUQLQJULJKWDQGZURQJJRDOVWR EH SXUVXHGFDQQRWEH VHWWOHGE\PHUH
VFLHQFHDV VXFK 7KH\EHORQJLQWKH UHDOPR IHWKLFVDQG µYDOXHMXGJHPHQWV¶
7KHFLWL]HQU\PXVWXOWLPDWHO\GHFLGHVXFKLVVXHV:KDWWKHH[SHUWFDQGR LV
SRLQWRXWWKHIHDVLEOHDOWHUQDWLYHVDQGWKHWUXHFRVWVWKDWPD\EHLQYROYHGLQ
WKH GLIIHUHQW GHFLVLRQV %XW VWLOO WKH PLQG PXVW UHQGHU WR WKH KHDUW WKDW
ZKLFK LV LQ WKH KHDUW¶V GRPDLQ )RU DV 3DVFDO VDLG WKH KHDUW KDV UHDVRQV
WKDWUHDVRQZLOO QHYHUNQRZ
7KLVUHPDUNDEOHSDVVDJHLOOXVWUDWHVWKDWHDUO\WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\KXPDQ
VFLHQWLVWVWKRXJKWRIYDOXHVDVHVVHQWLDOO\PDWWHUVRIWKHKHDUWUDWKHUWKDQ
WKH UHDVRQ WKDWWKHUH FRXOGQRWEH D V\VWHPDWLF DQGUDWLRQDOEDVLV IRU
WKHP %XWDOOPHQZRXOGSRVVHVVWKHP DQGDVµFLWL]HQV¶ ZRXOGXVHWKHP
LQ WKHLU GHFLVLRQV *LYHQ WKLV YLHZ LW ZDV REYLRXVO\ RIVRPH SUDFWLFDO
LPSRUWDQFHWKDWWKHFLWL]HQU\ZRXOGQRWSOXFNLWVYDOXHVDWUDQGRPIURP
WKH DLU QRZ LW FRXOGQRW GHULYH WKHP IURPD WUDQVFHQGHQWDO GHGXFWLRQ
DQGWKHSULQFLSDOSXUSRVHRIVWXG\LQJWKHKLVWRU\RISROLWLFDOWKRXJKW DV
WH[WERRN DIWHU WH[WERRN PDGH FOHDU ZDV WR SURYLGH WKH UHDGHU ZKR
EHLQJ QRUPDOO\ DQ $PHULFDQ FROOHJH VWXGHQW ZDV VHHQ DERYH DOO DV D
IXWXUH FLWL]HQ ZLWK D VHW RISRVVLEOH SROLWLFDO DWWLWXGHV ZKLFK KH ZRXOG
QRWKDYHEHHQ DEOHWR JHQHUDWH KLPVHOIWKH\ZHUH WKHZRUN RIµJHQLXV¶
Richard Tuck
EXW ZKLFK KHFRXOG UHVSRQG WR DQGFKRRVH EHWZHHQ LQ DPHDVXUHG DQG
ZHOOJRYHUQHGZD\
,QGHHG LWLV VWULNLQJKRZPDQ\ RIWKHVH WH[WERRNVZHUHYHU\ORDWKWR
FRPPLW WKHPVHOYHV WR DQ\ FODLP DERXW WKH WUXWK RU IDOVHKRRG RI WKH
SROLWLFDO WKHRULHV WKH\ ZHUH FRQVLGHULQJ 6DELQH VDLG H[SUHVVO\ WKDW
µWDNHQDVDZKROHDSROLWLFDOWKHRU\FDQKDUGO\EHVDLGWR EHWUXH¶ 7KH
DXWKRUV WKH\FRQVLGHUHGZHUHQRWLQ JHQHUDO VXSSRVHG WR KDYHSURYLGHG
LQVLJKWV LQWR D WUXH WKHRU\ DQG LQ WKLV UHVSHFW WKHVH HDUO\ WZHQWLHWK
FHQWXU\KLVWRULDQVRISROLWLFDOWKRXJKWGLIIHUHGIURPWKHLUFRQWHPSRUDU\
KLVWRULDQV RIQDWXUDO VFLHQFH EXW WR KDYH FRQVWLWXWHG WKH VRXUFHV RID
VSHFLILFDOO\ ZHVWHUQ WUDGLWLRQ RISROLWLFDO WKRXJKW LQZKLFK UHDGHUVZHUH
WDNHQWRSDUWLFLSDWHDVWKHQUHIOHFWHGRQWKHUDQJHRILGHDVGHSLFWHGLQWKH
WH[WERRN
,W LV LPSRUWDQW WR UHFRJQL]H WKDW WKLV YLHZ GHQLHG WKH H[LVWHQFH RI
JHQXLQHO\XQLYHUVDORUREMHFWLYHO\WUXHSROLWLFDOWKHRULHVEXWDVVHUWHGWKH
XQLYHUVDOLW\RUDWOHDVWUHOHYDQFHRIWKHLVVXHVZKLFKWKHJUHDWWH[WVZHUH
GHDOLQJ ZLWK LW ZDV WKLV ZKLFK FRQVWLWXWHG WKHLU FRQWLQXHG XWLOLW\ :H
PXVW GLVWLQJXLVK WKLV DWWLWXGH IURP WKDW RIZULWHUV OLNH 6WUDXVV RU +DQV
0RUJHQWKDXZKRLQVLVWHGH[SOLFLWO\DJDLQVWWKHLUFROOHDJXHVLQWKH$PHU
LFDQSROLWLFVGHSDUWPHQWVWKDWWKHUHDUHWUXWKVRISROLWLFDOWKHRU\µUHJDUG
OHVVRIWLPHDQGSODFH¶(DFKYLHZLPSOLHGWKDWWKHWH[WVDORQHZHUHWREH
VWXGLHG VLQFHWKH\UHSUHVHQWHG WKHUHVSRQVH E\ µJUHDWPLQGV¶ WR D VHWRI
SHUHQQLDO SUREOHPV DV IDPLOLDU WR WKH $PHULFDQ FROOHJH VWXGHQW RIWKH
V DV WR WKH FLWL]HQ RIWKH *UHHNpolls', EXW RQH YLHZ WRRN D UDWKHU
QHXWUDO DSSURDFK WR WKH PHULWV RIWKH YDULRXV DQVZHUV DQ[LRXV RQO\ WR
SODFHWKHPLQWKHEURDGHWKLFDOFXOWXUHRIWKHZHVW ZKLOHWKHRWKHUYLHZ
KDGDFOHDUDQVZHURILWV RZQWR WKHSHUHQQLDOSUREOHPV ,QJHQHUDO WKH
ODWWHUDSSURDFKZDVOLNHO\WREHOHVVLQWHUHVWHGLQWKHKLVWRU\RISROLWLFDO
WKHRU\IRULWSRVVHVVHGDWUDQVKLVWRULFDOFULWHULRQRIPRUDOUHFWLWXGHDQG
0RUJHQWKDXZDVWKXVYHU\FULWLFDORIWKHGLVFLSOLQH6WUDXVVKRZHYHU
ZDVDVSHFLDOFDVHEHFDXVH RIKLVEHOLHIZKLFK, KDYHDOUHDG\UHPDUNHG
RQ WKDW WKLV FULWHULRQ ZDV RQO\ DYDLODEOH WR SHRSOH ZKR KDG LPPHUVHG
WKHPVHOYHVLQWKHVWXG\RIWKHWUDGLWLRQDQGLWVWH[WV
7KH ILUVW RIWKHVH WZR YLHZV ZDV E\ WKH VWDQGDUGV RID ORQJHUWHUP
SROLWLFDO FXOWXUH DFXULRXVO\ GLVHQJDJHG DQG PDQGDULQ DSSURDFKWR WKH
UROH RI YDOXHV LQ SROLWLFDO OLIH DQG LW ZDV SUHVXPDEO\ LWV XQVDWLVI\LQJ
FKDUDFWHU WR ZKLFK (DVWRQ ZDV GUDZLQJ DWWHQWLRQ LQ KLV DUWLFOH
7KHLGHDZDVWKDWDGLVSDUDWH VHWRIYDOXHV FRXOGEH LQFXOFDWHG LQWR WKH
FLWL]HQU\WKURXJKDQHGXFDWLRQLQDSDUWLFXODUVHWRISODXVLEOHDQGQRWWRR
H[RWLFWH[WV ZKLFKGLIIHUHG DPRQJWKHPVHOYHVLQ DQLQWHOOHFWXDOO\VWLPX
ODWLQJZD\ 7KLVGLVSDUDWHVHWFRXOGWKHQEHUHFRQFLOHGZLWKLQWKHVRFLHW\
E\VRPHNLQGRILQVWLWXWLRQDOSURFHVVLQZKLFKWKHFLWL]HQVZRXOGGHFLGH
RQWKHSULQFLSOHVE\ZKLFKWKHLUVRFLHW\ZDVWREHJRYHUQHG 0RVWRIWKH
History o f Political Thought
DXWKRUV RIWKH µJUHDW WH[WV¶ WKHPVHOYHV ZRXOG KDYH WKRXJKW WKLV ZDV DQ
DEVXUGYLHZWRWDNHRISROLWLFDOSULQFLSOHVEXWLWWRRNDFOHDUGHPRQVWUD
WLRQ IURPZLWKLQ WKHIRUWUHVV RIWKH PRGHP KXPDQ VFLHQFHV WKDW LWZDV
DEVXUGWRFRQYLQFH$QJOR$PHULFDQSROLWLFDOVFLHQWLVWV 7KLVGHPRQVWUD
WLRQ ZDV SURYLGHG E\ .HQQHWK $UURZ LURQLFDOO\ LQ WKH VDPH \HDU DV
(DVWRQ¶V DUWLFOH ZLWK KLV IDPRXV µWKHRUHP¶ LQZKLFK KHSURYHG
WKDW WKHUH ZDV QR QHXWUDO SURFHGXUDO PHWKRG RILQWHJUDWLQJ LQGLYLGXDO
YDOXHV LQWR D VHW RIVRFLDO SULQFLSOHV ZKLFK GLG QRW LQIULQJH VRPH DEVR
OXWHO\REYLRXVDQGEDVLFDVVXPSWLRQVZKLFKDOPRVWDOOFLWL]HQVZRXOGEH
OLNHO\ WR PDNH VXFK DV WKDW QR RQH PHPEHU RI WKH FLW\ VKRXOG EH D
GLFWDWRU RYHU WKH UHVW 7KHLPSOLFDWLRQ RI$UURZ¶VZRUN ZDV WKDWWKRVH
ZKREHOLHYHGWKDWLQVRPHZD\DQHXWUDOEXUHDXFUDF\RISROLWLFDOVFLHQWLILF
H[SHUWVFRXOGORRNWRLWVFLWL]HQU\IRUDQHIIHFWLYHGHFLVLRQRQWKHYDOXHVWR
EHLPSOHPHQWHGLQWKHSROLWLFDOSURFHVVFRXOGQRZEHVHHQDVZKLVWOLQJLQ
WKHGDUN
$UURZ¶V ZRUN ZKLFK EHFDPHSDUWLFXODUO\ LQIOXHQWLDO DIWHU WKH UHYLVHG
VHFRQGHGLWLRQ RISocial Choice and Individual ValuesDSSHDUHG LQ
LPSUHVVHGWKHKDUGHVW RIWKH µKDUG¶ SROLWLFDOVFLHQWLVWVE\ LWVPHWKRGROR
JLFDOULJRXU DQGFRQYLQFHGWKHPWKDWWKHLUYDJXHDVVXPSWLRQVDERXWWKH
VRFLDOFKDUDFWHURIYDOXHVVKRXOGEHUHYLVHG ,Q GRLQJ VR LWILWWHGLQWR D
JDWKHULQJYLHZ LQ WKHPLGV SDUWLFXODUO\LQ $PHULFD WKDWSROLWLFDO
SKLORVRSK\ RI DQ DSSDUHQWO\ WUDGLWLRQDO NLQG RXJKW RQFH DJDLQ WR EH
ZULWWHQ,WKLQNLWLVQRWDFRLQFLGHQFHWKDWWKHPRVWSURPLQHQWH[SRQHQW
RIDQHZSROLWLFDOSKLORVRSK\-RKQ5DZOVVKRXOGUHJDUGKLPVHOIDQGEH
ZLGHO\UHJDUGHGDVDNLQGRI.DQWLDQ IRUWKHPRVWOLNHO\URXWHWRWDNH
RXWRIWKHFUXGH.DQWLDQLVPRI$PHULFDLQWKHILUVWSDUWRIWKHWZHQWLHWK
FHQWXU\ZDVYLDWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIDQHZDQGVRSKLVWLFDWHG.DQWLDQLVP
%XW LI D SOXUDOLW\ RI LQGHWHUPLQDWHO\ IRXQGHG YDOXHV QR ORQJHU PDGH
DQ\VHQVHLQWKHHWKLFDOODQGVFDSHRI$PHULFDQSROLWLFDOVFLHQFHWKHQWKH
WUDGLWLRQDO UROH RI WKH KLVWRU\ RISROLWLFDO WKRXJKW LQ WKDW FXOWXUH ZDV
XQGHUPLQHG ,W ZDV WKLV ZKLFK 'XQQ DQG 6NLQQHU VHQVHG DWWKH HQG RI
WKH V DQG WKHLU SROHPLF DJDLQVW WKH WUDGLWLRQDO KLVWRU\ RISROLWLFDO
WKRXJKW ZHQW DORQJ ZLWK D FOHDU VHQVH WKDW D PRGHP DQG V\VWHP
DWLF SROLWLFDO SKLORVRSK\ ZDV DW OHDVW SRVVLEOH 6NLQQHU VDLG SUHFLVHO\
WKLV
$OO , ZLVK WR LQVLVW LV WKDW ZKHQHYHU LW LV FODLPHG WKDW WKH SRLQW RIWKH
KLVWRULFDO VWXG\ RIVXFK TXHVWLRQV LV WKDW ZHPD\ OHDUQGLUHFWO\IURPWKH
DQVZHUVLWZLOOEHIRXQGWKDWZKDWFRXQWVDVDQDQVZHUZLOOXVXDOO\ORRNLQ
DGLIIHUHQWFXOWXUHRUSHULRGVRGLIIHUHQWLQLWVHOIWKDWLWFDQKDUGO\EHLQWKH
OHDVWXVHIXOHYHQWRJRRQWKLQNLQJRIWKHUHOHYDQWTXHVWLRQVDVEHLQJµWKH
VDPH¶ LQWKHUHTXLUHGVHQVHDWDOO 0RUHFUXGHO\ ZHPXVWOHDUQWRGRRXU
RZQWKLQNLQJIRURXUVHOYHV
Richard Tuck
7KH µQHZ¶ KLVWRU\ RISROLWLFDO WKRXJKW ZDV WKXV WKH FRXQWHUSDUW RIWKH
µQHZ¶SROLWLFDOSKLORVRSK\RIWKH(QJOLVKVSHDNLQJZRUOGLQWKHVDQG
V LW KDG WUDQVIHUUHG WKH EXUGHQ RIHGXFDWLQJ FLWL]HQV LQWR SROLWLFDO
YDOXHV GRZQ WKH FRUULGRU RIWKH DFDGHP\ DQG LQWR WKH URRPV RISKLOR
VRSKHUVZKRZHUHRQFHDJDLQUHDG\WRWDNHLWXS
,URQLFDOO\LQYLHZRI*XQQHOO¶VWKHRU\WKDW6WUDXVV9RHJHOLQRU$UHQGW
ZHUHWKHSULPHWDUJHWVRIWKLVQHZKLVWRU\ZULWHUVVXFKDV6WUDXVVDQGKLV
IROORZHUV ZHUH DV ZH KDYH VHHQ EHWWHU SODFHG WR UHVLVW WKLV DEGLFDWLRQ
WKDQWKHDOOLHVRIWKHSRVLWLYLVWVVXFKDV0HUNO7KHFODLPWKDWWKHUHLVDVD
PDWWHU RI IDFW D VLQJOH WUXH SROLWLFDO SKLORVRSK\ WR EH H[WUDFWHG RQO\
WKURXJK HVRWHULF UHDGLQJV RIWKH JUHDWWH[WV WKH FODLPPRVW PHPRUDEO\
DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK 6WUDXVV LV QRW logically LPSRVVLEOH DQ\PRUH WKDQ WKH
FODLPWKDWWKHUHLVDQLQIDOOLEOHVRXUFH RIPRUDOGRFWULQH WR EHIRXQG RQ
WKH ULJKW EDQN RIWKH 7LEHU ,Q D VHQVH 6WUDXVV DQG 5DZOV ZHUH ERWK
WU\LQJ WR SURYLGH WKHLU UHDGHUV ZLWK D VLQJOH YDOLG SROLWLFDO SKLORVRSK\
WKRXJKWKH\ZHUHXVLQJYHU\GLIIHUHQWPHWKRGVWRJHQHUDWHLW7KHLQVWLWX
WLRQDO VXUYLYDO RI 6WUDXVVLDQLVP LQ 1RUWK $PHULFDQ SROLWLFDO VFLHQFH
GHSDUWPHQWVLVWKXVE\QRPHDQVVXUSULVLQJ
,W VKRXOG EH VDLG WKDW WKH LGHDO RID QHZ SROLWLFDO SKLORVRSK\ ZKLFK
ZRXOG SURYLGH PRGHUQ $PHULFD DQG E\ LPSOLFDWLRQ VLPLODUO\ VLWXDWHG
VRFLHWLHVZLWKDFRKHUHQWVHWRIYDOXHVZDVORRNLQJPXFKOHVVSODXVLEOHLQ
WKDQLQ 7ZHQW\\HDUVRILPSUHVVLYHSKLORVRSKLFDODFWLYLW\KDV
VHUYHGODUJHO\WRHPSKDVL]HWKHGLVSDUDWHQDWXUHRIPRGHUQYDOXHVGHVSLWH
VRPHVWXQQLQJFRPSODFHQF\DERXWWKLVRQWKHSDUWRIVRPHOLEHUDOWKHRU
LVWV 7KH KXQW LV RQ RQFH DJDLQ DV LW ZDV EHIRUH $UURZ¶V ZRUN IRU D
WKHRU\ ZKLFK ZLOO DFFRPPRGDWH UDGLFDO SOXUDOLVP RIYDOXHV WKRXJK QR
RQHQRZVXSSRVHVWKDWµWKHFLWL]HQU\¶ZLOORUVKRXOGGHFLGHWKHPDWWHU,Q
WKLV FRQWH[W LW ZRXOG QRW EH VXUSULVLQJ LISHRSOH FDPH WR EHOLHYH WKDW
UHIOHFWLRQ RQ DQ H[LVWLQJ SROLWLFDO OLWHUDWXUH ZDV WKH ZD\ WR WKLQN DERXW
SROLWLFDOYDOXHVDQGWREULQJWKHYDULHJDWHGSRSXODWLRQRIDOLEHUDOVRFLHW\
LQWRVRPHEURDGLQWHOOHFWXDOHTXLOLEULXPLQGHHGWKDWLVPRUHRUOHVVZKDW
5LFKDUG 5RUW\ SURSRVHV WKRXJKWKHUHOHYDQWOLWHUDWXUH IRUKLPLVPXFK
ZLGHU WKDQ WKDW FRYHUHG E\ 6DELQH 7KRXJK WKH UKHWRULF ZLWK ZKLFK
5RUW\WDONVDERXWµLURQLVP¶ LVDSSURSULDWHO\GLIIHUHQWIURPWKH EDVKIXO
UHODWLYLVP RIZULWHUV OLNH 6DELQH LW LV QRW FOHDU WKDW WKHUH LV DV JUHDW DQ
LQWHOOHFWXDOJXOIDVKHPLJKWVXSSRVH
7KH VWRU\ ZKLFK , KDYH EHHQ WHOOLQJ LV DYRZHGO\ RQH DERXW (QJOLVK
ODQJXDJHWKHRULVWVDQGWKHGHFOLQHRI(QJOLVKODQJXDJHSROLWLFDOWKHRU\LQ
WKHHDUO\WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\DQGLWVUHYLYDOLQWKHODWH VSOD\VDFUXFLDO
SDUW LQ LW 7KH LVVXHV LQ GHEDWH LQ WKH GLIIHUHQW LQWHOOHFWXDO WUDGLWLRQV RI
)UDQFHRU*HUPDQ\SOD\HGDWILUVWYHU\OLWWOHSDUWLQWKHVHDUJXPHQWVRI
WKH V DQG 6NLQQHU 'XQQ DQG 3RFRFN KDYH DOZD\V EHHQ PLOGO\
UHVLVWDQW WR DQ\ DWWHPSW WR OLQN WKHLU ZRUN WR WKDW RIWKHRULVWV VXFK DV
History o f Political Thought
+LUVFK ZKR GUHZ RQ WKHVH GHEDWHV RU .RVHOOHFN 7KH SULQFLSDO UHDVRQ
IRUWKLV KDV EHHQWKDW IURP WKHLU SRLQW RIYLHZ WKH LPSRUWDQW SRLQW WR
HVWDEOLVKLVWKHPHWKRGRORJLFDOVLPLODULW\EHWZHHQWKHKLVWRU\RILGHDVDQG
WKHKLVWRU\RIRWKHUKXPDQDFWLYLWLHV,WZDVWKLVZKLFKOD\DWWKHKHDUWRI
6NLQQHU¶V UHSHDWHG DWWHPSWV WR DQDO\VH SROLWLFDO WKHRUHWLF XWWHUDQFHV DV
µVSHHFKDFWV¶DQGWKHUHE\WRWUHDWWKHPLQWKHVDPHZD\DVPRUHPXQGDQH
KLVWRULDQVWUHDWHGRWKHUNLQGVRIµDFW¶7KHZLGHUTXHVWLRQRIKRZZHFDQ
KDYHDKLVWRULFDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIKXPDQDFWLYLW\LQJHQHUDOKDVQRWEHHQ
WKHLUFHQWUDOFRQFHUQ
2Q WKH &RQWLQHQW KRZHYHU WKLV ZDV WKH NH\ LVVXH DQG WKH IDFW WKDW
KXPDQKLVWRU\FRQVLVWHGRIERWKDFWDQGXWWHUDQFHZDVXVXDOO\WDNHQIRU
JUDQWHG'LOWKH\IRUH[DPSOHLQThe Construction of the Historical World
in the Human Studies,PDGHLWFOHDUWKDW µXQGHUVWDQGLQJ¶ DQGµLQWHUSUHWD
WLRQ¶ WKH SULQFLSDO VXEMHFWV RIWKH KHUPHQHXWLFWUDGLWLRQ DUH FRQFHUQHG
ZLWK WKUHH NLQGV RI µH[SUHVVLRQ¶ µFRQFHSWV MXGJHPHQWV DQG ODUJHU
WKRXJKWVWUXFWXUHV¶ µDFWLRQV¶ DQG µHPRWLYH H[SUHVVLRQV¶ +LV OHDG RU
PRUH SURSHUO\ +HJHO¶V ZDV IROORZHG E\ DOO WKH SDUWLFLSDQWVLQ WKH *HU
PDQGHEDWHVRYHUKHUPHQHXWLFV7KH(QJOLVKPHWKRGRORJLFDOGHEDWHWKXV
VWRRG DW DQ DQJOH WR WKH &RQWLQHQWDO RQH IRU 6NLQQHU¶V DVVLPLODWLRQ RI
XWWHUDQFHWRDFWLRQFRXOGILQGDKRPHLQVD\either+DEHUPDV¶VFDPSor
*DGDPHU¶V ,QGHHG ZLWK LWV H[SOLFLW UHIHUHQFHV EDFN WR &ROOLQJZRRG LW
UHSUHVHQWHG DQ RSHQ UHWULHYDO RIDQ ROGHU (QJOLVK UHVSHFW IRU *HUPDQ
KHUPHQHXWLFV
)RUWKLVUHDVRQDV'DYLG+ROOLQJHUKDVREVHUYHGFULWLFLVPRI6NLQQHU
IURPDSRVWVWUXFWXUDOLVWSRLQWRIYLHZVXFKDVWKH'HUULGDLVWFRPSODLQWV
RI'DYLG+DUODQPLVVHVWKHSRLQWIRULIZHPXVWKDYHDGHFRQVWUXFWHG
KLVWRU\RILGHDVZHPXVWE\WKHVDPHWRNHQKDYHDGHFRQVWUXFWHGKLVWRU\
RIeverything,DQG6NLQQHUZRXOGSUHVXPDEO\EHKDSS\ZLWKWKDWFRQFOX
VLRQ DVVXPLQJ WKH SUHPLVH WR EH WUXH VRPHWKLQJ DERXW ZKLFK KLV
PHWKRGRORJ\LV VWULFWO\ VSHDNLQJ QHXWUDO +LV SURIHVVLRQDO SUDFWLFH RQ
WKHRWKHUKDQGDQGVRPHRIKLVH[SUHVVUHPDUNVVXJJHVWWKDWKHHQGRUVHV
DWOHDVWWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIDFTXLULQJVRPHNLQGRIJHQXLQHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI
ZKDWKLVWRULFDODJHQWVDUHXSWRRUWKDWDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKLVNLQGLV
VXFKDGHHSSURFHGXUDODVVXPSWLRQIRUKDYLQJDQ\GRLQJVZLWKDQ\RWKHU
KXPDQEHLQJV WKHYLHZinter aliaRIZULWHUVOLNH'DYLGVRQWKDWWRTXHV
WLRQ LWVJHQXLQHQHVVLV VLPSO\WRWDNHWKHW\SH RIUDGLFDOO\ VFHSWLFDOYLHZ
ZKLFKQRRQHFDQDFWXDOO\OLYHE\
:HFDQQRZ VHHZK\WKHKLVWRU\ RISROLWLFDOWKRXJKW WKDWKDVDFWXDOO\
EHHQZULWWHQDJDLQVWWKLVPHWKRGRORJLFDOEDFNJURXQGKDVRIWHQDSSHDUHG
WR LWV GHWUDFWRUV WR EH PXFK OHVV RULJLQDO DQG VWDUWOLQJ WKDQ WKH\ KDYH
H[SHFWHG IURP WKH PHWKRGRORJLFDO PDQLIHVWRV $Q\ HYLGHQFH ZKLFK D
UHDVRQDEOH KLVWRULDQ ZRXOG DFFHSW DV SDUW RIDQ H[SODQDWLRQ RIZK\ D
KLVWRULFDODJHQWGLGVRPHWKLQJZLOOEHDFFHSWDEOHWRDPRGHUQKLVWRULDQRI
Richard Tuck
,QWHOOHFWXDO+LVWRU\DQGLWV5LYDOV3%
WKLVKLVWRULFDOGLFWLRQDU\LQZKLFKVRPHFRQFHSWVDUHGLVFXVVHGLQWKH
FRXUVHRIDERXWSDJHV7ZRIHDWXUHVRIWKLVFROOHFWLYHHQWHUSULVHDUH
SDUWLFXODUO\GLVWLQFWLYH ,QWKHILUVWSODFHWKLVLVDµVRFLDOKLVWRU\RILGHDV¶
LQWKHUHODWLYHO\SUHFLVHVHQVHRIXVLQJVRXUFHVZKLFKLOOXPLQDWHHYHU\GD\
SUDFWLFHVDVZHOODVHPSKDVL]LQJWKHHIIHFWRQHYHU\GD\OLIHRIFKDQJHVLQ
IXQGDPHQWDOFRQFHSWV ,Q WKH VHFRQG SODFH WKH JURXS KDV OHDUQHG IURP
WKHOLQJXLVWVWRSODFHVSHFLILFZRUGVLQDZLGHUµILHOG¶Sprachfeld),LQFOXG
LQJWKHLURSSRVLWHVDVZHOODVWKHLUV\QRQ\PV
8QWLO UHFHQWO\ QHLWKHU WKH KLVWRU\ RI PHQWDOLWLHV QRU WKH KLVWRU\ RI
FRQFHSWV ZDV WDNHQ YHU\ VHULRXVO\ LQ WKH (QJOLVKVSHDNLQJ ZRUOG 2QH
VLJQRIWKHUHVLVWDQFHZDVWKHKDELWRIVRPH%ULWLVKKLVWRULDQVRIVSHDNLQJ
DERXW mentalité UDWKHU WKDQ µPHQWDOLW\¶ WKXV PDNLQJ LW FOHDU WKDW WKH\
UHJDUGHG WKH LGHD DV DOLHQ Begriffsgeschichte ZDV PHQWLRQHG VWLOO OHVV
:KHQ,ZDVSODQQLQJWKLVYROXPHLQWKHODWH V ,ZDVVWLOOXQDEOH WR
ILQGDVFKRODUSUHSDUHGWRFRPSDUHDQGFRQWUDVWLQWHOOHFWXDOKLVWRU\ZLWK
LWVWZRULYDOV
7RGD\ KRZHYHU WKHUH DUH VLJQV WKDW WKH VLWXDWLRQ LV FKDQJLQJ 7KH
LQFUHDVLQJDFFHSWDQFHRIWKHKLVWRU\RIPHQWDOLWLHVLQWKH(QJOLVKVSHDNLQJ
ZRUOGVKRXOGEHOLQNHGWRWKHULVHRIµFXOWXUDOKLVWRU\¶ERWKWKHWHUPDQG
WKHDSSURDFKDVVRFLDWHGZLWKLW(YLGHQFHIRUWKLVULVHLQFOXGHVWKHUHFHQW
DSSHDUDQFHRIFXOWXUDOKLVWRULHVRIJHVWXUHKXPRXUDQGWUDYHODVZHOODVD
PRUH JHQHUDO FRQFHUQ ZLWK FXOWXUDO HQFRXQWHUV SDUWLFXODUO\ REYLRXV LQ
WKHFRXUVHRIWKHFRPPHPRUDWLRQVLQRIWKH(XURSHDQµGLVFRYHU\¶RI
WKH $PHULFDV 7KH )UHQFK WRR DUH PRYLQJ LQ WKLV GLUHFWLRQ ,Q
5RJHU&KDUWLHUSXEOLVKHGDFROOHFWLRQRIKLVHVVD\VXQGHUWKHWLWOHCultural
History.,QWKHIRXUWKYROXPHRIDQLPSRUWDQWQHZKLVWRU\RI)UDQFH
DSSHDUHGXQGHUWKHWLWOH The Forms o f Culture,ZKLOHLQ WZR)UHQFK
KLVWRULDQVSXEOLVKHGDPDQLIHVWRIRUFXOWXUDOKLVWRU\
$V IRU WKH KLVWRU\ RIFRQFHSWV D FROOHFWLRQ RI.RVHOOHFN¶V HVVD\V ZDV
SXEOLVKHGLQ E\DOHDGLQJ$PHULFDQXQLYHUVLW\SUHVVXQGHUWKHWLWOH
Futures Past. 7HQ \HDUV ODWHU D FULWLFDO LQWURGXFWLRQ WR WKH KLVWRU\ RI
SROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOFRQFHSWVZULWWHQE\DGLVWLQJXLVKHG$PHULFDQKLVWRU
LDQ RI SROLWLFDO WKRXJKW WRRN WKH KLVWRU\ RI PHQWDOLWLHV VHULRXVO\ DQG
GHYRWHGVWLOOPRUHVSDFHWRWKHKLVWRU\RIFRQFHSWV0RUHUHFHQWO\VWLOO
IUXLWIXOHQFRXQWHUVKDYHWDNHQSODFHEHWZHHQWKH$QJOR$PHULFDQDQGWKH
*HUPDQJURXS
1 2 7(6
+LVWRU\RIWKH %RG\5HFRQVLGHUHG
Roy Porter
µ)HZ OLWHUDU\ WH[WV¶ SURQRXQFHG 7HUU\ (DJOHWRQ VRPH \HDUV DJR µDUH
OLNHO\ WR PDNH LW QRZDGD\V LQWR WKH QHZ KLVWRULFLVW FDQRQ XQOHVV WKH\
FRQWDLQDWOHDVWRQHPXWLODWHGERG\¶$SSO\LQJWKHOLWHUDU\FULWLF¶VUHPDUN
WRWKHKLVWRU\GRPDLQ0DUN-HQQHUJORVVHVLWDVIROORZV
5HQDLVVDQFH YDOXHV LQ WXUQ SDLG KRPDJH WR WKH VSLULWXDOLW\ RI WKH
&RVPLF 0LQG DQG IRVWHUHG WKDW UHILJXULQJRIWKHPLQGERG\KLHUDUFK\
FHQWUDO WR WKH ODWHU &DUWHVLDQ SURFODPDWLRQ RI UDWLRQDO FRQVFLRXVQHVV
cogito DVDIDFXOW\XQLTXHWRKXPDQV WKHGLYLQHLQPDQ RUWKHJKRVW
LQ WKH PDFKLQH )RU DOO LWV DQWLUDWLRQDOLVP 5RPDQWLF ,GHDOLVP
ZDV VXEVHTXHQWO\WRFKDPSLRQWKHSULPDF\ RIFRQVFLRXVQHVVVRXO LPD
JLQDWLRQ DQG FUHDWLYH JHQLXV RYHU DQG DJDLQVW SKLOLVWLQH PDWHULDOLVP
ZKLOH 9LFWRULDQLVP LWVHOISURFODLPHG WKH VXSUHPDF\ RIWKH KLJKPLQGHG
RUKLJKEURZRYHUµYLOHERGLHV¶(YHQPRYHPHQWVZKLFKFKDOOHQJHGVXFK
RUWKRGR[LHVHQGHGXSUHDIILUPLQJLILQUDGLFDOZD\VWKHVXSHULRULW\RIWKH
QRQFRUSRUHDO 7KXV WKDWTXLQWHVVHQWLDOADQWL9LFWRULDQWKUXVW SV\FKR
DQDO\VLV JDYH SULRULW\ WR WKH FRQVFLRXVQHVVXQFRQVFLRXV GXR IDQWDV\
UHSUHVVLRQ LQ H[SODLQLQJPHQWDO GLVRUGHUV UHMHFWLQJ DXWKRUL]HG PHGLFDO
H[SODQDWLRQVEDVHGRQQHXURORJ\RUKHUHGLWDU\GHJHQHUDWLRQ
$SDUDOOHOWRWKH)UHXGLDQSDUDGR[,ZRXOGQRZDGGLVRIIHUHGE\WKH
)RXFDXOGLDQ DQG SRVWPRGHUQLVW FKDOOHQJHV PRXQWHG GXULQJ UHFHQW GHF
DGHV:KLOHDWWDFNLQJWKHP\WKRIWKH&DUWHVLDQcogitoDQGDOOLWHQWDLOHG
WKH XQLWDU\ VXEMHFW WKH DXWKRUJHQLXV LQWHULRULW\ DQG VR IRUWK VXFK
FULWLFDOWKUXVWVKDYHUHSODFHGWKHPZLWKWKHQROHVVLPPDWHULDOGLVFXUVLYH
UHDOP7DNHQWRH[WUHPHVWKHULQJLQJ'HUULGHDQGHFODUDWLRQ µLOQ¶\DSDV
GHKRUVWH[WH¶KDVEHHQDSSURSULDWHGWRTXHVWLRQFRPPRQVHQVHHPSLULFDO
QRWLRQV RI REMHFWLYH H[WHUQDO UHDOLW\ ZKDWHYHU PRVW VSHFWDFXODUO\ WKH
+RORFDXVW 7KXVZKLOHVXEYHUVLYHLQFHUWDLQUHVSHFWVQHZSRVWPRGHUQ
LVPPD\EHUHDGDVDYDULDQWRQROG%HUNHOH\DQLGHDOLVP
, DPQRWLPSO\LQJWKDWFRQWHPSWIRUWKLVPRUWDO FRLOKDVEHHQPRQR
OLWKLF 7KHUH KDYH DOZD\V EHHQ FRXQWHUFXUUHQWV VHHNLQJ WR GHP\VWLI\
VSLULWXDOLVP DQG LQWHOOHFWXDOLVP WKURXJK WKH PDUURZERQH RI WKH IOHVK
5DEHODLVLDQFRPHG\PDGHFRUSRUHDOLW\WKHWRXFKVWRQHRIUHDOLW\DPXWLQ
RXVFRPHXSSDQFHIRUKLJKFXOWXUDOSUHWHQVLRQV$WDODWHUVWDJHGUDZ
LQJ KHDYLO\ XSRQ WKH µFRUSXVFXODU¶ QDWXUDO SKLORVRSK\ RIWKH 6FLHQWLILF
5HYROXWLRQ VXFK avant-garde (QOLJKWHQPHQW WKLQNHUV DV /D 0HWWULH
'LGHURW DQG G¶+ROEDFK PDGH HPERGLPHQW H[SHULHQFHG WKURXJK WKH
VHQVHV WKH PHDW RI SKLORVRSKLFDO PDWHULDOLVP 1RU VKRXOG ZH RYHU
VLPSOLI\ WKH WUDGLWLRQDO HQQREOHPHQW RI WKH VSLULW DQG GLVWUXVW RI WKH
ERG\$IWHUDOOLWVKRUURURIFRQFXSLVFHQFHQRWZLWKVWDQGLQJ&KULVWLDQLW\
LV XQLTXHO\ D IDLWK RI WKH LQFDUQDWH 'HLW\ WKH HXFKDULVW DQG ERGLO\
UHVXUUHFWLRQ /DWLQ &KULVWHQGRP UHFRLOHG DW JQRVWLFLVP DQG 0DQLFKH
LVP DVFHWLFLVP ZDV D PHDQV QRW DQ HQG DQG VXFK GLVFLSOLQHV RIGHQLDO
WKHPVHOYHV UHTXLUHG WR EH VWULFWO\ GLVFLSOLQHG ,Q D VLPLODU ZD\ ZKLOH
&ODVVLFDO SKLORVRSK\ SULYLOHJHG PLQG RYHU PDWWHU LW DOVR W\SLFDOO\
GHPDQGHG WKDW D KHDOWK\ PLQG VKRXOG GZHOO ZLWKLQ D KHDOWK\ ERG\
(mens sana in corpore sano) WKH QRWLRQ WKDW WKH WRUPHQWV RIFRUUXSWHG
