Index

1. Introduction 1
2. Fungi Associated with Spoilage of Bread 3
a)Introduction
b)Formulation and bread making
c)Flour
3. Physiology and Biochemistry of Fungal Spore 8
4. Some examples Of Sporulation Of Fungi 8
5. Advantages of Sporulation 9
6. Conclusion 10
7. Bibliography 12
 INTRODUCTION
Sporulation is the formation of nearly dormant forms of bacteria .
In a limited number of bacteria, spores can preserve the genetic
material of the bacteria when conditions are inhospitable and
lethal for the normal (vegetative) form of the bacteria. The
commitment of a bacterium to the sporulation process sets in
motion a series of events that transform the cell.
Sporulation ultimately provides for a multilayered structure can be
maintained for a very long time. Relative to the norm life span of
the microorganism, spores are designed to protect a bacterium
from heat, dryness, and excess radiation for a long time.
Endospores of Bacillus subtilis have been recovered from objects
that are thousands of years old. Furthermore, these are capable of
resuscitation into an actively growing and dividing cell. Spores have
been recovered from amber that is more than 250 million years
old.

Given that resuscitation is possible, sporulation does not result in a

completely inert structure. The interior of a spore contains genetic
material, cytoplasm, and the necessary enzymes and other
materials to sustain activity. But, this activity occurs at an
extremely slow rate; some 10 million times slower than the
metabolic rate of a growing bacterium.
The sporulation process has been well studied in Bacillus subtilis.
The process is stimulated by starvation. Typically, sporulation is a
"last resort," when other options fail (e.g., movement to seek new
food, production of enzymes to degrade surrounding material,
production of antimicrobial agents to wipe out other microbes
competing for the food source, etc.). The genetic grounding for the
commitment to form a spore is a protein called SpoA. This protein
functions to promote the transcription of genes that are required
for the conversion of the actively growing bacterium to a spore.
The formation of an active SpoA protein is controlled by a series of
reactions that are themselves responsive to the environmental
conditions. Thus, the activation of SpoA comes only after a number
of checkpoints have been passed. In this way a bacterium has a
number of opportunities to opt out of the sporulation process.
Once committed to sporulation, the process is irreversible.
Fungi Associated with Spoilage of Bread
The organisms found to be associated with the spoilage of bread were
strictly fungal organisms which include; Rhizopus spp, Aspergillus spp,
Mucor spp, Penicillium spp, and Fusarium spp.

a)Introduction & Insight:

Bakery products, like bread has become an important staple food in
many countries. Cereals and bakery products serve as a valuable source
of nutrients in the diet of many people. They provide most of our food
calories. Bakery products provide nutrients such as carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids vitamins and minerals.A variety of bakery products are
available in the market. Earlier bakery products were considered as a
sick man’s diet or poor man’s diet. It has now become the essential
food item for a vast majority of the whole population. Bread is made by
mixing flour, salt, yeast and other ingredients which is followed by
baking.
The basic process involves mixing the above ingredients until the flour
is made into dough. The dough is baked into a loaf. The dough is made
in such a way that will rise easily and be able to give a bread of good
quality to the consumer. Yeast is used in the dough which releases CO2
and the bread becomes spongy.
Earlier airborne yeasts were used in making bread. This was done by
keeping the dough exposed to air for sometime before baking. But the
technology has improved the bread making to a greater extent in which
high energy mixing is involved. Usually the mold spoilage of bread is
due to post processing contamination. Bread loaves fresh out of the
oven are free of molds or mold spores due to their thermal inactivation
during the baking process (Ponte and Tsen, 1978). Bread becomes
contaminated after baking, from the mold spores present in the
atmosphere surrounding loaves during cooling, slicing,packaging and
storage. Most common source of microbial spoilage is due to mold
growth. According to the previous studies (Banwart, 2004) bread molds
like Mucor and Rhizopus are found to grow first during bread spoilage.
This is followed by some other fungi like Aspergillus, Penicillium and
Fusarium sp.

b)Formulation & Tabulation:

The following table is used in formulating contents of a bread:
c) Flour:
Flour is the most important ingredient in bread, and the type of flour
we use will determine how good or bad our bread is going to turn out.

Wheat flour (the flours we’ll be talking about) is composed of protein

forming components called gluten. Gluten is made of two types of
protein : glutenin, which gives elasticity and gliadin which adds
resistance to stretching. These two components, in contact with water
or any other liquid, work together in balance to create structure within
the dough, which in the end leads to that beautiful loaf of bread.

There are 4 types of wheat flour that are most used in bread recipes. :
all-purpose flour, bread flour, whole wheat flour and white whole
wheat flour.
All purpose flour is, I think, one of the most used flour in bread recipes.
It has a gluten content between 9-11%. It’s usually made of a
combination of hard and soft wheat and come in two varieties.
Bleached and unbleached.

Unbleached flour is aged naturally to oxidize the proteins and bleach

out the natural yellow pigment present in freshly milled flour.
Unbleached flour has more nutrients.

Bleached flour is aged quickly with chlorine dioxide gas. Bleaching also
removes some chemicals that interfere with gluten development. If you
look carefully, you’ll noticed that some bleached flour are enriched,
that means after the bleaching process some nutrients (mostly iron, B
vitamins and sometimes calcium) are added back to the flour to match
the nutritious value of the unbleached flour.
As the name stats, this type of flour is used for making the cream of the
breads. Unbleached bread flour is made from hard red spring wheat
that is aged without chemicals or preservatives(thus the higher price).
Some national flour brands offer bread flour at a lower price, flour that
was aged faster and enriched when the process was done.

