STUDENT WORK EXPERIENCE PROGRAM (SWEP) REPORT

2021/2022 SESSION

PRESENTED BY
ADEGBITE OMOTEMISOLA ADEDIWURA
(MATRIC NO- 20CF027224)
OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

11TH AUGUST, 2022

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 CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that the Students’ Work Experience Programme (SWEP) was carried out by I,
Adegbite Omotemisola Adediwura at the Electrical and Electronics department of Covenant
University, Ota. I also certify that the report submitted is in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of Bachelor of Engineering, B.Eng. in Chemical Engineering.

…………………………………. ………………………………….
Project Student’s name Date and signature

………………………………… ………………………………….
Head of department’s name Date and signature

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION...........................................................................................................................2
DEDICATION.................................................................................................................................6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................7
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................9
What is Student Work Experience Program (SWEP)?................................................................9
Purpose of Student Work Experience Program...........................................................................9
Importance of Student Work Experience Program......................................................................9
BACKGROUND OF STUDY.......................................................................................................10
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................11
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS..............................................................................................................11
1.1 What are Embedded systems?............................................................................................11
1.2 Purpose of Embedded systems............................................................................................11
1.3 Examples of embedded system............................................................................................11
1.4 History of Embedded systems.............................................................................................12
1.5 Basic structure of Embedded systems.................................................................................13
1.6 Classification of Embedded systems...................................................................................14
1.7 Designing Embedded systems with microcontrollers.........................................................17
1.7.1 Elements of a microcontroller......................................................................................17
1.7.2 Arduino.........................................................................................................................18
1.8 Advantages of embedded systems.......................................................................................20
1.9 Disadvantages of embedded systems..................................................................................21
CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................22
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM, ELECTRICAL WIRING SYSTEM AND SAFETY................22
2.1 What is an Electric power system?.....................................................................................22
2.2 Sources of electricity generation........................................................................................22
2.3 Stages of Electric Power Supply.........................................................................................23
2.4 What is Electrical wiring system?......................................................................................24
2.5 Domestic Wiring System.....................................................................................................24
2.6 Types of socket circuits.......................................................................................................25
2.7 What is a cable?..................................................................................................................27

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 2.8 Components of an electrical cable.....................................................................................27
2.9 Types of electric conductors...............................................................................................27
2.10 Cable selection criteria.....................................................................................................28
2.11 Electrical Hazards and Electrical Safety.........................................................................28
2.11.1 What is Electrical Safety?..........................................................................................28
2.11.2 Electrical Hazards.....................................................................................................28
2.11.3 Examples of Electrical Hazards.................................................................................29
2.11.4 Electrical Safety Protective Methods.........................................................................30
2.11.5 Safety precautions when working with electricity......................................................32
2.11.6 Electrical Hazard Warning Signs..............................................................................32
2.12 Hands-On Project: Installation of two points of light and a socket.................................33
2.12.1 Schematic diagram of connection..............................................................................34
2.13 Installation of Electrical Extension Box...........................................................................35
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................37
SOLAR ENERGY BASICS..........................................................................................................37
3.1 What is Solar Energy?........................................................................................................37
3.2 Types of Solar Energy.........................................................................................................37
3.3 Photovoltaic Systems..........................................................................................................38
3.4 Components of A Photovoltaic System...............................................................................38
3.5 How Solar PV Systems work?.............................................................................................39
3.6 Types of Photovoltaic Panels..............................................................................................39
3.7 Types of Photovoltaic Systems............................................................................................42
3.8 Mounting Structures...........................................................................................................43
3.9 Types of Mounting Structures.............................................................................................43
3.10 Design steps of a Solar PV System...................................................................................47
3.11 Advantages of Photovoltaics.............................................................................................48
3.12 Disadvantages of Photovoltaics.......................................................................................48
3.13 Hands-On Project.............................................................................................................49
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................51
CCTV SYSTEM AND IP CAMERA SOLUTIONS....................................................................51
4.1 What is Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)?.......................................................................51
4.2 Components of a CCTV System..........................................................................................51

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 4.3 How does CCTV work?......................................................................................................52
4.4 Types of CCTV Systems......................................................................................................53
4.5 Types of CCTV cameras.....................................................................................................54
4.6 CCTV Cables and Transmission Media.............................................................................56
4.7 Factors to consider when planning for a CCTV system.....................................................57
4.8 What is an Internet Protocol Camera?...............................................................................57
4.9 Core components of an IP camera system..........................................................................58
4.10 How does an IP camera work?.........................................................................................58
4.11 Must-Have Features of IP Cameras.................................................................................59
4.12 Network options to choose from when setting up an IP camera......................................60
4.13 Benefits of IP cameras......................................................................................................61
4.14 Differences between CCTV and IP cameras....................................................................61
4.15 Hands-On Project.............................................................................................................61
CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................66
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................67

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 DEDICATION
This report is dedicated to God, who has brought me thus far in my academic pursits and
endowed me with wisdom, knowledge and understanding.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To my parent and family, thank you for your unconditional love and support in my academic
pursuits.
I would also like to thank the lecturers of the EEE department. The completion of this report
could not have been possible without their expertise and guidance.

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 ABSTRACT
This report covers the knowledge that had been acquired during the SWEP program and all the
practical sessions in the SWEP, with the experiences gained from the practical.

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 INTRODUCTION

What is Student Work Experience Program (SWEP)?

Student Work Experience Programme is a programme aimed at providing the participating
Engineering students the practical skills of general workshop and safety practices in the use of
tools and equipments, as they are obtainable in the real world of Engineering practices. SWEP is
a prelude to the Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) which is a mandatory
programme of Engineering training to be undertaken for a prolonged and continuous period of
six month in their 400 level programme.
Purpose of Student Work Experience Program
SWEP is designed to expose students to the world of hands-on work outside regular classroom
academic activities, to enable them to integrate the theoretical academic curricula with real-life
Engineering and industrial practices.
Importance of Student Work Experience Program
1. It exposes the students to all aspects of engineering practice.
2. It develops the students’ innovative and creative abilities and skills relevant to their
programme.
3. It teaches the students manual labour so that they can appreciate the dignity of labour and
also make them engineers and professionals of excellence in the future.
4. It inculcates in the students, a logical mode of thinking and reasoning that promotes a
practical application of acquired theoretical, knowledge in overcoming technical and
professional challenges.
5. It trains the students on how to acknowledge and appreciate the numerous professional
challenges of their immediate environment and the society at large and offer solutions,
which their knowledge empowerment avails them.
6. It inculcates in the students the development of right team spirit as well as expose them to
rudimentary expectations for the world of work.

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 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
For the Student Work Experience Program (SWEP), my department of assignment was the
Electrical and Electronics department. The duration of the program was four weeks.
Two projects were assigned to the students, namely:
 Solar photovoltaic sytem design
 Installation of Closed Circiut Televison (CCTV)
The first two weeks of the program was spent teaching the theoretical parts of the projects, while
the last two weeks involved the practical hands-on part.

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 CHAPTER ONE

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

1.1 What are Embedded systems?

An Embedded System is an integrated system which is formed as an combination of computer
hardware and software for a specific function. It can be said as a dedicated computer system
which has been developed for some particular reason. But it is not our traditional computer
system or general-purpose computers, these are the Embedded systems which may work
independently or attached to a larger system to work on few specific functions. These embedded
systems can work without human intervention or with little human intervention. 

1.2 Purpose of Embedded systems

The purpose of embedded systems is to control a specific function within a device. They are
usually designed to only perform this function repeatedly, but more developed embedded
systems can control entire operating systems.
Some more complex embedded systems can also perform several different functions, but these
are still relatively simple tasks that do not require a large amount of processing power.
A key characteristic of embedded systems is that they aren’t usually programmable, so once they
have been set up to perform a specific function they operate reliably and do not need to be
tampered with. However, the software on some devices with embedded systems can be upgraded
which means that programmed functions can be refined.
By being designed and programmed to only have one purpose, an embedded system is an
incredibly reliable electronic component that does not need very much maintenance and is pretty
easy to add to a device. Whilst they are a critical part of a system, they are very unlikely to
malfunction and do not need reprogramming so are an essential part of many devices that are
required just to function without intervention, like household appliances.