IOHVKZHUHLQGLVSHQVDEOH WR DUWLVWLF FUHDWLYLW\ZDV D ERKHPLDQ DQGfin de
History o f the Body Reconsidered
siécle KHUHV\ %XW WKRXJK VXFK TXDOLILFDWLRQV PXVW EH UHFRUGHG LW
UHPDLQVWUXHWKDWRXUFXOWXUDOKHULWDJHKDVEHHQRQHZKLFKV\VWHPDWLFDOO\
SRODUL]HVPLQGDQGERG\DQGSUDLVHVWKHIRUPHU
7KXV , FRQWHQGHG D GHFDGH DJR WKH (XURSHDQ PLQG VHHPV WR KDYH
IROORZHG LQ D PDQQHU VXJJHVWHG E\ 9LFR DQG RWKHU P\WKRJUDSKHUV D
FRXUVHRIVHFXODUµGHDQWKURSRPRUSKL]DWLRQ¶7LPHZDVZKHQWKHERG\
ZDVRISDUDPRXQWLPSRUWDQFHEHFDXVHWKHERG\ZDVDOOWKDWHDUO\SHRSOH
NQHZH[SHULHQFHGDQGFRQWUROOHG(YHU\WKLQJHOVH VRFLHW\WKHHQYLURQ
PHQWWKHFRVPRV ZDVH[SODLQHGE\DQDORJ\ZLWKWKHERG\PLFURFRVP
PDFURFRVPWKHERG\ZDVJRRGWRWKLQNZLWK,QWLPHWKHH[WHQVLRQVRI
PDQFLYLOL]DWLRQWHFKQRORJ\FDPHWRGZDUIWKHERG\DQGPDQFHDVHGWR
EHWKHPHDVXUHRIDOOWKLQJVLQGHHGWKHWDEOHVZHUHWXUQHG7KHH[WHQVLRQV
RIPDQFDPHWRGRPLQDWHWKHERG\IRULQVWDQFHVRFLHW\FHDVHGWREHVHHQ
DVDQRUJDQLVPDQGERG\DQGPLQGDOLNHEHFDPHDQDORJL]HGDVDPDFKLQH
PHFKDQRPRUSKLVP ,Q ODWH LQGXVWULDO VRFLHW\ WKH ERG\ KDV EHHQ
XSVWDJHGHYHQDVDVRXUFHRISRZHUODERXUDQGKHQFHYDOXH DGHYHORS
PHQWSHUPLWWLQJWKHVHFRQGDU\FRPSHQVDWRU\HPHUJHQFHRIVRPDWLFQDU
FLVVLVP WKH H[SORLWDWLRQ RI WKH EHDXWLIXO VH[\ KHDOWK\ ERG\ ZLWKLQ
FRQVXPHUFDSLWDOLVP
6LQFH WKHGRPLQDQWZHVWHUQLQWHOOHFWXDOWUDGLWLRQKDVWKXVGHSUHFLDWHG
WKHERG\LWLVVPDOOZRQGHU,DUJXHGLQµ%RG\+LVWRU\)WKDWWKHhistory
RIWKH ERG\ KDG EHHQ QHJOHFWHG 7KHMRXUQDO MindZDV IRXQGHG RYHU D
FHQWXU\DJRDQGWKHJournal o f the History o f IdeasKDVEHHQIORXULVKLQJ
IRUKDOIDFHQWXU\EXWZKHUHZDVDSDUDOOHOJournal o f Body History"
:KLOHFDOOLQJIRUUHGUHVV,DOVRZDUQHGDJDLQVWRIIEHDPDSSURDFKHV,W
ZDVLPSRUWDQWIRURQHWKLQJ WRDYRLGUHGXFLQJERG\KLVWRU\WRDQHVVD\
LQKLVWRULFDOELRORJ\ LWVHOIWKHVOLSSHU\VORSHWR VRFLRELRORJ\,QPDLQ
WDLQLQJWKDWLWZRXOGEHIRROLVKWRDWWHPSWDµVFLHQFH¶ RIWKHERG\XQPH
GLDWHGE\ODQJXDJHPHWDSKRUDQGFXOWXUHKRZHYHU,FDXWLRQHGDJDLQVW
WKH HTXDO EXW RSSRVLWH KD]DUG WKH GLVFRXQWLQJ RI HPSLULFDO GDWD E\
VHPLRWLFV DQGKHUPHQHXWLFV LQSDUWLFXODUZLOG WKHRU\GULYHQ H[WUDSROD
WLRQVODFNLQJILUPKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WXDOL]DWLRQ
7KHUHZDV QR QHHG , KHOG WR GLVPLVV DSSURDFKLQJWKHKLVWRU\ RIWKH
ERG\WKURXJKVRXQGHPSLULFDOPHWKRGV 2QPDQ\LVVXHV QR GRXEW RXU
LQIRUPDWLRQZLOOUHPDLQLUUHPHGLDEO\ VFDQW\ +RZIUHTXHQWO\GLGSHRSOH
KDYH VH[LQHDUOLHUFHQWXULHV":KDWSRVLWLRQV GLGWKH\DGRSW":HKDUGO\
NQRZ 'LDULHV DQG OHWWHUV DUH ODUJHO\ VLOHQW DQG ZH PXVW GLVWUXVW WKH
HYLGHQFHSURYLGHGE\VXFKVRXUFHVDVHURWLFSULQWVRUDGYLFHPDQXDOVWKH
UHODWLRQV EHWZHHQSUHVFULSWLRQDQGSUDFWLFHDUHLQKHUHQWO\SUREOHPDWLF
6XFKGLIILFXOWLHVQRWZLWKVWDQGLQJPRXQWDLQVRIUHOLDEOHLQIRUPDWLRQVXU
YLYHXSRQZKLFKWREXLOGFUHGLEOHSURILOHVRIERGLHVLQWKHSDVW %DSWLVP
DQG EXULDO UHJLVWHUV \LHOG FUHGLEOH YLWDO VWDWLVWLFV RIFKDQJLQJ ELUWK DQG
GHDWK UDWHV IHFXQGLW\ IHUWLOLW\ GLVHDVHUHODWHG PRUWDOLW\ FULVHV DQG VR
Roy Porter
IRUWK 3RRU ODZ DQG KRVSLWDO UHFRUGV OLNHZLVH RSHQ XS ZLQGRZV RQ
VWUHQJWK VLFNQHVVDQGWKHWROOWDNHQE\WRLO'UDZLQJRQDULFKYDULHW\
RIVRXUFHV0DU\)LVVHOOIRULQVWDQFHKDVSURYLGHGDVXSHUESDQRUDPDRI
WKH FLUFXPVWDQFHV RI WKH ODERXULQJ SRRU LQ WKH %ULVWRO UHJLRQ LQ WKH
HLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\
/LNHZLVHZHSRVVHVVDSKRWRJUDSKLFUHFRUG VWUHWFKLQJEDFNDFHQWXU\
DQGDKDOIRIWKHSK\VLFDODSSHDUDQFHRISRSXODWLRQVDQGWKHLUVXUURXQG
LQJV2QFHDJDLQWKHUHLVQRQHHGWREHODERXUWKHGDQJHUVRIDQDLYHIDLWK
LQ WKH YHUDFLW\ RI YLVXDO LPDJHV WKH FDPHUD OLHV RU PRUH SUHFLVHO\
SKRWRJUDSKV DUH QRW VQDSVKRWV RI UHDOLW\ EXW OLNH SDLQWLQJV FXOWXUDO
DUWHIDFWVFRGLQJFRQYHQWLRQDOVLJQVWR DSULPHGDXGLHQFH(YHQVR WKH
SKRWRJUDSKLFUHFRUG UHYHDOVDQGFRQILUPVDJUHDWGHDOERWKDERXWPRG
HUQSK\VLFDOWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVDJHLQJGHIRUPLWLHVPDOQXWULWLRQHWFDQG
DERXW ZKDW *RIIPDQ VW\OHG WKH µSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI VHOI ERG\ ODQJXDJH
JHVWXUHVDQGWKHDSSURSULDWLRQRISK\VLFDOVSDFH
7KHKLVWRU\RIWKHERG\,UHLWHUDWHLVQRWPHUHO\DPDWWHURIFUXQFKLQJ
YLWDO VWDWLVWLFV QRUMXVW D VHW RIWHFKQLTXHV IRU GHFLSKHULQJ µUHSUHVHQWD
WLRQV¶5DWKHULWLVDFDOOWRPDNHVHQVHRIWKHLULQWHUSOD\*LYHQWKHUDQJH
RIHYLGHQFHDYDLODEOH ZHKDYHUHPDLQHGUHPDUNDEO\LJQRUDQW DVWRKRZ
LQGLYLGXDOV DQG VRFLDO JURXSV KDYH H[SHULHQFHG WKHLU HPERGLHG VHOYHV
+RZKDYHWKH\QHJRWLDWHGWKHERG\DVDQLQWHUPHGLDU\EHWZHHQVHOIDQG
VRFLHW\"7HQ\HDUVEDFNWKHUHVHDUFKIURQWZDVWKHQDWEHVWVKDGRZ\DQG
PRVWO\ZHUHPDLQHGLQWKHGDUN
:HOO DV P\ RSHQLQJ TXRWDWLRQV IURP (DJOHWRQ DQG -HQQHU PDNH
DEXQGDQWO\FOHDU DOOWKDWKDVFKDQJHGZLWKDYHQJHDQFH DQGZLWKJUHDW
UDSLGLW\%RG\KLVWRU\KDVEHFRPHWKHKLVWRULRJUDSKLFDOGLVKRIWKHGD\
/HDIWKURXJK DQ\ SXEOLVKHU¶V FDWDORJXH RU FRQIHUHQFH SURJUDPPH DQG
WKH µ%ZRUG¶ FURSVXSDOPRVWPRUHWKDQ DQ\RWKHU RIWHQOLQNHG WR VH[
DQGJHQGHU VWXGLHV $QG ZH QRZ DFWXDOO\ KDYH DMRXUQDO ODUJHO\ JLYHQ
RYHUWRERG\KLVWRU\ Body and Society.29
, PLJKW EH WHPSWHG WR ORRN EDFN DQG QRW RQO\ FUHGLW P\VHOI ZLWK
SURSKHWLFSRZHUVEXWIODWWHUP\VHOIWKDWµ%RG\+LVWRU\,¶KHOSHGWRODXQFK
µERG\KLVWRU\¶RQLWVPHWHRULFFDUHHU,QUHDOLW\KRZHYHUWKHH[SODQDWLRQV
OLHHOVHZKHUH$,'6ZDVHYHQWKHQIRFXVLQJDWWHQWLRQRQWKHYXOQHUDELOLW\
RI WKH PRGHUQ ERG\ $VVDXOWV RQ HVWDEOLVKPHQW LGHRORJLHV LQ RXU
LQFUHDVLQJO\ PXOWLFXOWXUDOLVW LGHQWLW\SROLWLFV VRFLHW\ ZHUH PDQLIHVWLQJ
WKHPVHOYHV LQ VXEYHUVLYH SK\VLFDOSUHVHQWDWLRQV µQHZDJH¶ IDVKLRQ VWDWH
PHQWV DGRUQPHQW WDWWRRLQJ ERG\SLHUFLQJ DQG VR IRUWK DOO LQ D ORYH
KDWH VZLUO ZLWK FRQVXPHU FDSLWDOLVP 1RW OHDVW ZLWKLQ WKH RQJRLQJ
ZRPHQ¶V JD\ DQG OHVELDQ PRYHPHQWV WKH SK\VLFDO EDVLV RIJHQGHU KDV
EHHQFKDOOHQJHGDQGUHQHJRWLDWHGIRUH[DPSOH RYHUWUDQVVH[XDOLVPJD\
PDUULDJH DQG WKH ODZ $OO VXFK FRQWHPSRUDU\ WUHQGV LQHYLWDEO\
SURPSWHGKLVWRULFDOTXHVWLRQLQJ
History o f the Body Reconsidered
,Q DQ\ FDVH DQ\ LQFOLQDWLRQ RIPLQH WR FODLPFUHGLW IRUERG\ KLVWRU\
ZRXOG EH GDPSHQHG E\ WKH IDFW WKDW DOO GRHV QRW VHHP ZHOO ZLWK WKLV
FRWWDJHLQGXVWU\(DJOHWRQ¶VUHPDUNTXRWHGDWWKHRXWVHWZDVLQWHQGHGWR
VZDW\HWDQRWKHUIDGZKLOH-HQQHUIRUKLVSDUWLQDSHQHWUDWLQJUHYLHZRI
UHFHQWFRQWULEXWLRQVZDVODUJHO\VFHSWLFDOLIQRWSRVLWLYHO\VFDWKLQJ0XFK
ERG\ KLVWRU\ KH DUJXHG KDV FRPSRXQGHG D ODFN RI PHWKRGRORJLFDO
VRSKLVWLFDWLRQ ZLWK D ZDQW RI VFKRODUO\ ULJRXU $XWKRUV KDYH VORSSLO\
FRQIODWHGERGLO\UHSUHVHQWDWLRQVZLWKKLVWRULFDOUHDOLWLHV DQGKDYHIDLOHG
WR GLVFULPLQDWH EHWZHHQ SUHVFULSWLRQV IRU ERG\ UHJXODWLRQ IRXQG LQ WKH
PDQXDOV RISLHW\ DQG SURSULHW\ZKLFKKLVWRULDQV W\SLFDOO\ PLQH DQG WKH
GRFXPHQWHG VRFLDOSUDFWLFHVRIWKHSDVW )XUWKHUPRUH KHFRPSODLQHG
DOO WRR RIWHQ ERG\ KLVWRU\ KDV EHHQ XVHG WR UDWLI\ FUXGH VRFLDOFRQWURO
WKHRULHV RUSVHXGR)RXFDXOGLDQPRGHOV RIWKHFRQVFULSWLRQ RIWKHERG\
ZLWKLQ UHJLPHV RIsavoir—pouvoir: ERG\ KLVWRU\ WKXV EHFRPHV IRUPXODLF
DOO\ UHGXFHG WR WUDFLQJ \HW PRUH ZD\V LQ ZKLFK WKH ERG\ KDV EHHQ
VXUYH\HGQRUPDOL]HG GLVFLSOLQHGSROLFHGDQGSXQLVKHG$QDFKURQLVP
KROGV DIXUWKHUGDQJHU WUHQG\VFKRODUVWDNHLWIRUJUDQWHGIRULQVWDQFH
WKDW )UHXGLDQ RU /DFDQLDQ FRQFHSWV DUH DXWRPDWLFDOO\ DSSOLFDEOH WR
ERGLHV LQ WKH SDVW $ERYH DOO -HQQHU SURWHVWHG WKH YHU\ QRWLRQ RI
µERG\ KLVWRU\¶ VWDQGDUGO\ LQYROYHVGUDVWLF UHLILFDWLRQ VLPSOLILFDWLRQ DQG
UHGXFWLRQLVP DV WKRXJK WKHUH ZDV MXVW D single ERG\ ZKRVH unitary
KLVWRU\ ZDV EHLQJ WUDFHG WKDW ERG\ LQ TXHVWLRQ EHLQJ XQWKLQNLQJO\
DVVXPHGWREHWKHRQHSUHVHQWHGLQWKHKLJKFXOWXUDOSULQWHGWH[WVZKLFK
PRVWVFKRODUVVFDQ7KHKLVWRU\RIWKHERG\KHFRQFOXGHGPXVWJLYHZD\
WRKLVWRULHVRIERGLHV
6RH[SORVLYHKDVEHHQWKHXSVXUJHRIERG\KLVWRU\GXULQJWKHODVWGHFDGHLW
ZRXOG EH IRROLVK WR DWWHPSW D µ6WRQH $JH WR 1HZ $JH¶ VXUYH\ LQ WKH
UHPDLQLQJIHZSDJHVDQGHYHQDUWLILFLDOWRKLJKOLJKWNH\FRQWURYHUVLHV7R
FRSHZLWKWKLVSOHWKRUD,VKDOOXVHDVDVWDUWLQJSRLQWIRUVRPHFRPPHQWV
RQ D GHFDGH RI GHYHORSPHQWV WKH µDJHQGD¶ ZKLFK , RIIHUHG LQ µ%RG\
+LVWRU\) ,WKHUHVXJJHVWHGDVHYHQSRLQWSURJUDPPH IRUIXWXUHLQYHVW
LJDWLRQV WKLV , VKDOO EULHIO\ UHYLHZ VHOHFWLYHO\ H[DPLQLQJ GHYHORSPHQWV
ZLWKLQHDFKFDWHJRU\
7KH%RG\DV+XPDQ&RQGLWLRQ
7KHUHOLJLRQVSKLORVRSKLHVDQGOLWHUDWXUHVRIWKHZRUOGRIIHUDFRPPHQWDU\
XSRQ WKH KXPDQ FRQGLWLRQ XSRQELUWK FRSXODWLRQ DQG GHDWK %XWKRZ
VSHFLILFDOO\ DQG GLUHFWO\ GR WKH UHOLJLRXV GRFWULQHV RU DUWLVWLF WHPSHUV RI
SDUWLFXODUWLPHVUHODWHWRUHIOHFW"FRPSHQVDWHIRU"WKHDFWXDOH[SHULHQFHV
Roy Porter
RIHPERGLHGOLYLQJ"3RVLQJWKRVHTXHVWLRQV,SRQGHUHGLQµ%RG\+LVWRU\
,¶ZKHWKHUWKHGHDWKREVHVVHGFXOWXUHRIZKDW+XL]LQJDFDOOHGµWKHZDQLQJ
RIWKH0LGGOH$JHV¶VKRXOGEHUHDGDVDUHIOH[UHVSRQVHWRWKHUHDOLWLHVRIWKH
%ODFN'HDWK2UIROORZLQJ&DPSRUHVLPLJKWZHEHWWHUYLHZWKHPDFDEUH
HOHPHQWVRIODWHPHGLHYDO&KULVWLDQLW\ WKHIDVFLQDWLRQZLWKWKHLQFRUUXS
WLEOHERGLHVRIVDLQWVDQGVRIRUWK DVDQH[SUHVVLRQRIDSXOVDWLQJORYHRI
OLIHDQGIDVFLQDWLRQZLWKWKHIOHVK"
5HOLJLRXVUHSUHVHQWDWLRQV RIWKH ERG\ KDYH LQIDFW SURYHG DSDUWLFX
ODUO\ IUXLWIXO UHVHDUFK DUHD LQ UHFHQW \HDUV $ERYH DOO WKH UHYLVLRQLVW
ZULWLQJV RI &DUROLQH :DONHU %\QXP KDYH PDLQWDLQHG WKDW WKH JUHDW
DSSHDO RIODWH PHGLHYDO DQG HDUO\ PRGHUQ &DWKROLFLVP OD\ LQ LWV GHYR
WLRQDO HPSKDVLVXSRQ WKHHPERGLHGILJXUHV RIWKH9LUJLQDQGWKHLQIDQW
&KULVW7KHKXPDQL]DWLRQRIWKHIDLWKH[SUHVVHGWKURXJKWKHYXOQHUDELOLW\
RIWKH IOHVK WUDQVIRUPHG &KULVWLDQLW\ IURP D KLHUDWLF SDWULDUFK\ LQWR D
SRSXODUFDXVH ,QFragmentation and Redemption, %\QXPH[SORUHGKRZ
ODWH PHGLHYDO WHDFKLQJV IUHTXHQWO\ JDYH YDOXH WR WKH JHQGHUHG ERG\
0RUHUHFHQWO\LQThe Resurrection o f the BodyVKHKDVFRQWHQGHG
WKDWµGHVSLWHLWV VXVSLFLRQRIIOHVK DQG OXVW:HVWHUQ &KULVWLDQLW\GLGQRW
KDWHRUGLVFRXQWWKHERG\¶
'RFWULQHVRISHUVRQDOUHVXUUHFWLRQDVVXPHGDQHZLPSRUWDQFH%\QXP
DUJXHVRQFHHDUO\&KULVWLDQH[SHFWDWLRQVRIDQLPPLQHQW6HFRQG&RPLQJ
EHJDQWRUHFHGH$JDLQVWD*QRVWLFJURXQGVZHOOUHSHDWHGLQODWHUFHQWXU
LHV E\ WKH &DWKDUV HDUO\ &KXUFK )DWKHUV IHOW REOLJHG WR XQGHUVFRUH WKH
SK\VLFDOLW\RIUHVXUUHFWLRQOHVW&UHDWLRQVHHPHGWRRUHDGLO\DEDQGRQHGWR
WKH 'HYLO +LJKPHGLHYDO VFKRODVWLFV E\ FRQWUDVW KH REVHUYHV PDUNLQJ
WKHWUDQVLWLRQIURPHVFKDWRORJ\WRSKLORVRSK\ QHHGHGWRIUDPHSUHFHSWV
DERXWKHDYHQO\OLIH DJDLQVWWKHEDFNJURXQGRI$ULVWRWHOLDQGHEDWHVDVWR
ZKHWKHULWZDVPDWWHURUIRUPZKLFKLQGLYLGXDWHGZRXOGLWEHRXUERG\
RURXUVRXOWKDWJXDUDQWHHGRXUXQLTXHSHUVRQKRRGLQWKHKHUHDIWHU"
3DUDOOHOLQJWKHPHVGHYHORSHGE\3LHUR&DPSRUHVL%\QXPKDVGUDZQ
QRW RQO\ XSRQ WKH ZULWLQJV RI HFFOHVLDVWLFV EXW DOVR XSRQ WKH YLVXDO
HYLGHQFHRIDOWDUSLHFHVDQGIUHVFRHVWRH[SORUHSRSXODUXQFHUWDLQWLHVDQG
WR GHPRQVWUDWH WKH NH\ UROH WKH &KXUFK DWWDFKHG WR LQFXOFDWLQJ WUXH
WHDFKLQJVDPRQJVWWKHIDLWKIXO 6W/XNH µ%XWDKDLURI\RXUKHDG
VKDOO QRW SHULVK¶ ZDV RIWHQ FLWHG WR UHDVVXUH EHOLHYHUV DQ[LRXV DERXW
SHUVRQDO VXUYLYDO EXW WKH TXHVWLRQ RI H[DFWO\ which ERG\ RI RQHVHOI
ZRXOGDULVHZDVQHYHUVDWLIDFWRULO\UHVROYHGDQGQXPHURXVFRQXQGUXPV
WKH FDQQLEDO SDUDGR[ RU WKH GLOHPPD RI WKH UHDVVHPEO\ RI SDUWV
GHVWUR\HGRQWKHEDWWOHILHOGFRQWLQXHGWRSODJXHWKRVHDGYDQFLQJOLWHUDO
GRFWULQHVRIUHVXUUHFWLRQ
,WZDVSHUKDSVIRUWKLVUHDVRQWKDWORRVHUDQGPRUHHYRFDWLYHDOOHJRULHV
RIUHVXUUHFWLRQWKHLPDJHRIWKHVHHGRUWKHVHDVRQDOF\FOHVRIGHFD\DQG
UHELUWKORQJHQMR\HGSURPLQHQFH7KHKXPDQLVWLFDUWRIWKH5HQDLVVDQFH
History o f the Body Reconsidered
DOVRKHOSHGWRJORVVRYHUGRFWULQDODPELJXLWLHVE\GHSLFWLQJIXOO\IRUPHG
URV\IOHVKHGDQGHYHQOLWKHERGLHVIORDWLQJXSHOHJDQWO\IURPWKHHDUWKLQ
DQ DOPRVW EDOOHWLF PRYHPHQW %\QXP QRWHV WKDW GHVSLWH FHUWDLQ ODWH
PHGLHYDOPDFDEUHWHQGHQFLHVPHUHbonesZHUHDOPRVWQHYHUFDXJKWLQWKH
DFWRIDVFHQGLQJ
$JUHDWVWUHQJWKRI%\QXP¶VZRUNLVWKDWLWQHYHUSDWURQL]HVWKHWRXV
RIWHQ ZHLUG WKHRORJ\ RI WKH 5HVXUUHFWLRQ QHLWKHU GRHV VKH WUHDW LW DV
µH[RWLF¶ HQWLUHO\ IRUHLJQ WRPRGHUQ VHQVLELOLWLHV 9LHZHGLQ WHUPV RIWKH
DUFKHW\SHVDQGV\PEROLFIRUPVIDPLOLDUL]HGE\DQWKURSRORJ\DQGSV\FKR
DQDO\VLV WKH HDUO\ &KULVWLDQ FRQFHUQ ZLWK WKH PDWHULDO UHDOLW\ RI WKH
DIWHUOLIHPD\EH VHHQ DV DQH[SUHVVLRQ RIDXWKHQWLFDQGSHUHQQLDOUHJDUG
IRUTXHVWLRQVRIKHUHDQGQRZLGHQWLW\ DERYH DOO QRWLRQV RIZKROHQHVV
1HYHUWKHOHVV WKH VFHSWLFDO UHDGHU ZDU\ DJDLQVW EHLQJ OXOOHG LQWR D
IDOVH VHQVH RI WKH VZHHW UHDVRQDEOHQHVV RI WKHVH PHGLHYDO GRFWULQHV
ZRXOGGRZHOOWRUHDG%\QXP¶VDFFRXQWDORQJVLGH&DPSRUHVL¶VSUHVHQWD
WLRQVRIDEHUUDQWWKHRORJLFDOWHDFKLQJVDQGIRONEHOLHIV:KHUHWKHDFFHQW
LQ %\QXPLV XSRQWKH UDWLRQDOLW\DQGHPRWLRQDOO\ VDWLVI\LQJTXDOLWLHV RI
&KULVWLDQ GRFWULQHV RIIOHVKO\ VXUYLYDO &DPSRUHVL GZHOOV LQ OXULG GHWDLO
XSRQWKHDQ[LHWLHVDQGRIWHQPDVVK\VWHULDZKLFKDFFRPSDQLHGWKHP VR
VWUDQJH DQGH[WUHPHZHUH VXFKEHOLHIV KH DUJXHV WKDWRQHPXVW VXVSHFW
WKDWODWHPHGLHYDOVRFLHW\ZDVURXWLQHO\KLJKRQKDOOXFLQRJHQLFIRRGVWXIIV
$ IDVFLQDWLQJ GHEDWH HPHUJHV EHWZHHQ WKH µPLOG¶ UHDGLQJV RIERG\ GRF
WULQHDGYDQFHGE\%\QXPDQGWKHµZLOG¶YLHZVRI&DPSRUHVL
,QDGYDQFLQJKHUDUJXPHQWV%\QXPSLFNVDERQHZLWKWKHDUWKLVWRULDQ
/HR6WHLQEHUJ,QDSURYRFDWLYHERRN6WHLQEHUJGUHZDWWHQWLRQWRWKHIDFW
WKDW LQ D FRQYHQWLRQ RISDLQWLQJ IORXULVKLQJ WKURXJK WKH 5HQDLVVDQFH
&KULVWZDVFRPPRQO\GHSLFWHGWRXFKLQJ RURWKHUZLVHGUDZLQJDWWHQWLRQ
WRKLVSHQLV7KDWKDGEHHQVRPHWKLQJW\SLFDOO\LJQRUHGE\DUWKLVWRULDQV
WKHVH[XDOLW\RI&KULVW¶VERG\KDGDVLWZHUHEHHQLQYLVLELOL]HG%\QXP
FKDOOHQJHG6WHLQEHUJWRWKLQNRI&KULVW¶VJHVWXUHDVsexualZDVDW\SLFDOO\
PRGHPLQGHHGDQDFKURQLVWLFUHDGLQJ:KDWZDVEHLQJIODJJHGZDVQRWD
HURWLFL]DWLRQ RIWKH 6DYLRXU EXW D KXPDQL]DWLRQ 2WKHU ZRUNV QRWDEO\
0LUL5XELQ¶V VWXG\ RIWKHHXFKDULVW KDYH VLPLODUO\IRFXVHG DWWHQWLRQ RQ
WKH LPPDQHQWLVW DQG KXPDQLVWLF UDWKHU WKDQ WUDQVFHQGHQWDO HOHPHQWV RI
SRSXODU&KULVWLDQLW\
7KH)RUPRIWKH%RG\
,QDUWLQFUHDWLYHZULWLQJLQVFLHQFHDQGPHGLFLQHEXWQROHVVLQSURYHUEV
FOLFKpVDQGSURYHUEVWKHERG\DVVXPHVDYLVXDODVSHFW7KLQ IDWEHDXWL
IXO XJO\ WKH PLUURU RI WKH XQLYHUVH WKH SDUDJRQ RI WKH DQLPDOV WKH
Roy Porter
,IZHPD\PDNHLQIHUHQFHVIURPKHLJKWWRKHDOWKLQHVVDQGVRWRTXDOLW\
RIOLIHWKHVHDUHFKDOOHQJLQJILQGLQJV7KH\FRQWUDGLFWµSHVVLPLVWV¶ZKRVHH
WKHDGYHQWRILQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQDVHURGLQJZRUNLQJFODVVOLYLQJVWDQGDUGV
7KH\ VXJJHVW D PLGQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ SHULRG ZKHQ GHVSLWH LPSURYLQJ
ZDJHVVXUYLYDOSURVSHFWVPD\KDYHJRWZRUVH GXHWKHDXWKRUVVXJJHVW
WR WKH ZRUVHQLQJ KRXVLQJ DQG VDQLWDWLRQ RIWKH HDUO\ 9LFWRULDQ µVKRFN
WRZQ¶ 7KH\ XQGHUFXW WKHfin de siécle HXJHQLVWV VFDUHPRQJHULQJ DERXW
QDWLRQDO GHWHULRUDWLRQ DQG UDFLDO VXLFLGH $QG WKH\ JLYH VRPH LQGLUHFW
VXSSRUW WR 7KRPDV 0F.HRZQ¶V EHOLHI WKDW JUDGXDO LPSURYHPHQWV LQ
KHDOWKRZHGPRVWWREHWWHUQXWULWLRQ3K\VLTXHPD\WKXVSURYHDEHWWHU
LQGH[WKDQZDJHVIRUDVVHVVPHQWVRIFKDQJLQJVWDQGDUGVRIOLYLQJ
7KH ODVW GHFDGH KDV DOVR EURXJKW LQQRYDWLYH VFKRODUVKLS XSRQ ERG\
DSSHDUDQFH WUHDWHG DV D FRPPXQLFDWLYH VLJQ V\VWHP $ORQJVLGH ZRUN
DOUHDG\UHIHUHQFHGRQWKHKLVWRU\RIJHVWXUHWKHUHKDYHEHHQIUHVKVWXGLHV
RISK\VLRJQRP\ WKH VRFLDO VLJQLILFDQFH RISRUWUDLWXUH KDV EHHQ UHDV
VHVVHGDQGVRKDVWKHLFRQRJUDSK\RIGHDWK,QSDUWLFXODUWKHSUROLILF
$PHULFDQ KLVWRULDQ 6DQGHU *LOPDQ KDV SURGXFHG D VHULHV RI YROXPHV
LQWHUSUHWLQJFRQWHVWHG ERG\LPDJHV WKHPDGERG\ WKHHURWLF ERG\ WKH
EODFN WKH -HZ WKH K\VWHULFDO IHPDOH DQG VR IRUWK ZKDW KH DVNV KDYH
EODFNQHVV EHDXW\ KHDOWKLQHVV RU GLVHDVH VLJQLILHG DV SDUW RI D ZLGHU
SROLWLFV RUJHQGHU UDFH DQGHWKQLFLW\" 0RUH SDUWLFXODUO\ ZKDW KDV FRQ
VWLWXWHGWKHYLVXDOODQJXDJHRIWKHPDGDQGWKHVDQHWKHEHDXWLIXODQGWKH
XJO\WKHQRUPDODQGWKHSDWKRORJLFDO"
,Qfin de siécle (XURSH WKHUH ZDV VRPHWKLQJ VHOIHYLGHQW RU VR LW
VHHPHG DERXW WKH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ -HZ DQG JHQWLOH \HW XSRQ ZKDW
ZDV WKDW GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ EDVHG" 2Q UHOLJLRQ" 2Q ODQJXDJH KLVWRU\ SV\
FKRORJ\ RU FXOWXUH" 2U RQ UDFLDO ELRORJ\" ,Q The Jew’s Body *LOPDQ
H[SORUHGGLVFRXUVHVDERXW-HZVWRHVWDEOLVKKRZIDUWKHERG\LWVHOIVHHPHG
LQVFULEHG SHUKDSVLQGHOLEO\ ZLWK WKH VWLJPDWDRI-HZLVKQHVV7KLV LVD
SDUWLFXODUO\LQWULJXLQJILHOGIRUGLVFXVVLRQ IRU DV*LOPDQ GHPRQVWUDWHV
UDFLDOELRORJLFDO LGHDV -HZLVKQHVV LPSULQWHG RQ WKH VNLQ ZHUH E\ QR
PHDQV WKH PRQRSRO\ RI $U\DQ DQG SXWDWLYHO\ DQWL6HPLWLF DXWKRUV
1XPHURXV -HZLVK GRFWRUV VFLHQWLVWV DQG DQWKURSRORJLVWV LPPHUVHG LQ
TXHVWLRQV RI-HZLVK LGHQWLW\ ZHUHSHUIHFWO\SUHSDUHG WR HQJDJHLQUDFLDO
VWHUHRW\SLQJ <HW ZLWK D VXEWOH WZLVW )RU WKHLU FODLP ZDV WKDW WKH NH\
GLVWLQFWLRQ ZDV QRW DW ERWWRP EHWZHHQ $U\DQ DQG -HZ EXW EHWZHHQ
$U\DQV DQG µJRRG -HZV¶ RQ WKH RQH KDQG DQG µEDG -HZV¶ RQ WKH RWKHU
7KHLUVFLHQFHµSURYHG¶WKDWSDUWLFXODU-HZLVKWUDLWV IODWIHHWEDQG\OHJV
VNLQGLVRUGHUV(plica polonica),UDWVWDLOKDLU JRJJOHH\HVWKHKRRNQRVH
ZHUHUHDOHQRXJK%XWLWW\SLFDOO\ZHQWRQWRDUJXHWKDWVXFKIHDWXUHVZHUH
SULPDULO\ WKH GHIHFWV RIµ(DVWHUQ¶ RU µ$VLDWLF¶ -HZV GLVHDVHV WKDW E\ D
NLQGRI6RFLDO'DUZLQLVPZHUHGLVDSSHDULQJDPRQJVWSURJUHVVLYHPRG
HUQZHVWHUQ-HZV
Roy Porter
7KLVSURMHFWD-HZLVKVFLHQFHDERXWWKHSHFXOLDULWLHVRIWKH-HZVFRXOG
OHDG WR RU UHLQIRUFH WKDW -HZLVK µVHOIKDWUHG¶ DERXWZKLFK *LOPDQ KDV
LOOXPLQDWLQJO\ ZULWWHQ HOVHZKHUH D FRQYROXWHG VHOIFRQWHPSW HYLGHQW
QRWDEO\LQ2WWR:HLQLQJHU¶VSex and Character,ZKLFKEOD]RQHGIRUWKWKH
HTXDWLRQV-HZ KRPRVH[XDO ZRPDQ,QGHHGDV*LOPDQGHPRQVWUDWHV
-HZLVKQHVVLWVHOIFRXOGLWVHOIEHYLHZHGDVDGLVHDVHWKHFLUFXPFLVHGSHQLV
WKHJUHDWHVWµGHIRUPLW\¶RIDOO EHLQJLQHYLWDEO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKVXUJLFDO
PXWLODWLRQDQGKHQFHLQGLUHFWO\ZLWKV\SKLOLWLFLQIHFWLRQ -HZLVKLGHQWLW\
LQRWKHUZRUGVSRLQWHGLUUHVLVWLEO\WRWKHWUXWKWKDW-HZVZHUHEOLJKWHGE\
WKHLUVH[XDOLW\
)UHXG RIFRXUVH WULHG WR WUDQVFHQG WKDW VHOIKDWUHG E\ UHQGHULQJ E\
PHDQVRIKLVSV\FKRG\QDPLFUHDGLQJRIUHDOLW\WKHORFDOSHFXOLDULWLHVRIWKH
-HZV LQWR WKH SHUPDQHQW SUHRFFXSDWLRQV RIWKH KXPDQ SV\FKH :RUULHV
DERXWQRVH VL]HEHFDPHWUDQVODWHGLQWRSKDOOLFLQVHFXULWLHV FRQFHUQZLWK
FLUFXPFLVLRQPHDQWFDVWUDWLRQDQ[LHWLHVDQGKHQFHWKH2HGLSDOFULVLV DQG
2HGLSXVZDVGreek,DQGWKHUHIRUHVDIHO\µXQLYHUVDO¶<HW)UHXGZDVQHYHU
ZKROO\ DEOH WR GLVSHO KLV VSHFLILFDOO\ -HZLVK GLVTXLHW LQ WKH GLVJXLVH RI
XQLYHUVDOVFLHQFHLWVWLOOVKRZHG DIWHUDOO2HGLSXVKLPVHOIKDGDEDGIRRW
,Q UHFHQW VWXGLHV RISODVWLF DQG FRVPHWLF VXUJHU\ *LOPDQ KDV IXUWKHU
JRQH RQ WR H[DPLQHDWWHPSWV RYHUWKH ODVWKXQGUHG\HDUV WR WUDQVIRUP
ERGLO\ ORRNV VR DV WR FRQFHDO VXSSRVHG GHIHFWV RU IDEULFDWH DQ LGHDO
QHFHVVDULO\WLPH SODFHDQGFXOWXUHVSHFLILFRIEHDXW\RUQRUPDOLW\
7KH$QDWRP\RIWKH%RG\
,Qµ%RG\+LVWRU\,¶ ,PDLQWDLQHGWKDWERGLHVDUHVLPXOWDQHRXVO\REMHFWV
IRU WKH H[WHUQDO JD]H IDFLQJ WKH RXWVLGH ZRUOG DQG DOVR VXEMHFWLYH
LQWHJUDOWR WKHLQWHUQDO VHOI:HQHHGWRNQRZPXFKPRUH , VDLG DERXW
KRZ LQGLYLGXDOV DQG FXOWXUHV KDYH DVFULEHG PHDQLQJ WR FRQVWLWXWLRQV
OLPEV IOHVK DQG RUJDQV :KDW KDV EHHQ WKH HPRWLRQDO DQG H[LVWHQWLDO
