2015 - 03 - 26 NEJM Sciatica

The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e
Review Article
Dan L. Longo, M.D., Editor
Sciatica
Allan H. Ropper, M.D., and Ross D. Zafonte, D.O.
T
From Brigham and Women’s Hospital he mundane malady sciatica has been known to physicians since
(A.H.R.) and Spaulding Rehabilitation antiquity.1 It is pain that radiates from the buttock downward along the
Hospital (R.D.Z.) — both in Boston.
course of the sciatic nerve,2 but the term has been used indiscriminately for
N Engl J Med 2015;372:1240-8. a variety of back and leg symptoms. Although sciatica has several causes, Mixter
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1410151
Copyright © 2015 Massachusetts Medical Society.
and Barr extended previous observations to establish in 1934 that the principal
source is compression of a lumbar nerve root by disk material that has ruptured
through its surrounding annulus (see the Glossary).3 Neuroradiologic studies af-
firm that 85% of cases of sciatica are associated with a disk disorder.4
A nat om y of the Sci at ic Nerv e

The fourth and fifth lumbar nerve roots and the first two sacral nerve roots join
in the lumbosacral plexus to form the peroneal and tibial nerves that leave the pelvis
in an ensheathed single trunk as the sciatic nerve, the largest nerve in the body.
Disturbances anywhere along the course of the sciatic nerve can give rise to sciatica,
but the most common areas are at the sites of disk rupture and osteoarthritic
change — at the L4–L5 and L5–S1 levels and, less frequently, the L3–L4 level —
where there is usually compression of the root below the corresponding disk. The
mechanism of sciatica may relate to distortion of the nerve root or its sensory
ganglion5 or putatively to the effect of local inflammatory cytokines. Other sites
of sciatic injury are in the lower pelvic cavity, buttock, gluteal fold, and proximal
biceps femoris muscle (Fig. 1). The prevalence of sciatica varies widely among stud-
ies, with a highest incidence of 40%. Most instances occur in the fourth and fifth
decades of life.6
S ymp t oms a nd E x a minat ion Findings