1.3 Examples of embedded system

1.     Telecommunications systems uses them for telephones, cell phone network, and wi-fi
routers.
2.     Consumer electronics include clock radios, MP3 players, mobile phones, video game
consoles, digital cameras, DVD players, GPS receivers, home security systems, and printers.

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3.     Household appliances, like microwave ovens, washing machines, burglar alarm systems
and dishwashers have embedded systems.
4.     Transportation uses embedded systems for everything from locomotives for trains,
airplanes and automobiles.
5.     Industry uses electric motors with electronic controllers, card readers and CNC machines
which automatically make metal parts.
6.     Medical devices like defibrillators, automated blood pressure readers, and automated
insulin pumps.
7.     Military devices, like walkie-talkies, satellites and the guiding systems for missiles.

1.4 History of Embedded systems

Embedded systems date back to the 1960s. Charles Stark Draper developed an integrated circuit
in 1961 to reduce the size and weight of the Apollo Guidance Computer, the digital system
installed on the Apollo Command Module and Lunar Module. The first computer to use ICs, it
helped astronauts collect real-time flight data.
In 1965, Autonetics, now a part of Boeing, developed the D-17B, the computer used in the
Minuteman I missile guidance system. It is widely recognized as the first mass-produced
embedded system. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17B was
replaced with the NS-17 missile guidance system, known for its high-volume use of integrated
circuits. In 1968, the first embedded system for a vehicle was released; the Volkswagen 1600
used a microprocessor to control its electronic fuel injection system.

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By the late 1960s and early 1970s, the price of integrated circuits dropped and usage surged. The
first microcontroller was developed by Texas Instruments in 1971. The TMS1000 series, which
became commercially available in 1974, contained a 4-bit processor, read-only memory (ROM)
and random-access memory (RAM), and it cost around $2 apiece in bulk orders.
Also, in 1971, Intel released what is widely recognized as the first commercially available
processor, the 4004. The 4-bit microprocessor was designed for use in calculators and small
electronics, though it required eternal memory and support chips. The 8-bit Intel 8008, released
in 1972, had 16 KB of memory; the Intel 8080 followed in 1974 with 64 KB of memory. The
8080's successor, the x86 series, was released in 1978 and is still largely in use today.
In 1987, the first embedded operating system, the real-time VxWorks, was released by Wind
River, followed by Microsoft's Windows Embedded CE in 1996. By the late 1990s, the first
embedded Linux products began to appear. Today, Linux is used in almost all embedded
devices.

1.5 Basic structure of Embedded systems

The basic structure of an embedded system includes the following components:
 Sensor: The sensor measures and converts the physical quantity to an electrical signal, which
can then be read by an embedded systems engineer or any electronic instrument. A sensor
stores the measured quantity to the memory.
 A-D Converter: An analog-to-digital converter converts the analog signal sent by the sensor
into a digital signal.
Processor & ASICs: Processors assess the data to measure the output and store it to the
memory.
 D-A Converter: A digital-to-analog converter changes the digital data fed by the processor to
analog data
 Actuator: An actuator compares the output given by the D-A Converter to the actual output
stored and stores the approved output.

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1.6 Classification of Embedded systems
Embedded systems are classified based on the four factors i.e.
1. Performance and Functional Requirements
2. Performance of Micro-controllers
3. Generation

1. Based on Performance and Functional Requirements is divided into 4 types as follows :

 Real-Time Embedded Systems :
A Real-Time Embedded System is strictly time specific which means these embedded
systems provides output in a particular/defined time interval. These type of embedded
systems provide quick response in critical situations which gives most priority to time
based task performance and generation of output. That’s why real time embedded
systems are used in defense sector, medical and health care sector, and some other
industrial applications where output in the right time is given more importance.
Further this Real-Time Embedded System is divided into two types i.e.
 Soft Real Time Embedded Systems:

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 In these types of embedded systems time/deadline is not so strictly followed. If
deadline of the task is passed (means the system didn’t give result in the defined time)
still result or output is accepted.

 Hard Real-Time Embedded Systems:

In these types of embedded systems time/deadline of task is strictly followed. Task
must be completed in between time frame (defined time interval) otherwise
result/output may not be accepted.
Examples :Traffic control system, usage in defense sector, medical usage in health
sector

 Stand Alone Embedded Systems :

Stand Alone Embedded Systems are independent systems which can work by themselves
they don’t depend on a host system. It takes input in digital or analog form and provides
the output.
Examples: MP3 players, microwave ovens, calculator

 Networked Embedded Systems :

Networked Embedded Systems are connected to a network which may be wired or
wireless to provide output to the attached device. They communicate with embedded web
server through network.
Examples :Home security systems, ATM machine, card swipe machine

 Mobile Embedded Systems :

Mobile embedded systems are small and easy to use and requires less resources. They are
the most preferred embedded systems. In portability point of view mobile embedded
systems are also best.
Examples :MP3 player, Mobile phones, digital Camera

2. Based on Performance and micro-controller is divided into 3 types as follows :

 Small Scale Embedded Systems :
Small Scale Embedded Systems are designed using an 8-bit or 16-bit micro-controller.
They can be powered by a battery. The processor uses very less/limited resources of
memory and processing speed. Mainly these systems does not act as an independent
system they act as any component of computer system but they did not compute and
dedicated for a specific task.

 Medium Scale Embedded Systems :

Medium Scale Embedded Systems are designed using an 16-bit or 32-bit micro-
controller. These medium Scale Embedded Systems are faster than that of small Scale
Embedded Systems. Integration of hardware and software is complex in these systems.
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 Java, C, C++ are the programming languages are used to develop medium scale
embedded systems. Different type of software tools like compiler, debugger, simulator
etc are used to develop these type of systems.

 Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems :

Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems are designed using multiple 32-bit or 64-
bit micro-controller. These systems are developed to perform large scale complex
functions. These systems have high hardware and software complexities. We use both
hardware and software components to design final systems or hardware products.

3. Based on generation:
 First generation:
The earlier first-generation embedded systems were built around 8-bit microprocessors
and 4-bit microcontrollers. Such embedded system possess simple hardware and
firmware developed using assembly code.
Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units are examples of the first-
generation embedded system.

 Second generation:
After the evolution of the second generation embedded systems, the 8-bit processor and
4-bit controllers are replaced by 16-bit microprocessors and 8-bit microcontrollers. They
are more powerful and complex compared to previous generation processors.
Data acquisition systems, SCADA systems are examples of second-generation embedded
systems.

 Third generation:
During this period, domain-specific processors/controllers like Digital Signal Processors
(DSP), Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) and the concept of instruction
pipelining, embedded real-time operating system evolved into the embedded system
industry.The embedded system of this period has powerful 32-bit microprocessors and
16-bit microcontrollers. Hence, its operation has become much more powerful and
complex than the second generation.
Robotics, industrial process control, embedded networking are examples of the third-
generation embedded system.

 Fourth generation:
The recent development of microprocessors and microcontrollers has evolved during
these modern days. New concepts like System-on-Chip(SOC), reconfigurable processors,
multicore processors, coprocessors also emerged into the embedded market to add more
powerful performance in the embedded system.

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 These systems also make use of the high-performance real-time operating system for
their operation. Smart devices, digital cameras, etc are examples of fourth-generation
embedded systems.

1.7 Designing Embedded systems with microcontrollers

Today embedded systems are replacing various systems that used to be designed with a set of
complex electronic circuits. Usually the heart of the embedded system is a microcontroller. A
microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a specific operation in an
embedded system. It comprises various elements, including a microprocessor, timers, counters,
input/output (I/O) ports, random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), and some
other components. These parts work together to execute a pre-programmed set of specific tasks.
Thus, a microcontroller is like a little computer that processes and even executes control in an
electronic device.