WRSRJUDSK\RIVNLQDQGERQHV":KDWGLGSHRSOHPHDQZKHQWKH\WDONHG
OLWHUDOO\DQGILJXUDWLYHO\RIWKHLUEORRGKHDUWRUERZHOVWKHLUVSLULWVDQG
WKHLUKXPRXUV" +RZGLG WKHVH RUJDQV DQG IXQFWLRQV HPERG\ HPRWLRQV
H[SHULHQFHVDQGGHVLUHV":KDWZHUHWKHORRSVEHWZHHQSULYDWHDQGSXEOLF
PHDQLQJV VXEMHFWLYHDQGPHGLFDOFRQQRWDWLRQV",QHPSOR\LQJWKHSKUDVH
µWKHDQDWRP\RIWKHERG\¶,KLQWHGDWWKHIDFWWKDWWKHULVHRIDQDWRP\DVD
PHGLFDOVSHFLDOLW\IURPWKHVL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\SURYLGHGDQHZOLQNEHWZHHQ
WKH RXWHU DQG WKH LQQHU +DSSLO\ WKH SUDFWLFHV DQG ULWXDOV RIDQDWRP\
KDYHUHFHLYHGH[WHQVLYHDWWHQWLRQLQWKHODVWGHFDGH$QGWKLVKDVERUQH
IUXLWLQDQXPEHURIUHPDUNDEOH VWXGLHVRIWKHLQWHUFRQQHFWLRQVEHWZHHQ
WKHERG\¶VH[WHULRUDQGLQWHULRU
History o f the Body Reconsidered
LQ*RG¶VLPDJH<HWLQWKHH\HVRIRWKHUV PHQOLNH6LU7KRPDV%URZQH
LWFRXOG HTXDOO\ EH HQQREOHG QR ORQJHUWKDW VDFN RIVKLW UHYLOHG E\ WKH
SDWULVWLFWKHRORJLDQVRUD%DNKWLQLDQJURWHVTXHWKHERG\ZDVVRRQWREH
H[DOWHGDVDPDVWHUSLHFHRIPHFKDQLVPSURRIRIGLYLQHGHVLJQ
7KH SRO\VHPLFLW\ RIWKH DQDWRPL]HG ERG\ LV FHQWUDO WR 6DZGD\¶VSUR
MHFW7KHQHZO\H[SRVHGERG\GLGVWRXWVHUYLFHDVDPHWDSKRUDQGVWLPX
OXV IRU VR PXFK HOVH %HFDXVH WKH FRUSVHV VXUJHRQV GLVVHFWHG ZHUH
VWDQGDUGO\ WKRVH RI H[HFXWHG FULPLQDOV WKH EXVLQHVV RI DQDWRPL]LQJ
DVVXPHG D SHQDO FKDUDFWHU DQG HVSHFLDOO\ LQ *HUPDQ\ DQG +ROODQG
WKH DQDWRPLVWZDV RIWHQUHQGHUHGLQIDPRXV DV DFRXVLQWR WKH K D Q J P D Q
RUWKHEXWFKHU7KHFUXHOLQYDVLYHQHVVRIWKHNQLIHUHVHPEOHGDQGUDPLILHG
ZLWK RWKHU QHZO\ FRQVSLFXRXV PRGHV RIPDVWHU\ QRW OHDVW WKH EORRG\
FRORQL]DWLRQRIWKH1HZ:RUOG RUWKHRIWHQPLVRJ\QLVWLFFRXUWO\FXOWXUH
RIWKHFRQTXHVWRIZRPHQ
µ$QDWRPL]LQJ¶ EHFDPH D SRSXODU OLWHUDU\ DQG SKLORVRSKLFDO JHQUH LQ
WKH VHQVH RIERWKJUDVSLQJ D VXEMHFW WKURXJK IRUPDO SDUWLWLRQ DQG GLYL
VLRQ DV LQ 5REHUW %XUWRQ¶VAnatomy o f Melancholy DQG DOVR RI
SU\LQJ EHQHDWK WKH VXUIDFH WR XQYHLO KLGGHQ WUXWKV DQG ODQFH IHVWHULQJ
VRUHV DV LQ 3KLOLS 6WXEEHV¶VAnatomy o f Abuses $ QHZ OLWHUDU\
FXPUHOLJLRXV JHQUH FDPH LQWR IDVKLRQ VHOIDQDWRP\ LQWURVSHFWLRQ LQWR
RQH¶V RZQ ERG\ autopsyLQ WKHOLWHUDO VHQVH 7 KDYH FXW XSPLQH RZQH
Anatomy’, GHFODUHG-RKQ'RQQHLQKLVDevotions, µGLVVHFWHGP\VHOIH DQG
WKH\ DUH JRW WR UHDG XSRQ PH¶ 7KLV WHFKQLTXH RIVHOIIODJHOODWLQJ VHOI
H[DPLQDWLRQ (‘nosce te ipsum’) SRVVHVVHG D YLVFHUDO LQWHQVLW\ 6DZGD\
VXJJHVWVKDUGO\WREHKHDUGDJDLQWLOO)UHXG
<HW DQDWRP\QRW RQO\ VXJJHVWHGSHQHWUDWLQJ DQG RQH LVWHPSWHGWR
VD\µGHFRQVWUXFWLQJ¶,WHTXDOO\LQYROYHGSXEOLFGLVSOD\$QDWRP\WKHDWUH
GLVVHFWLRQVZHUHYHULWDEOHVSHFWDFOHV WKHDWUHLQWKHOLWHUDOVHQVHDQGWKH\
ZHUHSDUDOOHOHGE\RWKHUYDULHWLHVRIFRUSRUHDOGLVSOD\QRWDEO\WKHUKHWR
ULFDO H[KLELWLRQ RIIHPDOH EHDXW\ LQ WKH µEOD]RQ¶ WUDGLWLRQ LQZKLFKWKH
SRHWZRXOGSDUDGHWKHSDUWVRIKLVPLVWUHVVDVWURSKLHVIRUKRPRVRFLDO
HURWLF DGPLUDWLRQ :LWK DPELYDOHQW LPSOLFDWLRQV 4XHHQ (OL]DEHWKFRQ
WULYHG WR DSSURSULDWH WKDW WUDGLWLRQ IRU KHU RZQ SXUSRVHV PDNLQJ D
EOD]RQRIKHUVHOIDQGWXUQLQJKHURZQERG\ZLWKDSLQFKRISRHWLFOLFHQFH
LQWR D V\PERO RIQDWLRQKRRG *ORULDQD $VWUDHD DQG D TXDVLUHOLJLRXV
HURWLF LFRQ $PRQJ &DUROLQH DQG &DYDOLHUSRHWV SUDLVH RIIHPDOH SDUWV
EHFDPH LQVHSDUDEOH IURP YR\HXULVWLF DQG VDODFLRXV PHQWDO XQGUHVVLQJ
ZLWKWKHDQDWRPL]HGZRPDQEHFRPLQJLQHIIHFWDSLQXSWKHGDUNO\HURWLF
VXEWH[WRIDQDWRPL]LQJJUHZREYLRXV
7KH PRVW GDULQJ DVSHFW RI The Body Emblazoned OLHV LQ LWV DWWHPSW
WR WUDFH WKH V\PELRVLV RIWKH PHGLFDO SKLORVRSKLFDO DQG DUWLVWLF OLQNV
WKDW FRQFDWHQDWHG LQ WKH 'XWFK 5HSXEOLF LQ WKH V 7KHUH LW ZDV
DERYH DOO WKDW SDLQWHUV ZHUH LQFRUSRUDWLQJ GLVVHFWLRQ VFHQHV LQWR WKHLU
History o f the Body Reconsidered
UHSHUWRLUH DXGDFLRXVO\ DOOXGLQJ WR WKH pietá WUDGLWLRQ RI WKH FUXFLILHG
&KULVW LQ WKHLU UHQGHULQJV RI WKH FRUSVH RQ WKH DQDWRPLVW¶V VODE 7R
SDLQW WKH FRUSVH ZDV WR GLVVHFW LW ZLWK WKH DUWLVW¶V QRW WKH VXUJHRQ¶V
NQLIH ,Q The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp, 5HPEUDQGW ZDV
IXUWKHUPRUHDLPLQJWRSUHVHQWWKHERG\HVVHQWLDOO\DVDPHFKDQLFDOFRQ
WULYDQFH PDGH XS RI GLVFUHWH SDUWV DQG KHQFH ERWK GHYHORSLQJ DQG
H[HPSOLI\LQJWKHPHFKDQLVWLFRXWORRNRIWKHµQHZSKLORVRSK\¶ &DQLWEH
SXUHO\FRLQFLGHQWDODVNV6DZGD\WKDW'HVFDUWHVWRRZDVOLYLQJQHDUWKH
EXWFKHUV¶ TXDUWHU RI $PVWHUGDP DW URXJKO\ WKH VDPH WLPH DQG ZDV
KLPVHOISHUIRUPLQJGLVVHFWLRQV"
7KH DQDWRPLFDO WUDGLWLRQ FXOPLQDWHG LQ:LOOLDP+DUYH\ +LV GHPRQ
VWUDWLRQ LQ De Motu Cordis WKDW WKH KHDUW ZDV EXW D SXPS
GHVWUR\HGDJHROGFRUUHVSRQGHQFHVDQGDUFKHW\SHVWKHKHDUWDVPRQDUFK
DQG IRU DOO +DUYH\¶V SHUVRQDO FRQVHUYDWLVP FRUURERUDWHG WKH GXDOLVWLF
&DUWHVLDQ VHSDUDWLRQ RI ERG\ VFLHQWLILFDOO\ DYDLODEOH DW ODVW EXW QRZ
WUHDWHG DV D WKLQJ DSDUW IURP PLQG UHVFXHG IURP UHGXFWLRQLVP EXW
ORVLQJLWVPRRULQJV ,IDQDWRP\ZDVWREHGHVWLQ\FRQVFLRXVQHVVKDGWR
EHLQFRUSRUHDORUDWPRVWDJKRVWLQWKHPDFKLQH%HWZHHQWKHP+DUYH\
'HVFDUWHVDQG5HPEUDQGW RUUDWKHUWKHLUVKDUHGmentalité - UHDOL]HGWKH
LQVLJKW RI'RQQH ZKHQKH VWDWHG LQ WKH µ(FVWDVLH¶ WKDW ERGLHV µDUH RXUV
WKR¶WKH\DUHQRWZH¶
$UJXPHQWVVLPLODUWRWKHVHKDYHREYLRXVO\EHHQPDGHEHIRUH %XWWKLV
ERRN¶VQRYHOYLUWXHOLHVLQDYRLGLQJWKHWULXPSKDOLVPRIWUDGLWLRQDOPHG
LFDOKLVWRU\µWKH9HVDOLDQUHYROXWLRQ¶RUWKHQRVWDOJLFPRUDOL]LQJV DVVR
FLDWHGZLWK76(OLRW¶VµGLVVRFLDWLRQRIVHQVLELOLW\¶)RU6DZGD\DQDWRP\
GLGQRWSULPDULO\EULQJWKH ODPHQWDEOHGHDWK RIDQRUJDQLFXQLYHUVH RU
HQWDLOWKHFRPPHQGDEOHWULXPSKRIVFLHQFH5DWKHUWKHFXOWXUHRIGLVVHF
WLRQFUHDWHGQHZZD\VRIVHHLQJHTXDOO\XVDEOHE\WKH5R\DO6RFLHW\DQG
WKHP\VWLFDOSRHW7KRPDV7UDKHUQH
%RG\0LQGDQG6RXO
,Q µ%RG\+LVWRU\7,PDLQWDLQHGWKDWWKHUHDOPVRIPLQGDQGERG\DUH
QRWIL[HGOHDVWRIDOOE\ELRORJ\7KHLUERXQGDULHVDUHVXEMHFWWRQHJRWLD
WLRQYLD SDUWLFXODU V\VWHPV RIYDOXHVMXGJHPHQWV DQG GXWLHV 7KH VHQVH
RIWKHVHOIDWRWDOLW\GLYLGHGLQWRGLVWLQFWIDFXOWLHVDQGRIILFHV DPLQGIXO
ERG\DQGDQHPERGLHGPLQGRIWHQDWRGGVZLWKHDFKRWKHUKDVREYLRXVO\
EHHQ FHQWUDO WR HWKLFDO WKHRULHV FRGHV RIMXULVSUXGHQFH SHGDJRJLF SUR
JUDPPHV DQG PRUH JHQHUDOO\ WRQRWLRQV RIPDQNLQG¶V SODFH LQ QDWXUH
7KH EULGJHV DQG ERXQGDULHV EHWZHHQ PLQG DQG ERG\ H[SHULHQFH
DQGOHVLRQVDUHFOHDUO\QROHVVFHQWUDOWRWKHKLVWRU\RILOOQHVVDQGKHDOWK
Roy Porter
6H[DQG*HQGHU
7KDQNVWRIHPLQLVWVFKRODUVKLS,ZURWHLQµ%RG\+LVWRU\7WKHFRQVWLWX
WLRQ DQG UHFRQVWLWXWLRQ RIVH[ DQG JHQGHU IRUPHG RQH RIWKH YHU\ IHZ
DUHDV RIERGLO\ DQDO\VLV SULQFLSDOO\ LW ZDV WKH IHPDOH ERG\ DW RQFH
DWWUDFWLYH \HW SROOXWHG GHVLUDEOH \HW GDQJHURXV ZKLFK KDG UHFHLYHG
VFUXWLQ\ (YHQ WKHQ , QRWHG LW ZDV XWWHUO\ LPSRVVLEOH WR GLVFXVV WKH
UDQJH RIWRSLFV FRYHUHG LQ WKLV VFKRODUVKLS WKH PDWHULDO EDVLV RIPRUDO
SURKLELWLRQVUHSURGXFWLRQVH[XDOLW\VXERUGLQDWLRQDQGWKDWDSSOLHVDOO
WKHPRUHVRQRZDGD\V LQDQ\FDVHVXFKWRSLFVDUHFRYHUHGLQWKHHVVD\
RQµ:RPHQ¶V+LVWRU\¶ LQFKDSWHUWKLVERRN
, GUHZDWWHQWLRQWHQ\HDUVDJRWRWKHIDFWWKDWµPHQ¶VKLVWRU\¶KDGEHHQ
QHJOHFWHG 6LQFHWKHQKRZHYHUWKHPDOHERG\KDVEHHQUHFHLYLQJEHODWHG
DWWHQWLRQ$VFRPPRQO\LQERG\KLVWRU\ WKHGLDOHFWLFEHWZHHQDUW DQG
DFWXDOLW\KDVSURYHGRIFHQWUDOLPSRUWDQFH,QWKLVFRQWH[WWZRFRQWULEX
WLRQV VWDQG RXW ,QFlesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the Origins of
Art History, $OH[ 3RWWV KDV GHPRQVWUDWHG KRZ D QHZ DHVWKHWLFV RIWKH
DXWRQRQRXVPDOHZDVFUHDWHGGXULQJWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\QRWDFFLGHQW
DOO\DWWKHYHU\WLPHWKDWPRGHUQQRWLRQVRIWKHKRPRVH[XDOZHUHFU\VWDO
OL]LQJ,QDPDJQLILFHQWVHULHVRIVWXGLHVWKHODWH*HRUJH0RVVHZDVDOVR
WUDFLQJWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ FRUUXSWLRQ RIWKDW*UHHNLGHDO RIWKHQREOH
PDOH LQWR WKH PDFKR ILJXUH EHORYHG RI WKH IDVFLVW GLFWDWRUV DQG WKHLU
SURSDJDQGDKHQFKPHQ
0RVVH¶V WLWOH PXVW EH WDNHQ OLWHUDOO\ DQG JLYHV WKH NH\ WR KLV FKLHI
FRQFHUQ The Image of Man: The Creation of Modem MasculinitySULQFLS
DOO\H[DPLQHVWKHSRUWUD\DORIWKHPDOHSK\VLTXHLQDUWDQGSURSDJDQGD
LQFDULFDWXUHDQGVWHUHRW\SHDQGSURFHHGVWRLQWHUSUHWWKHPHVVDJHVVXFK
History o f the Body Reconsidered
LFRQV KDYH FRQYH\HG :KDW VWULNHV KLP DERYH DOO LV WKH H[WUDRUGLQDU\
SHUVLVWHQFH RI RQH EDVLF VWHUHRW\SH WKH VLQJXODU LQ WKH WLWOH LV TXLWH
GHOLEHUDWH 7KURXJK LWV VWDWXHV DQG DUWLVWLF SRUWUD\DOV RI KHURHV DQG
ZDUULRUVGLVFXVWKURZHUVDQGJ\PQDVWV*UHHNDUWHVWDEOLVKHGWKHSURWR
W\SH RI WKH ODWHUSUL]HG PDVFXOLQH LPDJH XSULJKW DWKOHWLF OLWKH VHOI
SRVVHVVHG 7KDW GLVWLQFWLYH LFRQ RI PDQKRRG ZDV WKHQ UHFRYHUHG DQG
SRSXODUL]HGZLWKWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\*UHHNUHYLYDOWKURXJKWKHSLRQ
HHULQJZULWLQJVRIWKH*HUPDQDHVWKHWH:LQFNHOPDQQ
7KLVSK\VLFDO LPDJH PXVFXODU DQGPDUPRUHDO VHUYHG DV WKHHPERGL
PHQWRIDFKDUDFWHUW\SH DQGDVRFLDOSUHVHQFH $VILOWHUHGWKURXJKQHR
FODVVLFLVP WKH *UHHN LGHDO JDYH H[SUHVVLRQ WR D PDOHQHVV PDUNHG
E\ LQGHSHQGHQFH VHOIFRQWURO IRUWLWXGH IHDUOHVVQHVV DQG IDLU SOD\ LQ
VKRUWPDQOLQHVVWKHEHDXW\RIERG\VLJQDOOHGJUHDWQHVVRIVRXO,WZDVDQ
LPDJH DUJXHV 0RVVH ZKLFK PHW WKH QHHGV RI WKDW QHZ ERXUJHRLV
RUGHUZKLFKFODLPHG VXSUHPDF\ DQG JUDGXDOO\ DVVXPHGSRZHU DIWHUWKH
)UHQFK5HYROXWLRQ DQRUGHUZKLFKUHMHFWHGSOHEHLDQDQLPDOLW\DQGDULV
WRFUDWLF GHFDGHQFH DOLNH DQG ZLVKHG WR VHH LWV RZQ PRUDO VXSHULRULW\
LQFDUQDWH UXJJHGLQGLYLGXDOLVPHPERGLHGLQWKHFKLVHOOHGORRN DµILJKW
WKH JRRG ILJKW¶ PXVFXODU &KULVWLDQLW\ ZKLFK GUHZ RQ *UHHN PRGHOV RI
ILWQHVV 7KH GRPLQDQW PDOH JURXSV RIWKH QLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ VLJQDOOHG
WKHLU VXSHULRUPDQKRRGWKURXJKWKHSURPRWLRQRIQHZSUDFWLFHVHQKDQ
FLQJ WKLV ERG\ LPDJH J\PQDVWLFV LQ *HUPDQ\ UXJJHU LQ WKH (QJOLVK
SXEOLFVFKRRO
,W LV 0RVVH¶V FRQWHQWLRQ WKDW WKLV VLQJOH JHQGHUHG LPDJH KDV EXWWUHV
VHGPDQOLQHVVHYHUVLQFHWKRXJKLWKDVDVVXPHGDVVRUWHGJXLVHVLQFOXGLQJ
WKH YLULOH 9LFWRULDQ DGYHQWXUHU VKRXOGHULQJ WKH ZKLWH PDQ¶V EXUGHQ LQ
WKH(PSLUHRUWKHJDOODQWYROXQWHHUHQOLVWLQJIRU.LQJDQG&RXQWU\LQWKH
)LUVW :RUOG :DU &OHDQFXW FOHDQVKDYHQ VWURQJMDZHG IDLUVNLQQHG
SUHIHUDEO\ IDLUKDLUHG DQG KHWHURVH[XDO WKLV SDUDJRQ HPERGLHG WKH
PRGHUQ ZHVWHUQ GUHDP WUXH JULW \HW D VWUHQJWK WHPSHUHG E\ UHV
WUDLQW GHFHQF\ SURWHFWLYHQHVV WRZDUGV WKH ZHDNHU VH[ DQG D VHQVH RI
FKLYDOU\
7KLV GRPLQDQW LPDJHQHHGHG DQ µ2WKHU¶ WR YLOLI\ $PLVFHOODQ\ RIVR
FDOOHGSHUYHUWHGRULQYHUWHGPDOHW\SHVVXUIDFHGWRZDUGV GHFDGHQW
SRHWVERKHPLDQDUWLVWVDQGHIIHWHGHFDGHQWVYLVLEOHLQ3URXVW¶VFRWHULHRI
3DULVLDQFORVHWKRPRVH[XDOVRULQ%HUOLQLQWKH Urningsballe, WKHLQYHUWV¶
IHVWLYDOV $OO VXFK FRXQWHUW\SHV FDPH XQGHU WKH PLFURVFRSH RISV\FKL
DWULVWV OLNH 5LFKDUG .UDIIW(ELQJ DQG FULPLQRORJLVWV OLNH &HVDUH /RP
EURVR ZKR GLDJQRVHG WKHP DV GHJHQHUDWHV WKUHDWV WR YLWDOLW\ YLUWXH
DQG WKH QDWLRQ %XW WKH\ DOVR µFDPH RXW¶ WKDW LV DW WKHfin de siécle
GHYLDQWPDOHVEHJDQ WRIODXQW WKHLUGHYLDQF\SRUWUD\LQJ WKHPVHOYHVSHU
KDSVDV D WKLUG VH[ IHPDOH VRXOV LPSULVRQHG LQPDOH ERGLHV $QG WKHLU
GHILDQFHRIDXWKRUL]HGJHQGHUPRXOGVZDVVKDUHGE\µQHZZRPHQ¶VWDNLQJ
Roy Porter
FODLPVIRUSROLWLFDODQGVH[XDOHPDQFLSDWLRQZKLOHGHYLVLQJUDGLFDOERG\
VW\OHVWRPDWFKEREEHGKDLUIODWWHQHGFKHVWPDQQLVKFORWKHVDFLJDUHWWH
EHWZHHQWKHOLSV
$OOWKHVHWKUHDWVWRWKHPDQO\QRUP WKHIODSSHUWKHQHXURWLF-HZDV
GHVFULEHG E\ *LOPDQ WKH avant garde GHJHQHUDWH WKUHDWHQLQJ VH[XDO
DQDUFK\ SURYRNHG D UHDFWLRQ LQ D QHZ VXSHUYLULOH PDVFXOLQLW\ WKDW
ZDV ROG PDQKRRG ZULW ODUJH )URP WKH HDUO\ GHFDGHV RIWKH WZHQWLHWK
FHQWXU\ 0RVVH PDLQWDLQV UHJXODU JX\V VRXJKW UHDVVXUDQFH LQ H[DJJHU
DWHG FDULFDWXUHV RIFRQYHQWLRQDO PDVFXOLQLW\ ZLWK D QHZ DFFHQW XSRQ
VWHHO\ WRXJKQHVV EOLQG SDWULRWLVP WKH IHOORZVKLS RI FRXUDJH DQG WKH
GHVWLQ\ RIGHDWK 7KLV XQFRPSURPLVLQJ QHZYLVLRQ VRPHWLPHV GUDZLQJ
XSRQ'DUZLQLVPKDGLWVKRXURQWKHVWDJHLQWKHRSSRUWXQLWLHVDIIRUGHG
E\WZRZRUOGZDUVDQGRIFRXUVHWKHEUXWDOL]HGSROLWLFVRIWKHLQWHUZDU
HUD D SHULRG XSRQ ZKLFK DV DQ ROG -HZLVK UHIXJHH KH ZULWHV ZLWK
SDUWLFXODULQVLJKW
$IWHUWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DUSROLWLFDOSURJUHVVLYHVDWWHPSWHGWRVRFLDOL]H
WKHWRXJKJX\DVZRUNHU*HUPDQVRFLDOGHPRFUDWLFSRVWHUVLGHDOL]HGWKH
PLJKW\ SUROHWDULDQPDOH ZKLOH 6RYLHW UHDOLVW DUW FHOHEUDWHG WKH 6WDNKD
QRYLWH %ROVKHYLN 1RW OHDVW -HZV DWWHPSWHG WR GLVFDUG WKHLU ROG )DJLQ
VWHUHRW\SHUHSXOVLYH LQEUHGDQGVH[XDOO\VXVSHFWSXEOLFLW\SKRWRJUDSKV
RIWKHµQHZ-HZ¶WKH=LRQLVWVHWWOHULQ3DOHVWLQHVKRZWKHPVWULSSHGWRWKH
ZDLVW PXVFXODU DQG EURQ]HG WLOOLQJ WKH ILHOGV RQ WKH NLEEXW] DOPRVW
VXVSLFLRXVO\PLUURULQJ DV 0RVVH ZULO\KLQWV WKH SURSDJDQGDLPDJHV RI
$U\DQPDQKRRG
%XW WKH KHURLF QRQYLROHQW ZRUNHU KHUR JRW XSVWDJHG E\ D JULPPHU
PXWDWLRQWKHQHZIDVFLVWH[WUHPLVWZKREHOLHYHGWKDWWUXHPDQKRRG DQG
ZKDWFRXOGEHQREOHUWKDQWKDW" UHTXLUHGWKHWULXPSKRIWKHPDOHZLOO
7KHIDPLO\ &KULVWLDQPRUDOLW\DQGRWKHUVXFKZHDNHQLQJWLHVKDGWR EH
UHSXGLDWHGZKDWKDGWREHHPEUDFHGZDVWKHH[FOXVLYHVRFLHW\RIPDOHV
WKH EHDXW\ RIPXVFOHSRZHU GHYRWHG WR WKH XQTXHVWLRQHG VHUYLFH RIWKH
IDWKHUODQG 6WULSSHG GRZQ WR LWV EDUH SHFWRUDOV RU SDWKRORJLFDOO\ GLV
WRUWHG WKH*UHHNGLVFXVWKURZHUPXFKSUDLVHGLQ Mein Kampf,EHFDPH
WKHVWRUPWURRSHU
7KHGHIHDWRIWKHGLFWDWRUVPHDQWWKDWWKHPDOHLPDJHFRXOGPHOWSRVW
ZDULQWR VRPHWKLQJOHVV IHDUVRPH LIQR OHVV VH[LVW DPRUH XQDVVXPLQJ
VW\OH RIHIIRUWOHVVSRVWZDUVXSHULRULW\ WKHVWURQJ DQG VLOHQWW\SH 0RUH
H[WUHPHPDQLIHVWDWLRQVRIPDVFKLVPRZHUHNHSWDWWKHPDUJLQV WKH-RKQ
:D\QH FRZER\ RQ WKH IURQWLHU LQ WKH SDVW WKH -DPHV 'HDQ WHHQDJH
UHEHO ULWHV RI SDVVDJH RU 5DPER RIWHQ IDU DZD\ LQ 9LHWQDP 7KLV
UHOD[DWLRQ RISUHVVXUH XSRQWKHPDOHQRUPSURYHG WR EH RIVLJQLILFDQFH
ZKHQIUHVKFKDOOHQJHVWRFKDXYLQLVWVXSHUPDF\DURVHLQWKHVL[WLHVZLWKWKH
UHVXUUHFWLRQRIROGµGHFDGHQFH¶LQWKHIRUPRIDQGURJ\QRXVIORZHUSRZHU
KLSSLHV VKRUWO\ IROORZHG E\ ZRPHQ¶V OLE DQG JD\ OLE 7KH XSVKRW LQ
History o f the Body Reconsidered
0RVVH¶VYLHZKDVEHHQWKDWVXFKWKUHDWVKDYHPHWZLWKFRQVSLFXRXVO\OHVV
UHVLVWDQFH WKDQ WKHLU HTXLYDOHQWV D FHQWXU\ DJR 7KH HQVXLQJ DSSDUHQW
VOLGH LQWR XQLVH[ DQG EOXUULQJ RI JHQGHU ERXQGDULHV LQWULJXHV 0RVVH
VLQFH LW DSSHDUVWR EH KHUDOGLQJ WKHHQG 2IWKH HUD ZKLFK :LQFNHOPDQQ
EHJDQ:KDWPDNHVODWHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\JHQGHUEHQGLQJWUXO\GLIIHUHQW
IURP HDUOLHU DQG OHVV VXFFHVVIXO FRXQWHUW\SHV KH FRQWHQGV LV WKDW
ZKHUHDV WKH fin de siécle VH[XDO UDGLFDOV ZHUH FRPPLWWHG WR PLQRULW\
SROLWLFDODFWLYLVP PRGHUQDQGURJ\Q\E\FRQWUDVWLVHVVHQWLDOO\DIDVKLRQ
SURGXFWWKHIUXLWRIFDSLWDOLVWFRQVXPHUQDUFLVVLVP
,QWHUPV RIJHQGHUWKHRWKHUJUHDWGHYHORSPHQWDQGGHEDWHRIWKHODVW
GHFDGHLVRQHZKLFKWUDQVFHQGVVSHFLILFLPDJHVRIWKHPDOHDQGWKHIHPDOH
ERG\ DQGSUREHV WKHKLVWRU\ RIWKHLGHD RIVH[XDODQGJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFH
LWVHOI +HUH WKH VHPLQDOWH[WKDV EHHQ 7KRPDV /DTXHXU¶V Making Sex.62
/DTXHXUFODLPVWRWUDFHDWUDQVLWLRQLQWKHGHILQLQJFRQFHSWRIJHQGHUHG
VH[XDOLW\ IURPWKH*UHHNQRWLRQRIVH[XDOGLIIHUHQFHZKLFKKHFDOOVWKH
RQHVH[KLHUDUFKLFDOPRGHOWRWKHWZRVH[PRGHORIGLIIHUHQFHIDPLOLDULQ
PRGHUQ WLPHV WKH ZDWHUVKHG EHLQJ WKH HLJKWHHQWK FHQWXU\ $V GRFX
PHQWHG LQ D PHWLFXORXV DQDO\VLV RIPHGLFRVFLHQWLILF DQG SKLORVRSKLFDO
ZULWLQJV &ODVVLFDO DQDWRP\ GLGQRWWHDFKWKHQRWLRQ RIµRSSRVLWHVH[HV¶
LQWHJUDOWR RXUUHFHLYHGZLVGRP DQGPDOHDQGIHPDOHZHUHQRWUHJDUGHG
DV UDGLFDOO\ GLVWLQFW µW\SHV¶ ,QVWHDG LQIOXHQWLDO*UHHNZULWHUVKHOGWKHUH
ZDV RQO\ RQH KXPDQ SURWRW\SH DQG WKDW ZDV WKH PDOH 0DVFXOLQLW\
HPEUDFHGDOO DWWULEXWHVHVVHQWLDOWRWKHSHUIHFWLQJRIKXPDQ HQGV PDOHV
ZHUH HQGRZHG ZLWK JUHDWHU VWDPLQD IRU DWKOHWLFV DQG ZDU ZKLOH WKHLU
FRQVSLFXRXVO\ VXSHULRU KHDGV ILWWHG WKHP IRU SROLWLFV DQG SKLORVRSK\
7KRXJK GHILFLHQW LQ VXFK KLJKHU TXDOLWLHV ZRPHQ ZHUH QHYHUWKHOHVV
QHFHVVDU\ DGMXQFWV EHLQJ PDGH IRU VH[XDO JUDWLILFDWLRQ RUQDPHQW DQG
SURFUHDWLRQ
$W WKH YHU\ GDZQ RIVFLHQFH µZRPDQ¶ GLG QRW H[LVW LQ KHU RZQ ULJKW
)URP$ULVWRWOH DQG *DOHQXS WR DERXW WKH EDVLF DVVXPSWLRQ ZDV
WKDWWKHUHZDVRQO\RQHWUXHVH[WKHPDOH 7KHIHPDOHRIWKHVSHFLHVWKH
IRXQGLQJIDWKHUVRIELRORJ\DQGPHGLFLQHWDXJKWZDVEXWDERWFKHGPDQ
8QOLNH)UHXGHDUO\ELRORJ\GLGQ¶WLPSO\WKDWVKH¶GDFWXDOO\ORVWKHUSHQLV
UDWKHU KHUV KDG QHYHU JURZQ SURSHUO\ LQ WKH ILUVW SODFH $V RUJDQV GH
YHORSHGLQWKHZRPE WKHHPEU\RQLFER\¶VSHQLVPDWXUHGDQGH[WUXGHG
%XWLIVRPHWKLQJZHQWDZU\LQSUHJQDQF\ WKHSHQLVQHYHU µFDPHRXW¶ ,W
UHPDLQHG IDVW LQVLGH WKH EDE\¶V ERG\ DQG EHFDPH D µYDJLQD¶ 6XFK
XQIRUPHG RU GHIRUPHG ER\V ZHUH FDOOHG JLUOV LQ IDFW µPRQVWHUV¶
DFFRUGLQJWR VRPHRI$ULVWRWOH¶VIROORZHUV 6XUYH\LQJPHGLFDOWHDFKLQJV
KHVKRZVZRPHQ ZHUHQRWHYHQ DFFRUGHG WKH KRQRXU RIWKHLU RZQ JHQ
LWDOV RYDULHV IRU LQVWDQFH ZHUH ODEHOOHG D ZRPDQ¶V µWHVWLFOHV¶ /DTXHXU
VW\OHV WKLV WUDGLWLRQDO WKHRU\ WKH µRQHVH[ KLHUDUFKLFDOPRGHO¶ WR GLVWLQ
JXLVKLWIURPWKHWZRVH[µGLIIHUHQWEXWHTXDO¶YLHZRIKXPDQVH[XDOLW\
Roy Porter
PRGHUQVFLHQFHHPEUDFHV2IFRXUVHVXFKWKHRUL]LQJXQGHUOLQHVWKHVFDQ
GDORXV IDFW WKDW WKURXJK KLVWRU\ PDOH GRFWRUV KDYH GHSOR\HG RU SHU
YHUWHGWKHSUHVWLJHRIVFLHQFHWRVWLJPDWL]HWKHIHPDOHDVDOHVVHUEUHHG
3UHMXGLFHVKRZHYHUKDYHVWUDQJHLPSOLFDWLRQV2IFRXUVHWKHµRQHVH[¶
PRGHO WKHVHFRQG VH[DVYHULWDEOH µVHFRQGV¶ PDVVLYHO\GLVDGYDQWDJHG
ZRPHQ %XW LW DOVR EDFNKDQGHGO\ JUDQWHG WKHP VRPH SRZHU )RU LI
ZRPHQZHUHLQFRPSOHWHPHQ WKH\ZHUHDWOHDVWlikePHQ$QGLQHURWLF
WHUPVWKDWPHDQWWKHLUGHVLUHVPXVWEHSRWHQW$QGLIWKHYDJLQDZDVDQ
µRXWVLGHLQ¶ SKDOOXV ZRPHQPXVW KDYH RUJDVPVMXVW OLNH PHQ DQG WKH\
WRR PXVW µHMDFXODWH¶ ,Q IDFW HDUO\ ZULWHUV RQ JHQHUDWLRQ WDXJKW SUHJ
QDQF\ FRXOG QRW RFFXU ZLWKRXW PXWXDO DQG VLPXOWDQHRXV RUJDVP 6R
FHQWXULHV EHIRUH The Joy o f Sex, PDOHFKDXYLQLVW VFLHQFH SDUDGR[LFDOO\
XQGHUZURWHZKDWPRGHUQIHPLQLVWVZHUHWRFKDPSLRQDVµOLEHUDWLRQ¶ WKH
IHPDOHRUJDVP
7KH VH[ PDQXDOV RI WKUHH FHQWXULHV DJR WHOO KXVEDQGV WKH\ PXVW EH
FRQVLGHUDWH ORYHUV DQG DGYLVH RQ H[SHUW IRUHSOD\ OLJKW\HDUV DZD\
IURP RXU UHFHLYHG LPDJH RI RXU JUHDW JUDQGPRWKHUV SURYHUELDOO\
LQVWUXFWHG WR µOLH EDFN DQG WKLQNRI(QJODQG¶ $V SURRIRIKHUYLUWXH D
9LFWRULDQ ZRPDQZDVPHDQW WREHDOPRVWVH[XDOO\DQDHVWKHWL]HG ,Q WKH
9LFWRULDQ KH\GD\ RI WKH µGRXEOH VWDQGDUG¶ ODGLHV ZHUH WR EH XWWHUO\
GLIIHUHQWIURPWKHLUPHQ
%\WKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WKLQNLQJDERXWJHQGHUKDGWUXO\XQGHUJRQH
DPRPHQWRXVFKDQJH7KHROGQRWLRQRIZRPDQDVTXLWHOLWHUDOO\DKDOI
EDNHGPDOHKDGYDQLVKHG,QVWHDGQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\GRFWRUVWDXJKWWKDW
ZRPDQZDV DOPRVWDVSHFLHVDSDUW:KDWDFFRXQWVIRUWKHFKDQJH"1HZ
VFLHQWLILFWKLQNLQJSOD\HGLWVSDUW/DTXHXUDUJXHV7KHROGSK\VLRORJ\RI
ZRPDQDVWKHµRXWVLGHLQ¶PDOHKDGQHYHUEHHQSUREOHPIUHH,WZDVHDV\
WR SLFWXUHWKHYDJLQD DV DQLQYHUWHGSHQLV /DTXHXUUHSURGXFHV EL]DUUH
LOOXVWUDWLRQV IURPPHGLFDO WH[WERRNVVKRZLQJMXVWWKDW %XW ZKDW RIWKH
FOLWRULV" $QG WKH ZRPE LWVHOI" 7KHUH WKH PLUURUOLQDJH SDUDOOHOV EURNH
GRZQ ?
