This is an Accepted Manuscript of a book chapter published by Bloomsbury Academic

in Meditation in Judaism, Christianity and Islam: Cultural Histories on 10-24-2013,

available online: http://www.bloomsbury.com/ [ISBN 9781441162588].

[a] The Early Jesus Prayer and Meditation in Greco-Roman Philosophy1

Henrik Rydell Johnsén, Lund University

[b] 1. Introduction

The so-called Jesus prayer is a Christian monastic practice somewhere in between prayer and

meditation2 that originated with the rise of Christian monasticism in the 4th–6th century CE.

The practice, in its more developed form, involved the monk unceasingly repeating a short

prayer addressed to Jesus Christ, invoking his name or using a more extensive phrase, like

'Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me' (a more or less fixed formula only

developed gradually). An important purpose behind the practice was to achieve a certain

inward attitude and concentration upon God.3

This essay will discuss the early development of this practice. I will proceed in two steps.

First, I will try to discern some important common features of the early practice, both in terms

of how it was done, and how the aims of the practice were conceived. Secondly, at the end, I

will discuss briefly the question of the origins of the Jesus prayer, by relating the practice to

meditation (melétē or meditatio) and continual remembrance of God (mnēmē Theoú or

mnēmē toú Theoú) in Greco-Roman philosophy.

"1
The aim is not to give a complete picture of what we know from all early Christian monastic

sources, or of the early development, but to explore three important early monastic sources as

a sample to discern important features of the practice, and to use these findings for a

comparison with pre-monastic sources. The monastic sources that will be used are three early

monastic texts, the Conferences by John Cassian (d. 435),4 the Gnostic Chapters by

Diadochus of Photike (5th cent.),5 and a somewhat later text, The Ladder of Divine Ascent by

John Climacus (6th/7th cent.).6 Unlike the other two, Diadochus of Photike was a bishop and

not a monk, but his text was not unlikely addressed to monks. It also had a great impact on

later monasticism, and is an important link in the early development.

When it comes to Greco-Roman philosophy, I will also restrict the focus. Even though we

find meditative practices in several philosophical traditions, I will mainly look at practices in

imperial Stoicism,7 and mostly in Seneca the Younger (d. 65), in his Letters to Lucilius and

his moral treatises, where we have elaborate references to a kind of verbal meditation that

shows striking similarities with the later monastic practice.

When considering meditation and the Jesus prayer in the three monastic sources we should

have two things in mind. First, none of these texts were really a practical handbook on the

Jesus prayer as such, even though the writers refer to, or imply, such practice quite frequently.

The parts of John Cassian's Conferences that will be considered here are perhaps the ones that

come closest to such a handbook. In general, however, the references to the Jesus prayer are

rather a part of instructions with partly different aims. The same holds true for the references

to meditation in the philosophical sources.

"2
Secondly, the Jesus prayer is not a clearly defined practice in these early sources. Even though

it is evident that we are dealing with a sort of prayer in all three sources,8 the terminology is

not consistent, and the practice, as such, is closely related to a broader set of practices and

notions, like the continual meditation or recitation (melétē) of short verses from the Scripture,

the practice of 'remembrance of God', and the biblical notion of 'unceasing' prayer.9 The

combination is also varied. In John Cassian and Diadochus, the practice of short repetitive

prayers is closely tied to meditation or recitation (melétē/meditatio), as well as to the

'remembrance of God'. In John Climacus the practice is also related to the 'remembrance of

God', but the notion of melétē is not used in this context; melétē is merely used for other kinds

of meditative practices, like the recitation of biblical texts in general, or the meditation upon

one's death. In John Cassian short prayers including the name of Jesus are not mentioned in

this context, but in Diadochus and John Climacus they are.

Against this background, it will be important not to isolate the use of repetitive short prayers

from this broader matrix of practices, even though the focus will be on such repetitive

prayers. The matrix will be discussed under two general headings: (i) the form of the

practices, and (ii) its aims. Despite the differences, we will find a quite similar set of practices

and conceptions at this early stage.

The important close connection between meditation (melétē), the remembrance of God, and

the use of short prayers, has been pointed out by other scholars,10 but how these practices are

related in the early development of the Jesus prayer, not the least in relation to Greco-Roman

philosophy, needs some further clarification.11

"3
Usually the early monastic development of the Jesus prayer is only discussed in terms of

earlier Christian practice of prayer. The Jesus prayer definitely turned out as a very important

Christian innovation, in due course, but was it really as independent from its Greco-Roman

context as it is usually presented? Some scholars have suggested a connection between early

monasticism and Greco-Roman philosophy concerning the notion of 'remembrance of God',12

but when it comes to the Jesus prayer as such, there is very few exceptions to the general

picture; one exception is a short paragraph by Irénée Hausherr (1960), where he calls

attention to certain similarities between meditation (melétē) in early monasticism, and

meditation (melétē) in Greco-Roman philosophy. Hausherr concludes, quite surprisingly

perhaps, that the Greco-Roman practice 'foreshadows the meletan of the fathers'.13 Apparently

there is a similarity in terminology, but Hausherr's observation seems to have gone mostly

unnoticed, even though other scholars relates the practice of the Jesus prayer to meditation

(melétē), or even suggest that meditation (melétē), as such, is at the heart of the early practice

of the Jesus prayer.14

In order to elucidate the early development, and in what sense the early practice is

foreshadowed in Greco-Roman philosophy, I will, in the second part of this essay, look at

similarities between early forms of the Jesus prayer and practices of melétē (Greek) or

meditatio (Latin) and 'remembrance of God' in Greco-Roman philosophy.

[b] 2. Meditation and Jesus Prayer in Early Monasticism

[C] 2.1. THE FORM OF THE JESUS PRAYER AND SIMILAR PRACTICES

[d] 2.1.1. Repetition and Constancy

"4
One of the crucial features of the Jesus prayer and similar meditative practices is repetition,

and the ideal of an 'unceasing prayer'. The use of 'short' (brevissimae) 'repetitive' (crebrae)

prayers was something typical of the early desert fathers, according to Augustine (d. 430).15

Unlike the daily prayers where the monks recited psalms at specific hours of the day, alone or

together,16 the Jesus prayer and similar short prayers were a private occupation, where a

particular phrase or prayer was repeated over and over again, preferably as it seems, at all

times.17 In the earliest monastic sources, repetition is indicated by the use of the verb meletán

or meditari, or the noun melétē or meditatio in the context of the short prayers. Repetition was

also typical of the general monastic practice of melétē, where short excerpts from Scripture

were recited repeatedly and memorized.18

The close connection between melétē and the practice of short prayers is apparent in our two

earliest sources, in John Cassian and Diadochus.19 John Cassian recommends a short phrase

from the Psalms (O God, incline unto my aid; O Lord, make haste to help me) as an object of

one's prayer. At other times Cassian is even more explicit regarding the need to make the

practice constant and ceaseless: '[t]his verse should be poured out in unceasing

prayer' (oratio), Cassian states, and then he encourages the reader to 'meditate

constantly' (meditatio … indisrupta volvatur) on the verse in the heart.20 It is notable that