1.7.1 Elements of a microcontroller

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
The CPU is the core of the microcontroller, often referred to as the brains. It takes in inputs,
interprets them, and executes operations, all according to the program in memory. It works in
tandem with RAM and ROM to produce the desired output quickly and with great efficiency.
2. Random Access Memory (RAM):
We can refer to RAM as data memory. This is the memory in which temporary data is held
while the CPU executes operations. You can think of it like the workbench upon which
everything is laid out while you work on individual elements one at a time.
3. Read-Only Memory (ROM):
ROM is the program memory in a microcontroller, storing all the program instructions. The
CPU fetches its instructions from the ROM and executes them one at a time. Unlike RAM,
ROM necessarily stores data even after the device’s power has been switched off. Using the
previous analogy, this is your workshop’s closet, where things are permanently stored,
including your blueprints.
4. Input/Output Ports (I/O):
We can describe I/O ports as the sensory inputs and the limbs of the microcontroller body. It
uses these ports for communication and interfacing with external devices. Additions like
switches, thermistors, accelerometers, and so on are inputs, while speakers, lights, or signals
sent to a motor are examples of outputs.

5. Timers and counters:

Timers and counters are the elements that find the most varied applications in the
microcontroller. They can perform tasks like controlling LEDs and modulating the speed of

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 motors, and the CPU executes the operation in tandem with the microcontroller clock (a
continual, periodic, alternating signal). This enables functions such as pulse width
modulation (PWM), clock control, frequency measuring, and counting external pulses.
6. Analog to Digital Converter (ADC):
As the name indicates, the ADC converts the analog input signals from the external sensors
to digital signals. This is necessary because the CPU needs digital input to perform
operations. In this way, the ADC forms a bridge between analog input (e.g. a temperature-
derived voltage) and the CPU.
7. Digital to Analog Converter (DAC):
This is the inverse of the ADC; the DAC converts the digital signals to pure analog outputs.
This is then further used to control external devices. For example, a DC motor needs an
analog input, so the digital output from the CPU is first converted to an analog output and
then passed on to the motor.

1.7.2 Arduino
One example of a microcontroller is Arduino. Arduino is an open source based prototyping
platform used to sense and control physical devices. Arduino consists of both a physical
programmable circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller) and a piece of software or
IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that runs on your computer, used to write and
upload computer code to the physical board.

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1.8 Advantages of embedded systems
The immediate advantages of embedded systems include:
 Lower power consumption
 Less noise and lower failure rate
 More resistant to dust, debris, and other particulates
 Less maintenance overall
 Smaller size
 Lower weight
 Lower cost
 Little to no human involvement
 Dedicated task completion
 Uninterrupted operation
 A high degree of fault tolerance

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1.9 Disadvantages of embedded systems
 After creating installed framework, you can’t make any alteration, improvement or up
degree.
 Hard to keep up.
 Hard to take a back-up of implanted documents.
 You need to reset all setting, due to happen any issue in the framework.
 Investigating is Harder.
 Harder to move information from one framework to another framework.
 Constraints for equipment, because of make it for explicit undertaking.
 Less force supply sturdiness.
 Restricted assets for memory.
 To require higher improvement endeavours for planning an installed framework.
 Need to long an ideal opportunity to advertise

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 CHAPTER TWO

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM, ELECTRICAL WIRING SYSTEM AND SAFETY

2.1 What is an Electric power system?

An electric power system is defined as a network of electrical components used to supply
(generate), transmit, and consume electric power. The supply is done through some form of
generation (e.g. a power plant), the transfer is done through a transmission (via a transmission
line) and distribution system, and the consumption can be through residential applications such
as powering the lights or air conditioning in your home, or via industrial applications such as the
operation of large motors.

2.2 Sources of electricity generation

1. Hydroelectric power:
Hydroelectric plants use hydropower to generate electricity. Therefore, a dam is built on a
river to retain water, creating a reservoir, much like a lake. Then, the collected liquid is led
through pipes to the powerhouse. There, turbines and generators are used to transform the
dam content pressure into a movement, generating electricity from water.

2. Thermoelectric power:
Thermoelectric plants are another way of producing electricity. In this case, the system works
by heating the water with fossil fuels, including petroleum, natural gas, and coal. The heating
produces steam, which is led by pipes to the turbines, making them spin. The turbines are
connected to generators that create an internal electromagnetic field, forming electricity.

3. Wind power:
The construction of wind farms are built to turn wind into energy. It works through turbines,
which look significantly like a pinwheel, that move due to the wind. Next to the turbines
there are also generators that, due to the rotor, an internal moving part, generate
electromagnetic fields that are transformed into electric power.

4. Nuclear power:
Nuclear plants use radioactive elements, such as uranium, to generate energy. In this system,
the nucleus of the uranium atom is disintegrated, releasing a large amount of heat (energy),
which is why they are known as sources of “nuclear” electricity. The heat produced in these
plants is used to turn water into steam, which is conducted by pipes, promoting the
movement of the turbine that, in turn, moves the electric generator.

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5. Solar power:
Solar power or photovoltaic works through the use of sunlight. Photovoltaic modules or a
solar thermal system are used to transform it into energy. In the procedure done with the
modules, solar irradiation is directly converted into hydroelectric energy. On the other hand,
in the solar thermal system, the sunlight is transformed into heat and, later, into electricity.

2.3 Stages of Electric Power Supply

1. Generation or Generating Station:
In generating station, the fuel (coal, water, nuclear energy, etc.) is converted into electrical
energy. The electrical power is generated in the range of 11kV to 25kV, which is step-up for
long distance transmission. The power plant of the generating substation is mainly classified
into three types, i.e., thermal power plant, hydropower plant and nuclear power plant
The generator and the transformer are the main components of the generating station. The
generator converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical energy
comes from the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally the
internal combustion engine.

2. Primary transmission:
This is a power transmission type that transfers large quantities of electrical power from
generating station to the substation via overhead electrical lines. The electrical power
generated at the power station is sent to the distribution centre through transmission lines.
The power is stepped up to a voltage level between 100KV and 700KV, depending on the
distance that needs to be transmitted. Stepping up the voltage reduces losses in transmitting
the power.

3. Secondary transmission:
Here, the voltage is stepped back down when electrical power reaches a receiving station.
The level of voltage is reduced. Secondary transmission lines emerge from this receiving
station to connect substations.

4. Primary distribution:
The distribution system is the part of the electrical power system that connects consumers to
the bulk power sources. Transmission lines connect the bulk power stations to the generating
substations.
At a substation, the secondary transmission voltage is stepped down again to 11KV by step-
down transformers. Electric power is supplied to the heavy load consumers (for industrial
use).

5. Secondary distribution:

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 The transfer of electrical power from the primary distribution line to a distribution substation
is known as secondary distribution. At the distribution substation, the voltage is stepped
down to 415V and is delivered to consumers.

2.4 What is Electrical wiring system?

A network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from the
supplier meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices such as lamps, fans
and other domestic appliances through controlling and safety devices is known as an electrical
wiring system.

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2.5 Domestic Wiring System
Domestic wiring is wiring done in domestic premises for providing electrical power for domestic
appliances. Domestic wiring system consists of three types
1. Surface wiring system:
Surface wiring is a system in which the wires are simply run across the surface of a wall or
ceiling but are concealed and protected by a cover or channel.
2. Conduit wiring system:
In conduit wiring system, wires and cables are routed or enclosed in plastic or metal
conduits.
Types of conduit wiring:
 Surface conduit wiring:
In this type of conduit wiring, the conduits are laid on the surface of the walls or ceilings
of the building.
 Concealed conduit wiring:
In this type of conduit wiring, the conduits are hidden inside the walls, ceilings and floors
with the help of plaster or painting.

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2.6 Types of socket circuits
1. Radial Circuits:
Radial circuits are formed from a single cable run, moving out from the consumer unit. The
single cable (containing live, neutral and earth wires) starts from the consumer unit and
connects to each socket outlet in turn. Each socket outlet is supplied with power by the
previous one. The final socket outlet can be identified easily, as it will only have one cable
connected to it. The cable run does not return to the consumer unit. Faults on radial circuits
are easy to locate. If there is a break anywhere along the cable, all of the socket outlets after
the break will no longer work.

2. Ring Circuits:
In ring main wiring method a loop of each wire (Live, Neutral, and Phase) is made starting
from the first outlet to last outlet and then again back to the original point. The ring main
provides a two-way flow of power from one point to another. The figure below displays the
ring main wiring diagram for electric power outlets.