The high percentage of gluten, usually between 11-14% , makes the

dough more elastic and easier to work with creating light-textured
breads.

Bread flour can be substituted with all-purpose flour, but you have to
keep in mind that bread flour, since it has a higher gluten content,
requires more liquid. When using all-purpose flour you can either add
more flour (usually 1 tbsp per 1 cup flour) or add less water
Whole wheat flour is made from the whole wheat berry, including the
oil-rich bran and germ. You should check the label to see if it’s 100%
whole wheat flour, that means nothing was added or taken away. The
flour is as natural as possible straight from the mill. Whole wheat flour
creates intensely nutty flavors and a variety of fine to coarse textures
that bake up into chewy crusted breads.

Whole wheat flour has the highest gluten percentage, sometimes up to

16%. You may be wondering now, than why the whole wheat bread are
not the fluffiest of all, in fact they are heavy and dense, especially 100%
whole wheat bread. That’s a good question, and I do have the answer
for you: since the whole wheat flour is not as finely ground as the bread
White whole wheat flour is made from a new type of white spring
wheat that is light-colored and sweet. Its gluten percentage is around
12%, making this type of flour is a good substitute to all-purpose flour
with no loss of light texture. It is a nutrition as the whole wheat flour
but with a milder taste.
Physiology & Biochemistry Of Fungal
Spore:
It is commonly accepted by fungal physiologists that conditions that
favors rapid mycelia growth hampers sporulation and that spore
formation occurs when the growth rate is reduced. Thus virtually any
environmental condition can be shown to influence fungal
sporulation,including light,humidity,temperature,aeration,PH,Injury to
the culture and Nutrient Type and composition.It has been proposed
that vegetative growth and sporulation compete for limiting nutrients
but are not mutually exclusive processes.
A problem encountered in biochemical and physiological studies of
sporulation is that of obtaining uniform material,since several cell types
may participate in the process and sporulation is often asynchronous in
addition a few fungi sporulate synchronously under natural conditions.

Some Examples of Sporulation of Fungi:

1. Asexual spores (e.g. exogenous spores produced by Conidia oidia)
2.Sexual spores such as Oospores and Zygote
3. Vegetative spores (e.g. 13Chlamydospores) Megaspores of plants
(female gametophyte)
Advantages Of Spore Formation:
Advantages of spore formation are:
i.)Spore can survive under unfavorable conditions as they are covered
by a hard protective coat.
ii.) Spores can grow to produce new plants and does not require sexual
interaction with another organism.
iii.)Due to their small size and light weight, they can be dispersed easily.
Conclusion:
Kingdom Fungi diverged from Kingdom Plantae and Animalia about
1100 million years ago. For many years, plants and fungi were under
Kingdom Plantae due to its supposed similarities. Through genetic
analysis of modern fungi, it has been determined that fungi are in fact
more related to kingdom Animalia than they are to Plantae. Fungi are
considered a sister group to Animalia, in that they most likely shared a
common ancestor 1100 million years ago. Fungi gained recognition as
its own kingdom due to its method of food consumption, genetic
diversity, and cellular make up (chitin in cell walls). It has since been
categorized into seven phyla, 10 subphyla, 35 classes, 12 subclasses,
and 128 orders. Fungal phyla are determined due to phylogenetic
similarity, much in the same way kingdom Animalia is divided. As each
group of fungi diverged from its ancestor through the addition of
specialized traits, it is classified as divergent enough to be a new
phylum. Examples of this classification system are Basidiomycota (a
more modern fungi phylum) and Chytridiomycota (a most likely
ancestral fungi phylum). The phylum Basidiomycota was named after
its reproductive structure the basidium, a specialized structure for
sporulation found only in fungi of this phylum. The origin of
Chytridiomycota was from the Greek word meaning “little pot”, and
they have a chytrid (or anterior) flagellum. Chytridiomycota was once
considered a much broader category of fungi but genetic differentiation
classified fungi within this phylum as those who contain zoospores and
are primarily considered parasitic.

The kingdom Fungi has a wide variety of species with some beneficial
and some harmful to the human physiology. Fungi interact with the
human body in ways of parasitism, medicinal, and nutritional. The
human body acts like the host for the parasitic fungus allowing the
organism to take in nutrients. Parasitic fungi also infect harmful
diseases like the the super-infection found in the cornea that was
caused by two different fungi and a bacteria. Fungi also reside on
human skin. A majority of fungi are found to be harmful, but it was
found that a small amount of fungi also have medicinal purposes, for
one’s mental health. Penicillium griseofulvum is a fungi that was used
to make the antibiotic Penicillin. Penicillium griseofulvum kept in a
culture will use up sugars for nutrients and growth.
 Bibliography
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/sporulation of fungi

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology of fungal spores

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/biochemistry of fungal spores

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki

http://atreatsaffair.com/bread-baking

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Formulation-of-bread-making

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/examplesofsporulationoffungi

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/advantagesofsporulation

https://www.microscopemaster.com/sporulation

https://www.topperlearning.com/answer/advantages-of-spore