Cassian discusses the formula both in terms of prayer and meditation (meditatio), in the same

passage. In Diadochus the reader is exhorted to attach the words 'Lord Jesus' (Kýrie Iēsoú) to

his mind, as its sole occupation. Diadochus adds that one should contemplate these words

deep down in one's inner 'treasuries' (tamieíoi), and that those who 'meditate

unceasingly' (meletōsin apaústōs) on 'this holy and glorious name in the depths of their heart',

"5
will also see the 'light of their minds.'21 In another passage, Diadochus speaks about the

'remembrance of Lord Jesus', both in terms of prayer and ceaseless meditation (melétē).22

In The Ladder, melétē is used a handful of times, but only with reference to practices not

necessarily associated with prayer, like unceasing (adialeíptôs) recitation of verses from

Scripture,23 remembrance of death,24 remembrance of the eternal judgement,25 or training in

order to make virtues a permanent habit.26

But Climacus indicates repetition in other ways. One way is to speak about the prayer in

relation to breathing.27 From these references it is clear that Climacus imply a repetitive

practice; just like one's breathing, the prayer should be a constant and a repetitive practice.

Climacus also speaks about 'unceasing prayer', using a whole range of expressions,28 just like

John Cassian29 and Diadochus.30 It is not always clear from the context that Climacus refers to

the Jesus prayer as such, but very often it is likely that he does. In two passages in his Ladder,

for example, he uses exactly the same term 'to scourge' (mastízō), to indicate repetition, on the

one hand related to a prayer using the name of Jesus, and on the other, related to 'unceasing

prayer'.31

Although Climacus' text has a clear fragmentized outlook, Climacus weaves his seemingly

isolated expressions together into a more coherent argument.32 In chapter 28 on prayer

specifically, repetition and the idea of a constant habit are evident also from this perspective.

The initially stated preference for the use of short phrases during prayer,33 seems to be

presupposed later on in the chapter,34 when Climacus stresses the importance of 'unceasing
"6
prayer' or constant prayer in order to keep the mind focused on God and free from

distractions.

The notion of 'unceasing prayer' was evidently also informed by the New Testament, e.g. by

the apostle Paul's First epistle to the Thessalonians 5.17,35 where the addressees were

encouraged to pray 'unceasingly' (adialeíptōs).36 However, Paul did not refer to the Jesus

prayer, but used the phrase metaphorically in order to express a proper constant attitude. In

Origen (important theologian of the 3rd cent.) 'unceasing prayer' is also interpreted

metaphorically.37 In early monasticism, in contrast, the conception of 'unceasing prayer'

changed into a more literal understanding. As I shall argue, important factors in this

development were meditative practices in Greco-Roman philosophy, adopted and transformed

to a new Christian monastic setting.

[d] 2.1.2. Short Formulas and the Use of the Name of Jesus

A second feature of the early practice of the Jesus prayer and related practices, is the

repetitive use of a short textual formula as a sort of semantic and auditive object of the prayer.

We find short formulas of two partly overlapping kinds: (i) short phrases taken from

Scripture,38 and (ii) short prayers addressing God, the Lord, Jesus, or Jesus Christ (with or

without titles ascribed to Jesus).39 In John Cassian the specific short formula (formula)

proposed for the repetitive prayer is taken from Psalms 70.1: 'O God, incline unto my aid; O

Lord, make haste to help me'. In John Cassian, but also in Diadochus, this use of short prayers

is referred to in terms of melétē or meditatio,40 just like the recitation of short phrases from

Scripture in general. Thus, as we have stated earlier, it is evident that the early use of short

repetitive prayers is closely related to the repetitive recitation of short phrases from Scripture.
"7
It is also notable that Cassian's formula does not include the name of Jesus. In Diadochus, in

the 5th century, in contrast, we have one of the earliest examples of a formula including the

name of Jesus, tó kýrie Jēsoú,41 and in Gaza, in the 6th century, we find slightly different

formulas also including the name of Jesus, like 'Lord Jesus, have mercy upon me',42 or 'Jesus

help me'.43 But even if we find the use of the name of Jesus, at least in the 5th century,44 and

even if the name of Jesus gradually became an essential part of the Jesus prayer, it is clear that

'it enjoys no special prominence' in the earliest sources.45 And it is also evident that we find

no fixed formula in this period.46 The impression, thus, that the practice seems to originate

from a general practice of recitation of short phrases from Scripture is strong.

In John Climacus there are references to the repetitive use of both short Scripture quotations47

and prayers including the name of Jesus, e.g. in statements like, '[f]log your enemies with the

name of Jesus,'48 or 'Always let the remembrance of God and the single phrased prayer of

Jesus (monológistos Iēsou eúchē) go to sleep with you'49 —the use of the term monologistos in

the last quotation, referring to the Jesus prayer, is as it seems the first occurrence in early

monastic sources.50 Just like in the earlier monastic tradition, the repetitive use of prayers and

the repetitive recitation of verses from Scripture seem not, in Climacus, to be two clearly

distinct practices; e.g. both kinds of formula should, according to Climacus, be 'affixed to',

'taken in with' or 'united to' one's breathing.51

Also in chapter 28, on prayer, in Climacus' Ladder, prayers using short phrases are presented

in various ways as a preferable form of prayer: while a lot words often distracts the mind and

leads to fantasy, single phrases (monología) 'makes for concentration';52 and the very
"8
beginning of prayer, according to Climacus, is to 'drive away' distracting thoughts 'by single

phrases' (monologístōs).53

[d] 2.1.3. Use of One's Voice

As we have seen the repetitive use of short prayers in early monastic sources is clearly

referred to in terms of a melétē or meditatio. We know from other early monastic sources that

melétē often, but not always, meant using one's lips or repeating a certain phrase aloud;54 and

this seems to be the case for the Jesus prayer as well.55 Diadochus is not completely clear, but

he seems to imply that the short phrases or the name of Jesus ought to be, or at least could be,

repeated aloud; in one passage, Diadochus says that one should 'call out' the short phrase

'Jesus Christ' during the prayer.56 In John Cassian the use of the voice is even clearer. We find

several passages, where Cassian uses the verb decantare, which means57 to recite, thus,

indicating that the words of the short prayer should be pronounced aloud: 'You should not stop

reciting it [i.e. the formula] when you are doing any kind of work…', Cassian states at one

point.58

Climacus rarely speaks explicitly about whether a melétē or the Jesus prayer should be done

with one's voice or not. However, he states once in his chapter on prayer (chapter 28), as it

seems with reference to prayer with single phrases (monologístōs), that such prayer in its

more mature form also implies that one is able to enclose one's mind 'within what is being

said or thought' (en toís legoménois ē noouménois), thus, implying that such short prayers

could at least be said aloud.59

[d] 2.1.4. Use of One's Breathing

"9
The role of breathing is the most difficult aspect to discern clearly from the early monastic

sources. In John Cassian and Diadochus we find no reference at all to breathing, but in The