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2.7 What is a cable?
An electrical cable is an assembly of one or more wires running side by side or bundled, which is
used to carry electric current

2.8 Components of an electrical cable

An electrical cable consists of:
 Electric conductor: This channels the flow of electricity
 Insulation: It covers and contains the electric flow in the conductor
 Auxiliary elements: These protect the cable and guarantee its longevity
 Outer sheath: It covers all the mentioned materials protecting them from the outside

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2.9 Types of electric conductors
 Bare wire conductor: single wire in solid state, not flexible and without coating.
 Aluminium electrical conductors: in some cases, aluminium conductors are also used, despite
the fact that this metal is 60% worse conductor than copper.
 Copper electrical conductors: the most commonly used material.
 Flexible copper wire conductor: it is a set of fine wires covered by an insulating material.
They are flexible and malleable.
 Single-core cable: a cable with a single conductor.
 Multi-core cable: a cable that has several conductors.

2.10 Cable selection criteria

 Size of load or current carrying capacity
 Ambient temperature
 Length of run (distance between load and source)
 Class of protection

2.11 Electrical Hazards and Electrical Safety

2.11.1 What is Electrical Safety?
Electrical safety is a general practice of workers who are exposed to handling and maintaining
electrically powered equipment. It is a set of guidelines they follow to mitigate electrical hazards
and prevent its dangerous effects in case of an incident. Unable to adhere to electrical safety can
lead to accidents, near misses, or even fatalities.

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2.11.2 Electrical Hazards
There are four main types of injuries:
 Electrocution (fatal)
 Electric shock
 Burns
 Falls
Electrical shock occurs when the body becomes part of the electric circuit, either when an
individual comes in contact with both wires of an electrical circuit, one wire of an energized
circuit and the ground, or a metallic part that has become energized by contact with an electrical
conductor. The severity and effects of an electrical shock depend on a number of factors, such as
the pathway through the body, the amount of current, the length of time of the exposure, and
whether the skin is wet or dry. Water is a great conductor of electricity, allowing current to flow
more easily in wet conditions and through wet skin. The effect of the shock may range from a
slight tingle to severe burns to cardiac arrest.
These injuries can happen in various ways:
 Direct contact with exposed energized conductors or circuit parts. When electrical current
travels through our bodies, it can interfere with the normal electrical signals between the
brain and our muscles (e.g., heart may stop beating properly, breathing may stop, or muscles
may spasm).
 When the electricity arcs (jumps, or "arcs") from an exposed energized conductor or circuit
part (e.g., overhead power lines) through a gas (such as air) to a person who is grounded (that
would provide an alternative route to the ground for the electrical current).
 Thermal burns including burns from heat generated by an electric arc, and flame burns from
materials that catch on fire from heating or ignition by electrical currents or an electric arc
flash. Contact burns from being shocked can burn internal tissues while leaving only very
small injuries on the outside of the skin.
 Thermal burns from the heat radiated from an electric arc flash. Ultraviolet (UV) and infrared
(IR) light emitted from the arc flash can also cause damage to the eyes.
 An arc blast can include a potential pressure wave released from an arc flash. This wave can
cause physical injuries, collapse your lungs, or create noise that can damage hearing.
 Muscle contractions, or a startle reaction, can cause a person to fall from a ladder, scaffold or
aerial bucket. The fall can cause serious injuries.

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2.11.3 Examples of Electrical Hazards
1. Overhead power lines:
Overhead powered and energized electrical lines have high voltages which can cause major
burns and electrocution to workers. Safety barriers and signs must be installed to warn about
the hazards present in the area.
2. Damaged tools and equipment:
Exposure to damaged electrical tools and equipment can be very dangerous. A thorough
check for cracks, cuts, or abrasions on cables, wires and cords must be done before use for
safety.
3. Inadequate wiring and overloaded circuits:
Using wires of inappropriate size for the current can cause overheating and fires to occur.
Therefore, correct wires suitable for the operation and the electrical load must be used.
4. Exposed electrical parts:
Examples of exposed electrical parts include temporary lighting, open power distribution
units, and detached insulation parts on electrical cords. These hazards can cause potential
shocks and burns. These items should be secured with proper guarding mechanisms and
always checked for any exposed parts
5. Improper grounding:
Proper grounding can eliminate unwanted voltage and reduce the risk of electrocution.
6. Damaged insulation:
Defective or inadequate insulation is a hazard. All power sources should be turned off before
replacing damaged insulation
7. Wet conditions:
Water greatly increases the risk of electrocution especially if the equipment has damaged
insulation.

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2.11.4 Electrical Safety Protective Methods
1. Use of protective equipment:
Persons working in areas where there are potential electrical hazards must be provided with
and use electrical protective equipment appropriate for the parts of the body to be protected
and the work performed. Where the insulating capability of protective equipment is subject to
damage during use, the insulating material must be protected by covering with leather or
other appropriate materials. Nonconductive head protection must be worn wherever there is
danger of head injury from electrical shock or burns due to contact with exposed energized
parts. Protective equipment for the eyes must be worn where there is danger of eye and/or
face injury from electric arcs and flashes or flying objects resulting from electrical.

30
2. General protective equipment and tools:
Insulated tools and handling equipment must be used by persons working near exposed
energized conductors or circuit parts if the tools and/or equipment may make contact with the
conductors or parts. The insulating material of tools and equipment must be protected where
it is subject to damage. Protective shields, protective barriers, or insulating material must be
used to protect persons from shock, burns, or other electrical related injuries while working
near exposed energized parts or where dangerous electric heating or arcing might occur.
When normal enclosed live parts are exposed for maintenance or repair, the parts must be
guarded to protect unqualified persons from contact with the live parts.
3. Alerting techniques:
Alerting techniques must be used to warn and protect persons from electrical shock hazards,
burns, or failure of electric equipment parts. Safety signs, safety symbols, or accident
prevention tags must be used where necessary to warn about electrical hazards which may
endanger persons. Barricades should be used in conjunction with safety signs where
necessary to prevent or limit access to work areas exposing persons to un-insulated energized
conductors or circuit parts.

31
2.11.5 Safety precautions when working with electricity
1. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits
2. Treat all electrical devices as if they are energized
3. Disconnect the power source before opening electrical equipment
4. Use only tools and equipment with non-conducting handles when working on electrical
devices
5. Never use metallic pencils or rulers, or wear rings or metal watchbands when working with
electrical equipment
6. When it is necessary to handle equipment that is plugged in, be sure hands are dry and, when
possible, wear nonconductive gloves, protective clothes, and shoes with insulated soles.
7. If it is safe to do so, work with only one hand, keeping the other hand at your side or in your
pocket, away from all conductive material. This precaution reduces the likelihood of
accidents that result in current passing through the chest cavity.
8. If water or a chemical is spilled onto equipment, shut off power at the main switch or and
unplug the equipment. Never try to remove water or similar from equipment while energized.
9. If an individual comes in contact with a live electrical conductor, do not touch the equipment,
cord, or person. Disconnect the power source from the circuit breaker or pull out the plug
using a leather belt.
10. Equipment producing a “tingle” should be disconnected and reported promptly for repair.
11. Enclose all electric contacts and conductors so that no one can accidentally come into contact
with them.
12. Do not store highly flammable liquids near electrical equipment.
13. Do not wear loose clothing or ties near electrical equipment
14. Know the wire code of your country
15. Extension cords may not be used as permanent wiring and should be removed after
temporary use for an activity or event.

2.11.6 Electrical Hazard Warning Signs

These electrical safety symbols can be found around workplaces – particularly construction sites,
factories and farms where the use of high-voltage electrical equipment or cables is common – as
well as in any building or location where electricity may pose a danger. The text and colour of
the signs may vary, but the pictograms are universal. They are used to warn you of the potential
electrical hazards in the area and must not be ignored.