Sciatica may begin either suddenly with physical activity or slowly. Sciatic pain has
aching and sharp components and radiates along a broad line from the middle or
lower buttock, proceeding dorsolaterally in the thigh in cases of compression of
the L5 nerve root and posteriorly in cases of compression of S1. With L4 compres-
sion, the pain is anterolateral in the thigh and may be misattributed to hip disease.
If nerve-root pain extends below the knee, its location conforms to the superficial
sensory distribution of the affected spinal root. Sciatica is usually unilateral, in
keeping with the common dorsolateral configuration of disk rupture and with
foraminal stenosis from osteoarthritic disease of the spine. There may be bilateral
pain in central disk herniation, lumbar stenosis, and spondylolisthesis.
Low back pain of variable severity accompanies sciatica but is not a consistent
feature. Aching in the L5–S1 area or in the upper sacroiliac joint is common with
disk rupture. Increased back and sciatic pain with coughing, sneezing, straining, or
other forms of the Valsalva maneuver suggests disk rupture. Depending on the site
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Sciatica
Glossary
Annulus: The annulus is the connective tissue surrounding the spinal disk.
Biceps femoris: This muscle is also known as the hamstring muscle.
Fibrillations: Fibrillations are spontaneous short-duration electrical potentials of single muscle fibers seen on electro-
myography and caused by denervation of muscle. They are not visible by observing the surface of the skin.
Foraminal stenosis: This term refers to narrowing of the canal of exit of spinal nerve roots.
Late responses (F-wave and H-reflex): The F-wave is an elicited electrical response of the anterior horn cell to supra-
maximal stimulation of a motor nerve. An antidromic stimulus of the motor axon depolarizes the anterior horn cell
and causes an orthodromic potential that appears as a second motor action potential after the initial compound
motor action potential. The H-reflex is the electrical representation of the ankle reflex. The F-wave and the H-reflex
are useful because they are conducted through the spinal nerve root and proximal nerve and are therefore sensitive
to compression by a disk.
Nocifensive response: This response is an involuntary, defensive muscular reaction that prevents use or movement of
a painful body part.
Sciatic notch (greater sciatic notch): The sciatic notch is the point of exit of the sciatic nerve under the ischial spine at
the pelvic brim.
Sharp waves: Sharp waves are similar to fibrillations but appear earlier. Both types of electrical potentials take weeks
or longer to appear after damage to a motor axon.
Spondylolisthesis: Spondylolisthesis is displacement (subluxation) of a vertebral body and its posterior elements from
its normal alignment.
and size of the rupture, the patient may adopt a contraction. A positive test consists of reproduc-
posture of ventroflexion and either reduced or ex- tion or marked worsening of the patient’s initial
aggerated lumbar lordosis, minimizing pressure pain and firm resistance to further elevation of
on the root. Bilateral sciatica that is brought on the leg. A diagnosis of disk compression is likely
by walking and simulates vascular claudication if pain radiates from the buttock to below the
is the result of compression of the cauda equina knee when the angle of the leg is between 30
roots. Such compression is known as neurogenic and 70 degrees. Sensitivity of the test for disk
claudication (the Verbiest syndrome). herniation is approximately 90%, but specificity
Patients may have paresthesias in the derma- is low.7 Many persons without spinal abnormali-
tomal distribution of a nerve root, but sensory ties have hamstring and gluteal tightness with
symptoms and signs are not prominent. Weakness discomfort elicited by straight-leg raising, but
is present in less than half of patients but is the pain is more diffuse than in sciatica and the
infrequently severe enough to cause foot drop leg can be lifted higher if the maneuver is per-
(in cases of L5 radiculopathy) or a downward formed slowly. Increased pain on dorsiflexion of
tilted pelvis during walking (in cases of gluteal the foot or large toe increases sensitivity. The
weakness due to compression of S1). Compres- crossed straight-leg-raising test (Fajersztajn’s test)
sion of the S1 nerve root is usually associated with involves raising the unaffected leg; in a positive
reduction in or loss of the ankle reflex, and L3 test, sciatic pain is elicited in the opposite (affect-
or L4 compression is associated with variable ed) leg. This test is 90% specific for disk herniation
reduction in the knee reflex; L5 compression on the contralateral side but is insensitive.7
causes inconsistent changes in reflexes. There are
frequently unanticipated variations of these re-
Im aging a nd
flex patterns. El ec t roph ysiol o gic a l Te s t ing
Many clinical tests have been devised to de-
termine whether sciatic pain is caused by disk Imaging and electrophysiological evidence of
compression of a spinal nerve root; most of the nerve-root compression corroborates structural
tests are variations of the straight-leg-raising test disk or spine disease as the proximate cause of
(Lasègue’s test) (Fig. 2). In a patient in the supine sciatica, but testing is not necessary in a typical
position, raising the leg with the knee extended case until intervention is required. Radiographs
stretches the nerve root over the protruded disk of the lumbar spine provide limited information,
and results in a nocifensive response of muscle but they may show reduction in the height of an
n engl j med 372;13 nejm.org March 26, 2015 1241

A Normal Anatomy B Disk Herniation C Spondylolisthesis

Results from an annulus fibrosus tear, allowing the Displacement of the lumbar vertebra
L1
nucleus pulposus to herniate and compress the associated with degenerative spine
ANTERIOR
VIEW
nerve root exiting one level below disease or trauma
L2 Path of spinal nerves
Cauda Disk
equina herniation
at L4–L5 L4 L4
L3
LATERAL
VIEW
L4 root L5 L5
L4
Greater
sciatic L5 root Intervertebral
L5
foramen Compression disk L5–S1 Anterior Sacrum
Lumbosacral of nerve slippage of
plexus root L5 POSTERIOR lumbar vertebrae
VIEW
D Foraminal Stenosis E Synovial Cyst

Spinal nerves
Apophyseal
joint hypertophy
Synovial cyst
Intervertebral
disk Apophyseal
joint
Sacrum Foraminal
stenosis
Ligamentous Cyst develops as a result of
Spinal nerve apophyseal joint degeneration
Sciatic nerve hypertrophy
Tibial nerve
F Piriformis Syndrome G Gluteal Injection-Site Trauma
Peroneal nerve
Injury of the piriformis

muscle compresses the
sciatic nerve Gluteus
maximus
Sacrum
Femur Piriformis
muscle
Sciatic nerve Sciatic

Injury varies nerve
depending on the
POSTERIOR location and agent
VIEW being injected
H Obstetrical Sciatic Compression Pubis I Pelvic-Floor Tumors

Soft-tissue tumor exerts
Head of fetus compresses Abdominal pressure on the
Birth
sciatic nerve against the cavity lumbosacral plexus
canal
sacrum and sciatic nerve
Tumor
Head of
fetus
Sciatic nerve Lumbosacral
plexus
INFERIOR Sacrum Pelvis

VIEW
L ATERAL Sciatic nerve
VIEW
Figure 1. Origin and Course of the Sciatic Nerve and the Main Sites of Damage.
Panel A shows the normal anatomy surrounding the sciatic nerve. Panels B through I show the main types of damage.