Ladder, in contrast, there are several references. However, should we understand these

literally or metaphorically? In later monastic practice in the Byzantine Middle Ages, it is

evident that the Jesus prayer also involved one's breathing. This is clear, e.g., in a monastic

treatise called Method of Sacred Prayer and Attentiveness.60 When it comes to Climacus,

however, scholars usually interpret the references metaphorically, as if they merely express

that the prayer ought to be unceasing or continuous.61 But if we should understand the

references literally, they are among the earliest references to breathing in relation to the Jesus

prayer.62

John Climacus refers to breathing in connection with the Jesus prayer three times in his

Ladder:

(1) The Ladder 4.112 (721d–724ab) 63

Then they threw themselves at his [i.e. John the Sabbaite's] feet begging him to give them

a rule … to the third he said: 'Take in with your breath inseparably (Analaboú sýn tēi pnoēi

sou achōrístōs) the word that reads: "He that endureth to the end shall be saved."' (Matt.

10.22)

(2) The Ladder 14.32 (869a)64

Let this be affixed to your breathing (tēi sēi anapnoēi sygkollēthētō), the word of him

who says: 'But I, when then demons troubled me, put on sackcloth, and humbled my

soul with fasting, and my prayer was affixed to the bosom of my soul.' (Ps. 34.13)
"10
(3) The Ladder 27.61 (1112c)65

Unite the memory of Jesus to your breathing (hē Iēsoú mnēmē enōthētō tēi pnoēi sou) and

then you will know the benefit of stillness.

The texts are not entirely clear, but there are indications in them that would speak for a literal

meaning.

When arguing for a metaphorical meaning scholars have often referred to some phrases in

Gregory of Nazianz (d. 390) that deal with prayer and breathing, as well. These texts, together

with some passages in the Sentences of Sextus (2nd cent.), Clement of Alexandria (d. c. 215),

Origen (d. c. 254), and the Vita Antonii (4th cent.) are, as it seems, the texts that come closest

to the phrases in John Climacus in previous writers, pagan or Christian.66

The references are of two kinds. In the Sentences of Sextus, Clement and Origen we find the

expression 'to breathe God' (Theón anapneín)67 or 'to breathe Christ' (tón Christón anapneín)68

meaning, as it seems, to keep God or Christ before one's eyes more or less constantly. In the

Vita Antonii69 and in Gregory of Nazianz,70 the phrases are similar but also clearly related to

philosophical practices or philosophical terminology. Most likely, we should understand these

references metaphorically as well. However, should we understand the references to breathing

in John Climacus in the same way as in these passages? There are some indications that

would speak for a literal meaning.

"11
To begin with it is clear that the expressions in John Climacus are different from the phrases

in the earlier sources, and should therefore not necessarily be interpreted similarly. In the

earlier sources we have the verb 'breathe', with 'God' or 'Christ' as its object in accusative,71

but in The Ladder a specific phrase (lógos), or the memory of Jesus, is supposed by 'affixed'

or 'united' to one's breath; and here, 'breath' is a noun and in dative.

Secondly, it is clear that it was natural and self-evident for Climacus to use the body, in

general, as an aid in prayer, in order to to uphold certain inward attitudes, since, as Climacus

states, 'the mind often conforms to the body'.72 Such efforts of 'bodily prayer' could involve

'stretching out the hands, beating of the breast, sincere raising of the eyes to heaven, deep

sighs, continuous prostrations.'73

Finally, it is also important to notice that in the second quotation above (14.32), Climacus has

changed the wording, 'my prayer shall return to my own bosom', from the Septuagint, into 'my

prayer was affixed to the bosom of my soul'. Thus, the idea that the verse from Scripture

should be affixed to one's breathing is paralleled by the prayer being affixed to 'the bosom of

my soul'. This interiorization of the verse and its meaning is crucial. Might this imply that, as

the air goes down into the lungs when breathing, the verse and its implication will also find its

way into the heart? There are good reasons to believe so, especially if we consider common

ideas about breathing in Late Antique medicine, where the inhaled air was often understood as

not just entering the lungs, but also to pass from the lungs into the heart. We have this idea in

such crucial authors as Galen (2nd cent. CE), in the influential physiologist Erasistratus (3rd

cent. BCE), whose disciples Galen argued against in other respects, and perhaps also already

in Aristotle.74 Thus, against this background it is not unlikely that the practice of reciting a
"12
phrase from Scripture could have been understood as being supported and enforced by one's

breathing, if the phrase was attached to one's respiration: Just as the air went from the mouth

to the lungs, and then to the heart, the attitude implied by the phrase did the same.

Thus, even if we cannot be entirely sure, there are a number of quite reasonable arguments for

a literal use of breathing in connection with the Jesus prayer in John Climacus; accordingly

even though breathing seems not to have been part of the earliest monastic practice, it might

have evolved as early as the 6th or 7th century.

[C] 2.2. THE AIMS OF THE JESUS PRAYER

[d] 2.2.1. Concentrating upon God

There are at least three distinctive aims associated with the use of the Jesus prayer in our three

monastic sources; the first is concentration, or more specifically, a constant focus upon God or

Jesus Christ.

According to John Cassian, the purpose of constant meditation (meditatio) on short phrases is

to keep 'the mind's whole and entire attention fixed on God' (sanam et integram mentis

intentionem … ad deum).75 Such a focus on God in connection with the Jesus prayer or short

repetitive prayers is also clearly implied, in all our three sources, in references to the

'remembrance of God', or the 'remembrance of Lord Jesus' (toú Kyríou Iēsou mnēmē), or

similar expressions.76 Diadochus also underlines the importance of giving the mind 'nothing

but the prayer "Lord Jesus",'77 or the importance of grace and freedom from passion in order

to keep such a focus: 'even though the mind is momentarily deprived by forgetfulness of the
"13
object of its longing', under such preconditions 'it at once resumes its proper activity.'78