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2.12 Hands-On Project: Installation of two points of light and a socket
 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation

Materials Quantity
1.5mm2 2 core PVC insulated, copper, flat, 2m
solid cable
2.5mm2 3 core PVC insulated, copper, flat, 2m
solid cable
2 gang switch 1
13 Amp plug 1
Lamp holders 2
60 watts LED lamp 2

33
 Socket outlet 1
Junction box 1
Aluminium clips 10
Nails 50
Patchress box 2
Wooden board 1

2.12.1 Schematic diagram of connection

34
2.13 Installation of Electrical Extension Box
 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation

Material Quantity
2.5mm2 3 core PVC insulated, copper, flat, 0.5m
stranded cable
Socket outlets 5
13 Amp plug 1
Patchress box 1
Screws 15
2.5mm2 3 core PVC insulated, copper, flat, 2m
solid cable

35
36
 CHAPTER THREE

SOLAR ENERGY BASICS

3.1 What is Solar Energy?

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of
technologies such as solar power to generate electricity, solar thermal energy (including solar
water heating), and solar architecture. It is an essential source of renewable energy, and its
technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how
they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power.
Once the sunlight passes through the earth’s atmosphere, most of it is in the form of visible light
and infrared radiation. Plants use it to convert into sugar and starches; this conversion process is
known as photosynthesis. Solar cell panels are used to convert this energy into electricity.

3.2 Types of Solar Energy

Solar energy can be classified into two categories depending upon the mode of conversion and
type of energy it is converted into. Passive solar energy and active solar energy belong to the
mode of conversion and solar thermal energy, photovoltaic solar power and concentrating solar
power.
 Passive solar energy:
This refers to trapping the sun’s energy without using mechanical devices. One of the
simplest ways of applying solar passive solar energy is by painting water tanks black to
maximize heat retention and warm the water. Passive solar energy is particularly important
for heating home in colder regions and can account for up to 40% of a home’s heating energy
needs. Passive solar gain can be optimized by using building materials that store heat and
orienting the windows to receive as much light as possible.
 Solar thermal energy:
This energy is obtained by converting solar energy into heat. Solar Thermal is a type of solar
energy that is created using solar thermal panels. Solar thermal panels absorb light, heat up
and transfer the heat to a working fluid through tubes. The working fluid transfers the heat to
the point of use such as a swimming pool, a building’s heating system or a hot water store.
Solar Thermal works with a conducting fluid. Many fluids were used in early trials including
oil and sodium. The best fluid to use was found to be molten salt.
 Photovoltaic solar power:
Photovoltaic solar was created in the 1830’s. However, the first solar PV panel was created
in the United States of America by Bell Laboratories in 1954. Photovoltaic Solar is created
using photovoltaic cells. Photovoltaic cells convert light directly into electric energy. They
are commonly employed in devices such as calculators and watches. They are also used to

37
 provide electricity in houses that do not have connections to the grid. Photovoltaic solar is
one of the most common types of solar energy available. Many countries are using them to
create large scale solar farms to increase their solar capacity.
 Concentrating solar power:
Concentrated solar power is created by focusing the sun’s rays to a central point using
mirrors. A carrier fluid such as oil flows through the central point heating up to temperatures
as high as 400C.Concentrated solar power can only work in areas of direct sunlight.
Therefore, they are only used in places that have many hours of sunlight a day. Concentrated
solar power is usually found in large scale installations that supply energy to the grid.

3.3 Photovoltaic Systems

A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system
designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. Photovoltaics is the
technology that generates direct current (DC) electrical power measured in Watts(W) or
Kilowatts (KW) from semiconductors when they are illuminated by photons

3.4 Components of A Photovoltaic System

1. A solar cell panel, solar electric panel, photo-voltaic (PV) module or solar panel is an
assembly of photo-voltaic cells mounted in a framework for installation. Solar panels use
sunlight as a source of energy to generate direct current electricity. A collection of PV
modules is called a PV panel, and a system of PV panels is called an array. Arrays of a
photovoltaic system supply solar electricity to electrical equipment.
2. Solar inverter/ PV inverter:
This is a type of power inverter which converts the variable direct current (DC) output of a
photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that can be fed
into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid electrical network.
3. Mounting:
Photovoltaic mounting systems (also called solar module racking) are used to fix solar panels
on surfaces like roofs, building facades, or the ground. These mounting systems generally
enable retrofitting of solar panels on roofs or as part of the structure of the building
4. Cabling:
A solar cable is the interconnection cable used in photovoltaic power generation. Solar cables
interconnect solar panels and other electrical components of a photovoltaic system. Solar
cables are designed to be UV resistant and weather resistant. They can be used within a large
temperature range
5. Integrated battery:

38
 This is a type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and
recharged many times, as opposed to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully
charged and discarded after use.
6. Charge controller:
A charge controller or charge regulator is basically a voltage and/or current regulator to keep
batteries from overcharging. It regulates the voltage and current coming from the solar panels
going to the battery

3.5 How Solar PV Systems work?

Solar PV systems use cells to convert sunlight into electricity. The PV cell consists of one or two
layers of a semi conducting material, usually silicon. When light shines on the cell it creates an
electric field across the layers causing electricity to flow. The greater the intensity of the light,
the greater the flow of electricity. The solar panels generate DC electricity from sunlight which is
fed through an inverter to convert it into AC electricity. This electricity is used to supply current
energy demands in the customer’s building

39
3.6 Types of Photovoltaic Panels
1. Monocrystalline panels:
Monocrystalline panels are the oldest most developed type of Solar panels. As the name
suggests, Monocrystalline Solar Panels are made from single (Mono) crystal (crystalline)
silicon solar cells. To make these solar cells, pure silicon is formed into bars and cut into
wafers. During this process, the cell edges are cut off, smoothen and rounded, to help the
solar cells produce even more electricity. Although quite wasteful and time consuming, this
gives the monocrystalline cells a recognizable appearance. Manufactured from the highest
purity of silicon, Monocrystalline Solar panels are a premium panel. Although
Monocrystalline cells are more expensive, they tend to last longer, and have higher
efficiencies. As the cells are composed of a single crystal, they have a higher power output
too. In addition, Monocrystalline cells appear black and uniform in finish.

2. Polycrystalline panels:
Also referred to as “multi-crystalline” panels, Polycrystalline are often considered the mid-
range panel. Although less efficient, Polycrystalline Solar panels are the more affordable
option. Just like monocrystalline solar panels, polycrystalline cells are made from silicon.
However, as the name suggests, polycrystalline cells are made from many (Poly) fragments
of silicon crystal melted together. For this reason, Polycrystalline solar panels have a lower
efficiency and short lifespan. Meaning they don’t generate as much electricity from the sun
compared to Monocrystalline panels for as long either. This is because there is less freedom
for the electrons to move, as there are many crystals in each cell. Polycrystalline panels are
made by melting raw silicon together and pouring it into a square mould to make wafers.
This is better for the environment as it results in less waste. Overall, the process is faster and
cheaper than manufacturing monocrystalline panels. These wafers are then assembled to
form a polycrystalline panel. Polycrystalline cells can be identified by their blue finish,

40
 rectangular shape and speckles. They appear blue and speckled, as they contain many
crystals in each cell and because of the way the sunlight reflects off these crystals

3. Thin-Film panels:
Unlike monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels, thin-film solar panels are thin,
flexible, and low in profile. This is because the cells within the panels are roughly 350 times
thinner than the crystalline wafers used in monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels.
Thin-film solar panels are manufactured from layers of semiconducting materials, such as
silicon, cadium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide. The semi-conductor layer is
placed between transparent conducting layers, with a layer of glass on top, that helps to
capture sunlight. Although silicon is sometimes used to make thin-film solar panels, it is not
the same solid silicon wafers. Rather, it is a non-crystalline type of silicon. Thin-film solar
panels tend to have lower efficiencies, and power capacities compared to crystalline panels.
With efficiencies reaching around 11 percent, they require a lot more roof space to generate a
large amount of solar energy. They also tend to degrade more quickly compared to
crystalline panels, resulting in the shortest of warranties. Despite this, thin-film panel still
have their place in the solar industry. As thin-film panels are more flexible, they can be used
for a diverse range of applications. Including being moulded into shingles, or solar roof tiles,
so property owners who don’t like the appearance of solar panels can still go solar.