5HVHDUFK H[SORUHG WKH IHPDOH UHSURGXFWLYH V\VWHP 5HFRJQLWLRQ JUHZ
WKDWZRPHQRYXODWHVSRQWDQHRXVO\IROORZLQJDQLQQHUUK\WKP6XFKHJJ
SURGXFWLRQFOHDUO\ZDVQRWDIDXOW\YHUVLRQRIDQ\WKLQJPDOHVGLGLWZDV
XQLTXHWRZRPHQ$QGLQYHVWLJDWLRQVLQWRWKHPHQVWUXDOF\FOHSURYHGWKDW
ZRPHQFRXOGFRQFHLYHZLWKRXWRUJDVP LQIDFWZLWKRXWVH[XDODURXVDODW
DOOIRULQVWDQFHDVLQUDSH%LRORJ\VHHPHGWREHSURYLQJWKDWVH[XDOO\
PDOHDQGIHPDOHZHUHZRUOGVDSDUWDQGZRPHQZHUHSHUKDSVSULVRQHUVRI
WKHLUZRPE
6R WKH VFLHQWLILFLPDJHRIZRPDQDVPDQOLNH WKHUHIRUH OLELGLQRXV
\LHOGHGWRWKH9LFWRULDQPRGHORIZRPDQDVXQOLNHPDQWKHUHIRUHYHHULQJ
WRZDUGV WKH IULJLG $QG LQ WKLV WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ /DTXHXU HPSKDVL]HV
VRFLDO FKDQJHV ZHUH QR OHVV FULWLFDO WKDQ PHGLFDO WHDFKLQJV 7KH PRGHO
History o f the Body Reconsidered
9LFWRULDQZLIHZDVPHDQWWRVWD\DWKRPHEHDSUROLILFPRWKHUDQDQJHO
LQWKHGROO¶VKRXVHDQGDQRUQDPHQWWRDKXVEDQGRXWFDSWDLQLQJLQGXVWU\
RU FRPPDQGLQJ WKH (PSLUH ,W VWRRG WR UHDVRQ WKDW 1DWXUH PXVW KDYH
NLWWHG RXW PHQ DQG ZRPHQ GLIIHUHQWO\ IRU VXFK GLYHUVH UROHV 'LG QRW
µVHSDUDWHVSKHUHV¶PHDQVHSDUDWHSK\VLRORJLHV"
1RW OHDVW /DTXHXU¶V ERRN LQVLVWV KRZUDGLFDOO\ RXU FRQVFLRXVQHVV RI
RXUVHOYHVRXUERGLHVRXUVH[KDVFKDQJHG7KHFDWHJRULHVZHLPDJLQHDV
PRVW EDVLF WXUQ RXW WR EH PRVW PXWDEOH 7LPH ZDV ZKHQ ZRPHQ ZHUH
GHHPHGLQIHULRUPHQ7KHQWR9LFWRULDQH\HVWKH\ZHUHFRPSOHPHQWDU\
EXW GLIIHUHQW $QG WRGD\" :KHUH GRHV WKDW OHDYH RXU VH[XDO SROLWLFV"
)HPLQLVPSRLQWVERWKZD\V QRZWRZDUGVLQWHJUDWLRQRQH IOHVKQRZ
WRZDUGVVHSDUDWLVP7KHVHFKRLFHVDUHSROLWLFDO<HWDV/DTXHXUSURYRF
DWLYHO\ VKRZV VXFK FKRLFHV KLQJH RQ KRZ ZHFRQFHSWXDOL]H RXUERGLHV
/DTXHXU¶VZRUNKDVEHHQFULWLFL]HGRQ JURXQGVERWKHPSLULFDO DQGFRQ
FHSWXDO1HYHUWKHOHVVLWKDVEHHQRINH\LPSRUWDQFHLQKLJKOLJKWLQJKRZ
ZKDWPLJKWIDFLOHO\EHWDNHQDVIL[HGELRORJLFDOIDFWVDERXWWKHERG\DUHLQ
IDFWKLVWRULFDOO\DQGFXOWXUDOO\FRQVWUXFWHG
7KH%RG\DQGWKH%RG\3ROLWLF
+LVWRULDQVRISROLWLFDOWKRXJKWDQGOLWHUDWXUH,QRWHGLQµ%RG\+LVWRU\7
KDYHORQJLQYHVWLJDWHGWKHPHWDSKRURIWKHERG\SROLWLFDQGLWVDVVRFLDWHG
DQGGHULYDWLYHFRQFHSWV VXFKDV WKH µNLQJ¶VWZR ERGLHV¶ DOWKRXJKWKH\
KDYHRIWHQ GRQH VR VRPHZKDWLPSDWLHQWO\ H[SHFWLQJWRVHHWKHVHTXDLQW
DQG VXSSRVHO\ REVROHVFHQW PHWDSKRUV GULYHQ RII WKH VWDJH IURP WKH
VHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\E\DPRUHSKLORVRSKLFDOO\ ULJRURXVODQJXDJH:KDW
KDGUHFHLYHGIDUOHVVDWWHQWLRQ,FRQWLQXHGZHUHWKHWHFKQLTXHVYLDZKLFK
SROLWLFDODXWKRULW\KDVDFWXDOO\PDQDJHGWKHERG\LWVHOI
7KLV VLWXDWLRQ KDV FKDQJHG 2Q WKH RQH KDQG ZH QRZ KDYH QHZ
VWXGLHV RI WKH LQFDUQDWLRQ RI PDMHVW\ DQG WKH ULWXDOV RI WKH SK\VLFDO
SHUVRQLILFDWLRQRISRZHU$W WKH VDPHWLPH WKHLPSRVLWLRQ RIJRYHUQ
PHQWDOFRQWUROXSRQSRSXODWLRQVKDVEHHQLQYHVWLJDWHGLQSDUWLFXODUWKH
DGP LQLVWUDWLRQ RI FDSLWDO DQG FRUSRUHDO SXQLVKPHQW WRSLFV UDLVHG E\
)RXFDXOW 5LFKDUG (YDQV¶V Rituals o f Retribution: Capital Punishment
in Germany, 1600-1987LVH[HPSODU\RIWKLVQHZWUHQG7KHUHQGHULQJRI
SRZHU LQ )RXFDXOW¶V ODWHU ZULWLQJV QRW DV D QHJDWLYH IRUFH EXW DV IDFLO
LWDWLQJ KDV IXUWKHUPRUH LQIRUPHG VWXGLHV RI WKH FRPSOLFLW\ EHWZHHQ
VWDWHUHJXODWLRQDQGLQGLYLGXDODVSLUDWLRQV &RUQHOLH8VERPH¶V The Pol-
itics o f the Body in Weimar Germany,' IRU LQVWDQFH KDVXQGHUOLQHG WKH
DPELJXRXV SROLWLFV RI D UHJLPH GHGLFDWHG WR PHHWLQJ WKH ERG\SROLF\
GHPDQGV RI LWV GHPRFUDWLF VXSSRUWHUV IRU LQVWDQFH IRU OHJDOL]HG
Roy Porter
FRQWUDFHSWLRQ DERUWLRQ RU LQIDQW FDUH EXW HVVHQWLDOO\ RQO\ RQ LWV RZQ
WHUPV
7KH%RG\&LYLOL]DWLRQDQGLWV'LVFRQWHQWV
+LVWRU\LVDQXQILQLVKHGFLYLOL]LQJSURFHVV DVWUXJJOHVRDQWKURSRORJLVWV
VD\ WRDIILUPPDQ¶VGLVWLQFWLYHQHVVIURP1DWXUH <HW DVQRWHGLQµ%RG\
+LVWRU\ ,¶ WKHZULWLQJ RIWKH KLVWRU\ RIFLYLOL]DWLRQ KDV ORQJ FHQWUHG RQ
KLJKFXOWXUDO DUWHIDFWV 7KHUHLV DQHHGIRUDGLIIHUHQWNLQGRIKLVWRU\ RI
HQFXOWXUDWLRQ RQHZKLFKZRXOGSD\DWWHQWLRQLQWKHPDQQHURI1RUEHUW
(OLDV WR WKHPHWDSKRULFDOFORWKLQJRIPRUDOFRGHV WDERRV SURKLELWLRQV
DQGYDOXHV\VWHPVOLQNLQJGLVFLSOLQHWRGHVLUHVSROLWHQHVVWRSROLFLQJ7KH
VWRULHVRIGUHVV FOHDQOLQHVV HDWLQJFRVPHWLFVDQGVRIRUWKZHUHWRRORQJ
OHIWWRDPDWHXUV
$JDLQLWLVSOHDVLQJWRQRWHWKDWWKLVVLWXDWLRQKDVEHHQFKDQJLQJ$UDIW
RIQHZVWXGLHVKDVDGGUHVVHG WKHFLYLOL]DWLRQRIWKHVHQVHVIURPGLJHV
WLRQWRGHIHFDWLRQDQGGLUWLQHVV,QSDUWLFXODUWKHUROHVRIERGLO\DSSHDU
DQFH DQG GHPHDQRXU DV LQGLFHV RI FLYLOL]DWLRQ KDYH EHHQ DQDO\VHG
ZLWKLQFRORQLDOVWXGLHVZLWKVSHFLDODWWHQWLRQEHLQJJLYHQWRWKHSRODULWLHV
EHWZHHQWKHLPSHULDODQGWKHQDWLYHERG\
3RVVLEO\WKHPRVWDPELWLRXVVWXG\DORQJWKHVHOLQHVZKLFKKDVDSSHDUHG
GXULQJWKHODVWGHFDGHLV5LFKDUG6HQQHWW¶VFlesh and Stones: The Body and
the City in Western Civilisation 7KLV DWWHPSWV WR WUDFH SDUDOOHOV DQG
SHUKDSV LQIOXHQFHV EHWZHHQFLWLHV DVUHDOLWLHV DQG LGHDOL]DWLRQV DOLNH
DQG ERGLHV IURP DQFLHQW $WKHQV WR FRQWHPSRUDU\ 1HZ <RUN 6HQQHWW
DUJXHVWKDWWKHFLW\KDVSURYLGHGWKHLPDJHIRUWKHERG\DQGYLFHYHUVD
ZKLOHDWWKHVDPHWLPHLWKDVDOVRVHUYHGDVWKHHQYLURQPHQWZLWKLQZKLFK
WKHERG\IXQFWLRQV )RULQVWDQFH+DUYH\¶VGRFWULQHRIWKHFLUFXODWLRQRI
WKH EORRG PHQWLRQHG DERYH IDFLOLWDWHG WKH YLVLRQ RI WKH PRGHUQ FLW\
ZLWKLQ ZKLFK WKH FLUFXODWLRQ RI WUDIILF EHFDPH SDUDPRXQW 6HQQHWW¶V
VWXG\LVSHUYDGHGE\DGHHSO\SHVVLPLVWLFVHQVHRIDOLHQDWLRQ,Q$QWLTXLW\
WKH FLW\ IXUQLVKHG D SXEOLF VSDFH ZLWKLQ ZKLFK WKH ZKROH PDQ PLJKW
IORXULVK 7KHPRGHUQFLW\SUHGLFDWHGXSRQPHUHO\ VFLHQWLILFSDWWHUQLQJV
RIWKHERG\DOLHQDWHVPDQIURPKLPVHOI ,Q6HQQHWW¶VZULWLQJVWKHKDQG
ZULQJLQJPRUDOLVWDQGWKHHPSLULFDOKLVWRULDQFRH[LVWLQXQFHUWDLQDOOLDQFH
&RQFOXVLRQ
127(6
0D\U Authority, Liberty and Automatic Machines in Early Modem Europe
%DOWLPRUH 'DYLG( /HDU\ HG Metaphors in the History o f Psycho-
logy &DPEULGJH *UDKDP 5LFKDUGV¶V On Psychological Language and
the Physiomorphic Basis o f Human Nature /RQGRQ LOOXPLQDWHV WKH
FRQVWUXFWLRQ R IVHOYHVWKURXJKWKH ODQJXDJH DQGLPDJHV R IWKHERG\ DQG WKH
XQGHUVWDQGLQJR IWKHERG\WKURXJKPHQWDODSSURSULDWLRQR IWKHZLGHUZRUOG
0 )HDWKHUVWRQHµ7KH%RG\LQ&RQVXPHU&XOWXUH¶ Theory, Culture & Society,
SS 5 -DFRE\ µ1DUFLVVLVP DQG WKH &ULVLV RI &DSLWDOLVP¶
Telos, SS & /DVFK The Culture o f Narcissism 1HZ<RUN
3HWHU)DON The Consuming Body7KRXVDQG2DNV&DOLI %U\DQ
6 7XUQHU µ5HFHQW'HYHORSPHQWVLQWKH7KHRU\ RIWKH%RG\¶LQ0LNH )HDWK
HUVWRQH0LNH+HSZRUWKDQG%U\DQ67XUQHUHGV The Body: Social Process
and Cultural Theory/RQGRQ SS
$ UHFHQW LQVWDQFH LV )UDQN 6XOORZD\¶V Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family
Dynamics, and Creative Lives 1HZ<RUN DERRNZKLFK UHGXFHV VXFK
PDWWHUVDVFUHDWLYLW\ DQGSROLWLFDO DFWLYLVPWRELUWKRUGHUDPRQJVLEOLQJV
, XVHG LQ P\ FDXWLRQDU\ WDOH )UDQFLV %DUNHU¶V The Tremulous Private Body
/RQGRQ %\ ZD\ R I µGHFRQVWUXFWLRQLVW¶ OLQJXLVWLF DQDO\VLV R I D VHH
PLQJO\ DUELWUDU\VDPSOH R INH\WH[WV Hamlet, 5HPEUDQGW¶VAnatomy Lesson,
3HS\V¶ Diary, HWF %DUNHU FRQFOXGHG WKDW WKH ERG\ ZKLFK WUDGLWLRQDOO\ KDG
EHHQ D µSXEOLF¶ REMHFW EHFDPH µSULYDWL]HG¶ DV DQ REMHFWRIQDUFLVVLVWLFVKDPH
ZLWKLQVHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\ERXUJHRLVFXOWXUH LQGHHGWKHERG\µGLVDSSHDUHG¶
DOWRJHWKHUDVDPHGLXPRIHURWLFLVP EHLQJGLVSODFHGE\WKHµERRN¶ *UDQGLRVH
FRQFOXVLRQVWRGHULYHIURPVROLWWOHPDWHULDO DQGLQGHHGRQHVZKRVHYDOLGLW\
ZDVXQGHUPLQHGE\ZKDWVHHPHGOLNHDSROLF\R IGHOLEHUDWHO\LJQRULQJH[LVWLQJ
FRQWH[WXDOVFKRODUVKLS)RUH[DPSOHRQ5HPEUDQGW%DUNHU¶VVFKRODUVKLSZDV
GHPROLVKHG LQ - 5 5 &KULVWLH µ%DG 1HZV IRU WKH %RG\¶ Art History,
SS&KULVWLHGHPRQVWUDWHGWKDW%DUNHU¶VUHDGLQJRI5HPEUDQGW
ZDVZKROO\LQYDOLGDWHGE\:LOOLDP6FKXSEDFK¶V The Paradox o f Rembrandt's
‘Anatomy o f Dr Tulp’ /RQGRQ
6HH7LP+LWFKFRFN English Sexualities 1700-1800%DVLQJVWRNH
)RUGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHGDQJHUVR IH[WUDSRODWLQJIURPSUHVFULSWLRQWRSUDFWLFHLQ
WKH FDVH RI VH[ VHH .DUHQ /RXLVH +DUYH\ µ5HSUHVHQWDWLRQV R I %RGLHV DQG
6H[XDO 'LIIHUHQFH LQ (LJKWHHQWK&HQWXU\ (QJOLVK (URWLFD¶ 3K' WKHVLV 8QL
YHUVLW\ R I/RQGRQ 5R\ 3RUWHU DQG /HVOH\+DOO The Facts o f Life: The
History o f Sexuality and Knowledge from the Seventeenth Century 1HZ
+DYHQ
)XQGDPHQWDO IRU (QJODQG LV WKH ZRUN R IWKH &DPEULGJH 3RSXODWLRQ *URXS
( $ :ULJOH\ DQG 5 6 6FKRILHOG The Population History o f England 1541
1981: A Reconstruction /RQGRQ ( $ :ULJOH\ 5 6 'DYLHV - (
2HSSHQ DQG 5 6 6FKRILHOG English Population History from Family Recon-
stitution 1580-1837&DPEULGJH
*XHQWHU% 5LVVHHospital Life in Enlightenment Scotland&DPEULGJH
0DU\ ( )LVVHOO Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol
&DPEULGJH
)RU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH VWUHQJWKV DQG ZHDNQHVVHV R I SKRWRJUDSKV DV YLVXDO
HYLGHQFH VHH 'DQLHO 0 )R[ DQG &KULVWRSKHU /DZUHQFH Photographing
Roy Porter
Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840 1HZ <RUN
DQG PRUH EURDGO\ IRU YLVXDO HYLGHQFH &KULVWRSKHU /DZUHQFH DQG
6WHYHQ 6KDSLQ HGV Science Incarnate: Historical Embodiments o f Natural
Knowledge&KLFDJR
6HH (UYLQJ *RIIPDQ Stigma: Notes on the Management o f Spoiled Identity
+DUPRQGVZRUWK LG The Presentation o f Self in Everyday Life +DU
PRQGVZRUWK LG Strategic Interaction 2[IRUG LG Interaction
Ritual /RQGRQ 2Q JHVWXUH -DQ %UHPPHU DQG +HUPDQ 5RRGHQEXUJ
HGVA Cultural History o f Gestures from Antiquity to the Present Day&DP
EULGJH LV DGPLUDEOH
2 IODQGPDUNLPSRUWDQFHZDVWKHDSSHDUDQFHR I0LFKHO)HKHUFragments fo r a
History o f the Human Body YROV 1HZ<RUN WKRXJKLWPHWDFKLOO\
DFDGHPLF UHVSRQVH IURP VFKRODUV TXHVWLRQLQJ LWV SROLWLFDO FRUUHFWQHVV VHH IRU
LQVWDQFHWKHUHYLHZHVVD\E\&ROOHHQ%DOOHULQR&RKHQDQG.DUHQ5REHUWVRQLQ
History o f Sexuality, SS A ZKR FRPSODLQHG RILWV ODFN R IµDQ
H[SOLFLWFULWLFDODQDO\VLVR IWKHFODVVUDFHJHQGHUDQGKHWHURVH[XDODVVXPSWLRQV
XQGHUO\LQJDQGEHLQJUHSURGXFHGLQ LWV DQDO\WLFDOSURMHFW¶
Body and SocietyZDVIRXQGHGLQ DQGLVSXEOLVKHGTXDUWHUO\E\ 6DJH
6HH &LQG\ 3DWWRQ Inventing AIDS 1HZ <RUN DQG /RQGRQ 6LPRQ
:DWQH\ Policing Desire: Pornography, AIDS, and the Media 0LQQHDSROLV
LG Practices o f Freedom: Selected Writings on HIV/AIDS /RQGRQ
0)HDWKHUVWRQHµ7KH%RG\LQ&RQVXPHU&XOWXUH¶ Theory, Culture & Society,
SS 3DVL )DON The Consuming Body 7KRXVDQG2DNV &DOLI
-DQH $UWKXUV DQG -HDQ *ULPVKDZ HGV Women's Bodies: Discipline and
Transgression /RQGRQ -XOLD (SVWHLQ DQG .ULVWLQD 6WUDXE HGV Body
Guards: The Cultural Politics o f Gender Ambiguity/RQGRQ ,QWKHOLJKW
R I FRQWHPSRUDU\ DZDUHQHVV R I JHQGHU SOLDELOLW\ LPSRUWDQW VWXGLHV KDYH
DSSHDUHG H[DPLQLQJ KLVWRULFDO DQWHFHGHQWV 1HOO\ 2XGVKRRUQ Beyond the
Natural Body: An Archaeology o f Sex Hormones/RQGRQ
,QWKLVUHVSHFW-HQQHUSDUWLFXODUO\FULWLFL]HV/DXULQGD6'L[RQPerilous Chast-
ity: Women and Illness in Pre-Enlightenment Art and Medicine ,WKDFD 1<
0DUN 6 5 -HQQHU µ%RG\ ,PDJH 7H[W LQ (DUO\ 0RGHUQ (XURSH¶ Social
History o f Medicine, SS S
7KLV RQH R I WKH PDLQ IDXOWV R I*DLO .HUQ 3DVWHU¶V The Body Embarrassed:
Drama and the Disciplines o f Shame in Early Modern England,WKDFD 1<
ZKLFKDVVXPHVWKHXQLYHUVDODSSOLFDELOLW\R I/DFDQLDQSV\FKRDQDO\WLFDO
FDWHJRULHV )RUIXUWKHUGLVFXVVLRQR I3DVWHU VHH EHORZ 2WKHU UHVHDUFKPDNHV
H[HPSODU\XVHR I)UHXGLDQFDWHJRULHVVHH/\QGDO5RSHU Oedipus and the Devil
/RQGRQ
- +XL]LQJD The Waning o f the Middle Ages +DUPRQGVZRUWK 3LHUR
&DPSRUHVL The Incorruptible Flesh: Bodily Mutation and Mortification in
Religion and Folklore&DPEULGJH
&DURO\Q :DONHU %\QXP Fragmentation and Redemption: Essays on Gender
and the Human Body in Medieval Religion 1HZ<RUN 6HH DOVR /LQGD
History o f the Body Reconsidered
/RPSHULV DQG 6DUDK 6WDQEXU\ HGV Feminist Approaches to the Body in
Medieval Literature3KLODGHOSKLD
&DUROLQH:DONHU%\QXP The Resurrection o f the Body in Western Christianity,
200-13361HZ<RUN S
6HH IRU LQVWDQFH 3LHUR &DPSRUHVL µ7KH &RQVHFUDWHG +RVW $ :RQGURXV
([FHVV¶ LQ 0 )HKHU HG Fragments for a History o f the Human Body, YRO
1HZ<RUN SS
/HR6WHLQEHUJ The Sexuality o f Christ in Renaissance Art and Modern Oblivion
1HZ<RUN
0LUL 5XELQ Corpus Christi: The Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture &DP
EULGJH 6DUDK &RDNOH\HG Religion and the Body&DPEULGJH
,PDGHWKHVHSRLQWVDWJUHDWHUOHQJWKLQµ5HYLHZ$UWLFOH6HHLQJWKH3DVW¶Past
and Present, )HE SS
-HDQ3LHUUH$URQ3LHUUH'XPRQG(PPDQXHO/H5R\/DGXULHAnthropologie
du conserit frangais 7KH +DJXH 7KH ILHOG KDG EHHQSLRQHHUHGE\ WKH
%UD]LOLDQ KLVWRULDQ *LOEHUWR )UH\UH Casa granda e sensala 5LR GH -DQHLUR
GHYHORSHGLQKLV O Escrava nos anuncios de jornais brasileiros do seculo
xix 5HFLIH
5RGHULFN)ORXG$QQDEHO*UHJRU\DQG.HQQHWK:DFKWHUHeight, Health, and
History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750-1980 &DPEULGJH
IRU VLPLODU VWXGLHV VHH -RKQ .RPORV Nutrition and Economic Develop-
ment in the Eighteenth Century Habsburg Monarchy 3ULQFHWRQ 0DUN
1DWKDQ&RKHQHealth and the Rise o f Civilization1HZ+DYHQ
7 0F.HRZQ Medicine in Modern Society/RQGRQ
)RU LQVWDQFH 0DUWLQ 3RUWHU µ(QJOLVK ³7UHDWLVHV RQ 3K\VLRJQRP\´ F
F¶ '3KLO WKHVLV 8QLYHUVLW\ R I2[IRUG &KULVWRSKHU 5LYHUV Face
Value: Physiognomical Thought and the Legible Body in Marivaux, Lavater,
Balzac, Gautier, and Zola 0DGLVRQ:LV
0DUFLD3RLQWRQHanging the Head: Portraiture and Social Formation in Eight-
eenth-Century England1HZ+DYHQ .DWKOHHQ$GOHUDQG0DUFLD3RLQ
WRQ HGV The Body Imaged: The Human Form and Visual Culture since the
Renaissance&DPEULGJH
1LJHO /OHZHOO\Q The A rt o f Death: Visual Culture in the English Death Ritual
C.1500-C.1800/RQGRQ
6DQGHU/*LOPDQ Seeing the Insane: A Cultural History o f Madness and Art in
the Western World (New<RUN LG On Blackness without Blacks: Essays
on the Image o f the Black in Germany %RVWRQ LG Difference and
Pathology ,WKDFD 1< LG Inscribing the Other /LQFROQ 1HEU
LGHealth and Illness: Images o f Difference/RQGRQ
6DQGHU*LOPDQ The Jew ’s Body1HZ<RUN
6DQGHU*LOPDQ Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the
Shaping o f Aesthetic Surgery 'XUKDP 1& LG Making the Body
Beautiful: A Cultural History o f Aesthetic Surgery3ULQFHWRQ &RPSDUH
6 3DLJH %DW\ American Monroe: The Making o f a Body Politic %HUNHOH\
.%5REHUWVDQG-':7RPOLQVRQ The Fabric o f the Body2[IRUG
'DYLG +LOOPDQ DQG &DUOD 0D]]LR HGV The Body in Parts: Discourses and
Roy Porter
Anatomies in Early Modern Europe /RQGRQ &KULVWRSKHU /DZUHQFH
µ$OH[DQGHU0RQUR PrimusDQG WKH (GLQEXUJK 0DQQHU RI$QDWRP\¶ Bulletin
o f the History o f Medicine, SS 5XWK5LFKDUGVRQ ³µ7UDG
LQJ$VVDVVLQV´ DQGWKH/LFHQVLQJR I$QDWRP\¶LQ5RJHU)UHQFKDQG$QGUHZ
:HDU HGV British Medicine in an Age o f Reform /RQGRQ SS
-DQ& & 5XSS µ0DWWHUV R I/LIHDQG'HDWK 7KH6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO&RQGL
WLRQV RIWKH 5LVH R I$QDWRPLFDO 7KHDWUHV ZLWK 6SHFLDO 5HIHUHQFH WR 6HYHQ
WHHQWK&HQWXU\+ROODQG¶ History o f Science, SS
*DLO.HUQ3DVWHU The Body Embarrassed: Drama and the Disciplines o f Shame
in Early Modern England,WKDFD 1 <
-RQDWKDQ 6DZGD\ The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in
Renaissance Culture/RQGRQ 6DZGD\¶V ERRN LV VHYHUHO\ FULWLFL]HG IRU
LWV VSHFXODWLYHQDWXUHE\-HQQHU
)RULQVWDQFH(GZDUG6KRUWHUFrom Paralysis to Fatigue: A History o f Psycho-
somatic Illness in the Modern Era1HZ<RUN 6DQGHU/*LOPDQ+HOHQ
.LQJ 5R\ 3RUWHU * 6 5RXVVHDX DQG (ODLQH 6KRZDOWHU Hysteria beyond
Freud %HUNHOH\ 0DUN 0LFDOH Approaching Hysteria: Disease
and its Interpretations 3ULQFHWRQ RIIHUV D ILQH LQWURGXFWLRQ WR WKH
KLVWRULRJUDSK\
-RKQ:LOWVKLUHJane Austen and the Body: ‘The Picture o f Health ’&DPEULGJH
6DQGHU *LOPDQ Franz Kafka: The Jewish Patient 1HZ <RUN
6LPLODUVWXGLHVLQFOXGH-RKQ:LOWVKLUHµ)DQQ\%XUQH\¶V)DFH0DGDPH' ¶$U
EOD\¶V 9HLO¶ LQ 0DULH 0XOYH\ 5REHUWV DQG 5R\ 3RUWHU HGV Literature and
Medicine during the Eighteenth Century /RQGRQ SS 5RJHU
&RRWHU µ'LFKRWRP\ DQG 'HQLDO 0HVPHULVP 0HGLFLQH DQG +DUULHW 0DUWL
QHDX¶LQ0DULQD%HQMDPLQHG Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific
Enquiry, 1780-1945 2[IRUG SS -RQ0XNDQG HG Articula-
tions: The Body and Illness in Poetry/RQGRQ $LOHHQ'RXJODV Uneasy
Sensations: Smollett and the Body&KLFDJR &DURO+RXOLKDQ)O\QQ The
Body in Swift and Defoe&DPEULGJH 7KHOLWHUDU\ VWXGLHV DUHHQGOHVV
,W LV SURPLQHQWO\ UHSUHVHQWHG LQ WKH MRXUQDO Literature and Medicine. :HOO
ZRUWK FRQVXOWLQJ DUH UHFHQW ZRUNV RQ WKH KLVWRU\ R ISDLQ LQFOXGLQJ 'DYLG
% 0RUULV The Culture o f Pain %HUNHOH\ /XF\%HQGLQJ µ7KH5HSUHV
HQWDWLRQR I%RGLO\3DLQ LQ /DWH1LQHWHHQWK&HQWXU\ (QJOLVK&XOWXUH¶'3KLO
GLVVHUWDWLRQ 8QLYHUVLW\ RI2[IRUG
6XVDQ%RUGRµ5HDGLQJWKH0DOH%RG\¶LQ/DXUHQFH*ROGVWHLQHG The Male
Body: Features, Destinies, Exposures $QQ $UERU 9LFWRU - 6HLGOHU
Rediscovering Masculinity: Reason, Language and Sexuality /RQGRQ1HZ
<RUN LG The Achilles Heel Reader: Men, Sexual Politics, and Socialism
/RQGRQ LG Recreating Sexual Politics: Men, Feminism, and Politics
/RQGRQ
$OH[ 3RWWV Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the Origins o f Art History
1HZ +DYHQ FRPSDUH RQ KRPRVH[XDOLW\ 5DOSK 7UXPEDFK Sex and
the Gender Revolution,YRO Heterosexuality and the Third Gender in Enlight-
enment London&KLFDJR
*HRUJH / 0RVVH Nationalism and Sexuality: Respectability and Abnormal
Sexuality in Modern Europe 1HZ <RUN LG µ0DVFXOLQLW\ DQG WKH
History o f the Body Reconsidered
'HFDGHQFH¶ LQ 5R\ 3RUWHU DQG 0LNXOiV 7HLFK Sexual Knowledge, Sexual
Science: The History o f Attitudes to Sexuality&DPEULGJH SS
*HRUJH0RVVH The Image o f Man: The Creation o f Modern Masculinity1HZ
<RUN
7KRPDV: /DTXHXU Making Sex&DPEULGJH 0DVV
)RUKLJKO\FULWLFDOUHYLHZV VHH 6DOO\ 6KXWWOHZRUWKLQJournal o f the History o f
Sexuality, SS$ODQ%UD\Journal o f British Studies,
SS 'RULQGD2XWUDP Isis, SS
(TXDOO\VLJQLILFDQWKDVEHHQWKHZRUNR I/RQGD6FKLHELQJHUDQG'RQQD+DU
DZD\ LQ GHPRQVWUDWLQJ WKH LQVFULELQJ RIKXPDQ VH[XDO GLIIHUHQFH ZLWKLQ WKH
FDWHJRULHVRIQDWXUDOVFLHQFHVHH/RQGD6FKLHELQJHUNature’s Body: Gender in
the Making o f Modern Science %RVWRQ HDG The Mind Has No Sex?
Women in the Origins o f Modern Science&DPEULGJH0DVV HDG µ7KH
$QDWRP\ RI'LIIHUHQFH 5DFH DQG 6H[ LQ WK&HQWXU\ 6FLHQFH¶ Eighteenth-
Century Studies, SS A 'RQQD +DUDZD\ Primate Visions:
Gender, Race and Nature in the World o f Modern Science %HUNHOH\
HDG Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention o f Nature /RQGRQ
3HWHU %XUNH The Fabrication o f Louis X IV 1HZ +DYHQ 3DXO +DP
PRQG µ7KH .LQJ¶V 7ZR %RGLHV 5HSUHVHQWDWLRQV RI &KDUOHV ,,¶ LQ -HUHP\
%ODFNDQG-HUHP\*UHJRU\HGV Culture, Politics and Society in Britain, 1660-
1800 0DQFKHVWHU SS 6DUD ( 0HOVHU DQG .DWKU\Q 1RUEHUJ
From the Royal to the Republican Body Incorporating the Political in Seven-
teenth- and Eighteenth-Century France %HUNHOH\ 3KLOLSSD %HUU\ O f
Chastity and Power: Elizabethan Literature and the Unmarried Queen/RQGRQ
0 )RXFDXOWDiscipline and Punish: The Birth o f the Prison+DUPRQGVZRUWK
3LHWHU 6SLHUHQEXUJ The Spectacle o f Suffering: Executions and the
Evolution o f Repression: From a Preindustrial Metropolis to the European
Experience&DPEULGJH
5LFKDUG - (YDQV Rituals o f Retribution: Capital Punishment in Germany,
1600-1987 2[IRUG VHH DOVR /LRQHOOR 3XSSL Torment in Art: Pain,
Violence and Martyrdom1HZ<RUN &UXFLDODOVRDUH'RULQGD2XWUDP
The Body and the French Revolution: Sex, Class and Political Culture 1HZ
+DYHQ 0 ,JQDWLHII A Just Measure o f Pain: The Penitentiary in the
Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 1HZ <RUN 5LFKDUG YDQ 'XOPHQ
Theatre o f Horror: Crime and Punishment in Early Modern Germany2[IRUG
&RUQHOLH 8VERUQH The Politics o f the Body in Weimar Germany: Women’s
Reproductive Rights and Duties/RQGRQ
1RUEHUW (OLDV The Civilizing Process, YRO The History o f Manners 1HZ
<RUN YRO Power and Civility 1HZ <RUN YRO The Court
Society 1HZ <RUN 6WHSKHQ 0HQQHOO Norbert Elias: Civilization and
the Human Self-Image2[IRUG
&RQVWDQFH &ODVVHQ Worlds o f Sense: Exploring the Senses in History and
across Cultures/RQGRQ $ &RUELQ Le miasme et lajonquille: I’odorat
et I'tmaginaire social, 18e-l9e slid es3DULV (QJOLVK WUDQV The Foul and
Roy Porter
the Fragrant: Odour and the French Social Imagination,&DPEULGJH LG
Le temps, le désir et l ’horreur: essais sur le dix-neuviéme siécle 3DULV
WUDQV-HDQ%LUUHOODVTime, Desire and Horror: Towards a History o f the Senses,
&DPEULGJH 3LHUR &DPSRUHVL The Anatomy o f the Senses: Natural
Symbols in Medieval and Early Modern Italy, WUDQV $ &DPHURQ&DPEULGJH
0 6 5 -HQQHU µ(DUO\ 0 RGHP (QJOLVK &RQFHSWLRQV R I ³&OHDQOLQHVV´ DQG
³'LUW´ DV 5HIOHFWHG LQ WKH (QYLURQPHQWDO 5HJXODWLRQ RI /RQGRQ F
F '3KLO WKHVLV 2[IRUG 8QLYHUVLW\ HVS FK 7KH ERRN RIWKDW
WKHVLV LVHDJHUO\ DZDLWHG
(OL]DEHWK&ROOLQJKDPµ)URP1DEREWR6DKLE7KH&RQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH%ULWLVK
%RG\ LQ ,QGLD F¶ 3K' WKHVLV 8QLYHUVLW\ R I &DPEULGJH
-RKQ %DUUHOO The Infection o f Thomas De Quincey: A Psychopathology o f
Imperialism 1HZ +DYHQ %DUUHOO DQDO\VHV WKH VLJQLILFDQFH IRU RQH
SDUWLFXODUZULWHU R IWKH FRQFHSWLRQ RIWKH$VLDWLFIRUHLJQHU DVPRQVWHU 1DQ
GLQL %KDWWDFKDU\D Reading the Splendid Body: Gender and Consumerism in
Eighteenth-Century British Writing on India /RQGRQ +DUULHW *XHVW
µ&XULRXVO\ 0DUNHG 7DWWRRLQJ 0DVFXOLQLW\ DQG 1DWLRQDOLW\ LQ (LJKWHHQWK
&HQWXU\%ULWLVK3HUFHSWLRQVR IWKH 6RXWK3DFLILF¶ LQ-RKQ%DUUHOOHGPaint-
ing and the Politics o f Culture: New Essays on British A rt 1700-18502[IRUG
6 $UDYDPXGDQ µ/DG\ 0DU\ :RUWOH\ 0RQWDJX LQ WKH Ham-
mam 0DVTXHUDGH :RPDQOLQHVV DQG /HYDQWLQL]DWLRQ¶ ELH, SS
5LFKDUG6HQQHWWFlesh and Stones: The Body and the City in Western Civilisa-
tion/RQGRQ
7KLV VXEMHFWLV DQ DUWLFOHLQLWVHOI )RUDQLQWURGXFWLRQ VHH 0LNH )HDWKHUVWRQH
DQG 5RJHU %XUURZV µ&XOWXUHV RI7HFKQRORJLFDO (PERGLPHQW $Q ,QWURGXF
WLRQ¶Body and Society, 6FRWW/DVK µ*HQHDORJ\DQGWKH%RG\
)RXFDXOW'HOHX]H1LHW]VFKH¶ LQ 0LNH )HDWKHUVWRQH 0LNH +HSZRUWK DQG
%U\DQ67XUQHUHGV The Body: Social Process and Cultural Theory/RQGRQ
)RU WKH ERG\ LQ WKH SRVWPRGHUQ HOHFWURQLF YLUWXDOUHDOLW\
ZRUOG VHH -XQLSHU :LOH\ µ1 R %2'< LV ³'RLQJ ,W´ &\EHUVH[XDOLW\ DV D
3RVWPRGHUQ1DUUDWLYH¶ Body and Society, SS
(QYLURQPHQWDO+LVWRU\
Richard H. Grove
(QYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\DVZHXVHWKHWHUPWRGD\LVWKHKLVWRULFDOO\GRFX
PHQWHGSDUWRIWKHVWRU\RIOLIHDQGGHDWKQRWRIKXPDQLQGLYLGXDOVEXWRI
VRFLHWLHV DQG RI VSHFLHV ERWK RWKHUV DQG RXU RZQ LQ WHUPV RI WKHLU
UHODWLRQVKLSV ZLWK WKH ZRUOG DERXW WKHP ,WV LQWHOOHFWXDO RULJLQV DV D
VHOIFRQVFLRXVGRPDLQRILQTXLU\FDQSUREDEO\EHWUDFHGWRWKHHQFRXQWHU
RI VHYHQWHHQWK DQG HLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ ZHVWHUQ (XURSHDQV HVSHFLDOO\