Climacus suggests a similar benefit of the Jesus prayer: 'Prepare yourself for the set times of

prayer by unceasing prayer…', he states, and then elaborating it further: 'I have seen those

who … preserved the remembrance of God, and when they stood at prayer they did at once

master their minds.'79

The use of single phrases during the Jesus prayer is also something that makes the mind

focused. While loquacity in prayer often distracts the mind, according to Climacus, short

phrases (monología), 'makes the mind concentrated' (tón noún synágein).80

[d] 2.2.2. Interiorization of Attitudes

Another aim with the Jesus prayer and related practices is to imprint the words or to fix their

meaning, or their implied attitude, at the bottom of one's soul. In all three sources this aim is

expressed in relation to the 'remembrance of God'. By short prayers or meditation, it is

possible to 'cling to the memory of God', or to achieve a 'constant memory of God', as Cassian

states.81 In Diadochus it is evident that the meditative prayer means interiorization. If one

meditates on the name of Jesus, 'in the depths' of one's heart, an inner attitude is established;

then the very name 'implants in us a constant state of love for its goodness' (héxin hēmín

pántōs toú agapán tēn autoú agathótēta … empoieí), Diadochus states.82

In The Ladder interiorization is sometimes also expressed by reference to breathing. In

chapter 14 on fasting, Climacus presents the repetitive recitation of a short phrase from the

Psalms as a way to uphold or to attain an inward humble attitude together with one's fasting:

'Let this be affixed to your breathing, the word of him who says: "But I, when the demons
"14
troubled me, put on sackcloth, and humbled my soul with fasting, and my prayer was affixed

to the bosom of my soul."'83 As I have mentioned earlier, Climacus has here changed the

phrase of the Septuagint, 'my prayer shall return to my bosom', into 'my prayer was affixed to

the bosom of my soul', in order to express the importance of engraving the meaning of the

phrase. The reference to breathing seems to reinforce the interiorization: when the words are

affixed to one's breathing, they descend into one's inmost parts, just like the air of one's

breath.

[d] 2.2.3. Unwandering Mind and Inward Tranquillity

A third aim, finally, and perhaps one of the most important, is the use of the Jesus prayer as a

way to keep the mind from wandering, or from turning away from its proper focus and

activity, something that, of course, is closely related to the first aim, to be concentrated upon

God. This aim is also evident in our earliest sources, in John Cassian and Diadochus of

Photike. Diadochus writes: 'You should give to it [i.e. the intellect], the "Lord Jesus" as its

only preoccupation', and then he continues, 'Let the mind continually concentrate on these

words within its inner treasuries with such intensity that it is not turned aside to any

fantasies'84 (phantasías). The practice is appropriate to repel demons, evils, deceptions,

worldly thoughts,85 or to use as a 'weapon' or a 'shield' (hóplos),86 or a 'guarding' (tērēsis) of

the mind.87 According to John Cassian the short prayers have an effect upon a range of

objects, like 'distractions', 'wandering thoughts', 'fantasies', or 'demons'.88 The short prayer is,

accordingly, 'an unassailable wall, an impenetrable breastplate, and a very strong shield for all

of those who labour under the attack of the demons,' Cassian states;89 thus, a protection to

have at hand in front of temptations and wandering thoughts.90

"15
We have similar ideas in John Climacus. The use of unceasing or single phrased prayer is a

way to drive away 'assaults' (prosbolaí),91 fantasies,92 demons,93 or different sorts of

temptations.94 It is a way to control the mind; to avoid distractions, to make the mind

concentrated (tón noún synágein),95 or to master the mind (toú heautoú nóos perigígnesthai).96

Finally, closely related to an unwandering mind is inward tranquillity. This aim (tranquillitas)

seems to be in John Cassian's mind.97 Climacus also makes this plain: 'Unite the memory of

Jesus to your breathing [hē Iēsou mnēmē enōthētō tēi pnoēi sou] and then you will know the

benefit of stillness [hēsychías].'98 This ultimate end can also be expressed, in our three

sources, in terms of light, knowledge, or an ineffable experience of God.99

[b] 3. Meditation in Greco-Roman Philosophy

We will end this essay by looking at how the early practice of the Jesus prayer might be

related to philosophical meditation; to the practice of melétē or meditatio, and to the

'remembrance of God'.

From what has been said above, some aspects of the Jesus prayer seem to be closely related to

the practice of melétē (repetition, use of one's lips), while others are more closely related to

the remembrance of God (concentration upon God). I would like to suggest in the following

that there are good reasons to understand the practices of melétē and mnēmē Theoú in Greco-

Roman philosophy as two crucial sources for the early development of the Jesus prayer. We

will start by looking at melétē and meditatio.

"16
The concept of melétē and meditatio (and the corresponding verbs meletán or meditari) are in

general complex concepts, originally meaning 'training' or 'exercise'. In the philosophical

context, it gradually acquired a more specific meaning, sometimes translated by 'meditation'

but clearly quite different from the modern concept.100 Basically this kind of melétē or

meditatio meant a repetitive practice, using images or short phrases, in order to engrave

beneficial attitudes within oneself, aiming at an inward transformation. It was a practice

clearly related to moral therapy as well as to memorization.101 This practice is found in

different philosophical traditions, in particular Epicureanism and imperial Stoicism.102

In the following I will restrict the discussion to one type of meditative practice, the verbal

melétē or meditatio, i.e. the repetitive use of short verbal phrases; and to one author, Seneca

the Younger, where we find a great number of references to this kind of meditatio, references

very close to the monastic practice of melétē or meditatio. Even if the verbal melétē or

meditatio is somewhat different in different philosophers, Seneca seems to represent a broader

tradition with a core of quite similar practices and aims.103

[C] 3.1. THE FORM OF VERBAL PHILOSOPHICAL MELÉTĒ/MEDITATIO

When looking at the forms and aims of the verbal meditation (meditatio) in Seneca, we find

five essential features that make a strong case for an impact of the tradition that Seneca

represents on the early forms of the Jesus prayer: repetition, the use of short formulas, the use

of one's voice, and interiorization and an unwandering mind as important aims of the practice.

[d] 3.1.1. Repetition and constancy

"17
To begin with, it is frequently underlined by Seneca that one needs to make the verbal

meditation a daily (cotidianus),104 and a constant (adsiduus) practice.105 It is not always clear

what he actually implies by a 'constant' practice, but it is evident that we are dealing with a

repetitive and prolonged (diu) practice that needs to be done 'frequently' (subinde) or

'often' (saepe),106 with a focus on just one single maxim. Seneca writes, referring to Demetrius

the Cynic:

it is far better for us to possess only a few maxims of philosophy that are nevertheless

always at our command and in use, than to acquire vast knowledge that notwithstanding

serves no practical purpose. 'Just as,' he says, 'the best wrestler is not one who is

thoroughly acquainted with all the postures and grips of the art, which he will seldom use

against an adversary, but he who has well and carefully trained himself in one or two of

them' (in uno se aut altero bene ac diligenter exercuit).107

Such meditatio can also be likened to digestion108 or to the dyeing of wool to underline its

repetitive character; just as wool is 'soaked and steeped' in the colours 'many times', so is the

soul, until the principle or the saying that ought to be meditated upon has thoroughly 'dyed'

the soul.109

[d] 3.1.2. Short formulas

At the heart of the verbal meditation for Seneca is the use of short phrases or sayings

