Journal of Resources Development and Management www.iiste.

org
ISSN 2422-8397 An International Peer-reviewed Journal
Vol.23, 2016

Ecological and Economic Roles of Agrobiodiversity

Belay Beyene1 Belachew Beyene2* Abayneh Unasho (Ass. Prof)3* Habtamu Derbe2*
1.Dilla university Natural and computational science
2.Jimma University, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
3.1Dilla university Natural and computational science

Abstract
Biodiversity is a complex, abstract concept. It can be associated with a wide range of benefits to human society,
most of them still ill understood. In general terms, the value of biodiversity can be assessed in terms of its impact
on the provision of inputs to production processes, in terms of its direct impact on human welfare, and in terms
of its impact on the regulation of the nature-ecosystem-ecological functions relationships. The services that
agricultural biodiversity provides are critical to the functioning of food support systems. They contribute to
human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the total economic value of the planet.
The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be attributes to the influence of human beings on the world’s
ecosystem, In fact human beings have deeply altered the environment, and have modified the territory,
exploiting the species directly, for example by fishing and hunting, changing the biogeochemical cycles and
transferring species from one area to another of the Planet. Conserving biodiversity has economic, social, and
cultural values. Conservation of biodiversity is integral to the biological and cultural inheritance of many people
and the critical components of healthy ecosystems that are used to support economic and social developments.
For successful and sustainable conservation there needs to be local community involvement especially for agro
ecosystem. Conservation can broadly be achieved into two ways: In-situ -Conservation of habitats, species and
ecosystems where they naturally occur. This is in-situ conservation and the natural processes and interaction are
conserved as well as the elements of biodiversity and Ex-situ: The conservation of elements of biodiversity out
of the context of their natural habitats is referred to as ex-situ conservation. Zoos, botanical gardens and seed
banks are all example of ex-situ conservation.
Keywords: Biological diversity, Agrobiodiversity, diversity

1. Introduction
Biological diversity or biodiversity is defined as the variety of life encompassing variation at all levels of
complexity genetic, species, ecosystems, and biomes and including functional diversity and diversity across
ecosystems (Palumbi et al., 2009).
Agrobiodiversity can be understood as the diversity within and among species found in an
agroecosystems that contribute to food and agriculture, including planned (domesticated) biodiversity (i.e., the
diversity of crops and livestock genetic resources) as well as all other plant and animal genetic resources(Smale
and Drucker, 2008).
The variety of plants and animals that constitute the food we eat are obvious parts of agricultural
biodiversity. Less visible but equally important are; soil organisms, pollinators, and natural enemies of pests and
diseases that provide essential regulating services that support agricultural production and performs a variety of
ecological services beyond that of food, including recycling of nutrients and local hydrological processes
(Jackson et al., 2010).
In times of rapid change and uncertainty or unpredictable events such as pest outbreaks and drought, the
adaptability of a system plays a major role. Thus it can be seen as a crucial asset to keep multiple options open,
sustaining the ability to rapidly adapt and transform farming systems under unpredictable future conditions
(Faith et al., 2010).
The major causes of biodiversity decline are land use changes, pollution, changes in the nitrogen cycle
and acid rain, climate alterations, and the introduction of exotic species, all these are coincident to human
population growth. In addition to these other anthropogenic causes of biodiversity loss include urbanization,
industrial activities, primitive agricultural practices, land fragmentation, overgrazing, and over-exploitation of
species. Others are road construction, in discriminate disposal of toxic wastes, mining and dereliction, poaching,
as well as bush burning (Ibimilua and Ibimilua 2011).
A major way of achieving sustainable development is through biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity
conservation can be taken to mean the protection, maintenance and/or restoration of living natural resources to
ensure their survival over the long term. But it is variously defined depending on different values, objectives and
world views (Dilys et. al., 2011).