QDWXUDOLVWV PHGLFDO RIILFHUV DQG DGPLQLVWUDWRUV ZLWK WKH VWDUWOLQJO\
XQIDP LOLDU HQYLURQPHQWV RIWKH WURSLFV DQG ZLWK WKH GDPDJH GRQH WR
WKHVH HQYLURQPHQWV E\ ZHVWHUQ (XURSHDQV )URP WKH PLGQLQHWHHQWK
FHQWXU\ XQWLO WKH PLGWZHQWLHWK LW GHYHORSHG SULPDULO\ LQ WKH IRUP RI
µKLVWRULFDO JHRJUDSK\¶FXOPLQDWLQJLQWKHYROXPHHQWLWOHG M a n ’s R ole in
Changing the Face o f the E arth, SXEOLVKHGLQ XQGHUWKHHGLWRUVKLSRI
: / 7KRPDV
8QWLOWKHHDUO\ V µHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\¶ZDVDFWXDOO\DWHUPFRQ
YHQWLRQDOO\ XVHG E\ JHRORJLVWV DQG DUFKDHRORJLVWV ZKHQ GLVFXVVLQJ TXD
WHUQDU\DQGSUHKLVWRULFFKDQJHVLQWKHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWDQGLWUDUHO\
GHDOWZLWKKLVWRULFKXPDQLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWKWKHHQYLURQPHQW6LQFHWKHQ
WKH WHUPKDV LQFUHDVLQJO\ EHHQ XVHG E\KLVWRULDQV DQG VRPH RWKHUV LQ D
QHZZD\ DV KLVWRULDQV EXWDOVRSUDFWLWLRQHUV RIVRPH RWKHUGLVFLSOLQHV
VDZDQHHGWRWDNHDFFRXQWRIHQYLURQPHQWDOIDFWRUVLQKLVWRULFDOH[SODQD
WLRQ VRPHWKLQJWKDWKLVWRULDQVKDGQRWRIWHQ GRQHEHIRUH ,Q VRPHZKDW
DUURJDQWO\DUURJDWLQJWRWKHPVHOYHVDWHUPDOUHDG\EHLQJXVHGE\DWOHDVW
WZRRWKHUGLVFLSOLQHVWKHKLVWRULDQVPDQDJHGWRXSVHWWKHVHOIHVWHHPRID
YHU\ SDUWLFXODU JURXS RIVFKRODUV WKHKLVWRULFDO JHRJUDSKHUV 7KHODWWHU
KDG LQ IDFW ORQJ RFFXSLHG DQ DFDGHPLF DQG DQDO\WLFDO QLFKH WKDW PRVW
KLVWRULDQVKDGIHOWLWEHQHDWKWKHPVHOYHVWRWDNHVHULRXVO\,QIDFWLWLVRQO\
Richard H. Grove
LQUHFHQW\HDUVWKDWHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRULDQVLQWKHLUQHZJXLVHDQGQRW
DOO RIWKHPH[KLVWRULDQVKDYHEHJXQWR DSSUHFLDWHWKHIXOOUDQJH RIWKH
ZRUNDOUHDG\XQGHUWDNHQE\KLVWRULFDOJHRJUDSKHUVDQGWKHLUOLNHPLQGHG
FROOHDJXHV LQ RWKHU GLVFLSOLQHV ,QGHHG KLVWRULDQV KDYH UHFHQWO\ EHHQ
IRUFHG WR ERUURZ KHDYLO\ IURP KLVWRULFDO JHRJUDSKHUV PXFKLQ WKHZD\
WKH\KDGHDUOLHUERUURZHGIURPHFRQRPLVWV6RLWLVSDUWRIWKHWDVNRIWKLV
HVVD\WR FODULI\WKHSDUHQWDJH RIHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\DQGWRUHSRUWRQ
WKHHYROXWLRQRIVRPHRILWVGLIIHULQJDJHQGDV ERWKUHJLRQDOO\DQGJORE
DOO\
7KHUHLVQRGRXEWRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIZKDWZHQRZFDOOHQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRU\ 7KH QHZ VFKRRO RI HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ OLNH LWV UHMXYHQDWHG
VLEOLQJKLVWRULFDOJHRJUDSK\KDVEHHQJLYHQDPDMRUH[LVWHQWLDOERRVWDQG
ILUPO\JURXQGHGPHDQLQJLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHJURZLQJVHQVHRIFRQWHP
SRUDU\ JOREDO HQYLURQPHQWDO FULVLV %XW LW LV LPSRUWDQW WR VWUHVV WKDW D
VHQVLWLYLW\ WR LVVXHV RIHQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ LV QRW D WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\
LQQRYDWLRQ ,W ZDV LQ IDFW D OHDGLQJ DQG YLWDO FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI WKRVH
XQXVXDO DQGIRUHVLJKWHGLQGLYLGXDOVZKRRQFHGDUHGWRZDUQRILPSHQG
LQJHQYLURQPHQWDOFULVLVDQGZKRWULHGWRSXEOLFL]HHQYLURQPHQWDOGHWHUL
RUDWLRQDQGWULHGWRHQOLVWWKHHIIRUWVRIVWDWHVDQGHPSLUHVWRFRPEDWLW
7KXV IURPWKH ODWH HLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ RQZDUGVZH ILQGWKDWWKH OHDGLQJ
SLRQHHUVRIHQYLURQPHQWDOLVPDOOKDGDGHHSVHQVHRIKLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFW
LYH RQ HQYLURQPHQWDO FKDQJH DQGYHU\ RIWHQ D ZLGH DQG YHU\ VFKRODUO\
DSSUHFLDWLRQ RIWKH KLVWRULFDO HYLGHQFH IRU UDSLG HQYLURQPHQWDO FKDQJH
RYHUWLPH$PRQJWKHPZHPLJKWPHQWLRQ )UDQNOLQ %HQMDPLQ +RXJK
WKHOLWWOHUHFRJQL]HGSLRQHHURI$PHULFDQIRUHVWU\DQGFRQVHUYDWLRQ-RKQ
6WXDUW 0LOO LQ KLV UROH DV D %ULWLVKHQYLURQPHQWDO OREE\LVW +XJK&OHJ
KRUQDSLRQHHURIIRUHVWFRQVHUYDWLRQLQ,QGLD*HRUJH3HUNLQV0DUVKLQ
WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV D SURSKHW DQG KLVWRULDQ RI JOREDO HQYLURQPHQWDO
FKDQJH -RKQ &URXPELH %URZQ LQ 6RXWK $IULFD $OH[DQGHUYRQ +XP
EROGWHVSHFLDOO\LQKLVCosmos)',DQGE\QRPHDQVOHDVWLPSRUWDQW%DURQ
YRQ0XHOOHULQWKH&RORQ\RI9LFWRULD$XVWUDOLD
$OORIWKHVHSHRSOHZHUH LQWKHLURZQGLVWLQFWLYHZD\VHQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRULDQVZKRVHILHOGREVHUYDWLRQVDQGDFXWHKLVWRULFDOVHQVHOHGWKHPWR
EHFRPHHQYLURQPHQWDOSURSKHWVDQGRQRFFDVLRQSURSKHWVRIGRRP$W
OHDVW RQH RI WKHP )UDQNOLQ %HQMDPLQ +RXJK LQ DGGLWLRQ WR EHLQJ D
GRFWRUGHPRJUDSKHUDQGSRO\PDWKZDVDFWXDOO\DSURIHVVLRQDOKLVWRULDQ
DQG DXWKRU RIRYHUWKLUW\ KLVWRULFDO WUHDWLVHV RQ FRORQLDO$PHULFDQ DQG
&LYLO:DUKLVWRU\7RGD\WKLVVHQVHRIKLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFWLYHDOORZVHQYLU
RQPHQWDOKLVWRULDQVWR ILQGWKHPVHOYHV LQDFRPSDUDEOHSRVLWLRQWRHFR
QRPLFKLVWRULDQVYLVDYLVPDLQOLQHHFRQRPLVWV7KH\KDYHEHFRPHFULWLFV
DQG &DVVDQGUDV EHQHILWLQJ IURP D ORQJHUYLHZ DQG YHU\ RIWHQ IURP D
EHWWHU SRVVHVVLRQ RIVDOLHQW IDFWV DQG D JUHDWHU DELOLW\ WR PDNH VHQVLEOH
IRUHFDVWVRUWRZDUQ DJDLQVWWKHGDQJHUVRIPDNLQJVLPSOLVWLFRQHV
Environmental History
%HFDXVHRIWKHUHODWLYH\RXWKRIWKHGLVFLSOLQHRIHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\
ZH GR QRW \HW KDYH WKH EHQHILW RI DQ\ IXOO RU UHOLDEOH DFFRXQW RIWKH
XQIROGLQJ RIWKH VXEMHFW 6R IDU KLVWRULRJUDSKLFDO DFFRXQWV KDYH WHQGHG
WR VWLFN WR DYHU\QDUURZLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RIWKHDQWHFHGHQWV DQGVFRSHRI
WKH VXEMHFW 7KLV LV SHUKDSV SDUWO\ GXH WR WKH IDFW WKDW HQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRU\KDVEHHQSURSHOOHGLQDYHU\ad hocIDVKLRQE\WKHFLUFXPVWDQFHV
RIWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOFULVLV,QDQ\FDVHLQLWVPRUHUHFHQWJXLVHVHQYLURQ
PHQWDOKLVWRU\KDVEHHQGRPLQDWHGIRUVRPH\HDUVE\$PHULFDQVFKRODUV
ZKRVH ZRUOG YLHZ KDV EHHQ UHODWLYHO\ FRQVWUDLQHG DQG P\RSLF DV RQH
PLJKWZHOOH[SHFWIURPDQDWLRQIRUZKLFKPLOOHQQLDOLVRODWLRQLVPFRPHV
DV VHFRQG QDWXUH DOWKRXJK LWV HQYLURQPHQWDOLVWV KDYH SDUDGR[LFDOO\
EHHQ OHDGLQJSLRQHHUV DQG SURSRQHQWV RIWKHQHHG WR UHVSRQGWR JOREDO
DVZHOOUHJLRQDOFULVLV
7KHODFNRIDKLVWRULRJUDSKLFRUGLVFLSOLQDU\V\QWKHVLVRIHQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRU\KDVDOVREHHQGXHWRDQXQZLOOLQJQHVVDPRQJKLVWRULDQVWRDFFHSW
WKDWWKHEDVLFPDWHULDO DQGFRQFHUQV RIZKDWWKH\OLNHGWR WKLQNRIDV D
QHZ GLVFLSOLQH ZHUH DOUHDG\ ZHOO GHYHORSHG DPRQJ RWKHU VFKRODUV ORQJ
EHIRUH WKH IRXQGLQJ RIWKH Environmental Review ODWHU Environmental
History E\ -RKQ 2SLH LQ )RUWKH WUXWK RIWKH PDWWHULV WKDW WKH
DQWHFHGHQWVRIERWKKLVWRULFDOJHRJUDSK\DQGHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\ZHUH
YHU\ GLVWLQFWLYHO\ LPSHULDOLVWLF DQG SHULSKHUDOLVW LQ SUHRFFXSDWLRQ DQG
VFRSH WR D PXFK JUHDWHU GHJUHH WKDQ RWKHU ILHOGV RIKLVWRU\ DQG DOVR
LQFLGHQWDOO\ IDU PRUH WURSLFDO 7KH QHZ GHVLJQDWLRQ RIµHQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRU\¶ DPRXQWHGLQLWLDOO\ WR DSDURFKLDOWDNHRYHUELG E\1RUWK$PHU
LFDQVFKRODUVRIZKDWZDVDOUHDG\DILUPO\HVWDEOLVKHGVXEMHFW DOEHLWRQH
ZKLFKODFNHGULJLGERXQGDULHVDQGZKLFKIRXQGLWVH[SRQHQWVDPRQJWKH
UDQNVRIHFRORJLVWVJHRJUDSKHUVDQGDQWKURSRORJLVWVDVZHOODVDPRQJD
IHZH[FHSWLRQDOKLVWRULDQV7KHSRVWFODLPIRUDVOLFHRIWKHHQYLURQ
PHQWDO DFWLRQ E\ VRPH$PHULFDQ VFKRODUV DURVH DIWHU GHFDGHV LQ ZKLFK
KLVWRULDQV KDG DFWXDOO\ VKRZQ D VLJQDO DQG HPEDUUDVVLQJ SURFOLYLW\ WR
LJQRUHDQ\WKLQJLQWKHZD\RIHQYLURQPHQWDOLQIOXHQFHVXSRQKLVWRU\
7KH VWDWHRIGHQLDOZKLFKSHUVLVWVLQHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\HYHQWRGD\
ZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHGHEWZKLFKLWRZHVWRKLVWRULFDOJHRJUDSK\ZDVH[DFHU
EDWHG E\ WKH SXEOLFDWLRQ LQ RI &ODUHQFH *ODFNHQ¶V Traces on the
Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought, from Ancient
Times to the End o f the Eighteenth Century.5 1RW RQO\ GRHV WKLV ERRN
VWDQG RXW DV WKH PRVW SURIRXQG ZRUN VR IDU ZULWWHQ LQ HQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRU\EXWLWPD\DOVREHUHFNRQHGDVRQHRIWKHJUHDWQRQILFWLRQDOWH[WV
RIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ $OWKRXJKWKHDSSHDUDQFH RI*ODFNHQ¶VPDVWHU
SLHFHPD\DFWXDOO\PDUNWKHELUWKRIPRGHUQHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\DVZH
NQRZLWWRGD\WKLVLVDYLHZRQO\UHFHQWO\DGPLWWHGE\KLVWRULDQV7KXVLW
LVPXFKWR6LPRQ6FKDPD¶VFUHGLWWKDWLQKLVFRQIHVVHGO\GHULYDWLYHZRUN
Landscape and Memory,KHFRQVSLFXRXVO\UHFRJQL]HVKLVGHEWWR*ODFNHQ
Richard H. Grove
%XW6FKDPDKDVQRWEHHQDORQH/XLV8UWHDJDDOHDGLQJILJXUHLQ6SDQLVK
HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ DQG WKH DXWKRU RIWKH H[FHOOHQW La tierra esquil-
madaWKH ILUVWPDMRUWUHDWPHQW RIHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ ,EHULDQFRQVHUYD
WLRQKLVWRU\KDVDOVRDFNQRZOHGJHG*ODFNHQDVKLVPDMRULQVSLUDWLRQ,W
ZDVQRDFFLGHQWWKDW*ODFNHQZDV3URIHVVRURI*HRJUDSK\DW%HUNHOH\LQ
RUWKDWKLVZRUNZDVSXEOLVKHGE\WKHXQLYHUVLW\SUHVVRIDVWDWHWKDW
QXUWXUHG )ULHQGV RI WKH (DUWK WKH 6LHUUD &OXE KLSSLHV DQG D FULWLFDO
FRQWULEXWLRQ WR DQWL9LHWQDP :DU DJLWDWLRQ %XW ZH VKRXOG QRWH WKDW
*ODFNHQ KLPVHOI ZDV YHU\ FDUHIXO WR LGHQWLI\ KLV RZQ KLVWRULRJUDSKLF
DQWHFHGHQWV LQ DPXFKPRUH VWDLG DQG SDUWO\ &ODVVLFDO WUDGLWLRQ ,QGHHG
ZHPLJKW QRWH WKDW WKH &ODVVLFV KDYH PDGH DPDMRUFRQWULEXWLRQWR WKH
UHDULQJ RIHQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRULDQV WZR RIWKH PRUH SURPLQHQW UHFHQW
H[HPSODUVEHLQJ5XVVHOO0HLJJVDQG'RQDOG+XJKHV
7KH DGYDQFHV RIDQDVFHQWHQYLURQPHQWDOLVWLF KLVWRULFDO JHRJUDSK\ RI
WKH NLQG ZKLFK *ODFNHQ HSLWRPL]HG ZHUH WKHPVHOYHV VHYHUHO\ LPSHGHG
GXULQJ WKH V E\ WKH ULVH RITXDQWLWDWLYH WHFKQLTXHV LQ JHRJUDSK\ D
ODUJHO\ EOLQG DOOH\ ZKLFK KDV DV D UHVXOW RIWKH ULVH RISRVWPRGHUQLVP
WKDQNIXOO\ IDGHG LQ YLJRXU DQG FRQYLFWLRQ +LVWRULFDO JHRJUDSK\ LQ WKH
SRVW6HFRQG:RUOG:DUSHULRGZDVKDPSHUHG , WKLQN E\ LWV (XURFHQ
WULFLW\PXFK DVHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\LQWKH VZDVKDPSHUHGE\LWV
$PHULFRFHQWULFLW\ %RWKGLVFLSOLQHVDUHVWUXJJOLQJRXW RIWKHVHELDVHVVR
WKDWZHQRZKDYHYLJRURXV$PHULFDQ%ULWLVK)UHQFK$XVWUDOLDQ,QGLDQ
$IULFDQ &KLQHVH DQG 3DFLILF VFKRROV RIHQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ DPRQJ
RWKHUV %XW WKH SDUHQWDJH RIWKHVH VFKRROV ZDV , ZRXOG DUJXH ILUP O\
EDVHGLQWZROLQNHGFLUFXPVWDQFHVWKHFRQWH[WRIHPSLUHDQGWKHFRQWH[W
RI UDSLG HQYLURQPHQWDO FKDQJH GXULQJ WKH ODVW FHQWXU\ LQ SHULSKHUDO
WURSLFDODQGVHPLDULGUHJLRQV
(QYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ KDV EHHQ ODUJHO\ QRQXUEDQ DQG VXUSULVLQJO\
QRQSROLWLFDOLQD7R\QEHHLDQVHQVHRIJUDQGWKHRU\ ,QFLGHQWDOO\DQ\RQH
ZKRVWXGLHVWKHLQGH[HVRI7R\QEHH¶VJLJDQWLFA Study in HistoryIRUVXFK
LWHPV DV VRLO UDLQIDOO FDWWOH ILVK GLVHDVH RU H[WLQFWLRQ ZLOO EH GLVDS
SRLQWHG$OGRXV+X[OH\ZHQWWKURXJKWKHLQGH[RIYROXPHRI7R\QEHH¶V
PDVWHUZRUN DQG IRXQG ILYH FLWDWLRQV IRU Popilius Laenas, WZR IRU Por-
phyry o f Batanea, µEXWWKHZRUG\RXZRXOGH[SHFWWRILQGEHWZHHQWKHVH
QDPHVSRSXODWLRQLVFRQVSLFXRXVE\LWVDEVHQFH¶1HYHUWKHOHVVLWKDVWR
EH VDLG LQ 7R\QEHH¶V IDYRXU WKDW KLV ODVW ERRN Mankind and Mother
Earth, ZDV FHUWDLQO\ VHDUFKLQJLQ DQ DYRZHGO\ HFRORJLFDO NLQG RIGLUHF
WLRQ
$V,KDYHVXJJHVWHGDWOHQJWKHOVHZKHUHLWZDVLQWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVRI
HQYLURQPHQWDO FKDQJH DW WKH FRORQLDO SHULSKHU\ SDUWLFXODUO\ DIWHU WKH
VWKDWHQYLURQPHQWDOLVPILUVWPDGHLWVHOIIHOWDQGWKDWLWVSURSRQHQWV
ILUVW PDGH XVH RIKLVWRULFDO HYLGHQFH IRU HFRORJLFDO FKDQJH DQG EHFDPH
de facto HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRULDQV 9LFWRULDQ WH[WV VXFK DV 6WU]HOHFNL¶V
Environmental History
GLVWULEXWHG WKURXJKRXW WKH ZRUOG HVSHFLDOO\ LQ WKH WURSLFV ZKHUH WKH\
ZHUH IUHTXHQWO\ LQ WKH SD\ RIWKH FRORQLDO HPSLUH RU ZHUH FORVHO\ FRQ
QHFWHGZLWKLWPXFKDVWKH\VWLOODUHWRGD\LQWKH µGHYHORSPHQW¶FRQWH[W
7KH'HVLFFDWLRQ&RPSOH[DQGWKH(DUO\(YROXWLRQRI(QYLURQPHQWDO
+LVWRU\
7KH\HDUVLPPHGLDWHO\SULRUWR VDZDUHQHZHGLQWHUHVWGHYHORSLQJLQ
ZKDW ZHUH HVVHQWLDOO\PLOOHQQLDO WKHRULHV RIJOREDO GHVLFFDWLRQ $PDMRU
HDUO\ H[HPSODU RIWKLV JURXS RI VFKRODUV ZDV DQ $PHULFDQ (OOVZRUWK
+XQWLQJWRQ DQHQYLURQPHQWDOGHWHUPLQLVWZKRVH YLHZVZHUHIRUPHGE\
KLV WUDYHOV DQG LQWHOOLJHQFH DFWLYLWLHV LQ &HQWUDO $VLD +LV PDMRU ZRUN
SXEOLVKHGLQ The Pulse of Asia, VHWWKHDJHQGDRIERWKGHVLFFDWLRQ
LVP DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO GHWHUPLQLVP %RWK +XQWLQJWRQ DQG .URSRWNLQ
WKHODWWHULQDODQGPDUNDUWLFOHSXEOLVKHGLQWKH Geographical JournalLQ
ZHUHFULWLFDOO\LQIOXHQFHGE\WKHFRQWHPSRUDU\ULVHLQHQYLURQPHQ
WDO DQ[LHWLHV LQWKHWURSLFV DQG D JURZLQJLQWHUHVW LQ FOLPDWLFLQWHUSUHWD
WLRQVRIKLVWRU\
0HDQZKLOH DW WKH PHWURSROLWDQ FHQWUH D VPDOO JURXS RIJHRJUDSKHUV
LQFUHDVLQJO\ LQIOXHQFHG E\ WKHLU SURIHVVLRQDO FRQWDFWV ZLWK D JOREDOO\
GLVWULEXWHG VHW RI FRORQLDO VFLHQWLVWV DQG JHRJUDSKHUV EHJDQ WR WKLQN
DOEHLW LQ D KLJKO\ LPSHULDOLVWLF LGLRP LQ WHUPV RI WKH JOREDO UHODWLRQV
EHWZHHQHQYLURQPHQWDOFKDQJHSROLWLFDOSRZHUDQGVRFLHWDOFKDQJH7KH
VFHQH ZDV VHW E\ 6LU +DOIRUG 0DFNLQGHU¶V Britain and the British Seas
D KLJKO\ VHOHFWLYH KLVWRULFDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RIQDWXUH JHRJUDSK\
DQGVXSHUSRZHUSROLWLFDOHFRQRP\,WVDSSHDUHGRQO\D\HDUDIWHUDKLJKO\
LQQRYDWLYHWH[WHQWLWOHGThe Relations o f Geography and HistoryE\
+ % *HRUJH DERRNZKLFKUHDFKHGLWV ILIWKHGLWLRQE\ ,W VHHPV
TXLWHSRVVLEOHWKDWDJHQHUDOL]HGUHYXOVLRQDWWKHKXPDQGHVWUXFWLYHQHVVRI
WKH )LUVW :RUOG :DU ZDV UHIOHFWHG LQ D VWUHQJWKHQHG DZDUHQHVV RIWKH
SRVVLELOLWLHV RIKXPDQ HQYLURQPHQWDO GHVWUXFWLYHQHVV RQ D ZRUOG VFDOH
7KLV ZRXOG KHOS WR DFFRXQW IRU WKH IOXUU\ RIFRORQLDO SXEOLFDWLRQV DQG
FRPPLVVLRQV RQ WKH FRQQHFWLRQV EHWZHHQ GURXJKW DQG KXPDQ DFWLYLW\
WKDWDSSHDUHGLQWKHHDUO\ V
7KHLPSDFWRI1RUWK$PHULFDQ V µ'XVWERZO¶WKLQNLQJRQ$IULFDQ
FRORQLDOFRQVHUYDWLRQWKLQNLQJKDVEHHQH[WHQVLYHO\H[SORUHGE\VFKRODUV
VXFK DV :LOOLDP %HLQDUW DQG 'DYLG $QGHUVRQ +RZHYHU WKLV LP S DUW
PD\KDYHEHHQH[DJJHUDWHG VLQFHLWKDGOLWWOHHIIHFWRQFRORQLDOUHVRXUFH
SROLF\DQGHYHQOHVVRQ)UHQFKWKDQ%ULWLVKFRORQLDOSROLF\
:KLOH WKH DJHQGDV RIFRORQLDO HQYLURQPHQWDO DQG HVSHFLDOO\ GHVLFFD
WLRQLVW WKLQNLQJ WR VRPH H[WHQW WRRN RYHU WKH DFDGHPLF GHEDWH LQ WKH
Environmental History
VGHYHORSPHQWVLQKLVWRULFDOJHRJUDSK\SURFHHGHGZLWKYLJRXUVRPH
UHODWHGWR WKHFRORQLDOFRQWH[W EXWE\QRPHDQVDOO7KHVWURQJHVWLQIOX
HQFH RQ $QJORSKRQH KLVWRULFDO JHRJUDSK\ZDV H[HUFLVHG E\ WKH )UHQFK
7KHPRVWLQIOXHQWLDOZRUNVLQWKLVFRQQHFWLRQZHUHE\-%UXQKHVHuman
Geography, / )HEYUH (A Geographical Introduction to History,
DQG 3 9LGDO GH /D %ODFKH Principles o f Human Geography,
+RZHYHU E\ WKHHDUO\ V DFRPSOHWHO\QHZFRORQLDO LQIOXHQFH
ZDVPDNLQJLWVHOIIHOWWKURXJKWKHZRUNRIWKH$XVWUDOLDQ9HUH*RUGRQ
&KLOGH +LV The Dawn o f European Civilization ZDV VRRQ IROORZHG E\
More Light on the Most Ancient East DQG Man Makes Himself
%RWKWKHVH)UHQFKDQG$XVWUDOLDQDXWKRULWLHVZHUHKLJKO\LQIOXHQ
WLDOLQWKHHPHUJLQJFRUSXVRIZRUNZULWWHQE\+HQU\&OLIIRUG'DUE\WKH
ILJXUHZKRZDVWRHPHUJHDVWKHPDMRULQIOXHQFHRQKLVWRULFDOJHRJUDSK\
DORQJZLWK&DUO6DXHUDQG&ODUHQFH*ODFNHQ
%\WKHPLGVWKHUHIRUHZHFDQREVHUYHDQLQQRYDWLYHFRQYHUJHQFH
RI GHVFULSWLYH DQG DQDO\WLFDO HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ ZULWWHQ E\
JHRJUDSKHUV DQWKURSRORJLVWV DQG DVZHVKDOOVHH DQHZVFKRRO RIHFRO
RJLVWV 6LQFH WKHFRORQLDO FRQWH[W DQGFRORQLDO ODQGUHVRXUFH DVVHVVPHQW
DJHQGDV ZHUH VR GHFLVLYH LQ GHILQLQJ WKH IRUP RIHQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\
DQGJHRJUDSK\LQWKH V RQHPLJKW DVNZK\D KLVWRULFDOJHRJUDSKHU
VXFK DV 'DUE\ DSSHDUHG WR FRQILQH KLV FRQFHUQV WKDW LV RXWVLGH KLV
ZDUWLPHHPSOR\PHQWLQ1DYDO ,QWHOOLJHQFHWR DQ DSSDUHQWO\YHU\ORFDO
DQGFRQFHQWUDWHGLQWHUHVWLQ'RPHVGD\DQGPHGLHYDOODQGVFDSHKLVWRULHV
%XW'DUE\WRR DFWXDOO\FRQIRUPHGTXLWHFORVHO\WRWKHVRPHZKDW%DFR
QLDQ SUHRFFXSDWLRQV DQG PRGHV RIFRORQLDO ODQGVFDSH VWXG\ DQGHWKQR
JUDSK\ +LVV\VWHPDWLFH[DPLQDWLRQ RIODQGXWLOL]DWLRQLQWKH'RPHVGD\
SHULRGSDUDOOHOHGLQ DSSURDFKDQGPHWKRGRORJ\GHYHORSPHQWVWKDWZHUH
JRLQJ RQ DPRQJ VFKRODUV DFWXDOO\ ZRUNLQJ LQ %ULWLVK FRORQLHV VRPH RI
ZKRPZH PLJKW XQTXHVWLRQDEO\ FODVVLI\ WRGD\ DV HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU
LDQV DQGZKRZHUHWUDLQHGLQERWKHFRORJ\DQGJHRJUDSK\
3HUKDSV WKH PRVW LQWHUHVWLQJ RIWKHVH ZDV / 'XGOH\ 6WDPS 6WDPS
FDUULHGRXWKLVHDUO\ZRUNLQ%XUPD DVDQHFRORJLVWLQFRORQLDOHPSOR\
%\ ZRUNLQJ LQ %XUPD 6WDPS IROORZHG LQ WKH IRRWVWHSV RIWKH FOLPDWLF
KLVWRULDQ- & 0DFNHQ]LHZKRKDGSXEOLVKHGDQH[WUDRUGLQDU\SLRQHHU
LQJSDSHULQ HQWLWOHG µ&OLPDWHLQ %XUPHVH +LVWRU\¶,QWKHKXPLG
FRQGLWLRQV RI%XUPD WKH DWWUDFWLRQV RIDGHVLFFDWLRQLVWLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI
KLVWRU\ZHUH RIFRXUVH PXFK OHVVPDUNHG ,QVWHDG 6WDPSZDVIDUPRUH
LQIOXHQFHG E\ WKH QHZ HFRORJLFDO DQG VXFFHVVLRQLVW WUDGLWLRQ RI$UWKXU
7DQVOH\ DQG LQGHHG KLV ILUVW SDSHU ZDV SXEOLVKHG LQ 7DQVOH\¶V QHZO\
IRXQGHG Journal o f Ecology LQ %HWZHHQ DQG 6WDPS
ZHQW RQ WR SXEOLVK D ZKROH VHULHV RISDSHUV GHDOLQJ ZLWK WKH UHODWLRQV
EHWZHHQWKH%XUPHVHKLOOWULEHVODQGXVHIRUHVWVVKLIWLQJFXOWLYDWLRQDQG
FOLPDWH IURP D ZKROH YDULHW\ RIDQJOHV +RZHYHU KLV PDLQ HPSKDVLV
Richard H. Grove
7KH,PSDFWRIWKH6HFRQG:RUOG:DU
%\ WKH RXWEUHDN RIWKH 6HFRQG :RUOG :DUD UHPDUNDEOH V\QWKHVLV KDG
EHHQDFKLHYHGLQDSSURDFKHVWRWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHHQYLURQPHQWDQGVRFLDO
LQWHUDFWLRQVZLWKLW LQYROYLQJDQWKURSRORJLVWV HFRORJLVWV DQGDERYHDOO
JHRJUDSKHUV7KHEHVWLQVWDQFHRIWKLVQHZDVVHUWLYHQHVVLVH[HPSOLILHGLQ
*RUGRQ(DVW¶VThe Geography behind History,ILUVWSULQWHGLQDQGUH
SXEOLVKHG VL[ WLPHV WKH ODVW WLPH LQ WKH PLGVW RIZDU LQ (DVW D
WHDFKHURI+&'DUE\OHFWXUHGLQWKH/RQGRQ6FKRRORI(FRQRPLFVDQG
JDYH KLJKO\ DODUPLVW DQG HQYLURQPHQWDOLVW FOXHV WR WKH VWLPXOXV WR KLV
VWXG\ µ(YHQWRGD\¶KHZURWH
LI RQO\ E\ LWV PRUH GUDPDWLF LQWHUYHQWLRQV D UHOHQWOHVV QDWXUH PDNHV XV
SDLQIXOO\ DZDUH R IWKH XQHDV\ WHUPV RQ ZKLFK KXPDQ JURXSV RFFXS\ DQG
XWLOLVHWKHHDUWK7KHFRPPRQERDVWWKDWPDQKDVEHFRPHPDVWHUR IKLVZRUOG
KDV D KROORZ ULQJ ZKHQ ZH UHFDOO WKH UHFXUUHQW IORRGV DQG IDPLQHV ZKLFK
DIIOLFW WKH SHDVDQWV R IQRUWKHUQ &KLQD WKH GHYDVWDWLQJ IORRGV R IWKH 0LV
VLVVLSSLLQWKHPRUHUHFHQWGHVWUXFWLRQE\LFHR I9 LHZ)DOOVEULGJHDFURVV
WKH 1LDJDUD ULYHU WKH DVVHUWLRQ WKDW LQ FHQWUDO $IULFD µWKH GHVHUW LV RQ WKH
PRYH¶WKHZLGHVSUHDGVRLOHURVLRQLQSDUWVR I$IULFDDQGLQWKH0LGGOH:HVW
R IWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQGILQDOO\WKHFRQWLQXDOWKUHDWR IGURXJKWZKLFKKDQJV
RYHUWKHJUHDWJUDLQODQGVR IWKHZRUOG DOLNHLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV&DQDGD
DQG 6RXWK 5XVVLD 7KHVH DQG VLPLODU KDSSHQLQJV RU IRUHERGLQJV VHUYH WR
HPSKDVLVHWKHIDFWWKDWHYHQ IRUSHRSOHVZKLFKKDYHUHDFKHGKLJKOHYHOVR I
PDWHULDO FXOWXUH WKH SK\VLFDO HQYLURQPHQW UHPDLQV D YHULWDEOH 3DQGRUD¶V
ER[HYHUUHDG\WREXUVWRSHQDQGVFDWWHULWVQR[LRXVFRQWHQWV
Environmental History
%\WKHWLPH(DVW¶VERRNDSSHDUHGWKHQHZZRUOGZDUDQGWKH+RORFDXVW
ZHUHDOUHDG\LQWKHDLUDQGPDQZDVDERXWWRGRPRUHWKDQVLPSO\VKLIW
WKH VFHQHU\ RUDFW DV D JHRJUDSKLF DJHQW :LWKLQ VHYHQ \HDUV D QXFOHDU
GHYLFH ZRXOG EH H[SORGHG DW $ODPDJRUGR LQ WKH GHVHUW ODQGV RI1HZ
0H[LFR UDSLGO\ IROORZHG E\ LWV XVH XSRQ WKH SHRSOH RI -DSDQ (DVW¶V
QDUUDWLYH LQ WKH The Geography behind History FHUWDLQO\ UHIOHFWHG WKH
JUHDWDQ[LHWLHVWRZKLFKWKHVHNLQGVRIHYHQWVJDYHULVH LQGHHGLQKLVFR
RSWLRQRIWKHDXWKRULW\RIDKLVWRULDQRIDQFLHQWFLYLOL]DWLRQ(DVWVHHPVWR
KDYHVRXQGHGRXWWKHGHHSHVWDSSUHKHQVLRQVRIWKHDELOLW\RIPDQQRWMXVW
WRGHVWUR\QDWXUHEXWWRGHVWUR\KLPVHOIDQGVRFLHW\DVZHOO$VZHKDYH
DOUHDG\VHHQKLVWRULFDODQGFRQWHPSRUDU\DQDO\VHVRIPDQQDWXUHLQWHU
DFWLRQVKDGEHHQGLUHFWO\DIIHFWHGE\WKHFDWDFO\VPDQGWKHDIWHUPDWKRI
WKH )LUVW :RUOG :DU DQG VXFK UHDFWLRQV ZHUH LIDQ\WKLQJ HYHQ PRUH
SURQRXQFHGGXULQJDQGDIWHUWKH6HFRQG:RUOG:DU,QKLVERRNMXVWDV
0DUVKKDGGRQHLQWRDGYRFDWHFRQVHUYDWLRQ(DVWXVHGWKHIULJKWHQ
LQJ OHVVRQV RI HDUO\ FLYLOL]DWLRQV WKDW KDG FRPH WR SUHPDWXUH HQGV WR
IULJKWHQ DQGFDMROHKLV DFDGHPLFDXGLHQFHLQWR WU\LQJ RXW DQHZNLQG RI
KLVWRU\ 'HFRORQL]DWLRQ KDG DOUHDG\EHJXQZKHQ LQ DQ $PHULFDQ
:LOOLDP7KRPDV FRPSLOHGKLV VSOHQGLGYROXPHMan’s Role in Changing
the Face o f the Earth,WKHZULWHXSRIDPHHWLQJFRPPHPRUDWLQJWKHOLIHRI
*HRUJH3HUNLQV 0DUVK 7KH 7KRPDVYROXPHPDUNHG WKHEHJLQQLQJRID
SHULRGZKLFKKDVODVWHGXQWLOUHFHQW\HDUVLQZKLFK$PHULFDQDFDGHPLFV
KDYH EHFRPH LQFUHDVLQJO\ DVVHUWLYH LQ H[WHQVLYH WUHDWPHQWV RIHQYLURQ
PHQW DQG KLVWRU\ DQG LQ ZKLFK JHRJUDSKHUV DQG KLVWRULDQV KDYH FRP
SHWHG IRU WKH WXUIRIHQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ 7KH EDWRQ RIHPSLUH KDG
DIWHUDOOEHHQSDVVHGRQDQGWKHRSSRUWXQLWLHVRIZDUWLPHH[SDQVLRQDQG
SRVWZDULQIOXHQFH VWLPXODWHG IRUDIHZ\HDUV DPRUHJOREDORXWORRNLQ
WKH8QLWHG6WDWHV$FDVHLQSRLQWZDV&ODUHQFH*ODFNHQRQHRIWKHPDLQ
FRQWULEXWRUVWRWKH7KRPDVYROXPH
*ODFNHQ KDG EHHQ VWDWLRQHG ZKLOH LQ WKH PLOLWDU\ LQ 2NLQDZD 7KLV
H[SHULHQFH SURYLGHG KLP ERWK ZLWK WKH PDWHULDO IRU KLV GRFWRUDO WKHVLV
DQG IRU KLV ILUVW ERRN DQG ZLWK WKH LQVSLUDWLRQ IRU KLV PDVWHUZRUN
Traces on the Rhodian Shore}93RVVLEO\WKHH[SHULHQFHRILVRODWLRQ RQD
3DFLILFLVODQGDQGLQ DQ XQIDPLOLDUFXOWXUHHQFRXUDJHGLQKLPDVLQWKH
HDUOLHVW HQYLURQPHQWDOLVWV D PRUH GHWDFKHG YLVLRQDU\ DQG PRUH REMHF
WLYHO\JOREDOGLVFRXUVHWKDQZDVQRUPDOO\ WKHFDVHLQ1RUWK$PHULFDQV
%XW *ODFNHQ ZDV DOVR WUDLQHG LQ WKH &ODVVLFV OLNH RWKHU HQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRULDQV VXFK DV 'RQDOG +XJKHV 5XVVHOO 0HLJJV DQG 2OLYHU 5DFN
KDP
7KH\HDU HPHUJHV DVFULWLFDO LQWKH HPHUJHQFH RIDSRVWFRORQLDO
HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ ZLWK WKH KROGLQJ RI : / 7KRPDV¶V &KLFDJR
PHHWLQJ DQG *ODFNHQ¶V ILUVWPDMRU ZRUN ,WZDV LQ %ULWDLQ KRZHYHU LQ
WKDW\HDUWKDWDQRWKHUFULWLFDOQHZSXEOLFDWLRQDSSHDUHG:*+RVNLQV¶V
Richard H. Grove
The Making o f the English Landscape. 7KLV ZDV D ERRN WKDW ZDV WR
EHFRPH HVSHFLDOO\LPSRUWDQWIRUWKHIXWXUHRI$XVWUDOLDQHQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRU\ SURYLGLQJ WKH LQVSLUDWLRQ DQG PHWKRGRORJ\ IRU 0LFKDHO :LO
OLDPV¶V The Making o f the South Australian Landscape. +RVNLQV
PDGHKLVUHSXWDWLRQLQWKHVFKRRORI(QJOLVKORFDOKLVWRULDQVIRXQGHGE\
+HUEHUW 3 )LQEHUJ DW WKH 'HSDUWPHQW RI(QJOLVK /RFDO +LVWRU\ DW WKH
8QLYHUVLW\ RI /HLFHVWHU LQ WKH HDUO\ V 7KLV VFKRRO TXLWH RSHQO\
DGPLWWHG LWV GHEW WR +HQU\ &OLIIRUG 'DUE\ DQG KLV 'RPHVGD\ VWXGLHV
DQG FRQFHQWUDWHG RQ PDNLQJ D QHZ NLQG RIXVH RIKLVWRULFDO VRXUFHV LQ
WDFNOLQJ WKH PLQXWLDH RI ORFDO KLVWRU\ DQG PDWHULDO FXOWXUH %XW WKH
/HLFHVWHUVFKRROKDGRWKHUURRWVSULQFLSDOO\LQWKHSKLORVRSK\RI)HUQDQG
%UDXGHOZKRVHILUVWPDMRUZRUNKDGEHHQSXEOLVKHGLQ DQGLQWKH
)UHQFK Annales VFKRRO ZKLFK KDG FRPH LQWR WKH RSHQ GXULQJ WKH HDUO\
V HPSKDVL]LQJ WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI ORFDO VWXGLHV DQG GRZQSOD\LQJ
JUDQG WKHRU\ %UDXGHO ZKRVH PDMRU ZRUN RQ WKH 0HGLWHUUDQHDQ
DSSHDUHGLQ ZDVLQIOXHQFHGE\DQHZSRVWZDUHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQ
VFLRXVQHVV +HVWDUWOHGKLVFRQWHPSRUDULHVZLWKKLVQHZDSSURDFKWRWKH