(sententiae). These sententiae were the very 'bones of the meditatio', as Robert J. Newman

states.110 They could be a quotation from a philosopher,111 or from the Poets, or a good

"18
proverb, like 'Nothing in excess,' or 'You must expect to be treated by others as you yourself

have treated them.'112

[d] 3.1.3. Use of One's Voice

It is hard to know exactly how these short phrases were used, but it seems that meditation was

often, but not necessarily always, performed aloud,113 thus, probably implying a sort of

repetitive recitation of the short phrase. However, Seneca emphasizes that the use of one's

voice is not an end in itself, since the purpose is not 'to give the voice exercise, but to make it

give us exercise' (ut exerceatur vox, sed ut exerceat).114

[C] 3.2. THE AIMS OF PHILOSOPHICAL VERBAL MELÉTĒ/MEDITATIO

When comparing philosophical verbal meditation and the Jesus prayer, we also find many of

the same aims. The two most important aims of the philosophical verbal melétē or meditatio

are paralleled in the practice of the Jesus prayer, too: (i) interiorization of attitudes, and (ii)

attainment of an unwandering mind.

[d] 3.2.1. Interiorization of attitudes.

Just like for the Jesus prayer, a fundamental aspect of verbal philosophical meditation is

interiorization, thus, to let the sententia, or the content of the saying, be 'welcomed

intimately'115 or 'implanted'116 into one's heart or soul, or to 'permeate'117 it. The purpose of the

verbal melétē/meditatio is to make the sententia a constant habit of mind, or to implant the

precepts into one's self, so as to have them constantly at hand. The aim is to achieve a state of

'preparedness', when confronting impressions and future happenings.118 'The constant and

rigorous application of particular phrases and images … interiorize the meditatio by driving
"19
its considerations deep into the soul', as Newman states.119 We are here close to our monastic

sources. Although preparedness is expressed mostly in other terms in our monastic texts (like

the Jesus prayer in terms of a 'shield', or an 'impenetrable breastplate', against disturbing

thoughts and temptations),120 the great difference is not the principle of internalization of

attitudes or virtues or preparedness, as such, but what kind of attitudes that are to be

implanted. Humility and compunction or a focus on God seem like attitudes of greater

importance in our monastic sources,121 while Seneca is more concerned with appropriate

attitudes towards fear, death, loss or grief.122

[d] 3.2.2. Unwandering Mind and Inward Tranquillity.

The second aim of the verbal meditatio that we also find in relation to the Jesus prayer

concerns impressions (phantasiae) or emotions (affectus) that disturb the mind. To meditate

means for Seneca, as Armisen-Marchetti has shown, to 'manipulate' the mind, or to control

mental impressions.123 This inward control is often spoken of in terms of fortification, or to

fortify the mind against assaults,124 or in terms of an inward peace or calm,125 or even in terms

of happiness.126 Again we are close to the aims of the Jesus prayer in our three monastic

sources. The great difference concerns what needs to be controlled or 'manipulated'. While

Seneca often speaks about impressions (phantasiae) that assault the mind, the inward control

in our early monastic sources concerns not only impressions, but also demons and bad

thoughts (logismoí). This difference, however, seems like a reasonable reflection of a general

tendency in late Antiquity towards 'demonizing' of impressions in relation to the soul,

acknowledged by other scholars.127 Finally, in addition, Seneca seems not to relate the

meditatio to ineffable experiences of God or of light as we have noticed in our monastic

sources.
"20
[c] 3.3. REMEMBRANCE OF GOD

As we have seen there is a clear correspondence between the practice of melétē/meditatio in

Seneca and early forms of the Jesus prayer in our three sources, not just in basic terminology

but also in terms of forms and aims of the practices. The one notable exception is the aim to

become concentrated upon God, which seems not to be related to philosophical verbal

melétē/meditation, at least not in Seneca (the use of breathing is missing, too, but is not found

in the earliest monastic sources either). However, this aspect can be explained if we consider

another, and as it seems, related philosophical notion, the 'remembrance of God'. As we have

seen in our two earliest monastic sources, the aim to become focused on God by using short

prayers was intimately related to the notion of 'remembrance of God'.

This notion was originally not a Christian one,128 but was used already by Philo (d. c. 40 CE)

and by imperial Stoics like Epictetus (d. 135) and Marcus Aurelius (d. 180) (but, to my

knowledge, not by Seneca), and by other Greco-Roman philosophers as well, like Iamblichus

(d. c. 330). For Marcus Aurelius the 'remembrance of God' seems to be intimately related to a

virtuous life.129 For Philo, who is perhaps the most important figure here, it is the foundation

and ideal of such a life; it is about preserving and memorizing God’s wisdom and precepts,

and ultimately, about being completely focused on God;130 and Philo's description of the

famous therapeutae, who 'always retain an imperishable recollection of God', even during

sleep, comes very close to our monastic sources.131 As Hermann Josef Sieben argues, it is

hard to deny the continuity between Greco-Roman philosophy and early monasticism when it

comes to the 'remembrance of God'.132 It is thus not unreasonable that the missing piece in

philosophical melétē or meditation is dependent on another philosophical practice, the

"21
'remembrance of God'. It is also notable that Philo relates the 'remembrance of God' to the

possibility of ineffable experiences of God,133 something that we have seen in our monastic

sources, but not in relation to meditatio in Seneca.

Several scholars have argued for monastic melétē as the origin of the Jesus prayer,134 or

pointed out its close connection to the notions melétē and 'remembrance of God'.135 But

considering how the matrix of aims and practices related to the Jesus prayer closely resembles

the aims and forms of philosophical verbal melétē or meditation, and the 'remembrance of

God' (including the terminology), it seems very likely that the early monastic practice of the

Jesus prayer is very much a development of these two originally philosophical practices, but

transformed to suit a new Christian monastic setting. Thus, it is when these practices are

elaborated in relation to a Christian corpus of biblical texts that we see the birth of a practice

eventually ending up in the Jesus prayer. How the two philosophical practices exactly are

related in pre-monastic sources deserves another study, but is evident that they are not

identical, but also that they have many features in common, such as a close connection to

memorization,136 repetition and rumination.137

[b] 4. Conclusion

From our three early Christian monastic sources, it is evident that the practice of the Jesus

prayer was not, in its earliest period, clearly defined, but was closely related to other

practices, like the recitation of and meditation (melétē) on short phrases, usually from

Scripture, and the practice of 'remembrance of God' (mnēmē Theoú or mnēmē toú Theoú).

The vocabulary and the practice in our three sources are varied – in Cassian and Diadochos,

but not in Climacus, the practice is spoken of in terms of meditation (melétē); in Cassian the
"22
formula, the object of the meditation or the prayer, does not include the name of Jesus as it

does in the other two; and only in Climacus does the practice seem to involve one's breathing.