Sciatica
A Lasègue’s Test
Increased pain on
dorsiflexion of the
patient’s foot increases
sensitivity of the test
Peroneal nerve
Tibial nerve
Sciatic nerve
40 to 50
degrees
B Spinal Nerve Roots under Traction

L5 nerve Intervertebral Dorsal root ganglion
root disk L3–L4
Cauda equina Pedicle
L5 L4 L3 L2
Sacrum
Herniated disk at L4–L5

compressing L5 nerve root
POSTERIOR
VIEW
Figure 2. Straight-Leg-Raising Test.

Panel A shows the straight-leg-raising test, with assessment for the presence or absence of Lasègue’s sign, and
Panel B shows the spinal nerve roots under traction during the test.
intervertebral space, spondylolisthesis, osteomy- Computed tomography (CT) is performed less

elitis, or tumor infiltration of a vertebral body. frequently but reveals most disk herniations and
The nature and location of disk rupture and spi- structural changes of the spine. CT and MRI each
nal lesions, such as osteoarthritic disease and have a role in exploration of the pelvic fossa when
spondylolisthesis, lateral recess stenosis, and sy- sciatic compression is suspected in those regions.
novial cysts of the facet joint, can be accurately Disk bulging and related minor deformities gen-
seen on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with- erally do not cause compression of nerve roots
out the administration of gadolinium (Fig. 3). and are not an explanation for persistent sciati-

findings are fibrillations and sharp waves in

A
muscles corresponding to a single nerve root,
combined with normal sensory potentials from
nerves that carry that root; the latter is the result
of the preganglionic site of root compression,
leaving the cell body and distal axon unaffected.
Sampling four or five relevant muscles including
the paraspinal regions is considered adequate.9
Late responses are often included in the nerve-
conduction studies because they are sensitive to
root compression. Electrodiagnostic confirmation
that sciatica is due to a radiculopathy rather than
to an undefined musculoskeletal problem is as-
sociated with a better outcome,10 but the role of
EMG in sciatica has not been established and
some guidelines do not require testing.
Nonspina l C ause s of Sci at ic a

B
Sciatica due to disk rupture and degenerative spine
disease is more common than sciatica due to all
nonspinal causes taken together (Table 1 and
Fig. 1). Hip disease and sciatica are likely to be
mistaken for each other.
Piriformis Syndrome and Back-Pocket Sciatica

The piriformis syndrome has been attributed to
compression of the sciatic nerve underlying the
piriformis muscle, which stabilizes and serves
as an external rotator of the hip. Although the
nature and frequency of the syndrome are uncer-
tain, the most consistent features, derived from
a systematic review,11 are focal mid-buttock pain,
Figure 3. MRI Scan of a Ruptured Intervertebral Disk. tenderness over the sciatic notch, aggravation of
Sagittal (Panel A) and axial (Panel B) T2 -weighted im- pain after sitting, and provocation with maneuvers
ages show a herniated disk (arrows) at L4–L5. Com- that increase piriformis muscle tension such as
pression of the right L5 nerve root can be seen as it
exits the neural foramen (arrowhead).
external rotation of the hip. Pain with the straight-
leg-raising maneuver was reported in a meta-
analysis to occur in approximately half of cases.
ca. The clinician should be aware that a high rate It is presumed that an injured piriformis muscle,
of minor abnormalities are seen on MRI in pa- sometimes caused by running, stretching, or lung-
tients without back or radicular symptoms but ing, compresses the sciatic nerve, but the patho-
that disk rupture is seen in less than 1% of as- physiology is unclear. Electrodiagnostic and im-
ymptomatic patients.8 aging tests are usually normal.
Needle electromyography (EMG) and nerve- In the mid-20th century, as wallets expanded
conduction studies aid diagnosis by revealing a in capacity, sciatica (“credit-carditis”) that was
topographic distribution of muscular denervation cured by removal of the wallet from the back
corresponding to a nerve root. Denervation be- pocket became the subject of anecdotal reports.12,13
comes apparent days or weeks after injury, and Tools, cell phones, and golf balls in back pockets
the appearance of changes takes longer in distal and prolonged sitting on hard surfaces, including
than in proximal muscles. The most specific car seats, can also produce sciatica.