KLVWRU\RIPDWHULDOFXOWXUHZKLFKGHYRWHGPXFKDWWHQWLRQWRWKHSK\VLFDO
HQYLURQPHQWODQG DQGVHDPRXQWDLQVDQGIRUHVWV +LVDFKLHYHPHQWZDV
PRQROLWKLF DQG DV IDU DV WKH 0HGLWHUUDQHDQ HQYLURQPHQW LV FRQFHUQHG
KDV EHHQ PDWFKHG RQO\ ILIW\ \HDUV ODWHU E\ WZR ERRNV RQ WKH HQYLURQ
PHQWDO KLVWRU\ RIWKH 0HGLWHUUDQHDQ EDVLQ ERWK SXEOLVKHG LQ WKH \HDU
%XW %UDXGHO¶V SLFWXUH ZDV D FXULRXVO\ VWDWLF RQH DQG IDLOHG WR
UHJLVWHU WKH HQRUPRXV LPSDFW RI KXPDQV LQ WKH GHVWUXFWLRQ DQG
WUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKHODQGVFDSH
7KH SXEOLFDWLRQ RIThe Making o f the English LandscapeLQ ZDV
WKHUHIRUH RIJUHDW LPSRUWDQFH VLQFH LW PDUNHG WKH ILUVW VXEVWDQWLDO DQG
G\QDPLFH[FXUVLRQ RID WUDLQHG KLVWRULDQLQWRZKDW KDGSUHYLRXVO\EHHQ
WKHSUHVHUYHRIJHRJUDSKHUV HFRORJLVWV DQGDQWKURSRORJLVWV DOOZRUNLQJ
DWWKHERUGHUVRUSHUKDSVWKHFXWWLQJHGJHVRIWKHLUGLVFLSOLQHV,QGHHGLW
ZRXOGEHKDUGWRPDLQWDLQWKDWZKDWZHQRZNQRZDVDQLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\
ILHOG RIHQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ KDG QRW EHJXQ E\ WKH HQG RI 7KH
/HLFHVWHUVFKRROTXLFNO\SURGXFHGDIXUWKHUFODVVRIORFDOKLVWRULDQVZKR
LQFRUSRUDWHGPXFKRIWKHPHWKRGRORJ\RIKLVWRULFDOJHRJUDSK\DQGRIWKH
%UDXGHOLDQV SDUWLFXODUO\ LQ WKH ODQGVFDSH DQG ORFDO KLVWRULHV RI -RDQ
7KLUVN DQG 0DUJDUHW 6SXIIRUG ,QGHHG LW VHHPV SRVVLEOH WKDW DV
ZRPHQEURNHLQWRWKHVXEMHFWWKH\ZHUHOHVVDYHUVHWRFURVVLQJGLVFLSOLQ
DU\ ERXQGDULHV DQG ZHUH PXFK KDSSLHU WR ERUURZ DQG LQQRYDWH LQ D
SDUWLFXODUO\DOOHPEUDFLQJDQGFUHDWLYHZD\ /LNH+RVNLQV WKHVHZRPHQ
ZHUHQRWDIUDLGWRIROORZWKHH[DPSOHRIWKHLUJHRJUDSKLFDOFROOHDJXHVDQG
FDUU\RXWH[WHQVLYH ORFDO ILHOGZRUN XVLQJWHFKQLTXHV WKDW+RVNLQV VXP
PDUL]HGLQ KLVPXFK ODWHU ERRN Fieldwork in Local History 7R
GDWH WKH GLVSURSRUWLRQDWH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI ZRPHQ LQ HQYLURQPHQWDO
Environmental History
KLVWRU\DVFRPSDUHGWRPRUHPDLQVWUHDPKLVWRU\UHPDLQVDQXQLQYHVWLJ
DWHGWRSLFEXWQHYHUWKHOHVVDQLPSRUWDQWRQH0RUHODWWHUO\WKH+RVNLQV
VFKRRO SURGXFHG QHZ ORFDO ZRUN LQ IRUHVW KLVWRU\ LQFOXGLQJ WKH KLJKO\
LQVLJKWIXOZRUNRI9LFWRU6NLSSRQWKHVRFLDODQGHFRORJLFDOKLVWRU\RIWKH
)RUHVWRI$UGHQ0HDQZKLOHLQWKH(QJOLVK)HQODQGVD&RUQLVKKLVWRU
LDQ-DFN5DYHQVGDOHFUHDWHGDEULOOLDQWV\QWKHVLVRID+RVNLQVDSSURDFK
WR DQ ROG WHUULWRU\ RI+ & 'DUE\ ZLWK KLV Liable to Floods, D
KLVWRU\ RI/DQGEHDFKYLOODJH DQGLWVHQYLURQV ERWKEHIRUH DQGDIWHUIHQ
GUDLQDJHLQWKHVHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\
%XW WKH /HLFHVWHU VFKRRO DOVR JDYH LQVSLUDWLRQ WR UHVHDUFKHUV HQWHULQJ
WKHVXEMHFWYHU\PXFKLQWKHWUDGLWLRQRIWKHHFRORJLVW'XGOH\6WDPSWKDW
LV GLUHFWO\IURP WKHQDWXUDO VFLHQFHV 7KHPRVW SURPLQHQW RIWKHVH QHZ
HQWKXVLDVWVZDVDUHVHDUFKHUZKRPZHPLJKWLQIXWXUHFRPHWRWHUPWKH
µ-RVHSK1HHGKDP¶RIHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\ 2OLYHU5DFNKDP 5DFNKDP
KDG WUDLQHG OLNH 1HHGKDP EHIRUH KH EHFDPH D KLVWRULDQ RI VFLHQFH
RULJLQDOO\ DV DKLJKO\ VXFFHVVIXOFHOOSK\VLRORJLVW %XWKLVPDMRUKREELHV
FRQVLVWHG LQ WKH FROOHFWLRQ RIIXQJL DQG WKH UHFRUGLQJ RIUDUH SODQWV LQ
DQFLHQW ZRRGODQGV 7KLV VRRQ OHG KLP LQ KLV VSDUH WLPH WR UHDG WKH
PHGLHYDO FRXUW UROOV WKDW GRFXPHQWHG WKH KLVWRU\ RIWKH DQFLHQW ZRRG
ODQGVLQZKLFKKHZDVLQWHUHVWHG5DFNKDP¶VZRUNZDVDVSDLQVWDNLQJDV
*ODFNHQ¶V DQG KLV ILUVW ERRN LQ HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ RU µHFRORJLFDO
KLVWRU\¶DVKHSUHIHUUHGWRFDOOLWHayley Wood: Its History and Ecology,
DSSHDUHGDVODWHDV ,WZDVVXFFHHGHGE\DVHULHVRIERRNVRQDQFLHQW
ZRRGODQGV DQG WKH ODQGVFDSH RI %ULWDLQ DOO ZULWWHQ YHU\ PXFK LQ WKH
PRGHRI+RVNLQVEXWGLVSOD\LQJZLWKILQHVVHWKHDGYDQWDJHVRIDIRUPDO
ELRORJLFDO WUDLQLQJ 5DFNKDP VHHPV DW ILUVW WR KDYH EHHQ UHOXFWDQW WR
DGPLWWRKLVLQWHOOHFWXDOKHULWDJHEXWKHILQDOO\VLJQSRVWHGLWOLNH0LFKDHO
:LOOLDPVEHIRUHKLP LQKLVILUVWPDMRUH[FXUVLRQRXWVLGH%ULWDLQ LQ The
Making o f the Cretan Landscape,SXEOLVKHGLQ
,W LV LPSRUWDQW WR HVWDEOLVK WKHVH ODWHU GHYHORSPHQWV RIWKH +RVNLQV
VFKRRO RIHQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ VLQFH WKH\ IRUPHG WKH PDMRU URRWV RI
HQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\LQPDQ\RWKHUSDUWVRIWKHZRUOGEXWSDUWLFXODUO\
LQ$XVWUDOLD 0RUHRYHU ZHQHHG WR EHDULQ PLQGWKDW LQLWVHDUO\ SRVW
FRORQLDOSKDVHHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\ZDVODUJHO\DOWKRXJKQRWHQWLUHO\
FRQILQHGWR%ULWDLQ)UDQFHWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV$XVWUDOLD6RXWK$VLDDQG
(DVW$IULFD8QGRXEWHGO\WKHWZRVWURQJHVWWUDGLWLRQVLQWKHSHULRGSULRU
WR ZHUHLQ%ULWDLQDQG$XVWUDOLD2QHPLJKWVXUPLVHWKDWWKHLQVXODU
VWDWXV RI ERWK FRPELQHG ZLWK WKH UHODWLYH VWUHQJWK RI WKHLU UHVSHFWLYH
HQYLURQPHQWDOPRYHPHQWVZDVDPDMRUH[SODQDWRU\IDFWRUKHUH1RWDOO
RIWKHVFKRROVKDGFRPPRQ URRWV DQGWKH)UHQFK VFKRROZDVHVSHFLDOO\
VHSDUDWHLQLWV VRXUFHVDQG LQVSLUDWLRQ SDUWLFXODUO\DVH[HPSOLILHGLQWKH
ZRUNRI/H5R\ /DGXULHZKRVH Times o f Feast, Times o f FaminePDGHD
JUHDW LPSUHVVLRQ LQ%ULWDLQ DQG WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV /H 5R\ /DGXULH
Richard H. Grove
KLPVHOI WRRN D SDUWLFXODU LQWHUHVW LQ WKH KLVWRULFDO LPSDFW RI FOLPDWLF
FKDQJH DQG FOLPDWLF H[WUHPH HYHQWV RQ ORFDO FRPPXQLWLHV ,W LV ZRUWK
H[SORULQJ WKH EDFNJURXQG WR WKH GHYHORSPHQW RIWKLV NLQG RIFOLPDWLF
KLVWRU\VLQFHLWKDVEHFRPHDQLQFUHDVLQJO\LPSRUWDQWHOHPHQWLQHQYLURQ
PHQWDOKLVWRU\
6LQFHWKHHDUO\ VDQXPEHURIKLVWRULFDOJHRJUDSKHUVDQGAnnaliste
KLVWRULDQV KDYH DFWLYHO\ SURSDJDQGL]HG WKH XWLOLW\ RIFOLPDWLF IDFWRUV LQ
KLVWRULFDO DQDO\VLV 3ULQFLSDODPRQJWKHPZHUH *HRUJHV/HIHEYUH & (
/DEURXVVH *RUGRQ 0DQOH\ DQG /H 5R\ /DGXULH KLPVHOI 2QH PDMRU
LQLWLDOUHVXOWRIWKLVGHYHORSPHQWZDVWKDWWKHLPSOLFDWLRQVRIDµ/LWWOH,FH
$JH¶EHWZHHQ DQG VWDUWHGWRSHUPHDWHWKHUHVHDUFKDJHQGDVRI
VRPH HFRQRPLF KLVWRULDQV LQ ZHVWHUQ (XURSH LIQRW HOVHZKHUH ODUJHO\
RZLQJWRWKHXUJLQJVRI*XVWDI8WWHUVWURP,WLVSHUKDSVVLJQLILFDQWWKDW
VRPHRIWKHILUVWKLVWRULDQVWRWDNHIXOOQRWHRIWKHSRWHQWLDOIRULQFRUSRU
DWLQJWKH/LWWOH,FH$JHLQWKHLULQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRIKLVWRULFDOFKDQJHKDYH
EHHQ$VLDQLVWVDQG$IULFDQLVWV
$GHYHORSLQJVFKRRORI)UHQFKHFRQRPLFKLVWRU\WKDWGHYRWHGSDUWLFX
ODU DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH LPSDFW RIFOLPDWLF YDULDELOLW\ DQG YDULDWLRQV LQ IRU
H[DPSOHFURS\LHOGVRQVRFLDOFKDQJHDQGFULVHVZDVLQLWLDOO\GLVPLVVHGE\
PDLQVWUHDP KLVWRULDQV DIWHU WKH V 7KLV WHQGHQF\ WR GLVPLVV WKH
LPSRUWDQFH RIFOLPDWH LQ KLVWRULFDO H[SODQDWLRQ RIVRFLDO DQG HFRQRPLF
FKDQJHGHYHORSHGLQWRDSDWWHUQWKDWZDVRQO\UHDOO\VXEVWDQWLDOO\EURNHQ
LQWKHGLVFLSOLQHRIKLVWRU\LWVHOIE\/H5R\/DGXULHZKRKDGKLPVHOIEHHQ
LQIOXHQFHGE\ WKHZRUN RI*XVWDI8WWHUVWURPDQG *RUGRQ0DQOH\ DQG
SDUWLFXODUO\ E\ D NH\ DUWLFOH SXEOLVKHG E\ 8WWHUVWURP LQ HQWLWOHG
µ&OLPDWLF )OXFWXDWLRQV DQG SRSXODWLRQ SUREOHPV LQ (DUO\ 0RGHUQ +LV
WRU\¶7KLVDUWLFOHVXPPDUL]HGPXFKRIWKHGDWDWKDWZDVDYDLODEOHDWWKH
WLPHRQWKHLQIOXHQFHRIFOLPDWHLQPHGLHYDODQGPRGHPKLVWRU\ ,WZDV
FRQFHUQHG DOPRVW HQWLUHO\ RI FRXUVH ZLWK WKH FRQWULEXWLRQ PDGH E\
SHULRGVRIFOLPDWLFGHWHULRUDWLRQRQHFRQRPLFGHSUHVVLRQVLQWKHZHVWHUQ
WHPSHUDWH ZRUOG 7KH KLVWRULFDO LPSDFW RIPDMRU FOLPDWLF IOXFWXDWLRQV
RXWVLGHWKHSRODUDQGWHPSHUDWH]RQHVKDVFRQWLQXHGWREHODUJHO\LJQRUHG
XQWLOYHU\UHFHQW\HDUV
/H5R\ /DGXULH IRUKLVSDUW GHYHORSHGKLV RZQRXWORRNLQ Times o f
Feast, Times o f FamineLQ 7KHUHLV VRPHLURQ\ DERXWWKLVSXEOLFD
WLRQ GDWH ,W ZDV DOVR D\HDU WKDW PDUNHG WKH FRPPHQFHPHQW RIDQ (O
1LQR HYHQW LQ WKDW ZH FDQ QRZ VHH IURP KLQGVLJKW PDUNHG WKH
EHJLQQLQJVERWKRIDQHZVFLHQWLILFIRFXVRQWKH(O1LQRSKHQRPHQRQDQG
RIWKHJOLPPHULQJVRIDQHQWLUHO\QHZSXEOLFDZDUHQHVVRIWKHLPSDFWWKDW
(O1LQRPLJKWKDYHRQH[WUHPHHYHQWVDIIHFWLQJZRUOGFOLPDWH 7KLVZDV
ODUJHO\ EHFDXVH RI WKH LPSDFW RQ WKH ZHVWHUQ SXEOLF ODUJHO\ WKURXJK
WKHPHGLXPRIWHOHYLVLRQRILPDJHVRIWKHVXIIHULQJDQGWKHKLJKPRUWDO
LW\ FDXVHG E\ GURXJKWV LQ WKH 6DKHO UHJLRQ RI:HVW $IULFD DQG PRUH
Environmental History
SDUWLFXODUO\LQ(WKLRSLD(DUOLHUVHULRXVGURXJKWRUIDPLQHHYHQWVKDGRI
FRXUVHPDGHVRPHLPSDFWLQWKHZHVWQRWOHDVWGXULQJDIDPLQHLQ%LKDU
LQ ZKLFKZHQRZNQRZZDV DOVR FDXVHG E\ DQ (O 1LQRDVVRFLDWHG
HYHQW /H 5R\ /DGXULH ZDV QRW FRQFHUQHG YHU\ PXFK ZLWK WKH QRQ
WHPSHUDWH ZRUOG DQG HYHQLIKHKDGEHHQKH GLGQRWKDYH WKHEHQHILWRI
WKHNLQGRILQVLJKWLQWR (O 1LQRSURFHVVHVDQGFKURQRORJLHVWKDWZHDUH
QRZEHJLQQLQJWRDFTXLUHDQGZKLFKKHOSXVWRXQGHUVWDQGUHDVRQVIRUDW
OHDVW VRPH RI WKH H[WUHPH DQG DQRPDORXV HYHQWV WKDW KDYH VR PXFK
LQIOXHQFH LQKXPDQ KLVWRU\ ,WLV QR ORQJHU SRVVLEOH IRU WKH KLVWRULDQ WR
GHPRQL]HµHQYLURQPHQWDOGHWHUPLQLVWV¶ RUWRFODLPWKDWWKHFOLPDWLFGDWD
DUHLQVXIILFLHQWIRUFRQWULEXWLQJVHULRXVO\WR WKHWDVN RIKLVWRULFDOH[SOD
QDWLRQSDUWLFXODUO\DVQHZLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHLPSDFWDQGSDWWHUQRI
(O1LQRHYHQWVEHJLQVWRHPHUJH
7KURXJKRXWPRVWRIWKHSHULRGXQGHUGLVFXVVLRQEHWZHHQDQGWKH
ODWH V &ODUHQFH *ODFNHQ FRQWLQXHG WR ZRUN DZD\ DW Traces on the
Rhodian Shore. ,W ILQDOO\ DSSHDUHG LQ LPPHGLDWHO\ SULRU WR WKH
H[SORVLRQ RI HQYLURQPHQWDO FRQVFLRXVQHVV WKDW WRRN SODFH DIWHU
RQFH DJDLQ RQH PLJKW OHJLWLPDWHO\ DUJXH DV D UHDFWLRQ WR \HW DQRWKHU
PDMRU ZDU WKLV WLPH LQ 9LHWQDP Traces ZDV DOPRVW SURSKHWLF LQ LWV
WLPLQJDQGWKHSHULRGRILWVZULWLQJH[DFWO\SDUDOOHOHGWKHULVHLQHQYLURQ
PHQWDO FRQVFLRXVQHVV WKDW KDG WDNHQ SODFH WKURXJK WKH V %XW LWV
SULPHVLJQLILFDQFHKDGEHHQUHFRJQL]HGE\3URIHVVRU&DUO6DXHUKHDGRI
WKH %HUNHOH\ *HRJUDSK\ GHSDUWPHQW ZKR KDG MHDORXVO\ SURWHFWHG
*ODFNHQ IURP FRQWLQXDO WKUHDWV RIORVV RIWHQXUH GXULQJ WKH ZULWLQJ RI
KLV PRQXPHQWDO ZRUN 6DXHU KDGKLPVHOIPHDQZKLOH SURGXFHG KLV RZQ
PDMRUHVVD\ The Early Spanish Main,LQ $VFRQWHPSRUDU\UHYLHZV
FRPPHQWHG µ+LVWRU\ ZULWWHQ E\ D JHRJUDSKHU HVSHFLDOO\ RQH RI
3URIHVVRU6DXHU¶VOHDUQLQJLVDQHQULFKLQJH[SHULHQFH¶DQGµLWZLOOVXUHO\
EH UDQNHG DV &DUO 6DXHU¶V PDMRU SXEOLFDWLRQ WR GDWHD ODQGPDUN LQ
WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\VFKRODUVKLS¶
$FWXDOO\DWWKLVSHULRGWKHRQO\PDMRU1RUWK$PHULFDQSULQWLQJKRXVH
SUHSDUHG WR ULVN WKH QHZ HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ ZDV WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI
&DOLIRUQLD 3UHVV ZKLFK KDG WDNHQ RQERWK 6DXHU DQG *ODFNHQ %XW ZH
PLJKWQRWHWKDWWKHSUHVVKDGDOUHDG\EHHQGHFLVLYHO\EURNHQLQWRWKHWDVN
E\ SXEOLVKLQJ LQ WKH DQWKURSRORJLVW &OLIIRUG *HHUW]¶V Agricultural
Involution: The Processes o f Ecological Change in Indonesia,DERRNZKLFK
JUDGXDOO\ EHFDPH D JUHDW FRPPHUFLDO VXFFHVV DV $PHULFDQ LQWHUHVW LQ
6RXWKHDVW$VLDJUHZ IRUREYLRXV UHDVRQV GXULQJ WKH V %XWLWKDG
FHUWDLQO\ EHHQ D ULVN ,QWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ UHVHDUFK DV *HHUW] QRWHG LQ KLV
,QWURGXFWLRQ µLV DOZD\V D JDPEOH¶ %XW *HHUW] DOVR OHIW D FOXH WR WKH
JURZLQJ LQWHUHVW WKDW VRPH KLVWRULDQV LQ &DOLIRUQLD ZHUHMXVW EHJLQQLQJ
WR WDNH LQ WKH ZRUN RIWKHLU PRUH LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ FROOHDJXHV 4XRWLQJ
0DUF %ORFK *HHUW] QRWHG WKDW µMXVW DV WKH SURJUHVV RIDGLVHDVH VKRZV
Richard H. Grove
)RU D VFKRODU WHDFKLQJ LQ &DOLIRUQLD WKLV ODVW UHPDUN ZDV UHDOO\ TXLWH
H[WUDRUGLQDU\1DVKDSSHDUHGWRWKLQNWKDWLWZRXOGEHQHFHVVDU\WRVWDUW
IURPVFUDWFK µ(QYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\¶ KHZURWH DVLIGLVFRYHULQJVRPH
WKLQJ TXLWH QHZ ZRXOG µUHIHU WR WKH SDVW FRQWDFW RIPDQ ZLWK KLV WRWDO
KDELWDW¶ &DVWLQJ DURXQG VRPHZKDWGHVSHUDWHO\IRU DQ LGLRP RU DFRP
SDULVRQ 1DVKFRQWLQXHGWKDW µWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRULDQ OLNHWKHHFR
ORJLVW ZRXOG WKLQN LQ WHUPV RI ZKROHV RI FRPPXQLWLHV RI
LQWHUUHODWLRQVKLSV DQG RI EDODQFHV +H VKRXOG WDNH DV KLV ILUVW D[LRP
-RKQ0XLU¶V VWDWHPHQWWKDW³ZKHQZHWU\WRSLFNRXWDQ\WKLQJE\LWVHOI
ZHILQGLWKLWFKHGWR HYHU\WKLQJLQWKHXQLYHUVH´¶ )LQDOO\ KHFRQFOXGHG
ZLWKRXWDQ\UHDOMXVWLILFDWLRQIRUWKH VWDWHPHQW µLQ DUHDOVHQVHHQYLURQ
PHQWDOKLVWRU\ILWWHGLQWRWKHIUDPHZRUNRI1HZ/HIWKLVWRU\7KLVZRXOG
LQGHHG EH KLVWRU\ ³IURP WKH ERWWRP XS´ H[FHSW WKDW KHUH WKHH[SORLWHG
HOHPHQWZRXOGEHWKHELRWDDQGWKHODQGLWVHOI¶
Environmental History
, WKLQN WKHVH ODVW UHPDUNV UHDOO\ JLYH WKH JDPH DZD\ &OHDUO\ 1DVK
FRQFHLYHG RIKLPVHOIDV WKH LQYHQWRU RIµHQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\¶ %XW ZH
PD\QRWHWKDWLWZDVH[SOLFLWO\QRWWREHDKLVWRU\WKDWGHDOWZLWKSHRSOH
QDWXUHUHODWLRQVKLSVLQDQ\EDODQFHGZD\,WZDVLQVWHDGWREHWRWHPLFDOO\
FRQFHUQHGZLWK1DWXUHLWVHOIZLWKDFDSLWDOµ1 ¶YHU\PXFKLQWKHPRGHRI
0XLUDV1DVKKDGDGPLWWHG1DVKZHQWRQWRGHVFULEHWKHFRQWHQWVRIKLV
FRXUVH DV LW ODWHU HPHUJHG ,W ZDV UHPDUNDEOH IRUKDYLQJ DEVROXWHO\ QR
UHIHUHQFHWRH[WUD1RUWK$PHULFDQFRQWH[WXDOPDWHULDOZKDWVRHYHUZLWK
WKHH[FHSWLRQ RIZKDWHYHU0DUVKKDGKDGWR VD\ RQWKH VXEMHFWEDFNLQ
VLQFH KH ZDV RQ WKH UHDGLQJ OLVW +RZHYHU WKLV GLG QRW SUHYHQW
1DVK LQ WKH VDPH \HDU IURP FRQWULEXWLQJ D FKDSWHU µ7KH 6WDWH RI
(QYLURQPHQWDO+LVWRU\¶ WRDFRPSOLDWLRQ HQWLWOHG The State o f American
History,HGLWHGE\+HUEHUW-%DVV,WZDVQRDFFLGHQWWKDW1DVKHTXDWHG
µHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\¶ ZLWK$PHULFDQKLVWRU\ 7KH XQFRPIRUWDEOH IDFW
ZDV WKDW 1DVK¶V NQRZOHGJH RIWKH OLWHUDWXUH RXWVLGH WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV
HYHQRXWVLGH&DOLIRUQLDKLVWRU\ZDVDSSDUHQWO\DOPRVWQRQH[LVWHQW7KLV
ODFXQDZDVLPSRUWDQWVLQFH1DVKDQGVRPHRIKLVFROOHDJXHVZHQWRQWR
HGLWDQLVVXHRIWKHPacific Historical Review RQ µHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\¶
DJDLQLQDUWLFOHVFRQILQHGRQO\WRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQGWKHQWREUHDN
DZD\ IURPWKH$PHULFDQ +LVWRULFDO$VVRFLDWLRQWR IRXQGWKH$PHULFDQ
(QYLURQPHQWDO+LVWRU\$VVRFLDWLRQZLWKLWVKRXVHMRXUQDO The Environ-
mental Review,VLQFHWZLFHUHQDPHGPRVWUHFHQWO\LQ
7KH$XVWUDOLDQ0RGHORI(QYLURQPHQWDO+LVWRU\
Wheat Frontier. 7KLV ZDV VRRQ IROORZHG E\ +HDWKFRWH¶V ZRUN Back of
Bourke,SXEOLVKHGLQ DQGWKHQLQ E\%X[WRQ¶VRiverina 1861-
1891, DORFDOJHRJUDSK\ GHFLGHGO\LQIOXHQFHGE\ WKHAnnalesVFKRRO DQG
E\ )UHQFK UHJLRQDO JHRJUDSK\ (ULF 5ROOV DQG 6LU .HLWK +DQFRFN WKHQ
ZHQWRQWRSURGXFHWKHLUFODVVLFZRUNVUHVSHFWLYHO\HQWLWOHG They All Ran
Wild DQGDiscovering Monaro7KHVHKLJKO\GHWDLOHGVWXG
LHVRIUHODWLYHO\VPDOOORFDOHVZHUHDFWXDOO\YHU\FRPSDUDEOHWRVRPHRIWKH
PDWHULDOEHLQJSURGXFHGE\ORFDOKLVWRULDQVLQ%ULWDLQ ZLWKZKLFK5ROOV
DQG +DQFRFN ZHUH ERWK IDPLOLDU %XW IURP KLQGVLJKW WKH ILUVW UHDOO\
VLJQLILFDQW ZRUN LQ $XVWUDOLDQ HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ DQG WKH RQH WKDW
ILUVW DWWDLQHG D JOREDO DXGLHQFH LW VRRQ EHFDPH D VHW WH[W LQ %ULWLVK
XQLYHUVLWLHV IRU H[DPSOH ZDV DQRWKHU ERRN RQ 6RXWK $XVWUDOLD 7KLV
ZDV 0LFKDHO :LOOLDPV¶V Making o f the South Australian Landscape, D
ZRUNZKLFKE\LWVWLWOHRYHUWO\FODLPHGGHVFHQWIURP+RVNLQV¶VSLRQHHU
LQJ ZRUN RI LQ HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ 0RUHRYHU :LOOLDPV ZDV
SDUWLFXODUO\FDUHIXO WR IODJKLVGHEW ERWKWR'DUE\ DQGWR * 3 0DUVK
DQG KLV LQKHULWDQFH IURP WKH ODWWHU ZDV HVSHFLDOO\ SUHFLVH :LOOLDPV
UHPLQGHG KLV UHDGHU RI0DUVK¶VSDUWLFXODULQWHUHVWLQ $XVWUDOLD DV D VLWH
IRUWKHH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHLQIOXHQFHRIPDQDVDJHRJUDSKLFDJHQW µ$XV
WUDOLDLV SHUKDSV WKHFRXQWU\IURPZKLFKZH KDYH DULJKW WR H[SHFWWKH
IXOOHVWHOXFLGDWLRQRIWKHVHGLIILFXOWDQGGLVSXWDEOHSUREOHPVBB +HUH
H[LVW JUHDWHU IDFLOLWLHV DQG VWURQJHU PRWLYHV IRU WKH FDUHIXO VWXG\ RIWKH
WRSLFVLQTXHVWLRQWKDQKDYHHYHUEHHQIRXQGFRPELQHGLQDQ\RWKHUWKHDWUH
RI(XURSHDQFRORQLVDWLRQ¶ 0DUVK¶VUHPDUNZDVSDUWLFXODUO\DSSRVLWH RI
FRXUVH IRU DFRXQWU\ VR UHJXODUO\ YXOQHUDEOHWR WKH YDJDULHV RIFOLPDWLF
YDULDWLRQDQGVRVHQVLWLYHWRFOLPDWHFKDQJH,QIDFWLWLVRQO\TXLWHUHFHQWO\
WKDWZHKDYHEHJXQWRUHDOL]HH[DFWO\KRZFORVHO\WKH$XVWUDOLDQFOLPDWH
DQGHFRQRP\KDYHEHHQDIIHFWHGKLVWRULFDOO\E\DVLQJOHFOLPDWLFIDFWRUWKH
YDULDWLRQVLQWKH(O1LQRFXUUHQWDQGLWVOLQNHGSKHQRPHQRQWKH6RXWK
HUQ2VFLOODWLRQ2GGO\HQRXJKHFRQRPLFKLVWRULDQVRI$XVWUDOLDKDYHLQ
WKHSDVWDOPRVWHQWLUHO\LJQRUHGWKLVSRZHUIXOYDULDEOHLQWKHLUFDOFXODWLRQV
WKHPRUHUHPDUNDEOHLQDFRXQWU\ZKHUHVRPDQ\IDUPHUVVXUYLYHIURP\HDU
WR\HDURQJRYHUQPHQWGURXJKWVXEVLGLHV
0DUVK¶V FKDOOHQJH DV UHOD\HG E\ :LOOLDPV ZDV TXLFNO\ WDNHQ XS E\
-RVHSK 3RZHOO D /LYHUSRROERUQ KLVWRULFDO JHRJUDSKHU ZKR KDV QRZ
EHFRPH WKH GR\HQ RI$XVWUDOLDQ HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ 3RZHOO¶V
ERRN E\ QR PHDQV KLV ILUVW H[SRVHG KLV GXDO DQG FURVVGLVFLSOLQDU\
SHUVRQDOLW\ RQ LWV ILUVWSDJH WKH ZRUNZDV LQWHQGHG KH VDLG µDV D EULHI
LQWURGXFWLRQ WR VRPH PDMRU WKHPHV LQ $XVWUDOLDQ HQYLURQPHQWDO KLV
WRU\¶ 1R PHQWLRQ ZDVHYHQPDGH RIWKH WHUP KLVWRULFDO JHRJUDSK\ LQ
WKHSUHIDFHWRWKHERRN DQG3RZHOOKDVUHSRUWHGWKDWKHKDGQRVSHFLILF
QRWLRQRIDQ$PHULFDQJHQUHRIKLVWRU\ZKHQKHXVHGWKHWHUPµHQYLURQ
PHQWDO KLVWRU\¶ %\ ZKDWHYHU LQWHOOHFWXDO URXWHZD\ WKH GHVLJQDWLRQ KDG
Environmental History
WKDW LW VHWV RXW WR DFFRPSOLVK RQ DQ HQRUPRXV DQG GHWDLOHG FDQYDV D
SURMHFWWKDWKDVQHYHUUHDOO\EHHQDWWHPSWHGHLWKHULQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVRU
LQ%ULWDLQZKHUHFRPSHWHQWDQGSURSHUO\UHVHDUFKHGDFFRXQWVRIWKHULVH
RIHQYLURQPHQWDOLVP GXULQJ WKH QLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ DUH FRQVSLFXRXV WR
GDWHE\WKHLUDEVHQFH
,QGHHG WKLV KHOSV XV WR LGHQWLI\ RQH RI WKH YHU\ VDOLHQW DVSHFWV RI
HQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\DWWKH VRFDOOHG SHULSKHU\WRGD\ WKDWLV WKDWMXVW
DVGXULQJWKHGD\VRIHPSLUHWKHVHPLDULGDQGWURSLFDOUHJLRQVZHOODZD\
IURP WKH $QJOR$PHULFDQ PHWURSROHV KDYH SURGXFHG E\ IDU WKH PRVW
LQWHUHVWLQJDQGLQQRYDWLYHZRUNLQHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\7RVRPHH[WHQW
WKLVZDV DORJLFDO FRQVHTXHQFH RIWKH UHODWLYHO\ XQGHYHORSHG IURQWLHU RU
ZLOGHUQHVVRIWKHFRORQLDOSHULSKHU\KDYLQJEHHQPRUHLQKHUHQWO\DWWUDFW
LYHDQGQRYHOWRWKH(XURSHDQPLQG:KHUHDVLQ&DOLIRUQLDDQGPXFKRI
WKH UHVW RIWKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV WKH µZLOGHUQHVV¶ REVHVVLRQ UHVXOWHG IRU D
SHULRG LQ HQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\ EHLQJFRRSWHGWR DQGFRQIXVHGZLWK D
NLQG RI$PHULFDQ LGHQWLW\ FULVLV DQG WRWHPLFQDWXUHFXOW HQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRU\ LQ $XVWUDOLD DQG DOVR LQ 6RXWK $VLD DQG VRXWKHUQ $IULFD KDV
H[KLELWHGD OHVV QDWLRQDOLVWLFDQG PRUH LQWHJUDWHG RXWZDUGORRNLQJ DQG
FRPSDUDWLYH DSSURDFK LQ XQFRYHULQJ WKH SURFHVVHV DQG GLVFRXUVHV RI
FRORQLDO H[SDQVLRQ DQG FXOWXUDO HQFRXQWHU 2QH PLJKW ULVN WKH RSLQLRQ
WKDWWKHFORVHOLQNVEHWZHHQZDUWLPHHVSHFLDOO\)LUVW:RUOG:DUH[SHUL
HQFHDVDGHILQLQJFRQVWLWXHQWRI$XVWUDOLDQLGHQWLW\DQGWKHLPSRUWDQFH
RIZDUIHDUV LPSHULDOH[SDQVLRQ FXOWXUDOHQFRXQWHUDQGFOLPDWLFSUHRF
FXSDWLRQV DV GHILQLQJ FRQVWLWXHQWV RIHQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ PDNH WKH
ODWWHUDSDUWLFXODUO\DSSURSULDWHYHKLFOHIRUIXWXUHDWWHPSWVWRXQGHUVWDQG
WKH$XVWUDOLDQVRFLDOFRQWH[W
0RUHRYHU DVZRUOGHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\EHFRPHVSURJUHVVLYHO\DQG
WKDQNIXOO\ OHVV $PHULFRFHQWULF DQG LWV FHQWUH RIJUDYLW\ VKLIWV IXUWKHU
HDVWZDUGV ZH PD\ DQWLFLSDWH IDU PRUH RXWZDUGORRNLQJ FRPSDUDWLYH
ZRUN RIWKHNLQGWKDW ZDVSLRQHHUHG LQ$XVWUDOLD $V DQ$IULFDQLVW DQG
6RXWK $VLDQLVW , KDYH D SDUWLFXODU D[H WR JULQG RQ WKLV VFRUH %XW WKH
EHJLQQLQJVRIWKHSURFHVVFDQDOUHDG\EHVHHQQRWRQO\LQWKHIRUPLGDEOH
DQG PXVKURRPLQJ JURZWK LQ HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ LQ $IULFD DQG $VLD
DOWKRXJKQRW\HWLQWKH3DFLILFEXWLQWKHUHFHQWSXEOLFDWLRQRIGHOLEHU
DWHO\ FRPSDUDWLYH HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRULHV 7KH UHFHQW ZRUN RI%HLQDUW
DQG&RDWHV HQWLWOHGEnvironment and History: The Taming o f Nature in
the USA and South Africa,PD\EHDXVHIXOPRGHOWRIROORZ7ZRUHODWHG
DSSURDFKHVLQYROYLQJWKH$XVWUDOLDQHQYLURQPHQWSURPLVHWREHYDOXDEOH
RQHRQDELRWLFKLVWRU\WKHPHWKHRWKHURQWKHPRUHVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGOLQHV
RI FRPSDUDWLYH FRORQLDO KLVWRU\ 7KH RYHUH[DJJHUDWHG DQG LQHYLWDEO\
$PHULFRFHQWULF LQIOXHQFH RI&URVE\¶V WKHRULHV RIELRWLF FRORQLDOLVP DV
H[SUHVVHGLQEcological ImperialismLQ KDYHQRQHWKHOHVVDOHUWHGXVWR
WKH LPSRUWDQFH RIXQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH FXOWXUDO DQG HFRQRPLF LPSDFW RI
Environmental History
KXPDQGLUHFWHGSODQWDQGDQLPDOGLIIXVLRQ%XWWKHHQRUPRXVLPSDFWLQ
WKH UHYHUVH GLUHFWLRQ WR WKDW GRFXPHQWHG E\ &URVE\ RI$PHULFDQ DQG
$XVWURQHVLDQ FURS DQG RWKHU SODQW VSHFLHV RQ WKH HFRORJLFDO KLVWRU\ RI
$IULFD 6RXWKHDVW $VLD DQG &KLQD UHPDLQV D ODUJHO\ XQWROG VWRU\ 2QH
QHHGVRQO\WRPHQWLRQWKHJURZLQJHYLGHQFHRIPDVVLYHVRLOHURVLRQGXH
SDUWO\WRVORSHFXOWLYDWLRQIROORZLQJWKHGLIIXVLRQRIPDL]HZLWKLQ&HQWUDO
$PHULFD $IULFDDQG &KLQD WR XQGHUVWDQG WKLV (TXDOO\ WKH GLIIXVLRQ RI
$XVWUDOLDQeucalyptDQGRWKHUSODQWVSHFLHVLQ$IULFDDQG6RXWK$VLDKDV
KDGDFRQVLGHUDEOHHFRQRPLFDQGDHVWKHWLFLPSDFWEXWUHPDLQVVXEVWDQ
WLDOO\ XQVWXGLHG 3HUKDSV PRVW JODULQJ RIDOO LV WKH DEVHQFH RID FRP
SDUDWLYH HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ RI VRXWKHUQ $IULFD DQG $XVWUDOLD D
SURMHFWWKDWZRXOGEHRIJUHDWLPSRUWLQYLHZRIWKHFOLPDWLFDQGSK\VLR
JUDSKLFUHVHPEODQFHVRIWKHWZRUHJLRQV
,W VHHPV DSSURSULDWH LQ FRQFOXVLRQ WR TXRWH GLUHFWO\ IURP -RVHSK
3RZHOODVWKHSLRQHHURI$XVWUDOLDQ HQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\ DVKHWULHVWR
SUHGLFWDQGSUHVFULEHIRUWKH IXWXUH +LVYLHZV DUHUHOHYDQWLQDEURDGHU
VHQVH WR WKH DJHQGDV RIHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\ SDUWLFXODUO\ LQ KLV UHIHU
HQFH WR WKH GDQJHUV RI µD FRQYROXWHG SULYDWH GLVFRXUVH¶ SUHFLVHO\ WKH
SUREOHPWKDWLQDQDWLRQDOLVWLFVHQVHWRRNHDUO\$PHULFDQHQYLURQPHQWDO
KLVWRU\ XS VXFK D EOLQG DOOH\ DQG ZKLFK $XVWUDOLDQV DPRQJ RWKHUV
ZRXOGGRZHOOWREHZDUHRI
127(6
5 + *URYH Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens
and the Origins o f Environmentalism, 1600-1860 &DPEULGJH DQG 1HZ'HOKL
: / 7KRPDVHG M an’s Role in Changing the Face o f the Earth&KLFDJR
&ROODERUDWRUVLQFOXGHG&DUO 6DXHU 0 %DWHV DQG / 0XPIRUG
6HH HJ $ODQ & +DPLOWRQ Environmental History o f East Africa /RQGRQ
6HH *URYH Green Imperialism.
& *ODFNHQ Traces on the Rhodian Shore %HUNHOH\
/XLV 8UWHDJD La tierra esquilmada %DUFHORQD
+RZHYHU D VSHFLILFDOO\ µ(XURSHDQ¶ GLVFLSOLQH KDV KDG VRPH GLIILFXOWLHV 7KXV
WKH(XURSHDQ (QYLURQPHQWDO +LVWRU\$VVRFLDWLRQKDVIORXULVKHGIDUOHVV WKDQ
SDUDOOHO $PHULFDQ ,QGRQHVLDQ DQG &KLQHVH DVVRFLDWLRQV 0RUHRYHU WKH PRVW
XVHIXOERRN RQ (XURSHDQ HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ UHPDLQV WKDWZULWWHQE\WZR
(QJOLVKPHQ3LHUV%ODLNLHDQG+DUROG%URRNILHOGLand Degradation/RQGRQ
%XW%URRNILHOGLVQRZSUDFWLVLQJKLVFUDIWLQ$XVWUDOLD
$OGRXV +X[OH\ Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Other Essays
1HZ<RUN S
$UQROG-RVHSK 7R\QEHH Mankind and Mother Earth: A Narrative History o f
the World1HZ<RUN
*URYH Green Imperialism.