Apart from this variation, however, we have discerned a quite uniform matrix of practices and

aims.

We can also conclude that this matrix of practices and aims largely corresponds with two

related meditative practices in Greco-Roman philosophy—melétē or meditatio (in Seneca the

Younger) and the 'remembrance of God'—not just in terminology but also in terms of aims

and forms of the practices. There are, thus, good reasons to believe that the early forms of the

Jesus prayer are dependent upon or originate from these two, not identical, but closely related

philosophical practices (though they may not be their only sources). And it is when these two

practices are elaborated in a context of early Christian monasticism that we see the birth of the

Jesus prayer.

In this transition from one context to another, the matrix of practices and aims remains very

much the same, but there are also notable changes. The great difference pertains to the object

of prayer or meditation, which, in the monastic context, is derived from new Christian

sources, from Scripture; it also pertains to the transformation of the philosophical meditation

(melétē/meditatio) into a more clearly defined form of prayer (even though we have some

examples of melétē as prayer even in imperial Stoicism138); and finally, there is also a notable

change in the attitudes that one seeks to 'engrave' through the practice; towards attitudes that

seem to be of greater importance in the new Christian monastic context than in the earlier

philosophical setting.

"23
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1 I am grateful to Samuel Rubenson, Per Rönnegård, Benjamin Ekman and the rest of the

research programme “Early Monasticism and Classical Paideia" at Lund University, for

valuable comments on this essay.

"29
2 Here I understand meditation according to Eifring’s defintion in this volume, as 'a self-

administered technique for inner transformation.'

3 There is a great number of important works on the Jesus prayer in early monasticism, e.g.

Hausherr, 1960; Adnès, 1974; Regnault, 1974; Guillaumont, 1980; Ware 1985; Ware, 1986;

Stewart, 1998; Bitton-Ashkelony, 2003.

4 I will mainly look at the tenth conference (and to some extent the ninth) of John Cassian's

Conlationes ('Conferences'), where we have John Cassian's most elaborate discussion of

unceasing prayer. See also Stewart, 1998; Stewart, 1984.

5 For the Jesus prayer in Diadochus of Photike, see e.g. des Places, 1966; Ware, 1985. Another

early witness that will not be considered here is Nilus of Ancyra (5th cent.), see Epistulae

2.140 (PG 79.260ab; 261d); 2.214 (312 cd); 3.273 (520b); 3.287 (521bc). The authenticity of

the letters is somewhat uncertain, see Cameron, 1976.

6 For the Jesus prayer in John Climacus, see e.g. Ware, 1982; Chryssavgis, 1986; Chryssavgis,

2004.
7 Philo of Alexandria (d. c. 40 CE) who will be of some importance concerning the

'remembrance of God', was a Middle Platonist and not a Stoic.

8 This has been contested regarding Diadochus, but the contestations have been rightly refuted

by Kallistos Ware, see Ware, 1985, pp. 560–562.

9 See e.g. 1 Thess 5.17.
10 See e.g. Hausherr 1960, pp. 174–175, 209–210; Adnès, 1974, pp. 1127–1129; Guillaumont,

1980, p. 290; Stewart, 1998, pp. 100–113.

11 For Greco-Roman philosophy and early monasticism in recent scholarship, see Rubenson,

2012.
12 Sieben, 1980, pp. 1407–1411, 1413; Hausherr, 1960, pp. 156–162.
13 Hausherr 1960, p. 170 (transl. Cummings, 1978): 'un surtout prélude à la melétè des Pères'.

"30
14 See e.g. Adnès, 1974; Guillaumont, 1980, pp. 289–290; Stewart 1998, pp. 102–104. Stewart

notes the use of melétē in Stoic philosophy, but does not seem to indicate any real connection

with the monastic practice.

15 Augustine, Epistula 130.20 (ed. Goldbacher, 1904).
16 For common prayers in early monasticism, see e.g. Patrich, 1995, ch. 4.
17 Cf. e.g. John Cassian, Conlationes 10.10.14 (ed. Petschenig, 1886).
18 See Rönnegård's contribution to this volume; Wortley, 2006, pp. 322–323; Bacht, 1955.
19 See also e.g. AP/G Apollo 2 (PG 79.133); The Virtues of Saint Macarius 35 (ed. Amélineau,

1894): meletē (probably from 7th to 8th cent.; in Coptic).

20 Conlationes 10.10.14 (transl. Ramsey, 1997). See also 10.10.2: incessabili… meditari;

10.10.15: omni tempore; 10.11.1: iugi meditatione, cf. 10.10.1.

21 Capita centum 59 (ed. des Places, 1966; transl. Palmer et al., 1979, modified). See also

Capita centum 61.

22 Capita centum 97.
23 Scala paradisi 20.20 (PG 88.941c).
24 Scala paradisi 4.15 (685ab). See also 4.36 (700d); 6.16 (797c).
25 Scala paradisi 18.6 (933d).
26 Scala paradisi 26c.65 (1092b).
27 Scala paradisi 27.61 (1112c). For breathing, see the discussion below.
28 aperispástōs, epimónōs, adialeíptōs, ennáou, apaústōs, see e.g. Scala paradisi 28.25 (1133c);

28.27 (1133d) ; 28.29 (1136a); 28.31 (1136ab); 28.60 (1140ab).

29 Conlationes 10.10.14. See also 10.10.1; 10.10.2: iugem dei memoriam; 10.10.15: omni

tempore; 10.11.1: iugi meditatione.

30 Capita centum 59; 85: apaústōs; 88: ápauston; 97: érgon ápauston.
31 Scala paradisi 18.5 (933d) and 21.7 (945c). See also 27.60–62 (1112c); 28.31 (1136ab).
32 See Rydell Johnsén 2007, 30–122.
33 Scala paradisi 28.5–11 (1129d–1132b); 28.19 (1132d).

"31
34 Scala paradisi 28.26–31 (1133c–1136b); 28.60–63 (1140ab).
35 See also Luk 18.1: pántote proseúchesthai.
36 Cf. e.g. Scala paradisi 28.29 (1136a).
37 Origen, De oratione 12.2 (ed. Koetschau, 1899).
38 See Wortley, 2006, pp. 322–323, and Rönnegård's contribution to this volume.
39 See e.g. Regnault, 1974; Ware, 1986, p. 176-177.
40 Conlationes 10.10.14; 10.10.2; 10.10.15; 10.11.1; Capita centum 59, 61, 97. For other early

sources, see also e.g. AP/G Apollo 2 (PG 65.136a); The Virtues of Saint Macarius 35 (ed.

Amélineau, 1894): meletē (in Coptic).