41
3.7 Types of Photovoltaic Systems
1. Grid-connected PV systems without battery:
A grid-connected system is a basic installation that uses a grid-tied inverter. It’s ideal for
those who wish to opt for solar installation for residential use. Consumers can benefit from
net metering. Net metering allows us to redirect any surplus energy to the grid. In this way,
customers have to pay only for the difference in energy that they use. A grid-connected
system has solar panels that absorb solar radiation, which is then transformed into direct
current (DC). The DC is then used by the solar system’s inverter that converts the DC energy
to alternating current (AC). The AC can be then used by household devices in the same way
they rely on a grid system.
The main advantage of using a grid-connected system is that it is less expensive than other
types of solar PV systems. Further, it offers design flexibility as the system need not power
all the household’s loads. The key drawback of a grid-connected system is that it does not
offer any outage protection.
2. Grid-connected PV systems with battery:
Including a battery in a grid PV system offers more energy independence to the household. It
leads to reduced reliance on grid electricity and energy retailers along with the assurance that
electricity can be drawn from the grid in case the solar system is not generating enough
energy.
3. Standalone PV systems/Off-grid PV systems:
A standalone PV system (also called off-grid solar system) is not connected to the grid. Thus,
it requires a battery storage solution. Standalone PV systems are useful for rural regions that
have difficulty in connecting to the grid system. Since, these systems don’t rely on electrical

42
 energy storage, they are suitable for powering applications such as water pumps, ventilation
fans, and solar thermal heating systems. However, if standalone systems are considered for
household use, they will have to be designed in such a way that they can address the
household’s energy needs as well as the battery charging requirements.
4. Hybrid PV systems:
A hybrid PV system is a combination of multiple sources of power to enhance the
availability and usage of power. Such a system can leverage energy from sources such as
wind, sun, or even hydrocarbons. Furthermore, hybrid PV systems are often backed up with a
battery to maximize the efficiency of the system. There are various advantages of using a
hybrid system. Multiple sources of energy mean that the system is not dependent on any
particular energy source. For instance, if the weather is not conducive to generating enough
solar energy, the PV array can charge the battery. Similarly, if it’s windy or cloudy, a wind
turbine can address the charging requirements of the battery. Hybrid PV systems are best
suited for isolated places with limited grid connection. Despite the above advantages, there
are a few challenges associated with a hybrid system. For instance, it involves a complex
design and installation process. Moreover, multiple sources of energy can increase the
upfront costs.

3.8 Mounting Structures

Mounting structures are the supporting pillars of PV modules installed to generate electricity
from sunlight. These structures set the solar panels at an angle that can collect maximum solar
radiation and are the backbone of a solar power plant as they provide support to modules.
Without these, solar panels are not able to capture the required quantum of solar radiation for
optimum solar generation.

3.9 Types of Mounting Structures

1. Fixed mounting structure:
In a fixed mount type of structure, the panels are tilted at a fixed angle. The angle is
determined by the latitude of the site, the requirements of the load (appliances which are
powered by the PV power system) and the availability of sunlight. They are appropriate for
sites with roofs that are flat, easily accessible, and well-ventilated.
Types of fixed mounting structures are:
 Roof mounted structure:
This is a mechanism with which the PV Panels can be installed upon the roof

43
 Ground mounted structure:
This is a system in which a free-standing solar array mounted on the ground using either
a rigid metal frame or atop a single pole.

 Shade mounting structure:

In this system solar panels are mounted as shade structures where the solar panels can
provide shade instead of patio covers.

44
 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV):
Building-integrated photovoltaics are photovoltaic materials or components that are used
in place of traditional building components or materials, especially in building features
such as facades, roofs or skylights, and provide solar power for the building.

45
2. Tracking and adjustable mounting structures:
As the position of the sun is always changing, the only way to get maximum yield out of
your PV system is to control the position of the solar panels in accordance with the motion of
the sun. Tracking mounts utilize technology that changes the angle of your panels to coincide
with the direction of the sun.
Types of tracking mounting structures include:
 Single axis mounting structure:
These one-axis trackers or single-axis trackers are designed to track the sun movement
from the east to the west

 Double axis mounting structure:

The double axis systems track the sun's daily and follow the seasonal course. Dual axis
mounts track both North and South and East and West to account for the ever-changing
position of the sun during different seasons.

46
3.10 Design steps of a Solar PV System
1. Determine power consumption demands and backup time:
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy
consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system
For example,
Load = 2400W
Backup time= 8 hours
2. Inverter rating and sizing:
The rating of inverter should be 25% greater than the total load due to losses in the inverter.
1.25 × 2400 = 3000 VA, 48V inverter is required.
3. Sizing, ratings, and number of batteries:
Load × Backup time 2400× 8
Battery rating: = = 400Ah
Nominal voltage of battery 48
Therefore, 8, 12V, 200Ah batteries connected in series-parallel are required.
4. Charging current of batteries:
This should be one-tenth of the battery rating = 0.1 × 400Ah = 40A
5. Charging time of batteries:
Battery rating 400 Ah
= = 10 hours
Chargingcurrent 40 A
6. Charge controller sizing:
Load 2400
7. = = 50A
Nominal voltage of battery 48
8. Required number of solar panels: P=IV = 40 × 48 = 1920W

47
 1920W
= 6.4 Solar panels
300W
Therefore, seven 300W solar panels are required
3.11 Advantages of Photovoltaics
1. Fuel source is vast and infinite.
2. No emissions, no combustion or radioactive fuel for disposal.
3. Low operating cost.
4. No moving parts, therefore no wear and tear.
5. High reliability in modules.
6. Quick installation.
7. Can be integrated into new or existing building structure.
8. Can be installed at any point of use.
9. Excellent safety record.
10. Photovoltaic systems maintain the independence of energy production and are therefore
unaffected by utilities.

3.12 Disadvantages of Photovoltaics

1. High start-up cost:
Each PV installation should be economically evaluated and compared to existing
alternatives. At present, the construction cost of photovoltaic systems is relatively high, but
with the reduction of photovoltaic system construction costs and the rise of traditional
energy prices, photovoltaic systems will have strong economic competitiveness.
2. Available solar radiation instability:
For any solar system, weather changes will greatly affect the amount of electrical energy
output. Therefore, the system design needs to be adjusted according to changes in climate
and location.
3. Have energy storage requirements:
Some photovoltaic systems use batteries as energy storage devices. This increases the
footprint, cost, and complexity of the system.
4. Efficiency needs to be improved:
In order for PV systems to reflect cost-effectiveness, we need to use an efficient method to
distribute the energy generated during use. However, they are now often used to power
alternative inefficient appliances.
5. Lack of knowledge and skills:
Photovoltaic technology is an emerging technology. The lack of relevant information limits
the development of its markets and technologies.

48
3.13 Hands-On Project
Construction of a Solar Kiosk
Materials used:
1. Wood
2. Metal frame
3. Sockets
4. Cables
5. Two 12V, 200Ah Batteries connected in series
6. 24V, 1650VA Inverter
7. 280 watts monocrystalline solar panel
8. Lamp holder
9. Led bulb

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50
 CHAPTER FOUR

CCTV SYSTEM AND IP CAMERA SOLUTIONS

4.1 What is Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)?

CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) is a closed system consisting of video cameras, display
devices (monitors) and wired or wireless data networks that allow you to transfer images from
video cameras to monitors. The video surveillance systems, in addition to cameras and monitors,
often include other devices, such as servers, disk storages, client computers that allow storing
and processing video data. Also, video surveillance systems can be integrated with security
systems and other information systems. The video surveillance systems are designed to ensure
security at protected sites, monitor personnel activities, keep track of production processes, etc.