2. Concepts of Biodiversity
According to the convention on Biological Diversity, biodiversity refers to the variability among living

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organisms (animals, plants, and microorganisms) including inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic
ecosystems with their ecological complexes. In another expression, biodiversity encompasses the variety and
variability of all forms of life on earth that play a great role in human existence. It also includes the ethnical
value of biodiversity such as tradition and traditional knowledge of the indigenous and local communities and
the diversity within species (genetics), between species and of ecosystems (Antofie, 2011).
Biodiversity is a fundamental part of the Earth's life support system. It supports many basic natural
services for humans, such as fresh water, fertile soil and clean air. Biodiversity helps pollinate our flowers and
crops clean up our waste and put food on the table. Without it we would not be able to survive and agricultural
biodiversity is the first link in the food chain, developed and safeguarded by indigenous people throughout the
world, and it makes an essential contribution to feeding the world (Nakhauka, 2009).
Agricultural biodiversity includes all components of biological diversity relevant to the production of
goods in agricultural systems: the variety and variability of plants, animals, and microorganisms at genetic,
species, and ecosystem levels that are necessary to sustain key functions, structures, and processes in the agro
ecosystem. Thus it includes crops, trees, and other associated plants, fish and livestock, and interacting species of
pollinators, pests, parasites, predators, and competitors. Cultivated systems contain planned biodiversity, that is,
the diversity of plants sown as crops and animals raised as livestock.
In agroecosystems, biodiversity is generally a measure of the relative numbers of types of organisms
present. When considering the effects of biodiversity on a system, two concepts are especially important to
consider stability and productivity. Most agroecosystems tend to be highly disturbed. Common practices like
tillage, planting, application of fertilizers and pesticides, irrigation, and harvest can cause temporary or longer-
lasting changes in average environmental conditions that change the functioning of the ecosystem and Stability
in ecosystems is a measure of resilience, or ability of the system to recover from a disturbance, and the resistance
of the system to change. Threats to biodiversity are global and are usually a direct result of human impact that
contributes to reduction of genetic diversity through habitat loss and fragmentation as a result of increased
human development (Altieri et al., 2005).
Biodiversity is playing a significant role in the social, economic, cultural, and political aspects of any
nation. It is a major source of food, nutrients, income, construction, utensils, and transport. Also, it is a good
source of employment, fertilizer and traction. It provides materials and facilities for medicine, ecotourism and
tradable goods that form the basis for income earning opportunities. In fact, the survival and continual existence
of man in the environment depends on the presence of the biological diversities and their habitats Paul and Paul
(2011) opined that biodiversity is a key part of the ecological balance that helps the planet to function. They
submitted further that biodiversity guarantees the supply of biological resources, protection of habitats and
species, as well as the maintenance of the hydrological cycle.
The term biodiversity should also remind us that no one organism lives in isolation. The many different
ways that the millions of organisms on the Earth interact with each other contribute to the balance of the global
ecosystem and the survival of the planet. Biodiversity may be described in terms of genes, species, and
ecosystems, corresponding to three fundamental and hierarchically related levels of biological organization.

2.1 Genetic diversity

Genetic diversity is the sum of genetic information contained in the genes of individuals of plants, animals and
micro-organisms. Genetic diversity refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of
a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to
vary. It encompasses the components of the genetic coding that structures organisms (nucleotides, genes,
chromosomes) and variation in the genetic make-up between individuals within a population and between
populations. This is the raw material on which evolutionary processes act.
Perhaps the most basic measure of genetic diversity is genome size or the amount of DNA in one copy
of species chromosomes (also called the C-value). This can vary enormously. For example with published
eukaryote genome sizes ranging between 0.0023 pg (pictograms) in the parasitic Sporidium Encephalitozoon
intestinal is and 1400pg in the free living amoeba Chaos chaos(Gregory2008).
Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. With more
variation, it is more likely that some individuals in a population will possess variations of alleles that are suited
for the environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce offspring bearing that allele. The
population will continue for more generations because of the success of these individuals.
Genetic diversity plays an important role in the survival and adaptability of a species. When a
population's habitat changes, the population may have to adapt for survive. The ability of the population to adapt
to the changing environment will determine their ability to cope with an environmental challenge. Genetic
diversity is essential for a species to evolve and the vulnerability of a population to certain types of diseases can
also increase with reduction in genetic diversity (Frankham et al., 2005).
Genetic differentiation within species occurs as a result of either sexual reproduction, in which genetic

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differences from individuals may be combined in their offspring to produce new combinations of genes, or from
mutations which cause changes in the DNA. The significance of genetic diversity is often highlighted with
reference to global agriculture and food security. This stresses the reliance of the majority of the world's human
population on a small number of staple food species, which in turn rely on supply of genes from their wild
relatives to supply new characteristics, for example to improve resistance to pests and diseases (Letourneau et al.,
2009).