$OIUHG &URVE\ µ7KH 3DVW DQG 3UHVHQW R I(QYLURQPHQWDO +LVWRU\¶ American
Historical Review2FW SS
: %HLQDUWDQG3 &RDWHVEnvironment and History: The Taming o f Nature in
the USA and South Africa /RQGRQ ' 0 $QGHUVRQ µ'HSUHVVLRQ
'XVWERZO'HPRJUDSK\DQG'URXJKW7KH&RORQLDO6WDWHDQG6RLO&RQVHUYD
WLRQLQ(DVW$IULFDGXULQJWKH V¶ African Affairs, SS
6HH + & 'DUE\ Historical Geography o f England before 1800 A
Scientific Survey o f the Cambridge Region The Draining o f the Fens
DQG The Medieval Fenland
- & 0DFNHQ]LH µ&OLPDWHLQ%XUPHVH+LVWRU\¶Journal o f the Burma Research
Society, SS
/ ' 6WDPS DQG /HVOLH /RUG µ7KH (FRORJ\ RI3DUW R IWKH 5LYHULQH7UDFW RI
%XUPD¶ Journal o f Ecology, SS
6HH / ' 6WDPS µ1RWHV RQWKH 9HJHWDWLRQ RI%XUPD¶ Geographical Journal,
SS 6WDPS FRQFHUQHG KLPVHOIKHUH ZLWK WKH KLVWRU\ RIWKH
WLPEHU WUDGH DQG VKLIWLQJ FXOWLYDWLRQ The Vegetation o f Burma from an
Ecological Standpoint, 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 5DQJRRQ 5HVHDUFK 3XEOLFDWLRQ
µ%XUPD $ 6XUYH\ R ID 0RQVRRQ &RXQWU\¶ Geographical Review,
SS µ7KH ,UUDZDGG\5LYHU¶ Geographical Journal, SS
µ6LDP EHIRUH WKH :DU¶ Geographical Journal, SS The
Basic Land Resources o f Burma, 6DUSD\ %HLNDP3UHVVIRUWKH%XUPD5HVHDUFK
6RFLHW\ )LIWLHWK$QQLYHUVDU\ 3XEOLFDWLRQ 5DQJRRQ SS
Environmental History
/ ' 6WDPS µ7KH $HULDO 6XUYH\ R I WKH ,UUDZDGG\ 'HOWD )RUHVWV %XUPD
Journal o f Ecology, SS
*RUGRQ(DVW The Geography behind History /RQGRQ S
&ODUHQFH - *ODFNHQ Studies o f Okinawan Village Life, :DVKLQJWRQ '&
3DFLILF6FLHQFH%RDUG1DWLRQDO5HVHDUFK&RXQFLO The Great Loochoo:
A Study o f Okinawan Village Life%HUNHOH\
6HH 5XVVHOO 0HLJJV Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean World
2[IRUG ' +XJKHVµ7KHRSKUDVWXV DV (FRORJLVW¶ Environmental
Review,SS
6HH- 7KLUVN HG The Agrarian History o f England and Wales &DPEULGJH
YRO 0 6SXIIRUG Contrasting Communities &DPEULGJH
9LFWRU 6NLSS Crisis and Development: An Ecological Case-study o f the Forest
o f Arden, 1570-1694&DPEULGJH
- 5DYHQVGDOH Liable to Floods &DPEULGJH
2 5DFNKDPDQG-0RRG\ The Making o f the Cretan Landcape0DQFKHVWHU
7KLVERRNZDV D IRUHWDVWHR IDPDMRUFROODERUDWLYHHIIRUW$ 7 *URYH
DQG 2 5DFNKDP Questioning Desertification: An Environmental History o f
Southern Europe1HZ+DYHQ IRUWKFRPLQJ
(PPDQXHO /H 5R\ /DGXULH Times o f Feast, Times o f Famine: A History o f
Climate since the Year 1000/RQGRQ
)RUDQDVVHVVPHQWR I/HIHEYUH¶VDSSURDFKVHH0DUFHO5HLQKDUGRevue Histor-
ique, SS IRU /DEURXVVH¶V PRVW UHOHYDQW ZRUN VHH & (
/DEURXVVH Esquisse du mouvement des prix et des revenus en France au xviiie
siécleYROV3DULV IRUUHPDUNVRQWKHLQIOXHQFHR I0DQOH\RQ /H5R\
/DGXULH¶V VHPLQDOZRUNVHH /H 5R\ /DGXULH Times o f Feast.
*XVWDI8WWHUVWURP µ&OLPDWLF)OXFWXDWLRQV DQG3RSXODWLRQ 3UREOHPV LQ(DUO\
0RGHUQ+LVWRU\¶ Scandinavian Economic History Review, SS
)RUWKHEHVWJHQHUDOVXUYH\ RIWKHSHULRG VHH - 0 *URYH The Little Ice Age
/RQGRQ
6HH HJ 5REHUW 0DUNV µ³,W 1HYHU XVHG WR 6QRZ´ &OLPDWLF 9DULDELOLW\ DQG
+DUYHVW<LHOGVLQ/DWHLPSHULDO6RXWK&KLQD ¶LQ0(OYLQDQG/LX
7V¶XLMXQJ HGV Sediments o f Time: Environment and Society in Chinese
History&DPEULGJH SS
6HHQ DERYH
& 6DXHU Early Spanish Main %HUNHOH\ SXEOLVKHU¶V EOXUE TXRWLQJ
UHYLHZVLQAmericasDQGWKHProfessional Geographer.
& *HHUW] Agricultural Involution%HUNHOH\ S YLL
,ELG S YL
5RGHULFN 1DVK µ$PHULFDQ (QYLURQPHQWDO +LVWRU\ $ 1HZ 7HDFKLQJ )URQ
WLHU¶ Pacific Historical Review, SS
)RU D UHFHQW H[WUHPHO\ XVHIXO VHW R I HVVD\V DQG UHYLHZ R I WKH OLWHUDWXUH LQ
$XVWUDOLDQ HQYLURQPHQWDO KLVWRU\ VHH 6WHSKHQ 'RYHUV Australian Environ-
mental History: Essays and Cases 0HOERXUQH 7KLV SXEOLFDWLRQ LV
SUREDEO\ WRR UHFHQW IRU DQ\ H[WHUQDO FRPPHQWDWRU WR VHH WKH ZRUN LQ DQ\
WUXH SHUVSHFWLYH
6HHDQ DUWLFOH E\7LP %RQ\KDG\ RQ WKHSXEOLF UHVSRQVHWR PHGLDFRYHUDJH RI
WKH HYHQWV Sydney Morning Herald,
Richard H. Grove
+LV SUHIDWRU\ TXRWDWLRQ IURP 'DUE\ UDQ DV IROORZV µ:KHQ DV JHRJUDSKHUV
ZHJD]HDURXQGRQHTXHVWLRQIRUFHVLWVHOIXSRQRXUDWWHQWLRQLWWDNHVDYDULHW\
R IIRUPV ³:K\GRHVWKHFRXQWU\VLGHORRNDVLWGRHV":KDWKDVJLYHQWKHODQG
LWVSUHVHQWFKDUDFWHU"´7KHPRPHQWZHDVNWKLV TXHVWLRQWKDWPRPHQWZHDUH
FRPPLWWHG WR KLVWRULFDO JHRJUDSK\ LQ RQH IRUP RU DQRWKHU¶ 'DUE\ µ2Q WKH
5HODWLRQV R I*HRJUDSK\ DQG +LVWRU\¶ Transactions o f the Institute o f British
Geographers, S TXRWHG LQ 0LFKDHO:LOOLDPV The Making o f the
South Australian Landscape/RQGRQ S
6HH*URYHµ7KH(DVW,QGLD&RPSDQ\WKH$XVWUDOLDQVDQGWKH( O1 LQR¶A N U
Discussion Papers in Economic History,
- 3RZHOO Environmental Management in Australia, 1788-1914 0HOERXUQH
S L[
7 *ULIILWKV Secrets o f the Forest: Discovering History in Melbourne’s Ash
Range0HOERXUQH
%HLQDUWDQG&RDWHV Environment and History Q DERYH
%XWVHH* / 6KDXJKQHVV\ µ+LVWRULFDO(FRORJ\R I$OLHQ:RRG\3ODQWVLQWKH
9LFLQLW\ RI&DSH7RZQ 6RXWK$IULFD¶3K' GLVVHUWDWLRQ 8QLYHUVLW\R I&DSH
7RZQ
-RVHSK3RZHOOSHUVRQDOVXPPDU\RISDSHUHQWLWOHGµ+LVWRULFDO*HRJUDSK\DQG
(QYLURQPHQWDO+LVWRU\$Q$XVWUDOLDQ,QWHUIDFH¶,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RQIHUHQFHRI
+LVWRULFDO*HRJUDSKHUV 3HUWK:$-XO\
+LVWRU\RI(YHQWV DQGWKH5HYLYDORI
1DUUDWLYH
Peter Burke
1DUUDWLYHYHUVXV6WUXFWXUH
5LFRHXU ZHQW RQ WR DUJXH WKDW DOO ZULWWHQ KLVWRU\ LQFOXGLQJ WKH VR
FDOOHG µVWUXFWXUDO¶ KLVWRU\ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK %UDXGHO DQG WKH µAnnales
VFKRRO¶QHFHVVDULO\WDNHVVRPHNLQGRIQDUUDWLYHIRUP7R WKLVDUJXPHQW
RQHPLJKWUHVSRQGWKDWWRGHVFULEHVWUXFWXUDOKLVWRU\DVDNLQGRIQDUUDW
LYH LV WR GLOXWH WKH FRQFHSW RIQDUUDWLYH VR PXFK DV WR UHQGHU LW DOPRVW
XVHOHVV ,Q DQ\FDVH LWLV VXUHO\LPSRUWDQWWRPDNH GLVWLQFWLRQV EHWZHHQ
ZKDWRQHPLJKWFDOOGHJUHHVRIQDUUDWLYLW\LQWKHKLVWRULFDOZULWLQJVRIRXU
WLPHRULQGHHGDQ\RWKHUSHULRG7RLOOXVWUDWH VXFKGLVWLQFWLRQVLVRQHRI
WKHPDLQSXUSRVHVRIWKLVFKDSWHU
)RUVRPH\HDUVQRZWKHUHKDYHEHHQVLJQVWKDWKLVWRULFDOQDUUDWLYHLQD
IDLUO\VWURQJVHQVHRIWKDWWHUPKDVEHHQPDNLQJDFRPHEDFN(YHQVRPH
RIWKHKLVWRULDQVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKAnnalesKDYHEHHQPRYLQJLQWKLVGLUHF
WLRQ WKHODWH*HRUJHV'XE\IRUH[DPSOHZKRSXEOLVKHGDVWXG\RIWKH
EDWWOHRI%RXYLQHVDQG(PPDQXHO/H5R\/DGXULHZKRVHCarnivalGHDOV
ZLWK WKH HYHQWV ZKLFK WRRN SODFH LQ WKH VPDOO WRZQ RI5RPDQV GXULQJ
DQG7KHH[SOLFLWDWWLWXGHRIWKHVHWZRKLVWRULDQVLVQRWYHU\IDU
IURP%UDXGHO¶V'XE\DQG/H5R\/DGXULHIRFXVRQSDUWLFXODUHYHQWVQRW
IRU WKHLU RZQ VDNH EXW IRU ZKDW WKH\ UHYHDO DERXW WKH FXOWXUH LQ ZKLFK
WKH\ WRRNSODFH $OO WKH VDPH WKHIDFW WKDWWKH\ GHYRWHZKROHERRNVWR
SDUWLFXODUHYHQWVVXJJHVWVDFHUWDLQGLVWDQFHIURP%UDXGHO¶VSRVLWLRQDQG
LQ DQ\ FDVH /H 5R\ /DGXULH KDV GLVFXVVHG HOVHZKHUH WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI
ZKDW KH FDOOV WKH µFUHDWLYH HYHQW¶ événement matrice ZKLFK GHVWUR\V
WUDGLWLRQDOVWUXFWXUHVDQGUHSODFHVWKHPZLWKQHZRQHV
7KH QHZ WUHQG ZKLFK KDV EHJXQ WR DIIHFW RWKHU GLVFLSOLQHV QRWDEO\
VRFLDO DQWKURSRORJ\ ZDV DQDO\VHG E\ D %ULWLVK KLVWRULDQ WKH ODWH
/DZUHQFH 6WRQH LQ DQ DUWLFOH µ7KH 5HYLYDO RI1DUUDWLYH¶ ZKLFK ZDV
SXEOLVKHG LQ DQG LV VWLOO RIWHQ FLWHG 6RPH RI WKH EHVWNQRZQ
KLVWRULFDO SXEOLFDWLRQV VLQFH FRQWLQXH WR H[HPSOLI\ 6WRQH¶V DUJX
PHQWVDQGDIHZRIWKHPZLOOEHGLVFXVVHGLQPRUHGHWDLOEHORZ
,WPD\EHXVHIXOWRGLVWLQJXLVKWZRNLQGVRILQWHUHVWLQQDUUDWLYHRQWKH
SDUWRIKLVWRULDQV ,QWKHILUVWSODFHWKH\DUHLQWHUHVWHGLQZULWLQJQDUUDW
LYHWKHPVHOYHV,QWKHVHFRQGSODFH DSRLQW6WRQHGLGQRWPDNHEXWRQH
ZKLFKKDVEHFRPHREYLRXVVLQFH KLVWRULDQVKDYHFRPHWRVHHPDQ\
RIWKHLUVRXUFHVDVVWRULHVWROGE\SDUWLFXODUSHRSOHUDWKHUWKDQDVREMHFW
LYH UHIOHFWLRQV RI WKH SDVW 7KXV 1DWDOLH 'DYLV LQ D ERRN ZLWK WKH
SURYRFDWLYHWLWOHFiction in the Archives, DQDO\VHGDFROOHFWLRQRIDSSHDOV
IRUSDUGRQDSSHDOVGLUHFWHGWRWKH.LQJRI)UDQFHE\SHRSOHDFFXVHGRI
KRPLFLGH ZKR WROG WKH VWRULHV RIKRZ WKH\ FDPH WR NLOO LQ WKH KRSH RI
REWDLQLQJ PHUF\ 5HFHQW VWXGLHV RIVRFLDO KLVWRU\ RIWHQ EDVHG RQ FRXUW
UHFRUGV KDYH VWXGLHG WKH GRFXPHQWV DV QDUUDWLYHV RI UDSH TXDUUHOV
ZLWFKFUDIW FKLOG PXUGHU DQG VR RQ 7KH\ HPSKDVL]H WKH H[WHQW WR
ZKLFK SHRSOH µOLYH LQ¶ VWRULHV DV 0DUN (OYLQ SXWV LWLQ D UHFHQW VWXG\ RI
&KLQD LQ WKH QLQHWHHQWK DQG WZHQWLHWK FHQWXULHV WKH H[WHQW WR ZKLFK
History o f Events and the Revival o f Narrative
SHRSOHWHOOVWRULHVWRWKHPVHOYHVDQGRWKHUVDOOWKHWLPHLQRUGHUWRPDNH
VHQVHRIWKHLUH[SHULHQFH
6RPHKLVWRULDQVKDYH DGRSWHGWKHSKUDVH µFXOWXUDO QDUUDWLYHV¶ WR UHIHU
WRSORWVZKLFKUHFXULQDSDUWLFXODUFXOWXUHOLNHWKHVWRU\RIWKHWVDUZKR
NLOOVKLVVRQ DVWRU\ZKLFKZDVHQDFWHGLQWKHUHLJQ RI,YDQWKH7HUULEOH
DQG RQFH DJDLQ LQ WKH DJH RI 3HWHU WKH *UHDW 7KH LQIOXHQFH RI WKH
QDUUDWLYHV WROG LQ QRYHOV QHZVSDSHUV RU ILOPV RQ WKH ZD\V RQ ZKLFK
SHRSOH SHUFHLYH WKHLU RZQ DFWLRQV RU WKRVH RIWKHLU QHLJKERXUV KDV DOVR
DWWUDFWHGWKHDWWHQWLRQRIKLVWRULDQV:KDWVRPHKLVWRULDQV DUHZULWLQJ
QRZDUHQDUUDWLYHVDERXWQDUUDWLYHV
6WRQH FODLPHG WR EH GRLQJ QR PRUH WKDQ µWU\LQJ WR FKDUW REVHUYHG
FKDQJHVLQKLVWRULFDOIDVKLRQ¶UDWKHUWKDQPDNLQJYDOXHMXGJHPHQWVEXW
LWLVGLIILFXOWQRWWRVHQVHWKHUHJUHWRIDSLRQHHUVRFLDOKLVWRULDQZKRZDV
HVVHQWLDOO\FRQFHUQHGZLWKH[SODLQLQJWKHSDVWDWVHHLQJZKDWKHFDOOHGµWKH
VKLIWIURPWKHDQDO\WLFDOWRWKHGHVFULSWLYHPRGH¶ RIKLVWRULFDOZULWLQJ
6RPH RIWKH EHVWNQRZQ KLVWRULFDO VWXGLHV SXEOLVKHG LQ WKH V FRQ
ILUPHGKLVREVHUYDWLRQV
6LPRQ6FKDPD¶V Citizens,IRUH[DPSOHSXEOLVKHGLQ ZDVDVWXG\
RIWKH)UHQFK5HYROXWLRQZKLFKGHVFULEHGLWVHOIDVUHWXUQLQJµWRWKHIRUP
RIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\FKURQLFOHV¶7KLVGHVFULSWLRQQHHGQRWEHWDNHQ
WRR VHULRXVO\ VLQFH WKH DXWKRU VKRZHG JUHDW VNLOO LQ LQVHUWLQJ HOHPHQWV
RIWKH QHZ FXOWXUDO KLVWRU\ RIWKH 5HYROXWLRQ D FRQFHUQ ZLWK VW\OHV RI
RUDWRU\ IRUH[DPSOHLQWRKLV VWRU\MXVWDVKHLQVHUWHGPLFURKLVWRULHVRI
UHODWLYHO\XQNQRZQSHRSOHVXFKDVµWKHPDQZKRORYHGUDWV¶WKHµ&KHYD
OLHU¶ /DWXGH $OOWKH VDPH 6FKDPD¶VVWRU\ZDV DUHWXUQWR DQLQHWHHQWK
FHQWXU\PRGHRIKLVWRULFDOZULWLQJLQLWVUHMHFWLRQ RIDWWHPSWVWRH[SODLQ
WKH5HYROXWLRQLQWHUPVRIWKHVWUXFWXUHRILQVWLWXWLRQVDQGLWVSUHIHUHQFH
IRUH[SODQDWLRQVLQWHUPVRIGHFLVLRQVWDNHQE\LQGLYLGXDOV
7KHWLWOHRI6WRQH¶VDUWLFOHDVZHOODVLWVDUJXPHQWVKDVEHHQLQIOXHQWLDO
LW KDV FRQWULEXWHG WR PDNH KLVWRULFDO QDUUDWLYH D PDWWHU IRU GHEDWH
0RUH H[DFWO\ KLVWRULFDO QDUUDWLYH KDV EHFRPH DPDWWHU IRU DW OHDVW WZR
GHEDWHV ZKLFK KDYHEHHQ WDNLQJ SODFHLQGHSHQGHQWO\ GHVSLWH WKH UHOHY
DQFHRIHDFKWRWKHRWKHU7ROLQNWKHWZRLVDPDMRUDLPRIWKLVFKDSWHU
,Q WKH ILUVW SODFH WKHUH LV WKH ZHOONQRZQ DQG ORQJVWDQGLQJ FDPSDLJQ
RSSRVLQJ WKRVH ZKR DVVHUW OLNH %UDXGHO WKDW KLVWRULDQV VKRXOG WDNH
VWUXFWXUHV PRUH VHULRXVO\ WKDQ HYHQWV DQG WKRVH ZKR FRQWLQXH WR
EHOLHYHWKDWWKH KLVWRULDQ¶VMRE LV WR WHOO D VWRU\ ,Q WKLVFDPSDLJQ ERWK
VLGHV DUH QRZ HQWUHQFKHG LQ WKHLU SRVLWLRQV EXW HDFK KDV PDGH VRPH
LPSRUWDQWSRLQWVDWWKHH[SHQVHRIWKHRWKHU
2Q RQH VLGH WKH VWUXFWXUDO KLVWRULDQV KDYH VKRZQ WKDW WUDGLWLRQDO
QDUUDWLYH SDVVHV RYHU LPSRUWDQW DVSHFWV RIWKH SDVW IURP WKH HFRQRPLF
DQGVRFLDOIUDPHZRUNWRWKHH[SHULHQFHDQGPRGHVRIWKRXJKWRIRUGLQDU\
SHRSOH ZKLFK LW LS VLPSO\ XQDEOH WR DFFRPPRGDWH ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV
Peter Burke
QDUUDWLYHLVQRPRUHLQQRFHQWLQKLVWRULFDOZULWLQJWKDQLWLVLQILFWLRQ ,Q
WKHFDVHRIDQDUUDWLYHRISROLWLFDOHYHQWVLWLVGLIILFXOWWRDYRLGHPSKDVL]
LQJWKHGHHGVDQGGHFLVLRQVRIWKHOHDGHUVZKLFKIXUQLVKDFOHDUVWRU\OLQH
DWWKHH[SHQVHRIWKHIDFWRUVZKLFKHVFDSHGWKHLUFRQWURO$VIRUFROOHFWLYH
HQWLWLHV *HUPDQ\ WKH&KXUFKWKH&RQVHUYDWLYH3DUW\WKH3HRSOHDQG
VRRQ WKHQDUUDWLYHKLVWRULDQLVIRUFHGWRFKRRVHEHWZHHQRPLWWLQJWKHP
DOWRJHWKHURUSHUVRQLI\LQJWKHPDQG,ZRXOGDJUHHZLWKWKHJUHDW'XWFK
KLVWRULDQ-RKDQ+XL]LQJDWKDWSHUVRQLILFDWLRQLVDILJXUHRIVSHHFKZKLFK
KLVWRULDQV VKRXOG WU\ WR DYRLG 3HUVRQLILFDWLRQ EOXUV GLVWLQFWLRQV
EHWZHHQ OHDGHUVDQGIROORZHUV DQGHQFRXUDJHVOLWHUDOPLQGHGUHDGHUVWR
DVVXPHWKHFRQVHQVXVRIJURXSVZKRZHUHRIWHQLQFRQIOLFW
,QWKH FDVH RIPLOLWDU\ DIIDLUVLQSDUWLFXODU WKH %ULWLVKKLVWRULDQ-RKQ
.HHJDQKDVSRLQWHGRXWWKDWWKHWUDGLWLRQDOEDWWOHQDUUDWLYHLVPLVOHDGLQJ
LQLWVµKLJKIRFXVRQOHDGHUVKLS¶DQGLWVµUHGXFWLRQRIVROGLHUVWRSDZQV¶VR
WKDWLWQHHGVWR EHDEDQGRQHG µ+LVWRU\IURPEHORZ¶ GLVFXVVHGDERYH
FKDSWHUQRZLQFOXGHVWKHKLVWRU\RIZDUIDUH$OOWKHVDPHLWLVGLIILFXOW
WR DEDQGRQ WKH WUDGLWLRQDO QDUUDWLYH RI EDWWOHV D SRLQW ZKLFK PD\
EH LOOXVWUDWHG IURP WKH FDVH RI &RUQHOLXV 5\DQ¶V ZHOONQRZQ VWXG\ RI
''D\
5\DQ VHW RXW WR ZULWH DERXW WKH VROGLHU¶VZDU UDWKHU WKDQ WKDW RIWKH
JHQHUDOV+LVKLVWRU\LVDQH[WHQVLRQRIKLVZRUNDVDZDUFRUUHVSRQGHQW
LWVVRXUFHVDUHPDLQO\RUDO+LVERRNFRQYH\VYHU\ZHOOWKHµIHHO¶RIEDWWOH
RQERWKVLGHV,WLVYLYLGDQGGUDPDWLF LQGHHGOLNHDFODVVLFDOGUDPDLWLV
RUJDQL]HG DURXQG WKH WKUHH µXQLWLHV¶ RISODFH 1RUPDQG\ WLPH -XQH
DQGDFWLRQ2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHERRNLVIUDJPHQWHGLQWRGLVFUHWH
HSLVRGHV 7KHH[SHULHQFHV RIWKH GLIIHUHQWSDUWLFLSDQWVGRQRWFRKHUH ,Q
RUGHUWROLQNWKHPWKHDXWKRULVREOLJHGWRLPSRVHDVFKHPDGHULYHGIURP
µDERYH¶ DQGWKXVWRUHWXUQWRWKHZDURIWKHJHQHUDOVIURPZKLFKKHZDV
WU\LQJ WRHVFDSH 5\DQ¶V ERRNLOOXVWUDWHV WKH SUREOHP PRUH FOHDUO\ WKDQ
PRVWEXWWKHSUREOHPLVQRWKLVDORQH7KLVNLQGRIELDVPD\EHLQKHUHQW
LQQDUUDWLYHRUJDQL]DWLRQ
2QWKHRWKHUVLGHWKHVXSSRUWHUVRIQDUUDWLYHKDYHSRLQWHGRXWWKDWWKH
DQDO\VLVRIVWUXFWXUHVLVVWDWLFDQGVRLQDVHQVHXQKLVWRULFDO7R WDNHWKH
PRVW IDPRXV H[DPSOH RIVWUXFWXUDO KLVWRU\ LQ RXUWLPH DOWKRXJK %UDX
GHO¶VMediterraneanILQGVURRPIRUHYHQWVDVZHOODV VWUXFWXUHV LW
KDVRIWHQEHHQQRWHGWKDWWKHDXWKRUGRHVOLWWOHWRVXJJHVWZKDWOLQNVWKHUH
PLJKW EH EHWZHHQ WKH WKUHH WLPHVFDOHV ZLWK ZKLFK KH LV FRQFHUQHG WKH
ORQJWKHPHGLXPDQGWKHVKRUWWHUP,QDQ\FDVH %UDXGHO¶VMediterran-
eanLVQRWDQH[WUHPHH[DPSOHRIVWUXFWXUDOKLVWRU\'HVSLWHKLVUHPDUNV
LQ WKH SUHIDFH DERXW WKH VXSHUILFLDOLW\ RIHYHQWV KH ZHQW RQ WR GHYRWH
VHYHUDO KXQGUHG SDJHV WR WKHP LQ WKH WKLUG SDUW RI KLV VWXG\
%UDXGHO¶VIROORZHUVKRZHYHU KDYHWHQGHG WRVKULQNKLVSURMHFWDQGQRW
RQO\ LQ WKH JHRJUDSKLFDO VHQVH LQ WKHFRXUVHRILPLWDWLQJ LW 7KHFODVVLF
History o f Events and the Revival o f Narrative
:H WHQG WR XVH WKH WHUP µHYHQW¶ UDWKHU ORRVHO\ WR UHIHU QRW RQO\ WR
KDSSHQLQJV ZKLFK WDNH D IHZ KRXUV OLNH WKH %DWWOH RI:DWHUORR EXW
DOVR WR RFFXUUHQFHV OLNHWKH )UHQFK 5HYROXWLRQ DSURFHVV VSUHDG RYHUD
QXPEHU RI \HDUV ,W PD\ EH XVHIXO WR HPSOR\ WKH WHUPV µHYHQW¶ DQG
µVWUXFWXUH¶ WR UHIHU WR WKH WZR H[WUHPHV RID ZKROH VSHFWUXP RISRVVLE
LOLWLHV EXWZH VKRXOGQRWIRUJHWWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHPLGGOH RIWKH VSHF
WUXP7KHUHDVRQVIRUWKHODWHDUULYDORIRUGHUVIURP0DGULGQHHGQRWEH
OLPLWHGHLWKHUWRWKHVWUXFWXUHRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQVLQWKH0HGLWHUUDQHDQRU
WR3KLOLS ,,¶VIDLOXUHWRPDNHXSKLVPLQG RQDSDUWLFXODURFFDVLRQ 7KH
NLQJPD\KDYH EHHQFKURQLFDOO\LQGHFLVLYH DQGWKH VWUXFWXUH RIJRYHUQ
PHQWE\FRXQFLOPD\KDYHVORZHGGRZQWKHGHFLVLRQPDNLQJSURFHVVVWLOO
IXUWKHU
,WIROORZVIURPWKLVYDJXHQHVV RIGHILQLWLRQWKDWDV 0DUN3KLOOLSVKDV
VXJJHVWHGZHVKRXOGµWKLQNRIWKHYDULHWLHVRIQDUUDWLYHDQGQRQQDUUDWLYH
PRGHV DV H[LVWLQJ DORQJ D FRQWLQXXP¶ 1RU VKRXOG ZH IRUJHW WR DVN
DERXWWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQHYHQWVDQGVWUXFWXUHV:RUNLQJLQWKLVFHQWUDO
DUHDLWPD\EHSRVVLEOHWRJREH\RQGWKHWZRRSSRVLQJSRVLWLRQVWRUHDFK
DV\QWKHVLV
7UDGLWLRQDO1DUUDWLYHYHUVXV0RGHUQ1DUUDWLYH
*ROR0DQQVHHPVWRKDYHOHDUQHGVRPHWKLQJIURPWKHQDUUDWLYHSUDFWLFH
RIKLVQRYHOLVWIDWKHU ,WLVQRWHQWLUHO\IDQFLIXOWRFRPSDUH*ROR0DQQ¶V
DFFRXQW RIWKH WKRXJKWV RIWKH DJHLQJ :DOOHQVWHLQ ZLWK WKH FHOHEUDWHG
FKDSWHU LQ Lotte in Weimar HYRNLQJ *RHWKH¶V VWUHDP RIFRQVFLRXVQHVV
DSSDUHQWO\DQDWWHPSWWRJRRQHEHWWHUWKDQ-R\FH,QKLVVWXG\ZKLFKKH
FDOOV µDQ DOO WRR WUXH QRYHO¶ *ROR 0DQQ IROORZV WKH UXOHV RIKLVWRULFDO
HYLGHQFH DQGPDNHV LW FOHDU WKDW KH LV SUHVHQWLQJ D K\SRWKHWLFDO UHFRQ
VWUXFWLRQ 8QOLNH PRVW QRYHOLVWV KH GRHV QRW FODLP WR UHDG KLV KHUR¶V
PLQG RQO\KLVOHWWHUV
,QFRQWUDVWWR:KLWH DQG*RVVPDQ ,GRQRWWKLQNWKDWKLVWRULDQVDUH
REOLJHGWRHQJDJHLQOLWHUDU\H[SHULPHQWVVLPSO\EHFDXVH WKH\OLYHLQWKH
WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\RUWRLPLWDWHSDUWLFXODUZULWHUVEHFDXVHWKHLUWHFKQLTXHV
DUHUHYROXWLRQDU\7KHSRLQWRIORRNLQJIRUQHZOLWHUDU\IRUPVLVVXUHO\WKH
DZDUHQHVVWKDWWKHROGIRUPVDUHLQDGHTXDWHIRURQH¶VSXUSRVHV
6RPH LQQRYDWLRQV DUH SUREDEO\ EHVW DYRLGHG E\ KLVWRULDQV ,Q WKLV
JURXS , ZRXOG LQFOXGH WKH LQYHQWLRQ RIVRPHRQH¶V VWUHDP RIFRQVFLRXV
QHVVXVHIXODVLWPLJKWEHIRUWKHVDPHUHDVRQVWKDWKDYHOHGKLVWRULDQVWR
UHMHFW WKH IDPRXV FODVVLFDO GHYLFH RIWKH LQYHQWHG VSHHFK , ZRXOG DOVR
SUHIHUWRDYRLGWKHVFUDPEOLQJRIWHPSRUDO VHTXHQFHWREHIRXQGLQEye-
less in Gaza DQG HOVHZKHUH 2WKHU H[SHULPHQWV KRZHYHU LQVSLUHG E\ D
ZLGHUUDQJH RIPRGHUQZULWHUVWKDQKDYH\HWEHHQPHQWLRQHGPD\ RIIHU
VROXWLRQV WR SUREOHPV ZLWK ZKLFK KLVWRULDQV KDYH ORQJ EHHQ ZUHVWOLQJ
WKUHHSUREOHPVLQSDUWLFXODU
,Q WKH ILUVW SODFH LW PLJKW EH SRVVLEOH WR PDNH FLYLO ZDUV DQG RWKHU
FRQIOLFWVPRUHLQWHOOLJLEOHE\IROORZLQJWKHPRGHORIWKHQRYHOLVWVZKRWHOO
WKHLUVWRULHVIURPPRUHWKDQRQHYLHZSRLQW ,WLVRGGWKDWWKLVGHYLFH VR
HIIHFWLYHLQWKHKDQGVRI+X[OH\:LOOLDP)DXONQHULQThe Sound and the
FuryDQG/DZUHQFH'XUUHOOLQ The Alexandria Quartet
QRWWRPHQWLRQWKHHSLVWRODU\QRYHOVRIWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ KDVQRW
EHHQ WDNHQ PRUH VHULRXVO\ E\ KLVWRULDQV WKRXJK LW PLJKW EH XVHIXO WR
PRGLI\ LW WR GHDO ZLWK FROOHFWLYH YLHZSRLQWV DV ZHOO DV LQGLYLGXDO RQHV
6XFK D GHYLFH ZRXOG DOORZ DQ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RIFRQIOLFW LQ WHUPV RI D
FRQIOLFW RILQWHUSUHWDWLRQV 7R DOORZWKH µYDULHG DQGRSSRVLQJYRLFHV¶ RI
WKH GHDG WR EH KHDUG DJDLQ WKH KLVWRULDQ QHHGV OLNH WKH QRYHOLVW WR
SUDFWLVHKHWHURJORVVLDDERYHS
)RU H[DPSOH LQ DUHPDUNDEOHVWXG\ E\WKH$PHULFDQ DQWKURSRORJLVW
KLVWRULDQ5LFKDUG3ULFHWKHKLVWRU\RIHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\6XULQDPLVSUH
VHQWHGLQWKHIRUPRIDGLDORJXHEHWZHHQIRXUYRLFHV7KHUHDUHWKHEODFN
VODYHVWKHLUSRLQWRIYLHZEHLQJUHFRQVWUXFWHGIURPWKHPHPRULHVRIWKHLU
GHVFHQGDQWVFROOHFWHGE\WKHPHWKRGVRIRUDOKLVWRU\7KHUHDUHWKH'XWFK
FRORQLDODGPLQLVWUDWRUVZKRVHYLHZSRLQWLQIRUPVWKHRIILFLDOGRFXPHQWV
7KHUHDUHWKH0RUDYLDQ PLVVLRQDULHVZKRFDPHWRFRQYHUWWKH6DUDPDND
DQGOHIWD QXPEHURIWH[WV EHKLQG WKHP )LQDOO\WKHUHLVWKHYRLFHRIWKH
Peter Burke
KLVWRULDQKLPVHOISUHVHQWHGQRWDVDILQDOV\QWKHVLVEXWVLPSO\DVRQHYRLFH
DPRQJ RWKHUV 7KH XVH RIIRXU GLIIHUHQW W\SHIDFHV LQ WKH VDPH YROXPH
PDNHVLWHDVLHUIRUWKHUHDGHUWRLGHQWLI\WKHVSHDNHUVDWDQ\SRLQWLQWKH
VWRU\RUUDWKHUVWRULHV
7KHDXWKRU¶VUHIXVDOWRWHOOXVZKDWKLVVWRU\µUHDOO\¶PHDQWPD\VKRFN
VRPH UHDGHUV DV LW GLG VRPH UHYLHZHUV ,Q D VHQVH LW LV DQ DEGLFDWLRQ RI
UHVSRQVLELOLW\ EXWLWDOVRPDNHVWKHSRLQWWKDWKXPDQEHLQJV KLVWRULDQV
LQFOXGHG VHH IURP SDUWLFXODU SRLQWV RI YLHZ 7KH PDLQ SRLQW RI WKH
H[HUFLVHLVWRVKRZDVZHOODVWRVWDWHWKHGLIIHUHQFHVLQVWDQGSRLQWEHWZHHQ
EODFNVDQGZKLWHVRIILFLDOVDQGPLVVLRQDULHVWKHSDVWDQGWKHSUHVHQWWKH
PLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJV DQG WKHVWUXJJOHV E\GLIIHUHQWJURXSV WR LPSRVHWKHLU
SDUWLFXODU GHILQLWLRQV RI WKH VLWXDWLRQ ,W ZLOO EH KDUG WR LPLWDWH WKLV
SDUWLFXODU tour de force RIKLVWRULFDO UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ EXW 3ULFH GHVHUYHV
WRLQVSLUHDVKHOIRIVWXGLHV
,Q WKH VHFRQG SODFH PRUH DQG PRUH KLVWRULDQV DUH FRPLQJ WR UHDOL]H
WKDWWKHLUZRUNGRHVQRWUHSURGXFH µZKDWDFWXDOO\KDSSHQHG¶ VRPXFKDV
UHSUHVHQWLWIURPDSDUWLFXODUSRLQWRIYLHZ7RFRPPXQLFDWHWKLVDZDUH
QHVV WRUHDGHUV RIKLVWRU\ WUDGLWLRQDOIRUPV RIQDUUDWLYHDUHLQDGHTXDWH
+LVWRULFDOQDUUDWRUV QHHG WR ILQG D ZD\ RIPDNLQJ WKHPVHOYHV YLVLEOH LQ
WKHLUQDUUDWLYH QRW RXW RIVHOILQGXOJHQFHEXWDVDZDUQLQJWRWKHUHDGHU
WKDWWKH\ DUHQRW RPQLVFLHQWRULPSDUWLDO DQG WKDW RWKHULQWHUSUHWDWLRQV
EHVLGHVWKHLUVDUHSRVVLEOH,QDUHPDUNDEOHSLHFHRIVHOIFULWLFLVP*ROR
0DQQKDVDUJXHGWKDWDKLVWRULDQQHHGVµWRWU\WRGRWZRGLIIHUHQWWKLQJV
VLPXOWDQHRXVO\¶WRµVZLPZLWKWKHVWUHDPRIHYHQWV¶DQGµWRDQDO\VHWKHVH
HYHQWVIURPWKHSRVLWLRQ RIDODWHUEHWWHULQIRUPHGREVHUYHU¶FRPELQLQJ
WKHWZRPHWKRGVµVR DVWR\LHOGDVHPEODQFHRIKRPRJHQHLW\ZLWKRXWWKH
QDUUDWLYHIDOOLQJDSDUW¶/LWHUDU\WKHRULVWVKDYHODWHO\EHHQGLVFXVVLQJWKH
ILFWLRQDO GHYLFH RIµWKH XQUHOLDEOH ILUVWSHUVRQ QDUUDWRU¶ 6XFK DGHYLFH
PD\ EH RIVRPH XVH WR KLVWRULDQV WRR RQ WKH FRQGLWLRQ WKDWWKHXQUHOL
DELOLW\LVPDGHPDQLIHVW
+D\GHQ:KLWHKDVVXJJHVWHGWKDWKLVWRULFDOQDUUDWLYHVIROORZIRXUEDVLF
SORWV FRPHG\ WUDJHG\ VDWLUH DQG URPDQFH 5DQNH IRU H[DPSOH FKRVH