Sciatica
Zoster Sine Herpete

Table 1. Causes of Sciatica and of Conditions Simulating
For the first few days before the eruption of shin- Sciatica.
gles in a lumbar or upper sacral dermatome, her-
Spinal causes
pes zoster reactivation closely simulates sciatica
caused by disk rupture. Diagnosis is difficult in Disk rupture with compression of L4, L5, or S1 root
the intervening days and especially in the few in- Osteoarthritic impingement on roots due to spondylo-
listhesis or foraminal or lumbar stenosis
stances in which the rash never develops.
Synovial cyst of facet joint
Traumatic Injury of the Sciatic Nerve Arachnoid (Tarlov) cyst
Traumatic injury of the sciatic nerve occurs with Tumors of the spinal column
fractures of the pelvis or after proximal ham- Neurofibromas on lumbar and sacral nerve roots
string injury and with extreme stretching of the Arachnoiditis
nerve. Muscle hematomas or tendinous injuries
Nonspinal causes
may cause severe sciatica. Posterior hip dislocation
or femoral fracture impinge on the nerve; sciat- Pelvic and gynecologic conditions, including cyclic
sciatica due to endometriosis
ica may also occur during relocation of the hip
Piriformis syndrome and back-pocket sciatica
joint. Injection-site damage in the buttocks is a
self-evident but infrequent cause. Pregnancy, delivery, and prolonged time in the lithotomy
position
Gynecologic and Peripartum Causes Zoster sine herpete
Deposits of endometrial tissue on the proximal Diabetic radiculopathy

nerve can cause recurrent cyclic, or catamenial, Gluteal injection-site trauma
sciatica, more often on the right side than on the Lumbar plexitis
left side.14 Large ovarian cysts and uterine enlarge- Vascular impingement on sciatic nerve (pseudo-
ment associated with late pregnancy can compress aneurysm of the inferior gluteal artery)
the nerve between the fetal head and the pelvic Hip fracture and dislocation or relocation; extensive
brim (Fig. 1). It is not unusual for a woman to pelvic fractures
have unilateral or bilateral sciatica post partum, Biceps femoris hematoma, strain, and tear
regardless of whether forceps were used during Idiopathic causes in young persons
delivery; sciatica ostensibly occurs after a wom-
an has spent a prolonged time in the lithotomy
position. tions may provide short-term relief for low back
and sciatic pain; however, it is difficult to deter-
mine their effect on sciatica,15 and many patients
C onservat i v e T r e atmen t
of Sci at ic a report little relief. Orally or systemically admin-
istered glucocorticoids have been used to amelio-
Sciatica resolves without treatment in the major- rate sciatica, but it is difficult to interpret their
ity of cases. Numerous systematic analyses have effect.15-17 Many guidelines recommend restrictions
compared various forms of therapy for sciatica, but on the use of opioids. Antiepileptic drugs, gaba-
the validity of their constituent studies is limit- pentin, pregabalin, antidepressant agents (e.g., tri-
ed.15-17 Many conflate treatment for back pain with cyclic agents), muscle relaxants, and pain medica-
that for sciatica. Although it is difficult to derive tions have been used but with little supporting data.
clinically useful information from these compi- Any intervention that temporarily reduces pain
lations, they do provide some perspective on the and increases participation in exercises, even if it
relative value of treatments. is associated with no long-term benefit, could play
The most common initial treatment is pain a role in care. The benefits of physical therapy and
control by means of medication and physical various exercise regimens are difficult to deter-
therapy. Activity is usually self-limited in propor- mine, and the superiority of any one program has
tion to the degree of discomfort, and although not been established, although most appear to be
rest is often recommended, it is not better than safe. Programs include directional preference ex-
movement in patients who are able to remain ercises (back-movement exercises in a direction
active.18 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory medica- that causes the locus of pain to move proximally,