41 Capita centum 59: Kyrios Jēsous; 61: tó Kýrie Iēsoú.
42 See Barsansuphios & John, Quaestiones et Responsiones 175: Kýrie Iēsoú Christé eléēsón

me (ed. Neyt et al., 1997–1998).

43 Queastioens et Responsiores 39: Iēsoú boēthei moi.
44 Prayers addressed to Jesus Christ was not uncommon in the early church prior to the

emergence of early monasticism (see e.g. Hausherr, 1960, pp. 180–187), but the repetitive use

of such prayers seems to originate with early monasticism.

45 Ware, 1986, p. 177. See also e.g. Adnès, 1974, p. 1129; Regnault, 1974.
46 See Regnault, 1974. There is a variety even in Gaza in the 6th century, even though we find

versions closer to the classical formula in Gaza. See also Hausherr, 1960, pp. 187–197. For

other early versions see e.g. AP/G Elias 7 (PG 54.184d–185a); Nilus of Ancyra, Epistula

2.140 (PG 79.260ab); 2.214 (ibid. 312 cd); 3.273 (ibid. 520bc); The Virtues of Saint Macarius

13, 34, 35, 41, 42, 44. See also Grillmeyer et al, 1996, pp. 184–189. Short formulas have also

been found in 7th–8th century inscriptions in monastic settlements in Egypt, see e.g.

Guillaumont, 1979.
47 Scala paradisi 4.112 (721d–724b).
48 Scala paradisi 21.7 (945c): Iēsoú onómati (transl. Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 1979).

"32
49 Scala paradisi 15.54 (889cd) (transl. Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 1979, modified). Cf.

also the reference to Iēsoú hē proseuchē in 9.10 (841c).

50 See Bartelink, 1980.
51 Scala paradisi 14.32 (869a); 4.112 (721d–724b); 27.61 (1112c). For breathing see below.
52 Scala paradisi 28.10 (1132b).
53 Scala paradisi 28.19 (1132d). See also 28.5 (1129d); 28.10 (1132b).
54 See e.g. AP/G Achillas 5 (PG 54.125ab); and Wortley, 2006, pp. 317–321, 325–327, and

Rönnegård's contribution to this volume for further references.

55 Besides the references below, see also Virtues of Saint Macarius 41: 'words welling up from

your lips' (transl. Vivian, 2004); 42.

56 Capita centum 61: sygkrázousan, see also Capita centum 59, 61, where analogies implying

that something is uttered are used to explain the practice.

57 See Lewis et al., 1879, decanto, s.v. Decanto usually implies a sound in meanings like e.g.

to sing, to repeat in a singing manner, to recite, or to play (upon an instrument).

58 Conlationes 10.10.14 (transl. Ramsey, 1997, modified): decantare non desinas. See also

10.10.15: decantare; decantatio.

59 Scala paradisi 28.19 (1132d), cf. 28.17 (1132cd).
60 Methodos tës hieras proseuchēs kai prosochēs, p. 164 (ed. Hausherr, 1927). The dating of

the text is debated. Traditionally it has been attributed to Symeon the New Theologian in the

10th century, but Irénée Hausherr has questioned the attribution and argued for a dating as late

as in the early 14th century, see Hausherr, 1927, pp. 133–134.

61 See Hausherr, 1960; Chryssavgis, 2004, pp. 230–231; Ware, 1982, pp. 49–50.
62 There is also clear reference to breathing in The Virtues of Saint Macarius 42, which might

be more or less contemporary (perhaps 7th–8th century) with Climacus. Here the Jesus prayer

is said to be something that one should 'say with each breath' (ejos kata še pnifi). For dating,

see Guillaumont, 1974.

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63 Transl. Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 1979, modified.
64 Transl. ibid., modified.
65 Transl. ibid., modified.
66 As mentioned above, there is also a notable parallel but of somewhat uncertain date in

Coptic in The Virtues of Saint Macarius 42, see note 63 above.

67 Sententiae Sexti 289: tón Theón … anápnei (ed. Chadwick, 1959); Clement of Alexandria,

Quis dives salvetur 26.6: Théon anapneín (ed. Früchtel et al., 1970).
68 Origen, Fragmenta in Lamentationes 116: tón Christón anapnéousi (ed. Klostermann, 1901).
69 Vita Antonii 91: tón Christón aeí anapnéete (ed. Bartelink, 2004).
70 Gregory of Nazianz, De moderatione in disputando 21 (PG 36.197): tá toú Pneúmatos ...

anápnei.
71 One exception is Gregory of Nazianz, Oratio 27.4 (PG 36.16b), where anapneúō is a verbal

adjective with God as objective genitive.

72 Scala paradisi 28.23 (1133b) (transl. Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 1979).
73 Scala paradisi 15.81 (900cd) (transl. Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 1979, modified), cf.

28.23 (1133b); 25.58 (1000d).

74 See Furley, 1984; Temkin, 2006. For Galen, see e.g. De usu respirationis 5.4: 'the heart …

has need of breathing to the same extent that we ourselves need regulation of heat. … The

breathing through the arteries [sic!] is enough for all other members, but for the brain and the

heart two special organs of breathing are provided; for the first, the nostrils; for the second,

the lung.' (ed. and transl. Furley and Wilkie, in Furley et al., 1984). Considering his whole

corpus, Galen is, however, ambiguous regarding in what sense air passes from the lungs to the

heart, see Temkin, 2006, pp. 154–161. For the role of Galen in early Byzantine medicine, see

Duffy, 1984.
75 Conlationes 10.14.3 (transl. Ramsey, 1997). See also 10.12; 10.10.2.

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76 See Conlationes 10.10.2; 10.12: dei memoriam; Capita centum 61: toú Kyríou Iēsoú

mnēmē and Iēsoú mnēmē; Scala paradisi 27.61 (1112c): Iēsoú mnēmē. For 'remembrance of

God', see Sieben, 1980.

77 Capita centum 59.
78 Capita centum 61 (transl. Palmer et al., 1979, modified), see also 59; 97. See also Ware,

1985, pp. 563-565.

79 Scala paradisi 28.31 (1136ab) (transl. Holy transfiguration Monastery, 1979, modified). See

also 28.29 (1136a), 28.60 (1140ab), 28.10 (1132b), 28.17 (1132cd).

80 Scala paradisi 28.10 (1132b). See also 28.17 (1132cd).
81 Conlationes 10.12; 10.10.2. Cf. 10.14.3.
82 Capita centum 59 (transl. Palmer et al., 1979, modified). See also Capita centum 88; 97, and

Ware, 1985, pp. 563–565.