4.2 Components of a CCTV System

1. Camera:
When building a CCTV Camera System, there are two camera options: Internet Protocol (IP)
or analog. IP is usually the preferred choice due to its compatibility with most devices. Many
different types of cameras can be installed, for example -dome cameras, bullet cameras,
covert cameras. Depending on how many angles to be covered, how many cameras needed in
that specific area, how much resolution or detailing required when choosing preferred
cameras.
2. Monitoring Station:
A monitor arguably facilitates the most important function of a security camera: viewing
recorded images and footage. Deciding how many monitors are need is dependent upon
what, and which area being monitored. You wouldn't need more than three to five screens if
you aren't operating in a large-scale facility. Although if your requirements change, you can
easily add or remove monitors anytime to match the compatibility of your camera.
3. Cables & Routers:
Depending on the type of surveillance system, and cameras you choose, you will need
supporting technologies like cables, and routers to be integrated into your system for a
seamless connection. For example, wireless systems require a router, while wired versions do
not. Therefore, choose the cables, and wires after selecting your cameras, and monitors
according to your unique needs.
4. Video Recorders:
The video recorder is the device where video recorded on the camera gets processed for
storage & viewing. There are two types of video recorders: DVR (Digital Video Recorders)
and NVR (Network Video Recorders).
5. Data Storage:

51
 A CCTV security system is only as good as the hard disk backing it. The storage device for a
security camera system should be able to record, store and re-play videos non-stop from
multiple feeds. Regular hard drives that are used in PCs and Laptops are ill equipped to
handle CCTV storage needs. Hence, it is critical to choose a robust storage system for safe
data storage.

4.3 How does CCTV work?

A traditional CCTV system comprises:
 One or more cameras (analog or digital), each with a lens equipped with an image sensor
 A recorder – Either a standard video tape recorder for analog systems, or a Direct Video
Recorder (DVR) or Network Video Recorder (NVR) for digital systems
 Cables – Either RJ45 for digital or coaxial for analog
 One or more monitors to which the images are transmitted
Consisting of at least one camera, lens, monitor and recorder, a CCTV system can be scaled up
or down depending on the size of area wanting surveillance. CCTV works by the camera or
cameras taking a constant sequence of images that are then transmitted by cable or wirelessly
(depending on the chosen system type) to the recording device and then on to the display
monitor, which enables an individual to see the sequence of images as video footage. Depending
on the type of cameras used, they may also have the ability to zoom in and out and rotate 360
degrees.

52
4.4 Types of CCTV Systems
1. Analog - Use Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connectors on coaxial cables to transmit
continuous video signals. They are relatively low resolution but cheap and effective. There
are more peripherals in an analog system, e.g. standard coaxial cables don’t usually transmit
audio. Analog signals can be digitized, making it more cost-effective to go digital even with
older equipment. The images require a video capture card and can be stored on a PC or tape
recorder. A step up, analog HD enables increased resolution over traditional systems (1080
pixels) and are backwards compatible with analog cameras and BNC.
2. Digital – Digitalize signals at camera level. These systems don’t require a video capture card
as images are stored directly to a computer but require a (relatively) large amount of space to
store recordings, so they are usually heavily compressed.
3. Network or IP – Used with analog or digital cameras, these systems utilize a video server to
stream footage over the internet. The advantages are the possibility of Wi-Fi and audio,
Distributed Artificial Intelligence (DAI) for analysing image footage, remote access, Power
Over Ethernet (POE), and better resolution. Furthermore, IP cameras have the ability to
contain more cameras in one, which can cover a wide angle that may normally take multiple
cameras or camera systems to cover.

4.5 Types of CCTV cameras

Dome camera:
A dome CCTV camera gets its name from the dome-shaped casing that the camera sits in. Whilst
these are relatively discreet CCTV cameras in appearance, this doesn’t stop them from deterring
criminals. This is because the dome casing makes it really difficult for people to see which
direction the camera is pointing. This creates an air of uncertainty for potential thieves or vandals
approaching from all directions.
 Benefits of Dome cameras
1. Unobtrusive design means it’s easy to fit
2. Suitable for indoor and outdoor use
3. Vandal resistant dome means it is harder to interfere with the camera
4. 360-degree rotation of the camera so you can cover all angles

53
Bullet camera:
Bullet CCTV cameras have an iconic design that is highly visible. They are cylindrical in shape
and are capable of observing long distances. Bullet cameras are most commonly placed outdoors
so their casings are made resistant to water, dust and dirt.
 Benefits of Bullet cameras
1. Highly visible so acts as a deterrent to criminals
2. Resistant to dirt in challenging environments
3. Provides surveillance over long distances
4. Casing also protects against glare and rain

54
Pan/Tilt/Zoom PTZ Cameras:
With a PTZ (Pan Tilt & Zoom) camera, your security team can have complete control over what
is recorded. At the touch of a button, the camera lens can pan left and right, tilt up and down or
zoom in and out. It’s the ideal choice if you have a security guard who is monitoring a live video
feed on site
 Benefits of PTZ Cameras
1. Optical zoom on these cameras means you can focus closely in on subjects
2. Pan and tilt feature provides 360-degree field of vision
3. Image resolution is usually impeccable so facial features can be distinguished
4. Security team have full control of recording and can react to live situations

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4.6 CCTV Cables and Transmission Media
1. Coaxial cables:
Coaxial cable is the most commonly used form of transmission media in CCTV due to its
high-quality shielding. The shielding helps in preventing any interference with the signal.
The copper plate in such cables helps in quickening the transmission of data. It’s a lot easier
to install, coming in two sizes for CCTVs:
 RG-6:
This particular cable is made for higher bandwidth, made of copper and aluminium, and for
higher frequency. Therefore, it isn’t ideal for indoor CCTVs. It’s a lot heavier than its other
types, thus perfect for CCTVs used by city authorities, administrations, police authorities.
 RG-59:
Similar to RG-6, the RG-59 refers to ‘Radio Guide’ while 59 refers to the diameter size,
i.e., .059 and uses a copper plate. This type of cable is recommended for a lower bandwidth,
therefore, it’s ideal for CCTV installations particularly suitable for flats, apartments,
societies, hotels and other interior, relatively smaller places.
2. Siamese cables:
Siamese Cables are usually those that have certain power wires attached to them. While they
are considered to be quite complicated to handle, it does, however, provide transmission of
both data and power at the same time to security cameras. A combination of two cables, it is
made up of RG59 and 18/2 cable, the former for video transmission quality and the latter for
power purposes. In other words, since RG59 is a coaxial cable, it helps in running the video
to the security camera, whereas 18/2 cable helps in the AC/DC power to the camera.
3. Fibre Optic cables:

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 These cables are considered to be the most expensive option, with its installations taking up a
lot of time and manpower. While it provides better quality frequency and signal, it still
comes at a cost and can be fragile. However, the data and signal transmissions are so high
that it outweighs its cons. Perhaps what sets them apart is the fact that they are comprised of
glass tubes along with the plastic insulation. This particular cable is usually preferred for
professional set-ups as it’s considered too expensive for residential and other places.
4. Twisted Pair cables:
This cable, made up of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other, is usually used
for audio purposes, but it has been used by many in terms of video surveillance. Bearing its
short length in mind, twisted pair cables are easier to install but that can also play to its
disadvantage. Signal interference may happen frequently and aren’t as durable as one would
expect.

4.7 Factors to consider when planning for a CCTV system

1. Should my CCTV cameras be discreet or a visual deterrent?
Box cameras present an obvious sign for anyone who passes by that they are being recorded
on CCTV and this can be a great deterrent of theft and crime. Whereas dome cameras are
smaller and more discreet. These compact cameras are ideal for monitoring a larger area such
as your front or back garden and can follow movement with ease.
2. How do I know what to use indoors and outdoors?
When thinking where you would like to place your cameras, you might want to think about
how they will be mounted and housed, in order to ensure that they’re in the best location and
well protected. For example, if your camera is to be placed outside, you will want it to be
robust and weather proofed. If it’s to be placed indoors you will want to ensure it will not be
affected by grease or steam from a kitchen.
3. What are the light conditions like?
4. Is image clarity important?
Depending on how expansive the area is that you want to cover, the resolution of the CCTV
camera you choose will need to reflect the landscape in order to provide a clear, useful
image. However, if situated in a small room, the camera need not be of a high resolution.
5. Is audio required?
Audio isn’t required, however, if you do wish to opt for audio there are systems where you
can speak to a person who has broken into the property. Audio can be used to deter criminals
by automatically playing something when they get a certain point inside, an ideal way to
make them think that there are people inside the building.