toward the mid-back, where it is better tolerat- cocorticoids and botulinum toxin has been ex-
ed),19 motor-control exercises (also known as spe- amined alone and in combination with physical
cific stabilization exercises) that focus on enhanc- therapy, with the suggestion that botulinum toxin
ing control of the transversus abdominis and may be more helpful than either placebo or injec-
multifidus muscles, which stabilize the spine, tions containing a combination of lidocaine and
strengthening of other core muscles, stretching, a glucocorticoid in relieving discomfort,27 but
general fitness exercises, and yoga. One conven- support for any of these treatments is weak.
tional approach involves slowly increasing mobi-
lization of the lumbar spinal segments by means Surgic a l T r e atmen t of Sci at ic a
of stretching and exercise, improving posture, and C aused by Lumb a r Disk Dise a se
strengthening the muscles that stabilize the spi-
nal column and pelvis. It has been difficult to Sciatica resolves without treatment in one third
show that this approach accelerates recovery or of patients within 2 weeks and in three quarters
prevents future injury, but some trials suggest of patients within 3 months after onset.28 Never-
that it is superior to rest in the acute phase of theless, most trials comparing surgical treatment
sciatica.20 and conservative treatment of sciatica due to lum-
Spinal manipulation for sciatica is widely used bar disk disease favor surgery, because it results
and has been studied with an assortment of de- in earlier relief of pain. One representative study
signs and comparators; therefore, reviews of ex- showed that patients who had sciatica for 6 to
isting trials, most considered of low or moderate 12 weeks and were assigned to lumbar disk sur-
quality, draw limited conclusions.16,17,21 One recent gery had faster and more pronounced pain relief
pragmatic trial for subacute or chronic back and than those assigned to conservative treatment.
leg pain has suggested that spinal manipulation However, 1 year after surgery, there were few
provides a short-term benefit when added to an differences in pain or disability between the two
exercise program.22 Lumbar traction was used in groups.29 The trial also showed that 39% of pa-
the past, particularly if low back pain was promi- tients initially assigned to conservative therapy
nent, but a review of available studies, most of required surgery after a median of 14 weeks of
low and moderate quality, showed no advantage.23 pain, and in a 5-year follow-up study, an additional
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation is 7% requested surgery.30 One may conclude that
probably ineffective.24 Acupuncture has been pro- surgery produces faster pain relief and acceler-
posed for persistent sciatic discomfort, but its ef- ates improvement in mobility but that postpone-
ficacy has not been shown.15,16 Chemonucleolysis ment of surgery to determine whether pain will
of an extruded disk had positive results in some abate is appropriate. It is not known whether de-
studies and systematic analyses but is infrequent- laying surgery in persons with weakness reduces
ly used. the chance of full recovery or allows time for weak-
Epidural injections of glucocorticoids are fre- ness to resolve. Surgery has been recommended in
quently administered for low back pain and related cases of large disk ruptures into the spinal canal
conditions. Trials have suggested an associated that compress the cauda equina and cause failure
short-term decrease in leg pain but no decrease of the bladder sphincter or the bowel sphincter.
in the need for subsequent surgery.16,17,25 There is In a cost-effectiveness study of prolonged con-
no clear difference in efficacy between fluoro- servative care versus early surgery, the shortened
scopically guided translaminar and transforami- duration of pain after diskectomy correlated with
nal injections, but some guidelines endorse one a cost savings per quality-adjusted life-year of
technique over the other. In experimental studies approximately $60,000.31 In that study, 23% of
and preliminary clinical trials, biologic agents such the participants reverted from recovered to not
as tumor necrosis factor inhibitors have shown recovered or vice versa at various times over a
negative or limited positive effects on leg pain.26 5-year period, which indicates that sciatica can be
Treatment of the piriformis syndrome involves a chronic and relapsing symptom. In another
stretching and physical therapy to enhance mo- study, the configuration of the disk on MRI 1 year
bility. Injections into the muscle are sometimes after the onset of symptoms did not distinguish
administered under fluoroscopic, electromyograph- between patients in whom sciatica had improved
ic, or ultrasonographic guidance; the use of glu- and those in whom it had not improved; inexpli-