2.2. Species diversity

Species are regarded as populations within which gene flow occurs under natural conditions. Within a species,
all normal individuals are capable of breeding with the other individuals of the opposite sex belonging to the
same species, or at least they are capable of being genetically linked with them through chains of other breeding
individuals. By definition, members of one species do not breed freely with members of other species. Although
this definition works well for many animal and plant species, it is more difficult to delineate species in
populations where hybridization, or self fertilization or parthenogenesis occurs .In other words species diversity
refers to the variety of species within a geographical area, which become central in the evaluation of diversity,
and used as a point of reference in biodiversity conservation (Antofie, 2011).
The composition of species in a given ecosystem is the result of long lasting evolution. Each species has
adapted to its own niche, which is characterized by certain features (e.g. temperature range, availability of food
or light) enabling the species to reproduce and thus maintain its population. Species diversity is the number of
different species in a particular area (species richness) weighted by some measure of abundance such as number
of individuals or biomass. However, it is common for conservation biologists to speak of species diversity even
when they are actually referring to species richness.
Species richness is a basic surrogate for the more complex concept of ecological diversity. It is broadly
used as a measure of biodiversity with various objectives such as monitoring biodiversity in order to prioritize
management or conservation actions or design ecological indicators (Rossi and Halder, 2010). There are many
other mathematical indices intended to measure species diversity many of which in corporate species abundance
(Rossi, 2011).
Another measure of species diversity is the species evenness, which is the relative abundance with
which each species is represented in an area. An ecosystem where all the species are represented by the same
number of individuals has high species evenness. An ecosystem where some species are represented by many
individuals, and other species are represented by very few individuals has low species evenness.
The loss of one species affects many other species and causes imbalance. As a result, several functions
within and of the system are not carried out any more. Any species that will take over the lost specie's niche will
most certainly not replace all of the functions it used to perform and when species get extinct, their services for
the global biosphere are lost forever and it is impossible to replace it.

2.3. Ecosystem diversity

Ecosystem diversity relates to the variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes in the
biosphere as well as the diversity within ecosystems. Diversity can be described at a number of different levels
and scales:
Functional diversity is the relative abundance of functionally different kinds of organisms.
Community diversity is the number, sizes and spatial distribution of communities, and is sometimes
referred to as patchiness.
Landscape diversity is the diversity of scales of patchiness.
No simple relationship exists between the diversity of an ecosystem and ecological processes such as
productivity, hydrology, and soil generation. Neither does diversity correlate neatly with ecosystem stability, its
resistance to disturbance and its speed of recovery. There is no simple relationship within any ecosystem
between a change in its diversity and the resulting change in the system's processes.
For example, the loss of a species from a particular area or region (local extinction) may have little or
no effect on net primary productivity if competitors take its place in the community. The converse may be true in
other cases. For example, if herbivores such as zebra and wildebeest are removed from the African savanna, net
primary productivity of the ecosystem may decreases.
Table1. Summary of Biodiversity Types and Physical expressions
Types of Biodiversity Type of Physical expression
Gene Genes, nucleotides, chromosomes,
Species Kingdom, phyla, families, genera, Subspecies, species,
populations Ecosystem Bioregions, landscapes, habitats, Ecosystem functional
Functional robustness, ecosystem resilience, services, goods
Source: Turner et al., (1999).