FRQVFLRXVO\RUXQFRQVFLRXVO\WRZULWHKLVWRU\µHPSORWWHGDVFRPHG\¶LQ
RWKHU ZRUGV IROORZLQJ D µWHUQDU\ PRYHPHQWIURP D FRQGLWLRQ RI
DSSDUHQW SHDFH WKURXJK WKH UHYHODWLRQ RIFRQIOLFW WR WKH UHVROXWLRQ RI
WKHFRQIOLFWLQWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDJHQXLQHO\SHDFHIXOVRFLDORUGHU¶ ,I
WKHZD\LQZKLFKDQDUUDWLYHHQGVKHOSVGHWHUPLQHWKHUHDGHU¶VLQWHUSUHWD
WLRQ WKHQ LW PLJKW EH ZRUWKIROORZLQJ WKH H[DPSOH RIFHUWDLQ QRYHOLVWV
VXFK DV -RKQ )RZOHV DQG SURYLGLQJ DOWHUQDWLYH HQGLQJV $ QDUUDWLYH
KLVWRU\ RIWKH )LUVW:RUOG:DU IRUH[DPSOHZLOOJLYHRQHLPSUHVVLRQLI
WKHVWRU\HQGVDW9HUVDLOOHVLQDQRWKHULIWKHQDUUDWLYHLVH[WHQGHGWR
RU$OWHUQDWLYHFORVXUHVWKXVPDNHWKHZRUNPRUHµRSHQ¶LQWKH
History o f Events and the Revival o f Narrative
VHQVH RIHQFRXUDJLQJ UHDGHUV WR UHDFK WKHLU RZQ FRQFOXVLRQV DERXW WKH
VLJQLILFDQFHRIWKHHYHQWVQDUUDWHG
,QWKHWKLUGSODFH DQGWKLVLVWKHPDLQWKHPHRIWKHUHPDLQGHURIWKLV
FKDSWHU DQHZNLQGRIQDUUDWLYHPLJKWFRSHEHWWHUWKDQWKHROGZLWKWKH
GHPDQGV RIWKH VWUXFWXUDO KLVWRULDQV ZKLOH JLYLQJ D EHWWHU VHQVH RIWKH
IORZRIWLPHWKDQWKHLUDQDO\VHVJHQHUDOO\GR
7KLFNHQLQJ1DUUDWLYHV
,Q WKH V WKH DQWKURSRORJLVW &OLIIRUG *HHUW] FRLQHG WKH WHUP µWKLFN
GHVFULSWLRQ¶IRUDWHFKQLTXHZKLFKLQWHUSUHWVDQDOLHQFXOWXUHWKURXJKWKH
SUHFLVH DQG FRQFUHWH GHVFULSWLRQ RISDUWLFXODUSUDFWLFHV RU HYHQWV LQ KLV
FDVH WKHGHVFULSWLRQ RIFRFNILJKWV LQ %DOLVHH FKDSWHU DERYH /LNH
GHVFULSWLRQ QDUUDWLYH PLJKW EH FKDUDFWHUL]HG DV PRUH RU OHVV µWKLQ¶ RU
µWKLFN¶ $W WKH WKLQ HQG RIWKH VSHFWUXP ZH KDYH WKH EDUH UHPDUN LQ D
YROXPH RI DQQDOV OLNH WKH $QJOR6D[RQ &KURQLFOH WKDW µ,Q WKLV \HDU
&HROZXOIZDVGHSULYHGRIKLVNLQJGRP¶$WWKHRWKHUHQGZHILQGVWRULHV
DOOWRRUDUH VR IDU ZKLFKKDYHEHHQ GHOLEHUDWHO\FRQVWUXFWHGWREHDUD
KHDY\ZHLJKWRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
7KHSUREOHP,VKRXOGOLNHWRGLVFXVVKHUHLVWKDWRIPDNLQJDQDUUDWLYH
WKLFNHQRXJK WR GHDOQRW RQO\ZLWKWKH VHTXHQFHRIHYHQWV DQG WKH FRQ
VFLRXVLQWHQWLRQVRIWKHDFWRUVLQWKHVHHYHQWVEXWDOVR ZLWKVWUXFWXUHV
LQVWLWXWLRQVPRGHVRIWKRXJKWDQGVRRQ ZKHWKHUWKHVHVWUXFWXUHVDFWDV
DEUDNH RQHYHQWVRUDV DQDFFHOHUDWRU :KDWZRXOG VXFKDQDUUDWLYH EH
OLNH"
7KHVH TXHVWLRQV WKRXJK FRQFHUQHG ZLWK UKHWRULF DUH QRW WKHPVHOYHV
UKHWRULFDO ,WLVSRVVLEOH WR GLVFXVV WKHP RQWKHEDVLVRIWH[WV QDUUDWLYHV
SURGXFHG HLWKHU E\ QRYHOLVWV RU E\ KLVWRULDQV ,W LV QRW GLIILFXOW WR ILQG
KLVWRULFDOQRYHOVZKLFKJUDSSOHZLWKWKHVHSUREOHPV2QHPLJKWVWDUWZLWK
War and Peace,VLQFH7ROVWR\PD\EHVDLGWRKDYHVKDUHG %UDXGHO¶VYLHZ
RIWKH IXWLOLW\ RIHYHQWV ,QIDFWPDQ\IDPRXVQRYHOVDUHFRQFHUQHGZLWK
PDMRUVWUXFWXUDOFKDQJHVLQDSDUWLFXODUVRFLHW\YLHZLQJWKHPLQWHUPVRI
WKHLULPSDFWRQWKHOLYHVRIDIHZLQGLYLGXDOV
$ GLVWLQJXLVKHG H[DPSOH IURP RXWVLGH ZHVWHUQ FXOWXUH LV 6KLPD]DNL
7RVRQ¶VBefore the Dawn 7KH µGDZQ¶ RIWKH WLWOHLVWKHPRG
HUQL]DWLRQLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQZHVWHUQL]DWLRQRI-DSDQDQGWKHERRNGHDOV
ZLWK WKH \HDUV LPPHGLDWHO\ EHIRUH DQG DIWHU WKH LPSHULDO UHVWRUDWLRQ RI
ZKHQ LW ZDV IDU IURP FOHDU ZKLFK SDWK WKH FRXQWU\ ZDV JRLQJ WR
IROORZ7KHQRYHOVKRZVLQYLYLGGHWDLOKRZµ7KHHIIHFWVRIWKHRSHQLQJRI
-DSDQ WR WKH ZRUOG ZHUH PDNLQJ WKHPVHOYHV IHOW LQ WKH OLYHV RI HDFK
LQGLYLGXDO¶ 7R GR WKLV WKH DXWKRU FKRRVHV DQ LQGLYLGXDO $R\DPD
Peter Burke
+DQ]R ZKR LV WKH NHHSHU RIDSRVWKRXVH LQ DYLOODJH RQWKHPDLQ URDG
EHWZHHQ.\RWRDQG7RN\R+LVMRENHHSV+DQ]RLQWRXFKZLWKHYHQWVEXW
KH GRHV QRW PHUHO\ REVHUYH WKHP +H LV D PHPEHU RI WKH 1DWLRQDO
/HDUQLQJ PRYHPHQW FRPPLWWHG WR DQ DXWKHQWLFDOO\ -DSDQHVH VROXWLRQ
WR-DSDQ¶VSUREOHPV 7KHSORWRIWKHQRYHO LVWR DODUJHH[WHQWWKHVWRU\
RIWKH LPSDFW RIVRFLDO FKDQJH RQ DQ LQGLYLGXDO DQGKLV IDPLO\ DSRLQW
HPSKDVL]HG E\ 7RVRQ¶V LQWHUUXSWLRQ RIKLV VWRU\ IURP WLPH WR WLPH WR
QDUUDWHWKHPDLQHYHQWVLQ-DSDQHVHKLVWRU\IURP WR
,W LV OLNHO\ WKDW KLVWRULDQV FDQ OHDUQ VRPHWKLQJ IURP WKH QDUUDWLYH
WHFKQLTXHV RI VXFK QRYHOLVWV DV 7ROVWR\ RU 6KLPD]DNL 7RVRQ EXW QRW
HQRXJKWR VROYH DOO WKHLUOLWHUDU\SUREOHPV 6LQFHKLVWRULDQV DUHQRWIUHH
WRLQYHQWWKHLUFKDUDFWHUV RUHYHQWKHZRUGV DQGWKRXJKWV RIWKHLUFKDU
DFWHUVWKH\DUHXQOLNHO\WREHDEOHWRFRQGHQVHWKHSUREOHPVRIDQHSRFK
LQWRDVWRU\DERXWDIDPLO\DVQRYHOLVWVKDYHRIWHQGRQH2QHPLJKWKDYH
KRSHGWKDWWKHVRFDOOHGµQRQILFWLRQQRYHO¶PLJKWKDYHKDGVRPHWKLQJWR
RIIHUKLVWRULDQVIURP7UXPDQ&DSRWH¶VIn Cold BloodWR7KRPDV
.HQHDOO\¶VSchindler’s ArkZKLFKLQVSLUHGWKHILOPSchindler’s List
DQGFODLPV µWRXVHWKHWH[WXUHDQGGHYLFHV RIDQRYHOWRWHOODWUXHVWRU\¶
+RZHYHUWKHVHDXWKRUVGRQRWJUDSSOHZLWKWKHSUREOHPRIVWUXFWXUHV,W
ORRNVDVLIKLVWRULDQVZLOOKDYHWRGHYHORSWKHLURZQµILFWLRQDOWHFKQLTXHV¶
IRUWKHLU µIDFWXDOZRUNV¶
)RUWXQDWHO\WKHUHDUHVLJQVWKDWVRPHKLVWRULDQVDUHGRLQJMXVWWKLV $
QHZMRXUQDO Rethinking History, LV EHFRPLQJ D IRUXP LQ ZKLFK H[SHUL
PHQWVLQQDUUDWLYHDUHPDGHDQGGLVFXVVHG5HFHQWKLVWRULFDOVWXGLHVRIIHU
DQHZIRUPRIQDUUDWLYHRUDQXPEHURIIRUPVRIZKLFKLWPD\EHXVHIXO
WR GLVWLQJXLVK ILYH 2QH PRGHO KDV EHFRPH IDVKLRQDEOH ZKLOH WKH RWKHU
IRXUPD\EHUHSUHVHQWHGE\RQHERRNHDFK
7KHILUVWDQVZHUPLJKWEHGHVFULEHGDVµPLFURQDUUDWLYH¶DVRSSRVHGWR
ZKDWLVRIWHQFDOOHGµ*UDQG1DUUDWLYH¶WKHVWRU\RIWKHULVHRIQDWLRQVWKH
JURZWKRIOLEHUW\ WKHPRGHUQL]DWLRQ RIWKHHFRQRP\DQGVRRQ 0LFUR
QDUUDWLYH DNLQGRIPLFURKLVWRU\LVWKHWHOOLQJRIDVWRU\DERXWRUGLQDU\
SHRSOH LQ WKHLU ORFDO VHWWLQJ 7KHUH LV D VHQVH LQ ZKLFK WKLV WHFKQLTXH LV
FRPPRQSODFH DPRQJ KLVWRULFDO QRYHOLVWV DQG KDV EHHQ VLQFH WKH DJH RI
6FRWWDQG0DQ]RQLZKRVHBetrothedZDV DWWDFNHGDWWKHWLPHLQ
WKHZD\WKDWKLVWRU\IURPEHORZKDVEHHQDWWDFNHGPRUHUHFHQWO\IRULWV
IRFXVRQZKDWWKHUHYLHZHUFDOOHG µWKHPLVHUDEOHFKURQLFOHRIDQREVFXUH
YLOODJH¶
,WZDVRQO\TXLWHUHFHQWO\KRZHYHUWKDWKLVWRULDQVDGRSWHGWKHPLFUR
QDUUDWLYH :HOONQRZQUHFHQW H[DPSOHVLQFOXGH &DUOR &LSROOD¶V VWRU\ RI
WKH LPSDFW RI WKH SODJXH RI RQ WKH FLW\ RI 3UDWR LQ 7XVFDQ\
&DUOR *LQ]EXUJ¶V ELRJUDSK\ RI D VL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\ PLOOHU 0HQRFFKLR
6FDQGHOODDQG1DWDOLH'DYLV¶VWDOHRI0DUWLQ*XHUUHDVL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\
SURGLJDOVRQZKRUHWXUQHGWRKLVKRPHLQWKHVRXWKRI)UDQFHWRILQGWKDW
History o f Events and the Revival o f Narrative
WR WKLQN RID VWXG\ ZKLFK EHWWHU GHVHUYHV WKH GHVFULSWLRQ µKLVWRU\ IURP
DERYH¶WKDQWKHVHOISRUWUDLWRIDQHPSHURUEXW6SHQFHIROORZHGLWZLWKD
PRYLQJHVVD\LQKLVWRU\IURPEHORZ The Death o f Woman WangLVDSLHFH
RIPLFURKLVWRU\LQWKHPDQQHURI&LSROODRU'DYLVZLWKIRXUVWRULHVWROG
RU LPDJHV GHSLFWHG WR UHYHDO FRQGLWLRQV LQ 6KDQWXQJ SURYLQFH LQ WKH
WURXEOHG \HDUV RIWKH ODWHU VHYHQWHHQWK FHQWXU\ &KDQJLQJ WKH IRUP RI
SUHVHQWDWLRQRQFHDJDLQ LQ The Memory Palace o f Matteo Ricci, 6SHQFH
RUJDQL]HGKLVDFFRXQWRIWKHIDPRXV-HVXLWPLVVLRQDU\WR&KLQDDURXQGD
QXPEHURIYLVXDOLPDJHV DWWKHH[SHQVHRIFKURQRORJLFDOVHTXHQFH
The Gate o f Heavenly Peace,RQWKHRWKHUKDQGORRNVPRUHOLNHDSLHFH
RIFRQYHQWLRQDOKLVWRU\DQDFFRXQWRIWKHRULJLQVDQGGHYHORSPHQWRIWKH
&KLQHVH5HYROXWLRQIURPWR 2QFHPRUHKRZHYHUWKHDXWKRU¶V
LQWHUHVW LQ ELRJUDSK\ DQG LQ KLVWRULFDO VQDSVKRWV DVVHUWV LWVHOI DQG KLV
ERRN LV EXLOW URXQG D VPDOO QXPEHU RILQGLYLGXDOV QRWDEO\ WKH VFKRODU
.DQJ<RXZHLDQGWKHZULWHUV/X;XQDQG'LQJ/LQJ 7KHVHLQGLYLGXDOV
GLGQRWSOD\DOHDGLQJSDUWLQWKHHYHQWVRIWKHUHYROXWLRQ)URPWKLVSRLQW
RIYLHZ WKH\ PD\ EH FRPSDUHG ZLWK ZKDW WKH +XQJDULDQ FULWLF *HRUJ
/XNiFVKDVFDOOHGWKHµPHGLRFUHKHUR¶LQWKHQRYHOVRI6LU:DOWHU6FRWW D
KHUR ZKRVH YHU\ RUGLQDULQHVV DOORZV WKH UHDGHU WR VHH WKH OLIH DQG WKH
VRFLDOFRQIOLFWVRIWKHWLPHPRUHFOHDUO\
,Q 6SHQFH¶VFDVHWKHSURWDJRQLVWVZHUH VHOHFWHGEHFDXVH DVWKH DXWKRU
VXJJHVWV WKH\ µGHVFULEHG WKHLU KRSHV DQG VRUURZVZLWKSDUWLFXODUVHQVLW
LYLW\¶ DQG DOVR EHFDXVH WKHLU SHUVRQDO H[SHULHQFHV µKHOS WR GHILQH WKH
QDWXUH RIWKHWLPHV WKURXJKZKLFKWKH\OLYHG¶ 3UHVHQWLQJWKHKLVWRU\ RI
&KLQDLQWKLVZD\GRHVUDLVHSUREOHPV 7KHFURVVFXWWLQJIURPRQHLQGL
YLGXDO WR DQRWKHUULVNV FRQIXVLQJWKHUHDGHU DQGVR GRHV WKHVKLIWEDFN
DQGIRUWKEHWZHHQZKDWPLJKWEHFDOOHGµSXEOLF¶ WLPH WKHWLPHRIHYHQWV
OLNHWKH/RQJ0DUFKRUWKH5HYROXWLRQDQGWKHµSULYDWH¶WLPHRIWKH
PDLQFKDUDFWHUV 2QWKHRWKHUKDQG6SHQFHGRHVFRPPXQLFDWHLQDYLYLG
DQG PRYLQJ ZD\ WKH H[SHULHQFH RIOLYLQJ RU LQGHHG RIIDLOLQJ WR OLYH
WKURXJKWKHVHWXUEXOHQW\HDUV +LVOLQNLQJRIPLFURQDUUDWLYHZLWKPDFUR
QDUUDWLYH WKH SHUVRQDO ZLWK WKH JHQHUDO LV D PRGHO ZKLFK KDV EHHQ
IROORZHG ZKHWKHU WKHVH DXWKRUV DUH DZDUH RI6SHQFH¶V H[SHULPHQW RU
QRW LQ VRPHRIWKHPRVW VXFFHVVIXO UHFHQWKLVWRULFDOQDUUDWLYHV 2QHRI
WKHP6LPRQ6FKDPD¶VCitizens,KDVDOUHDG\EHHQGLVFXVVHG$QRWKHULVA
People’s Tragedy WKH KLVWRU\ RI WKH 5XVVLDQ 5HYROXWLRQ E\
2UODQGR )LJHV LQ ZKLFK WKH SHUVRQDO KLVWRULHV RI D IHZ LQGLYLGXDOV
ZKHWKHUZHOONQRZQWKHZULWHU0D[LP*RUN\ IRUH[DPSOH RUREVFXUH
OLNHWKHSHDVDQW6HUJHL6HPHQRYDUHLQWKHDXWKRU¶VZRUGVµLQWHUZRYHQ
WKURXJK WKH QDUUDWLYH¶ $ WKLUG H[DPSOH LV D ZRUOG KLVWRU\ RIWKH ODVW
WKRXVDQG\HDUV MillenniumE\)HOLSH )HUQiQGH]$UPHVWRZKLFK
FXWV EDFNZDUGV DQG IRUZDUGV EHWZHHQ HYHQWV DW WKH PDFUR DQG WKH
PLFUROHYHO
History o f Events and the Revival o f Narrative
7KHUHPD\EHDWKLUGZD\RIUHODWLQJ VWUXFWXUHWRHYHQWVPRUHFORVHO\
WKDQ KLVWRULDQV JHQHUDOO\ GR ,W LV WR ZULWH KLVWRU\ EDFNZDUGV DV % +
6XPQHU GLG LQ KLV Survey o f Russian History RUJDQL]HG E\ WRSLFV RU
1RUPDQ'DYLHVLQKLVUHFHQWKLVWRU\RI3RODQGHeart o f EuropeD
QDUUDWLYH ZKLFK IRFXVHV RQ ZKDW WKH DXWKRU FDOOV µWKH SDVW LQ 3RODQG¶V
SUHVHQW¶ 7KH VWRU\ EHJLQV ZLWK µ7KH /HJDF\ RI+XPLOLDWLRQ 3RODQG
VLQFH WKH 6HFRQG :RUOG:DU¶ DQGPRYHV EDFN WKURXJK µ7KH /HJDF\ RI
'HIHDW¶ µ7KH /HJDF\ RI 'LVHQFKDQWPHQW¶ µ7KH /HJDF\ RI
6SLULWXDO0DVWHU\¶ DQGVRRQ 2QHDFKRFFDVLRQWKHDXWKRU
LPSOLHV WKDWLWLVLPSRVVLEOH WRPDNH VHQVH RIWKHHYHQWVQDUUDWHGLQRQH
FKDSWHUZLWKRXWNQRZLQJZKDWSUHFHGHGWKHP7KLVIRUPRIRUJDQL]DWLRQ
KDV LWV GLIILFXOWLHV PRVW REYLRXVO\ WKH SUREOHP WKDW HYHQ WKRXJK WKH
FKDSWHUV DUH DUUDQJHG LQ UHYHUVH RUGHU HDFK FKDSWHU KDV WR EH UHDG
IRUZDUGV 7KH JUHDW DGYDQWDJH RIWKH H[SHULPHQW RQWKHRWKHU KDQG LV
WR DOORZ RU HYHQ IRUFH WKH UHDGHU WR IHHO WKH SUHVVXUH RIWKH SDVW RQ
LQGLYLGXDOVDQGJURXSVWKHSUHVVXUHRIVWUXFWXUHVRURIHYHQWVZKLFKKDYH
FRQJHDOHGRUDV5LFRHXUZRXOGVD\µVHGLPHQWHG¶LQWRVWUXFWXUHV'DYLHV
GRHVQRWH[SORLWWKLVDGYDQWDJHDVPXFKDVKHPLJKWKDYHGRQH+HGRHV
QRW PDNH DQ\ VHULRXV HIIRUW WR OLQN WKH HQG RI RQH FKDSWHU ZLWK WKH
EHJLQQLQJ RIWKH QH[W ,W LV GLIILFXOW WR LPDJLQH KLV EDFNZDUGZDONLQJ
DSSURDFK EHFRPLQJ IDVKLRQDEOH LQ WKH PDQQHU RIPLFURKLVWRU\ $OO WKH
VDPHWKLVLVDIRUPRIQDUUDWLYHZHOOZRUWKWDNLQJVHULRXVO\
$IRXUWKSRVVLELOLW\LVWRWHOOWKHVDPH VWRU\LQGLIIHUHQWZD\VEHWZHHQ
WKH FRYHUV RIWKH VDPH ERRN QRW DV LQ 5LFKDUG 3ULFH¶V Alabi’s World)
DFFRUGLQJWRWKHGLIIHUHQWYLHZSRLQWVRIWKHKLVWRULFDODFWRUV EXWDFFRUG
LQJWRGLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKHVWRWKHSDVW ,QKLVHistory in Three Keys,IRU
H[DPSOH3DXO&RKHQOLNHKLVFROOHDJXHV6SHQFHDQG(OYLQDKLVWRULDQRI
&KLQDLQWHUHVWHGLQH[SHULPHQWVLQQDUUDWLYHIRUPH[DPLQHVDPDMRUHYHQW
LQ&KLQHVHKLVWRU\WKHµ%R[HU¶ULVLQJDWWKHHQGRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\
WKHQDPHFRPHVIURPWKHDVVRFLDWLRQRIWKHPRYHPHQWZLWKWKHPDUWLDO
DUWV ,QWKHILUVWSDUWRIKLVERRN &RKHQH[DPLQHVWKHULVLQJDV µHYHQW¶
FUHDWLQJKLVRZQQDUUDWLYHLQWKHWUDGLWLRQDOKLVWRULDQ¶VPDQQHURXWRIWKH
FRPSHWLQJQDUUDWLYHV RISDUWLFLSDQWV ,QWKHVHFRQGSDUW KHWXUQVWRWKH
ULVLQJ DV DQ µH[SHULHQFH¶ +HUH LQVWHDG RI LURQLQJ RXW WKH GLIIHUHQFHV
EHWZHHQVWRULHVKHHPSKDVL]HVWKHPLQRUGHUWRVKRZWKHPXOWLSOLFLW\RI
FRQWHPSRUDU\ YLHZSRLQWV WKRVH RIWKH IRUHLJQ GLSORPDWV DQG PLVVLRQ
DULHVDVZHOODVRIWKH%R[HUVWKHPVHOYHVDQGDOVRWRUHFRYHUWKHVHQVHRI
ZKDWLWIHOWOLNHWROLYHWKURXJKWKHVHGUDPDWLFHYHQWV 7KHWKLUGSDUW RU
WKHWKLUGµNH\¶LVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHULVLQJDVµP\WK¶LQRWKHUZRUGVZLWK
LWVODWHUUHYHUEHUDWLRQVWKHPHPRULHVDQGWKHKLVWRULHVRIWKH%R[HUV
$ ILIWK DQDO\VLV RIWKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ VWUXFWXUHV DQG HYHQWV FDQ EH
IRXQG LQ WKH ZRUN RI DQ $PHULFDQ VRFLDO DQWKURSRORJLVW \HW LW ZLOO
FRPSOHWH WKH FLUFOH E\ EULQJLQJ XV EDFN WR Annales. 7KH DQWKURSRORJLVW
Peter Burke
LV 0DUVKDOO 6DKOLQV ZKR ZRUNV RQ +DZDLL DQG )LML LV H[WUHPHO\ LQWHU
HVWHGLQPRGHUQ)UHQFKWKRXJKWIURP 6DXVVXUHWR%UDXGHO IURP%RXU
GLHXWR/pYL6WUDXVVEXWWDNHVWKHHYHQWPRUHVHULRXVO\WKDQDQ\RIWKHVH
WKLQNHUVGR6DKOLQVPDNHVWZRGLIIHUHQWEXWFRPSOHPHQWDU\SRLQWV
,Q WKH ILUVW SODFH KH VXJJHVWV WKDW HYHQWV QRWDEO\ &RRN¶V DUULYDO LQ
+DZDLL LQ µEHDU GLVWLQFWLYH FXOWXUDO VLJQDWXUHV¶ WKDW WKH\ DUH
µRUGHUHG E\ FXOWXUH¶ LQ WKH VHQVH WKDW WKH FRQFHSWV DQG FDWHJRULHV RID
SDUWLFXODU FXOWXUH VKDSH WKH ZD\V LQ ZKLFK LWV PHPEHUV SHUFHLYH DQG
LQWHUSUHW ZKDWHYHU KDSSHQV LQ WKHLU WLPH 7KH +DZDLLDQV IRU H[DPSOH
SHUFHLYHG&DSWDLQ&RRNDVDPDQLIHVWDWLRQRIWKHLUJRG/RQREHFDXVHKH
ZDV REYLRXVO\ SRZHUIXO DQG EHFDXVH KH DUULYHG DW WKH WLPH RI \HDU
DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK DSSHDUDQFHV RI WKH JRG 7KH HYHQW FDQ WKHUHIRUH EH
VWXGLHG DV %UDXGHO VXJJHVWHG DV D NLQG RIOLWPXV SDSHU ZKLFK UHYHDOV
WKHVWUXFWXUHVRIWKHFXOWXUH
+RZHYHU 6DKOLQV DOVR DUJXHV FRQWUDU\ WR %UDXGHO WKDW WKHUH LV D
GLDOHFWLFDO UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ HYHQWV DQG VWUXFWXUHV &DWHJRULHV DUH
µSXWDWULVN¶DVKHVD\VHYHU\WLPHWKH\DUHXVHGWRLQWHUSUHWWKHFKDQJLQJ
ZRUOG ,Q WKHSURFHVV RILQFRUSRUDWLQJ HYHQWV µWKHFXOWXUH LV UHRUGHUHG¶
7KH HQG RI WKH tabu V\VWHP IRU H[DPSOH ZDV RQH RI WKH VWUXFWXUDO
FRQVHTXHQFHVRIFRQWDFWZLWKWKH %ULWLVK 6RZDV WKHULVH RILQWHUFRQWLQ
HQWDO WUDGH ,W LV WUXH LQ PRUH WKDQ RQH VHQVH WKDW &RRN GLG QRW OHDYH
+DZDLL DV KH KDG IRXQG LW 7KH PRUDO RI 6DKOLQV¶V VWRU\ LV WKDW WKH
VWUXFWXUDOKLVWRULDQQHHGVWRUHFRJQL]HWKHSRZHURIHYHQWV
7R VXPXS , KDYH WULHG WR DUJXH WKDWKLVWRULDQV VXFKDV7DZQH\ DQG
1DPLHU )HEYUH DQG %UDXGHO ZHUHMXVWLILHG LQ WKHLU UHEHOOLRQ DJDLQVW D
WUDGLWLRQDO IRUPRIKLVWRULFDOQDUUDWLYHZKLFKZDVLOOVXLWHGWRWKHVWUXF
WXUDO KLVWRU\ ZKLFK WKH\ FRQVLGHUHG LPSRUWDQW +LVWRULFDO ZULWLQJ ZDV
HQRUPRXVO\ HQULFKHG E\WKHH[SDQVLRQ RILWV VXEMHFWPDWWHU DQG E\WKH
LGHDORIµWRWDOKLVWRU\¶ +RZHYHUPDQ\VFKRODUVQRZWKLQNWKDWKLVWRULFDO
ZULWLQJKDVDOVREHHQLPSRYHULVKHGE\WKHDEDQGRQPHQWRIQDUUDWLYHDQG
D VHDUFK LV XQGHU ZD\ IRU QHZ IRUPV RIQDUUDWLYH ZKLFK ZLOOEH DSSUR
SULDWHWRWKHQHZVWRULHVKLVWRULDQVZRXOGOLNHWRWHOO ,IWKH\DUHORRNLQJ
IRUPRGHOVRIQDUUDWLYHVZKLFKMX[WDSRVHWKHVWUXFWXUHVRIRUGLQDU\OLIHWR
H[WUDRUGLQDU\HYHQWV DQGWKHYLHZIURPEHORZWR WKHYLHZ IURP DERYH
KLVWRULDQV PLJKW EH ZHOO DGYLVHG WR WXUQ WR WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ ILFWLRQ
LQFOXGLQJWKHFLQHPD,WPD\EHVLJQLILFDQWWKDWRQHRIWKHPRVWLQWHUHVW
LQJ GLVFXVVLRQV RIKLVWRULFDO QDUUDWLYH LV WKH ZRUN RID KLVWRULDQ RIWKH
FLQHPDWKHSLHFHE\.UDFDXHU DOUHDG\FLWHG ,WPD\DOVREHVLJQLILFDQW
WKDWWZRRIWKHERRNVGLVFXVVHGDERYHSchindler's ArkDQGThe Return o f
Martin Guerre,ZHUHIROORZHGE\ILOPVRQWKHVDPHVXEMHFWV
7KH GHYLFH RI PXOWLSOH YLHZSRLQWV LV FHQWUDO WR $NLUD .XURVDZD¶V
Rashomon LQZKLFK DVWRU\ RIUDSH RUORYHPDNLQJ DQGPXUGHU
RUVXLFLGHLVQDUUDWHGE\DEDQGLWWKHVDPXUDLWKHVDPXUDL¶VZLIHDQGD
History o f Events and the Revival o f Narrative
ZRRGFXWWHU $QWKURSRORJLVWVQRZVSHDNDERXWWKHµ5DVKRPRQ(IIHFW¶
7KHGHYLFHLVLPSOLFLWLQWKH+XQJDULDQGLUHFWRU0LNOyV-DQFVy¶VQDUUDWLYH
RIWKH 5XVVLDQ FLYLO ZDU LQ ZKLFK WKH 5HGV DQG WKH :KLWHV WDNH
WXUQV WR FDSWXUH WKH VDPH YLOODJH *LOOR 3RQWHFRUYR KDV PDGH WKH
KLVWRULFDO SURFHVV LWVHOIWKH VXEMHFW RIKLV ILOPV RQH DERXW WKH VWUXJJOH
IRU$OJHULDQLQGHSHQGHQFH{La Battaglia di Algeri, DQGDQRWKHUVHW
RQD&DULEEHDQLVODQGLQWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\{Queimada, UDWKHU
WKDQVLPSO\WHOOLQJDVWRU\DERXWLQGLYLGXDOVZKRKDSSHQWRZHDUKLVWRU
LFDOFRVWXPHDVVRPDQ\GLUHFWRUVKDYHGRQH
2QWKHKLVWRULDQ¶V VLGH LWLVLQWHUHVWLQJ WR QRWH WKDW-RQDWKDQ 6SHQFH
XVHV WKH ODQJXDJH RIµPRQWDJH¶ ZKLOH 5REHUW 5RVHQVWRQH DXWKRU RID
VWXG\ RIµWKH FKDOOHQJH RIILOP WR RXU LGHD RIKLVWRU\¶ HPSOR\V SKUDVHV
VXFKDV µFORVHXSV¶ WR UHIHUWR KLV RZQKLVWRULFDOWHFKQLTXHV DQGTXRWHV
WKHILOPGLUHFWRU-HDQ/XF*RGDUGWRWKHHIIHFWWKDWWKHEHJLQQLQJPLGGOH
DQG HQG RID VWRU\ QHHG QRWEH WROG LQ WKDW RUGHU )ODVKEDFNV FURVV
FXWWLQJ DQG WKH DOWHUQDWLRQ RIVFHQH DQG VWRU\ WKHVH DUH FLQHPDWLF RU
LQGHHG OLWHUDU\ WHFKQLTXHV ZKLFK PD\ EH XVHG LQ D VXSHUILFLDO ZD\ WR
GD]]OHUDWKHUWKDQWRLOOXPLQDWHEXWWKH\PD\DOVRKHOSKLVWRULDQVLQWKHLU
FUXFLDO WDVNV RIUHYHDOLQJWKHUHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQHYHQWV DQG VWUXFWXUHV
DQG SUHVHQWLQJ WKH RSSRVLQJ YLHZSRLQWV RI KLVWRULFDO DFWRUV $ QHZ
MRXUQDO Rethinking History, RI ZKLFK 5RVHQVWRQH LV DQ HGLWRU KDV
UHFHQWO\ ODXQFKHG DQ DSSHDO WR UHDGHUV WR VHQGLQDUWLFOHV ZKLFKH[SHUL
PHQWZLWKQDUUDWLYH DQGWKHUHKDVEHHQDOLYHO\UHVSRQVH 'HYHORSPHQWV
RIWKLVNLQGLIWKH\FRQWLQXHPD\KDYHDFODLPWREHUHJDUGHGDVQRPHUH
µUHYLYDO¶ RIQDUUDWLYHDV6WRQHFDOOHGLWEXWDVDUHFRQVWUXFWLRQRUUHJHQ
HUDWLRQ
127(6
/ *RVVPDQ µ+LVWRU\DQG/LWHUDWXUH¶ LQ5 + &DQDU\ DQG+ .R]LFNLHGV
The Writing o f History0DGLVRQ SS
* 0DQQ Wallenstein )UDQNIXUW SS I I 7 0DQQ Lotte in
Weimar FK &I * 0DQQ µ3OiGR\HUILLUGLHKLVWRULVFKH (U]DKOXQJ¶
LQ.RFNDDQG1LSSHUGH\ Theorie, SS HVSHFLDOO\KLV FODLPWKDWKLVWRU
LFDOQDUUDWLYH GRHVQRWH[FOXGHDZDUHQHVV RIWKHRU\
&I*:LOVRQ µ3ORWVDQG0RWLYHVLQ-DSDQ¶V0HLML5HVWRUDWLRQ¶ Comparative
Studies in Society and History,ZKLFKPDNHVXVHR IWKHWHUPLQRORJ\
RI+D\GHQ:KLWH EXW LV HVVHQWLDOO\ FRQFHUQHG ZLWK WKH PXOWLSOLFLW\ R IDFWRUV¶
YLHZSRLQWV DQG 5 %HUNKRIHU Beyond the Great Story: History as Text and
Discourse&DPEULGJH 0DVV SS
5 3ULFH Alabi’s World%DOWLPRUH
7KH SUREOHPZDV DOUHDG\GLVFXVVHG E\7KLHUU\DQG0LFKHOHW 6HH * 3RPDWD
µ2YHUWDQG&RYHUW1DUUDWRUVLQ1LQHWHHQWK&HQWXU\+LVWRULRJUDSK\¶ History
Workshop, SS
)RUHZRUGWRWKH(QJOLVKWUDQVODWLRQR IKLV Wallenstein/RQGRQ 0DQQ
FRQIHVVHVWKDW µWKHILUVW DSSURDFKSUHSRQGHUDWHV¶ LQKLV RZQERRN
: 5LJJDQ Picaros, Madmen, Naifs and Clowns: The Unreliable First-Person
Narrator1RUPDQ2NOD
+ :KLWH Metahistory%DOWLPRUH SS II
&I 0 7RUJRYQLFN Closure in the Novel3ULQFHWRQ DQG 8 (FR µ7KH
3RHWLFVR IWKH2SHQ:RUN¶ LQKLV The Role o f the Reader/RQGRQ FK
$PRYHLQWKHGLUHFWLRQ R IDPRUHRSHQ KLVWRULFDOQDUUDWLYH LVSUHGLFWHGE\
3KLOOLSV µ+LVWRULRJUDSK\¶ S $Q LQWHUHVWLQJ H[DPSOH LV WKH IRUWKFRPLQJ
DUWLFOH E\ -RQDWKDQ :DONHU DERXW WKH VHFUHW H[HFXWLRQ R ID IRUPHU 9HQHWLDQ
DPEDVVDGRUWR(QJODQG LQZKLFKWKHDXWKRUWDNHVVHULRXVO\WKHQRYHOLVW,WDOR
&DOYLQR¶V PHWDSKRU R I VKXIIOLQJ D SDFN R I FDUGV DQG DUUDQJLQJ WKHP LQ
GLIIHUHQWZD\V
& *HHUW] µ7KLFN'HVFULSWLRQ 7RZDUGVDQ,QWHUSUHWDWLYH7KHRU\R I&XOWXUH¶
DQGµ'HHS3OD\1RWHVRQWKH%DOLQHVH&RFNILJKW¶LQKLV The Interpretation o f
Cultures1HZ<RUN
6KLPD]DNL7RVRQ Before the Dawn(QJOLVKWUDQV +RQROXOX
,ELG S
: 5 6LHEHQVFKXK Fictional Techniques and Factional Works $WKHQV *D
GLVFXVVHV KRZ WKLV ZDV GRQH LQ WKH SDVW ZLWK VSHFLDO UHIHUHQFH WR
%RVZHOO¶VOLIHR I-RKQVRQ &I 5 : 5DGHU µ/LWHUDU\ )RUPLQ )DFWXDO1DUUD
WLYH 7KH ([DPSOH R I%RVZHOO¶V -RKQVRQ¶ LQ 3 % 'DJKOLDQ HG Essays in
Eighteenth-Century Biography %ORRPLQJWRQ ,QG SS
4XRWHG LQ $ $VRU 5RVD HG Letteratura Italiana, YRO 7XULQ
S
& &LSROOD Cristofano and the Plague /RQGRQ & *LQ]EXUJ The
Cheese and the Worms (QJOLVK WUDQV /RQGRQ 1 = 'DYLV
The Return o f Martin Guerre&DPEULGJH 0DVV
'DYLV Martin Guerre, S
1 = 'DYLV µ2Q WKH /DPH¶ American Historical Review, SS
UHSO\LQJ WR WKH FULWLTXH E\ 5 )LQOD\ µ7KH 5HIDVKLRQLQJ R I 0DUWLQ
*XHUUH¶ American Historical Review, SS
Peter Burke
2QWKLVFRQFHSW97XUQHUDramas, Fields and Metaphors,WKDFD1<
FK
- 6SHQFH Emperor o f China /RQGRQ The Death o f Woman Wang
/RQGRQ The Gate o f Heavenly Peace /RQGRQ The Memory
Palace o f M atteo Ricci/RQGRQ
*/XNiFV The Historical Novel(QJOLVKWUDQV/RQGRQ SSII
1 'DYLHVHeart o f Europe: A Short History o f Poland2[IRUG
3$&RKHQHistory in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience and Myth
1HZ<RUN
0 6DKOLQV Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities $QQ $UERU
LG Islands o f History &KLFDJR 7KHVH ERRNV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ PRUH
GHWDLO LQ3 %XUNH µ/HV LOHVDQWKURSRORJLTXHVHWOH WHUULWRLUHGHO¶KLVWRULHQ¶ LQ
& 'HVFDPSV HG Philosophie et histoire 3DULV SS
. * +HLGHU µ7KH5DVKRPRQ (IIHFW:KHQ(WKQRJUDSKHUV'LVDJUHH¶Amer-
ican Anthropologist,SS
0-DQFVy Csillagosok, Katonák VKRZQLQ(QJODQGXQGHUWKHWLWOH The
Red and the White.
5 $ 5RVHQVWRQH Visions o f the Past: The Challenge o f Film to our Idea o f
History&DPEULGJH 0DVV
,QGH[