Sciatica
cably, this was true for patients who underwent treatment of low back pain in patients with and
surgical treatment and for those who underwent in those without sciatica, the outcomes and the
conservative treatment.32 cost of care have remained unchanged for more
than a decade.35 A review of major trials with
adequate data for analysis concluded that there
Surgic a l Technique s
was conflicting evidence on long-term benefit but
Treatment of sciatica by means of decompression that surgery relieved pain more rapidly and to a
of a lumbar nerve root is most likely to succeed if greater degree than did conservative therapy.36
symptoms conform to the typical clinical pattern A discursive analysis by the National Institute
and imaging studies show disk rupture. Several of Health Research, in the United Kingdom, about
open and percutaneous surgical approaches have the effectiveness of various strategies to manage
been devised. A unilateral hemilaminotomy (re- sciatica15,37 showed some support for almost all
moving parts of adjacent laminae on the side that current treatments, including disk surgery, epi-
needs to be decompressed) is usually adequate. dural glucocorticoids, chemonucleolysis, and al-
In the past, bilateral laminectomy, a more exten- ternative therapies. However, only surgery ben-
sive procedure, was performed, but the unilateral efitted all aspects of global effect, pain relief, and
procedure is favored because it preserves tension a composite of condition-specific outcomes in
and alignment between adjacent spinal segments. the short, medium, and long term.
Microdiskectomy and various minimally invasive North American Spine Society guidelines38
and percutaneous techniques involving, for ex- state that diskectomy provides more effective and
ample, a series of tubular retractors or an endo- more rapid symptom relief than do other treat-
scope, are also used to treat disk rupture. ments for symptoms that warrant surgery, al-
The sequestered disk fragment or larger though less severe symptoms can be managed
amounts of the intra-annular disk may be re- conservatively; patients with psychological dis-
moved. Fusion of adjacent spinal segments is gen- tress have poor outcomes after surgery; epidural
erally not necessary if there is no mobile spondy- glucocorticoid injection provides short-term pain
lolisthesis and the operation is at one level. In relief; electrodiagnostic studies have limited util-
pooled analyses, there is little evidence that any ity; and for many technical aspects of surgery,
technique, minimally invasive or conventional, such as lumbar fusion, there was insufficient
produces better results than any other technique.33 evidence for comment. The guidelines also indi-
Minimally invasive approaches show a trend to- cate that there is inadequate evidence to gauge
ward earlier and better pain relief, probably be- how long one can wait before surgery and still
cause there is less paraspinal muscle damage, but recover from cauda equina compression or mo-
according to a meta-analysis, they require longer tor deficits.
operating times and are associated with a higher British Pain Society guidelines for the treat-
rate of rerupture of the disk34 and therefore may ment of low back pain and radicular pain39 broad-
not be appropriate in all cases. Complications of ly reflect other analyses in separating the plans for
surgery are infrequent but include dural tears radicular pain from those for low back pain and
with leakage of cerebrospinal fluid, as well as acknowledge that the recommendations lack pre-
damage to the root or cauda equina. The use of cision. According to the British Pain Society, any
hardware to prevent instability and chronic low indication of cauda equina compression requires
back pain is often necessary in cases of spinal referral for urgent surgery. Severe radicular pain
stenosis, in which multilevel operations or those that is disabling or intrusive or that prevents the
involving wide resection of bone are typically patient from performing everyday tasks requires
performed. MRI, as does a persistent neurologic deficit that
lasts 2 weeks. MRI should be ordered by clini-
cians who can interpret the results; it is discour-
Guidel ine s a nd S ys tem at ic
R e v ie ws aged at the primary care level.
No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was
reported.
Despite the numerous guidelines and systematic Disclosure forms provided by the authors are available with
reviews that have been published regarding the the full text of this article at NEJM.org.

Sciatica
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2015 - 03 - 26 NEJM Sciatica

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The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e

A nat om y of the Sci at ic Nerv e

S ymp t oms a nd E x a minat ion Findings

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A Normal Anatomy B Disk Herniation C Spondylolisthesis

L2 Path of spinal nerves

D Foraminal Stenosis E Synovial Cyst

Injury of the piriformis

Sciatic nerve Sciatic

H Obstetrical Sciatic Compression Pubis I Pelvic-Floor Tumors

INFERIOR Sacrum Pelvis

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B Spinal Nerve Roots under Traction

Herniated disk at L4–L5

Figure 2. Straight-Leg-Raising Test.

intervertebral space, spondylolisthesis, osteomy- Computed tomography (CT) is performed less

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findings are fibrillations and sharp waves in

Nonspina l C ause s of Sci at ic a

Piriformis Syndrome and Back-Pocket Sciatica

1244 n engl j med 372;13 nejm.org March 26, 2015

The New England Journal of Medicine

Zoster Sine Herpete

Gynecologic and Peripartum Causes Zoster sine herpete

Deposits of endometrial tissue on the proximal Diabetic radiculopathy

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The New England Journal of Medicine

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The New England Journal of Medicine

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