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2.4. Agricultural biodiversity

Agricultural biodiversity is a subset of general biodiversity. It includes all forms of life directly relevant to
agriculture: rare seed varieties and animal breeds (farm biodiversity), but also many other organisms such as soil
fauna, weeds, pests, predators, and all of the native plants and animals (wild biodiversity) existing on and
flowing through the farm.
Agricultural biodiversity or Agrobiodiversity for short includes all components of biological diversity
of relevance to food and agriculture and all components of biological diversity that contribute to sustaining the
key functions of agroecosystems. It follows that agro biodiversity has two levels:
(1) Genetic resources for food and agriculture, this encompasses all cultivated and domesticated species,
including their wild relatives and managed stocks of wild animals and plants.
(2) Components of agrobiodiversity that provide ecological services: This includes, for instance, beneficial
organisms that control pests, soil organisms that process nutrients for crop plants, pollinators, and plants that
contribute to controlling erosion or stabilizing the water balance.
Agricultural biodiversity is a key for food production and supply. In one view, Agrobiodiversity is a
part of natural capital, and the flow of services is the interest on the capital (Kontoleon et al., 2009). Farmers and
breeders use biodiversity to adapt crops to different and changing production environments.
Crop biodiversity is thus very important for both the functioning of ecological systems and the
generation of a vast array of ecosystem services. These functions of biodiversity are crucial from an economic
valuation perspective. Following Perrings (2010), there are two main implications.
First, the value of biodiversity derives from the value of the final goods and services it produces. In this
setup, biodiversity is an input in to the production of these final goods and services. Second, this approach
requires the specification of production functions that embed the ecosystem processes and ecological functions
that connect biodiversity and ecosystem services. This article explores the recent contributions to the economics
of agrobiodiversity.
Agroecological heterogeneity and harsh weather conditions may increase positive interactions among
plants. Plants can exhibit a greater reliance on positive synergies and display facilitation (rather than
competition).The implication is that conserving diversity in the field delivers important productive services and
allows farmers to mitigate some of the negative effects of harsh weather and agroecological conditions (Falco
and Chavas, 2009). Diversity enhances the possibility of species complementarities. Complementarities among
crop species imply an efficient use of total available resources both in time and in space. Multiple crop species
can also reduce the implication of price and production risk and allow farmers to market their products several
times throughout the year (Baumgartner et al., 2008).
Agrobiodiversity at the genetic level also provides an insurance value in the face of changing
environmental conditions. In food production systems, genetic diversity ensures adaptability and evolution by
providing the raw material for desirable genetic traits in crops and livestock.

3. Ecological and Economic Significance of Biodiversity

3.1. Ecological use of biodiversity
Biodiversity supports a variety of natural ecosystem processes and services. Ecological services like
photosynthesis, air and water purification, pollination and prevention of soil erosion are provided by biodiversity.
Biodiversity plays very important role in human health; about 80% of the world population depends on
medicines obtained from nature and Contribution to climate stability, maintenance of ecosystems and Recovery
from unpredictable events (Faith et al., 2010).
Biodiversity provides many services that we take for granted. It plays a part in regulating the chemistry
of our atmosphere and water supply. It is directly involved in recycling nutrients and providing fertile soils.
Experiments with controlled environments have shown that we cannot easily build ecosystems to support
ourselves.
Almost no information exists on the economic value of most components of biological diversity to
human societies and particularly, their indirect value. For example, the diversity in species or functional groups
in an ecological community is of value to our society to the extent that it matters to the provision of the services
we benefit from, such as nutrient cycling, biomass production, and stability of biomass production. But proving
that community diversity does actually matter is extremely difficult, and even more difficult is to identify general
ecological rules that can fit the broad purposes of economic valuation.
Cultivated systems contain planned biodiversity, that is, the diversity of plants sown as crops and
animals raised as livestock. Together with crop wild relatives, this diversity comprises the gene tic resources of
food agriculture. However, agricultural biodiversity is a broader term that also encompasses the associated
biodiversity that supports agricultural production through nutrient cycling, pest control, and pollination and
through multiple products.
Biological pest control is a complex ecosystem service that is generally positively associated with