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4.8 What is an Internet Protocol Camera?
Internet Protocol cameras, also called IP cameras or network cameras, provide digital video
surveillance by sending and receiving footage over the internet or local area network (LAN).
Like their name suggests, IP cameras connect to a network through Wi-Fi or a Power over
Ethernet (PoE) cable. They’re often used with network video recorders (NVRs) and sometimes
digital video recorders (DVRs), making them a common solution for enterprise video
surveillance. Specifically, an IP camera is an advanced security camera that records video
footage, has the capability to store recorded data, and transfer it through a wired connection or
directly to the internet through a wireless connection. Unlike other prior generations of
surveillance cameras, IP cameras do not require a central recording and management system,
only a wireless network for streaming and external storage. Furthermore, these devices process
incoming video or imagery into digital data internally as opposed to prior analog cameras, which
required a DVR to do so.

4.9 Core components of an IP camera system

1. IP Camera:
IP camera stands for Internet Protocol camera which does not require a DVR like Analog
CCTV, but still requires an additional device called a switch. Once connected to the switch,
the digital signal will be stored in the NVR, which is also equipped with software that can
help you analyze videos. Suppose finding a vehicle number plate which cannot be done on a
CCTV analog device. You can access the IP Camera if you are connected to the internet as
well as download it with the help of the built-in software. The image resolution displayed by
the IP camera is much higher than analog CCTV, which is up to 30 megapixels or more. In
addition, the IP camera is also more compact and less complicated than analog CCTV, it is
even more compact if you use a wireless camera. However, wireless cameras are often
disturbed by bad signals so that the image display becomes distorted.
2. Switch:
A switch is a component that converts the camera signal into digital data which will then
forward the data to the NVR and monitor.
3. NVR:
NVR or Network Video Recording is a component used to store data and contains software
that can help you analyse the recordings.
4. Cat Type Cable:
Cat cable is a transmission medium used in IP CCTV systems that have data transmission
capabilities of up to 100-1000 Mbit/s. This cable also has the advantage of having a low
delay response time when transmitting data. This cable has a high transmission speed and
minimal interference due to the twisted cable structure inside and is isolated with a nylon
spline to help eliminate crosstalk interference.

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4.10 How does an IP camera work?
IP cameras capture images in much the same way as a digital camera and compress the files to
transmit over the network. IP cameras may be used with a wired network connected via ethernet
cable to a broadband modem or router, or wirelessly via a Wi-Fi router.
An IP camera captures footage in high definition—resolution can be as high as 16 megapixels,
depending on the camera model. Each IP camera comes equipped with a processing chip, which
compresses the video footage as it is recorded. What’s that mean? Well, the higher the camera
resolution, the more data each video recording contains. High-resolution images require more
storage space and more bandwidth for data transmission than lower-quality images. To transmit
HD images over a network, IP cameras must compress the files, or make the files smaller, to
avoid consuming too much bandwidth. Modern compression standards like h.264 and MPEG-4
mean that there is either no drop, or just a small drop-in frame rate and resolution when the
footage finally reaches your phone or computer.

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4.11 Must-Have Features of IP Cameras
 Cloud and Built-In Storage:
Storage space is a huge consideration when surveying IP cameras. By law, many companies
are required to retain security footage for a specific amount of time depending on their
industry and local mandates. Most surveillance systems will transmit video data onto cloud
storage, a Solid-State Drive (SSD), or a Hard Disk Drive (HDD). Advanced solutions store
footage locally on an SSD or HDD while also backing it up in the cloud; these “hybrid
cloud” security systems are considered safer and more reliable than systems that rely on just
one method.
 PoE Capabilities:
IP cameras that can be powered over a PoE connection eliminate the risk and cost of running
electrical wire. Compared to purely wireless cameras, PoE IP cameras tend to have more
stable data transmission and less likely to encounter interference from nearby devices.
 Video Data Encryption:
How secure an IP camera depends on its level of data encryption and network security.
Encryption is a way to conceal information by scrambling data so that only authorized parties
can decode it. Since IP cameras are often targeted in IoT breaches, utilizing modern security
standards is key to prevent hackers from lifting company information and even disabling
whole systems. There are two states of encryption, at rest and in transit.
 At Rest Encryption:
Data encrypted “at rest” means data is protected while on the camera. RSA and AES are two
examples of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) encryption standards, which ensure that anyone
who accesses video data won’t be able to extract it from onboard storage.
 In Transit Encryption:
Data encrypted “in transit” means data is protected while it’s traveling over the network or
being transferred from local to cloud storage. Secure systems encrypt data in transit using
HTTPS/SSL over Port 443, and only make outbound connections to dedicated cloud services.
 Instant Video Sharing:
One capability of modern IP surveillance systems is the ability to share video clips through
SMS texts, emails, or live links. This decreases the amount of time it takes to alert authorities
when incidents occur, and immediate action is required.
 Video Quality:
IP cameras are generally known to provide higher video quality compared to analog cameras
traditionally used in CCTV systems. Because they transmit digital signals, they are able to
capture greater detail. This makes it possible for many IP security systems to incorporate
advanced video analytics like facial matching into their software.

4.12 Network options to choose from when setting up an IP camera

1. Wireless network:

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 A wireless network, or Wi-Fi network, sends and receives data to a wireless modem. Phones,
computers, some TVs, game consoles, and other security devices are all connected via Wi-Fi,
and your IP camera is no different. One way to view an IP camera’s footage is by entering its
IP address in a web browser. Keep in mind that the IP address must be static. Some Internet
providers supply their customers with dynamic IP addresses that change from time to time.
2. Wired network:
A wired network connects an IP camera to the network via an Ethernet cable. This setup is
considered the most secure, as there is little chance for signal interference or unauthorized
access. Expect the fastest data transmission speeds with Ethernet, as a wired connection is
much more efficient than Wi-Fi.
3. Cellular network:
A cellular network is perhaps the most convenient of the three, but it is also the slowest. In
general, Wi-Fi has faster upload and download speeds. Most IP cameras come equipped with
a cellular transmitter out of the box, so set up, installation, and connection are easy.

4.13 Benefits of IP cameras

1. The images captured by an IP camera may be viewed from anywhere in the world via the
internet, whether via pc, laptop, or mobile phone. In many cases, as well as being able to
view video footage and listen to audio streaming, the camera may also be controlled
remotely.
2. IP Cameras are a versatile security solution, requiring nothing more than a network
connection. There is no need for co axial cables, a computer station or even wired electricity.
They can be used as a temporary or permanent solution and relocated as and when required.
3. IP cameras are available for both indoor and outdoor use, with both day and night
functionality, and with the ability to pan or zoom either remotely or via operator command.
Whether you require overt or covert security, there is an IP camera to suit.

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4.14 Differences between CCTV and IP cameras
IP Cameras CCTV Cameras
Uses ethernet Cat5e or Cat6 cables if not Uses twisted pair, RG59, or RG6 coaxial
wireless for connection cables for connection
Can utilize cellular, Wi-Fi, or LAN Can only use a wired connection
Can use power over ethernet cable Can be powered by coaxial cable
Processes video footage internally before Only captures video footage and sends it to a
sending it to an NVR DVR for processing
Can store footage internally Cannot store footage internally
Installation can be inexpensive due to lack of Installation is generally expensive due to
labour requiring excessive labour
Enhanced capability with motion detection, Enhanced capability in low light
video analytics, and other added software environments and durable external design
functionality
Uses and transfers digital data Uses and transfers analog data

4.15 Hands-On Project

CCTV System design for Lecture Theatre 2, Covenant University that covers all its entrances
Types of cameras used
1. Bullet camera: Cameras 1,2,5
2. PTZ camera: Cameras 3&4

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SITE PLAN

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CAMERA 1 VIEW

CAMERA 2 VIEW

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CAMERA 3 VIEW

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CAMERA 4 VIEW

CAMERA 5 VIEW

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 CONCLUSION
During the course of the Student Workshop Experience Program, I was able acquire practical
knowledge on
 How to use Arduino to design embedded systems
 How to design and install a solar PV system
 How to design a CCTV surveillance system
 How to configure an IP camera
 How to identify different kinds of wiring systems
 How to install points of light
 How to install electrical sockets
 How to install an electrical extension box
Overall, the SWEP program inculcated in me a logical mode of reasoning through
brainstorming and exposed me to the technical part of the engineering practice. I also developed
team spirit, as I had to work on group projects with other students.

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