83 Scala paradisi 14.32 (869a) (transl. Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 1979, modified).
84 Diadochus, Capita centum 59 (transl. Palmer et al., 1979, modified), see also Capita centum

97.
85 Capita centum 85; 33 (demons, evils); 31 (deceptions); 88; 97 (worldly thoughts).
86 Capita centum 31.
87 Capita centum 97. See also Ware, 1985, pp. 562, 566.
88 Conlationes 10.10.11 (distractions, wandering thoughts, fantasies); 10.11.1 (thoughts);

10.10.14; 10.11.4 (demons).

89 Conlationes 10.10.3 (transl. Ramsey, 1997).
90 See also Conlationes 10.10.14; 10.11.1. It is notable that John Cassian also underscores the

need to purge oneself from passions as a preparation for unceasing prayer, see e.g.

Conlationes 9.2–6.
91 Scala paradisi 28.19 (1132d).
92 Scala paradisi 28.10 (1132b).

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93 Scala paradisi 28.63 (1140bc). Cf. the vocabulary in 18.5 and 21.7. See also 15.53–54

(889cd).
94 Scala paradisi 18.5 (933bc); 21.7 (945c).
95 Scala paradisi 28.10 (1132b). See also less clear statements in 28.21 (1133a); 28.25 (1133c).
96 Scala paradisi 28.31 (1136ab).
97 Conlationes 9.2.1–2: inmobilem tranquillitatem mentis; 10.14.3: cordis atque animae

puritatem.
98 Scala paradisi 27.61 (1112c) (transl. Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 1979, modified).
99 See e.g. Conlationes 10.11.1–3; 10.10.14; Capita centum 59; Scala paradisi 28.19 (1132d).

See also Ware, 1985, pp. 566–568.

100 For a general definition of melétē and its development, see Hieronymus, 1970; Rabbow,

1954; and Rönnegård's contribution to this volume.

101 See e.g. Salem, 2009, 15–16, 39–41. Cf. also memorization and meditatio of a rhetorical

speech in Quintillian, Institutio oratioria 11.2 (ed. Russel, 2001).

102 For Epicureanism, see e.g. Hadot, 1969, pp. 52–54; Nussbaum, 1994, pp. 132–133; Salem,

2009, pp. 15–16, 39–44; for Stoicism, see e.g. Newman, 1989, Armisen-Marchetti, 2004–

2005, Hadot, 1969, pp. 55–60.

103 Cf. Newman, 1989, pp. 1476.
104 Epistula 16.1 (ed. Gummere, 1917–1925); De beneficiis 7.2.1 (ed. Basore, 1935). See also

Armisen-Marchetti, 2004–2005, p. 162. For melétē as a daily practice in Stoic meditation in

general, see Newman, 1989, p. 1475.

105 Epistula 16.1; De ira 3.41.1 (ed. Basore, 1928). For a constant and repetitive practice in

Stoic meditation in general, see Newman, 1989, pp. 1475, 1480. For Epicureanism, see

Salem, 2009, pp. 16, 39–41.

106 For a repetitive and prolonged (diu) practice, see Epistula 71.31; subinde: Epistula 94.26;

saepe: 94.52.

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107 De beneficiis 7.1.3–4 (transl. Basore, 1935).
108 Epistula 2.4. For digestion, see also Epictetus, Dissertationes 3.21.1–3 (ed. Schenkl, 1916).
109 Epistula 71.31.
110 Newman 1989: 1493–1494, see also 1475, 1484, 1498.
111 Epistula 11.8; 94.26–28; 94.43.
112 Epistula 94.43 (transl. Gummere, 1917–1925); see also 94.26–28. Epictetus refers to a

short concise rule or principle (kanōn) instead of a sententia, see e.g. Dissertationes 4.4.29.
113 See Armisen-Marchetti, 2004–2005, p. 164; Newman, 1989, p. 1480. See also Epictetus,

Dissertationes 3.24.103.
114 Epistula 15.7–8 (transl. Gummere, 1917–1925). Cf. also Epistula 54.6.
115 Epistula 94.47: sententiae familiariter in animum receptae. See also Epistula 94.43: saepe

tecum sint; 71.31: alte descendit et diu sedit; 7.11: condenda in animum. For interiorization in

Stoic meditation in general, see Newman, 1989, pp. 1475–1476. For Epicureanism, see

Salem, 2009, pp. 16–17.

116 Epistula 16.1: firmandum et altius cotidiana meditatione figendum; 11.8: affigere; De

beneficiis 7.2.1: adfigere.

117 Epistula 71.31: infecit.
118 Epistula 71.30; 94.26; De beneficiis 7.13.4; 7.2.1. See also Epistula 16.1 and Newman,

1989, p. 1476.
119 Newman, 1989, p. 1475.
120 See note 89, 90 and 92 above. For an exception, see Institutiones 2.13 (Guy, 1965).
121 For the importance of compunction, see e.g. Hausherr, 1960, pp. 219–234.
122 See Newman, 1989, pp. 1486–1488.
123 Armisen-Marchetti, 2004–2005, cf. Seneca, Epistula 94.47–48.
124 Epistula 2.4; 16.1.
125 De ira 3.41.1; 2.12.6.
126 Epistula 16.1.

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127 Brakke, 2006, pp. 38–41, esp. 40; see also Brown, 1989, pp. 53–54.
128 There is an ideal of remembering God in the Old Testament, as well, and this is likely one

behind the 'remembrance of God' in Philo (see Sieben, 1980, 1408, 1413-1414), but the

notion, as such, is not found in the Old Testament.

129 Meditations 6.7. 1 (ed. Farquharson, 1944): mnēmē theoú. See also 10.8.4: tó memnēsthai

theōn.
130 Boccaccini, 1991, pp. 201–205.
131 De vita contemplativa 26 (ed. Cohn et al., 1915). For Philo and 'remembrance of God', see

Boccaccini, 1991, pp. 191–205. For the therapeutae, see Guillaumont, 1979, pp. 25-37.
132 Sieben, 1980, pp. 1407–1411, 1413. See also Hausherr, 1960, pp. 156–162 and Boccaccini,

1991, pp. 191–194. For further references, see Sieben, 1980.

133 Boccaccini, 1991, pp. 204–205.
134 See Adnès, 1974; Guillaumont 1980, pp. 289–290.
135 See e.g. Hausherr 1960, pp. 174–175, 209–210; Adnès, 1974, pp. 1127–1129; Guillaumont,

1980, p. 290; Stewart, 1998, pp. 100–113.

136 For memorization and melétē, see e.g. Epictetus, Dissertationes 1.30.5; 2.2.25; Salem,

2009, pp. 16–17, 39–44; Hadot, 1995, pp. 85–86; Hadot, 1969, pp. 55–60. See also

Quintillian's discussion of meditatio and memory in Institutio oratoria 11.2 (ed. Russel, 2001).
137 For repetition and rumination related to 'remembrance of God', see Boccaccini, 1991, pp.

198–202.
138 See Newman, 1989, p. 1481, with reference to Epictetus, Dissertationes 3.24.95–102.

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