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biodiversity of natural enemy guilds. Biological control is a key ecosystem service that is necessary for
sustainable crop production (Bianchi et al., 2006). Natural enemies such as predators, parasitoids, and pathogens
play a central role in limiting damage from native and exotic pests.
3.1. 1. Biodiversity and Ecological Resilience
Ecological resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to cope with disturbance or stress and return to a stable state.
The concept of ecological resilience is consistent with the notion that ecosystems are complex, dynamic and
adaptive systems that are rarely at equilibrium. Most systems can potentially exist in various states. Moreover,
they continually change in unpredictable ways in response to a changing environment. This concept measures
the amount of stress or disruption required to transform a system that is maintained by one set of structures and
processes to a different set of structures and functions (Haeussler et al., 2006).
A resilient ecosystem can better withstand shocks and rebuild itself without collapsing into a different
state. Ecosystem change can occur suddenly if the resilience that normally buffers change has been reduced.
Such changes become more likely when slow variables erode. Slow variables include the diversity of species and
their abundance in the ecosystem, and regional variability in the environment due to factors such as climate. All
of these variables are affected by human influence (Snetsinger, 2006).
Both functional diversity and response diversity are important to maintain ecological resilience.
Functional diversity is the number of functionally different groups of species and consists of two aspects: one
that affects the influence of a function within a scale and the other that aggregates that influence across scales.
Response diversity is the diversity of responses to environmental change among species contributing to the same
ecological function and provides adaptive capacity given complex systems, uncertainty and human influence.
In a rangeland, for example, functional diversity increases the productivity of a plant community as a
whole, bringing together species that take water from different depths, grow at different speeds, and store
different amounts of carbon and nutrients. Response diversity enables a community to keep performing in the
same way in the face of stresses and disturbances such as grazing and drought.

3.2. Economic use of biodiversity

3.2. 1. Direct and Indirect Economic Value of Biodiversity
Biodiversity plays an important role in the global economy and sustainable development due to two main
reasons. “The first is that, it provides a wide range of direct or indirect benefits to mankind which occurs on both
local and global scales. The second relates to how human activities have contributed to unprecedented rates of
biodiversity loss, which threaten the stability and continuity of ecosystems as well as their provision of goods
and services to mankind (Nunes and Nijkamp, 2011).
Complex biodiversity indicates a healthy environment and a process of life-support required for the
welfare of people through the various goods and services. Biodiversity, which is also an important part of
economical development, is classified as scarce resources in the scope of economic goods, with a significant
strategic power for both local and global economies (Tisdell and Wilson, 2006). The common and sustainable
utilization of this power may be possible with the transformation to an economical value providing all the
components of biodiversity (species, genetic, and ecosystem diversity). Therefore, attentions have shifted to the
marketable goods and services directly provided from both local and global biodiversity.
Most studies on biodiversity valuation have assessed the direct value of biological resources (i.e., the
value that is more readily captured by commercial markets), focusing in particular on plant or crop and animal
genetic resources or the direct use of plant species for medicinal or ornamental use. The nonmarket values of
genetic resources have been assessed in a very few cases, including livestock genetic resources and most recently
components of agricultural biodiversity in home gardens (Birol et al., 2004).
Direct use values include such things as ecotourism, exploitation of genetic material for
pharmaceuticals and crop breeding. And other direct consumption values like; Nutritional value, raw material,
genetic resources, decorative, aesthetic and cultural can be described. The indirect value of biodiversity on
biological resources in terms of inputs to the production of market goods pharmaceutical and agriculture
industries that use plant and animal material to develop new medicines and new products. Climate regulation,
Disruption value, Water regulation and Water reserve, Soil conservation, Soil composition, Nutritional cycle and
shelter functions are indirect economic functions of biodiversity.
3.2.2. Recreational and Cultural Roles of Agricultural Biodiversity
A variety of different agricultural land uses can promote scenic beauty, with positive effects on the economy of
local communities. For example, it is known that aesthetic properties are associated with heterogeneity in the
landscape. Benefit from a rural tourism economy that is based on the diversity of agricultural patches ranging
from vineyards, wheat fields, pasture lands, and orchards to olive tree cultivations.
Cultural and recreational services refer to the aesthetic, spiritual, psychological, and other benefits that
humans obtain from contact with ecosystems. Such contact need not be direct, as illustrated by the popularity of
the virtual experience of distant ecosystems through books, art, cinema, and television. These values are

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appropriately being placed under provisional services, being of similar importance as food, water, etc. for human
wellbeing. For convenience, these services are here considered as falling into two main groups: spiritual,
religious, aesthetic and inspirational and sense of place and recreation, ecotourism, cultural heritage and
educational services (Butler and Oluoch, 2006).
Agricultural biodiversity is a crucial source of nonmaterial well being that derives from nutrition
traditions, dietary diversity, and longstanding knowledge. Plant and animal diversity in small scale farming often
can serve the purpose of personal enjoyment or the fulfillment of family or clan tradition or may meet spiritual
needs. Biodiversity plays an important role in fostering a sense of place in most societies and has considerable
intrinsic cultural value.
Table.2. Summary of Total economic value of biodiversity
Economic value interpretation Economic Biodiversity Benefits
Gene and specious diversity Inputs to production processes e.g. pharmaceuticals and agro industries
Natural area and landscape diversity Provision of natural habitat e.g. protection of wilderness and
recreational area
Ecosystem functions and ecological Ecological value e.g. flood control, nutrient recycling, toxic retention
services flow and biodiversity maintenance
Non use values of biodiversity Existence or moral value e.g. guarantee that a particular specious is
kept free from extinction
Source: (Nunes and Nijkamp 2011).
From the summary of total economic value of biodiversity as provided in (table 2) each benefits of
biodiversity play an important role and these can be described as economic terms in different ways. For example
in reducing healthcare costs through the prevention of the spread of disease, natural degradation of chemicals
released into the environment, a significant cost savings over physical, chemical and thermal bioremediation and
reduction of worldwide poverty in general are main economic importance’s of biodiversity.
In addition to domesticated crops and livestock, managed wild biodiversity provides a diverse range of
useful plant and animal species, including leafy vegetables, fruits and nuts, fungi, wild game insects and other
arthropods, and fish. These sources of food remain particularly important for the poor and landless and are
especially important during times of famine and insecurity or conflict where normal food supplies are disrupted.
Increase productivity, food security, and economic return

4. Challenges to biodiversity
The principal pressures on biodiversity include habitat loss and degradation, overexploitation, aliening invasive
species, climate change or changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, pollution, land use changes,
changes in the nitrogen cycle and acid rain. All these are coincident to human population growth (Baillie et al.
2010).
The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be attributes to the influence of human beings on the
world’s ecosystem, In fact human beings have deeply altered the environment and have modified the territory,
exploiting the species directly, for example by fishing and hunting, changing the biogeochemical cycles and
transferring species from one area to another of the Planet. The threats to biodiversity can be summarized in the
following main points:
1. Human population growth
The geometric rise in human population levels is the fundamental cause of the loss of biodiversity.
Humans also tend to settle in areas of high biodiversity, which often have relatively rich soils and other
attractions for human activities. This leads to great threats to biodiversity, especially since many of
these areas have numerous endemic species have demonstrated that human population size in a given
tropical area correlates with the number of endangered species (Balmford et al., 2001) that this pattern
holds for every taxonomic group. Most of the other effects mentioned below are either consequent to
the human population expansion or related to it.
2. Habitat destruction
Habitat destruction is the single most important cause of the loss of rainforest biodiversity and is
directly related to human population growth. As rainforest land is converted to agricultural land (and
then, frequently, to degraded woodlands, scrubland, or desert), urban areas and other human usages,
habitat is lost for forest organisms. Many species are widely distributed and thus, initially, habitat
destruction may only reduce local population numbers. Species which are local, endemic, or which have
specialized habitats are much more vulnerable to extinction, since once their particular habitat is
degraded or converted for human activity, they will disappear.
3. Pollution
Industrial, agricultural and waste-based pollutants can have catastrophic effects on many species. Those
species which are more tolerant of pollution will survive; those requiring pristine environments (water,

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air, food) will not. Thus, pollution can act as a selective agent. Pollution of water in lakes and rivers has
degraded waters so that many freshwater ecosystems are dying. Since almost 12% of animal’s species
live in these ecosystems, and most others depend on them to some degree. In developing countries
approximately 90% of wastewater is discharged, untreated, directly into waterways (Bennun et al.,
2010).
4. Agriculture
The dramatic increase in the number of humans during the twentieth century has instigated a
concomitant growth in agriculture, and has led to conversion of wild lands to croplands, massive
diversions of water from lakes, rivers and underground aquifers, and, at the same time, has polluted
water and land resources with pesticides, fertilizers, and animal wastes. The result has been the
destruction, disturbance or disabling of terrestrial ecosystems, and polluted, oxygen-depleted and
atrophied water resources.
5. Global warming:
Climate change poses major threats to biodiversity (Keith et al., 2008).Although a certain variation of
climate is compatible with the ecosystem survival and its function, the very rapid shift is detrimental to
the variety of life. Climate change is expected to exacerbate biodiversity loss in the future and many
species might simply be unable to adapt to the rapidly changing, probably unsuitable conditions and
thus will be threatened by extinction (Soto et al., 2012).
Climate change is an increasingly important threat to species and natural habitats. There is wide spread
evidence that cause changes in the timing of reproduction and migration, physiology, behavior,
morphology, population density and distributions of many different types of species are driven by
climate change (Rosenzweig et al. 2007).
6. Forest fragmentation:
The fragmentation of forests is a general consequence of the haphazard logging and agricultural land
conversion which is occurring everywhere, but especially in tropical forests. When forests are cut into
smaller and smaller pieces, there are many consequences, some of which may be unanticipated.
i. Fragmentation decreases habitat simply through loss of land area, reducing the probability of
maintaining effective reproductive units of plant and animal populations. Most tropical trees are
pollinated by animals, and therefore the maintenance of adequate pollinator population levels is
essential for forest health. When a forest becomes fragmented, trees of many species are isolated
because their pollinators cannot cross the non forested areas. Under these conditions, the trees in the
fragments will then become inbred and lose genetic variability and vigor.
ii. The “edge” effect: The cutting of forest into fragments creates many “edges” where previously there
was deep forest. Many effects are consequent upon this. Edges are lighter, warmer and windier than the
forest interior. These changes in microclimate alter plant reproduction, animal distribution, the
biological structure and many other features of the forest.
iii. Fire is particularly frequent in fragments. Recently, many forests have been subjected to deliberately
set and accidental fires, to which they have little resistance, and to which they are rarely naturally
subjected. People often set fire to cut over areas adjacent to forests to clear them of debris. These fires
often get out of control and burn large areas, extend into the forest interior, and inhibit edge
regeneration by killing pioneer forest vegetation.
iv. The use of herbicides and the introduction of exotic species into areas surrounding forest fragments
are detrimental to forest health. Herbicides blow from cleared agricultural areas into forests, and exotic
species introduced by farmers often displacing native species.
7. Overexploitation of resources:
When the activities connected with capturing and harvesting (hunting, fishing, farming) a renewable
natural resource in a particular area is excessively intense, the resource itself may become exhausted,
that man captures without leaving enough time for the organisms to reproduce. Overexploitation of wild
species to meet consumer demand threatens biodiversity, with unregulated overconsumption
contributing to declines in terrestrial, marine and fresh water ecosystems (Peres et al., 2010). Although
overexploitation is often difficult to quantify in terrestrial systems, major exploited groups include
plants for timber, food and medicine; mammals for wild meat and recreational hunting; birds for food
and the pet trade and amphibians for traditional medicine and food.

5. Biodiversity Conservation
5.1. Conservation Concept
Biodiversity conservation refers to the management of human use of biodiversity in order to get the greatest
sustainable benefit to present and future generations. Thus, conservation of biodiversity embraces the protection,
maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration, and enhancement of biodiversity and it mainly focuses on

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genetic conservation with its diverse life-support systems (ecosystems) for the connotation of human well
being(Tisdell, 2011).
Sustainable development can be achieved through biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity conservation
can be taken to mean the protection, maintenance and/or restoration of living natural resources to ensure their
survival over the long term. But it is variously defined depending on different values, objectives and world views
(Dilys et. al., 2011).
Conserving biodiversity has economic, social, and cultural values. Conservation of biodiversity is
integral to the biological and cultural inheritance of many people and the critical components of healthy
ecosystems that are used to support economic and social developments. Moreover, it is used to maintain the
earth’s genetic library from which society has derived the basis of its agriculture and medicine.
Conserving biodiversity means ensuring that natural landscapes, with their array of ecosystems, are
maintained, and that species, populations, genes, and the complex interactions between them, persist into the
future. Conservation cannot be conducted in isolation from humans and for conservation to be successful and
sustainable there needs to be local community involvement.
Biodiversity conservation incorporates the preservation, maintenance, sustainable use (conservation),
recovery and enhancement of the components of biological diversity, where:
•Conservation- is the sustainable use of resources and encompasses protection as well as exploitation and;
•Preservation- is an aspect of conservation meaning to keep something without altering or changing it.

5.2. Biodiversity conservation and Sustainable development

Sustainable development refers to development that meets the needs of the current generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs; it simply refers to intra and intergenerational
equity. A balance between the environment, development and society results to sustainable development which
ensures biodiversity conservation. This is only possible in the presence of good enforced and implemented
policies/ conventions, environmental institutions and political stability among others.

5.3. Types of conservation

5.3.1 In-situ conservation- Conservation of habitats species and ecosystems where they naturally occur. This is
in-situ conservation and the natural processes and interaction are conserved as well as the elements of
biodiversity. In-situ (on-site) conservation includes the protection of plants and animals within their natural
habitats or in protected areas. Protected areas are land or sea dedicated to protect and maintain biodiversity e.g.
National parks and sanctuaries. In-situ conservation is not always possible as habitats may have been degraded
and there may be competition for land which means species need to be removed from the area to save them.
5.3.2 Ex-situ conservation: The conservation of elements of biodiversity out of the context of their natural
habitats is referred to as ex-situ conservation. Zoos, botanical gardens and seed banks are all example of ex-situ
conservation. It is mainly used for threatened and endangered species to avoid their extinction; also known as
captive conservation.
5.3.2.1Types of Ex-situ Conservation
i. Botanical gardens and zoos
To complement in-situ conservation efforts, ex-situ conservation is being undertaken through setting up botanic
gardens, zoos, medicinal plant parks, etc by various agencies.
ii. Gene Banks: Ex-situ collection and preservation of genetic resources is done through.
iii. Cryopreservation: (freeze preservation) is particularly useful for conserving vegetative propagated crops.
Cryopreservation is the storage of material at ultra low temperature of liquid nitrogen (-196 degree celcious) and
essentially involves suspension of all metabolic processes and activities. It applies to meristems, zygotes and
somatic embryos, pollen and protoplasts cells.
(IV). Conservation at molecular level (DNA) level:
Conservation at molecular level is now feasible and attracting attention. Cloned DNA and material having DNA
in its native state can all be used for genetic conservation. Furthermore, non-viable material representing
valuable genotypes stored in gene banks can all be used as sources of DNA libraries from where a relevant gene
or a combination of genes can be recovered.

5.4. Other strategies which are adapted for conservation of biodiversity:

1. Legislation Formal policies and programmers for conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity
resources.
2. Recording Indigenous Knowledge-The lives of local communities are closely interwoven with their
environment, and are dependent upon their immediate resources for meeting their needs. Communities have a
vast knowledge about local flora and fauna which is very important for biodiversity conservation.
3. Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation- It is being recognized that no legal provisions can

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ISSN 2422-8397 An International Peer-reviewed Journal
Vol.23, 2016

be effective unless local communities are involved in planning, management and monitoring conservation
programmers’. There are several initiatives to do this, both by government as well as non-governmental
organizations. For example, the Joint Forest Management philosophy stresses involvement of village
communities in regenerating and protecting degraded forest land in the vicinity of villages. Successful
conservation strategies will have to have the confidence and participation of the local communities.
4. International Conservation Strategies- Conserving biodiversity is not an issue confined to any one country
or community. It is a crucial global concern. Several international treaties and agreements are in place in the
attempt to strengthen international participation and commitment towards conserving biodiversity.

Recommendation
Now a day biodiversity face to decline due to unwise use of the resource. Therefore, any deligated body
participates to conserve and save the life.
NGO, other institution and private sectors facilitate to biodiversity conservation issue is very important.
More research should be work on importance and significance of biodiversity not only doing the
research and put on the shelf, but implementation is very important.
Further nursery, plantation and boundary of the biological hot spot biodiversity is recommendable.

Acknowledgement
First and foremost, I would like to express deepest appreciation to my advisor Abayneh Unasho (Ass. Prof) for
his intellectual and professional guidance and commitment, follow ups and tireless efforts in giving advice
throughout the period of this study. Additional I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Belachew Beyene
for more information and guide to write the science manuscript and intimate the wave address

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