TECHNICAL TERMS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 REACTIVE POWER
4.3 GENERATION AND ABSORPTION OF REACTIVE
POWER
4.3.1 Synchronous Generator
4.3.2 Synchronous Compensator
4.3.3 Capacitance and Inductive Component
4.4 METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL
4.4.1 Reactors
4.4.2 Shunt Capacitor
4.4.3 Series Capacitor
4.4.4 Synchronous Compensator
4.4.5 Static VAR Compensator
4.5 TYPES OF SVC
4.6 APPLICATION OF STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR
4.7 EXCITATION SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
4.8 ELEMENTS OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
4.9 TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
4.9.1 Static Excitation System
4.9.2 Brushless Excitation System
4.9.3 AC Excitation System
4.9.4 Excitation System
4.10 RECENT DEVELOPMENT AND FUTURE TRENDS
4.11 MODELING OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
4.12 STEADY STATE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
4.13 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR
CIRCUIT

TECHNICAL TERMS
Regulator: Process and amplifies input control signals to alevel and form appropriate
for control of the exciter. This includes both regulating and excitation system
stabilizing function.
Power Exchange: The entity that will establish a competitive spot market for electric
power through day- and/or hour-ahead auction of generation and demand bids.
Exciter: provides dc power to the synchronous machine field winding constituting the
power stage of the excitation system.

Prime Mover: The engine, turbine, water wheel, or similar machine that drives an
electric generator; or, for reporting purposes, a device that converts energy to
electricity directly (e.g., photovoltaic solar and fuel cell(s)).

Regulation: The governmental function of controlling or directing economic entities

through the process of rulemaking and adjudication
Reserve Margin (Operating): The amount of unused available capability of an
electric power system at peak load for a utility system as a percentage of total
capability.

Restructuring: The process of replacing a monopoly system of electric utilities with

competing sellers, allowing individual retail customers to choose their electricity
supplier but still receive delivery over the power lines of the local utility. It includes
the reconfiguration of the vertically-integrated electric utility.

Power system stabilizer: Provides an additional input signal to the regulator to damp
power system oscillation;

Revenue: The total amount of money received by a firm from sales of its products
and/or services, gains from the sales or exchange of assets, interest and dividends
earned on investments, and other increases in the owner's equity except those arising
from capital adjustments.

Substation: Facility equipment that switches, changes, or regulates electric voltage.

Demand (Electric): The rate at which electric energy is delivered to or by a system,

part of a system, or piece of equipment, at a given instant or averaged over any
designated period of time.
4.1. INTRODUCTION:
There has been a very large effort to understand reactive power and voltage control
issues in power systems in the last 15 years .While this work has produced a significant
volume of results that explain various phenomena and propose potential solutions to
problems, much of it has not been taken to the stage of useful application software and
hardware in actual power systems. In addition, there remain serious issues of how traditional
controls impact the interaction between the flow of real and reactive power on a system level
when an objective Might be to maximize real power transfer capabilities. There has been a
strong temptation to try and separate the voltage/MVAR problems with the angle/MW
problems. While this separation is valuable because it allows decoupling that might be useful
in some computational algorithms and in understanding fundamental phenomena, this
separation cannot be made when systems are stressed to their physical limitations. On the
contrary, the interaction between real and reactive power (and voltage magnitudes and
angles) becomes very complex under these extreme conditions. This chapter begins with an
introduction to reactive power and how it relates to voltage control. This is followed by
several examples that illustrate problems which remain in the operations environment of
electric power systems.

4.2. REACTIVE POWER:

Reactive power is an odd topic in AC (Alternating Current) power systems, and it's
usually explained with vector mathematics or phase-shift sine wave graphs. However, a non-
math verbal explanation is possible. Note that Reactive power only becomes important when
an "electrical load" or a home appliance contains coils or capacitors. If the electrical load
behaves purely as a resistor, (such as a heater or incandescent bulb for example,) then the
device consumes "real power" only. Reactive power and "power factor" can be ignored, and
it can be analyzed using an AC version of Ohm's law. Reactive power is simply this: when a
coil or capacitor is connected to an AC power supply, the coil or capacitor stores electrical
energy during one-fourth of an AC cycle. But then during the next quarter-cycle, the coil or
capacitor dumps all the stored energy back into the distant AC power supply.
Ideal coils and capacitors consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant
electric current. This is very different from a resistor which genuinely consumes electrical
energy, and where the electrical energy flows continuously in one direction; moving from
source to load. In other words, if your electrical appliance contains inductance or capacitance,
then electrical energy will periodically return to the power plant, and it will flow back and
forth across the power lines. This leads to an extra current in the power lines, a current which
heats the power lines, but which isn't used to provide energy to the appliance. The coil or
capacitor causes electrical energy to begin "sloshing" back and forth between the appliance
and the distant AC
 Generator. Electric companies must install heavier wires to tolerate the excess current,
and they will charge extra for this "unused" energy. This undesired "energy sloshing" effect
can be eliminated. If an electrical load contains both a coil and capacitor, and if their resonant
frequency is adjusted to exactly 60Hz, then the coil and capacitor like magic will begin to
behave like a pure resistor. The "energy sloshing" still occurs, but now it's all happening
between the coil and capacitor, and not in the AC power lines. So, if your appliance contains
a large coil induction motor, you can make the motor behave as a pure resistor, and reduce
the current in the power lines by connecting the right value of capacitance across the motor
coil. Why is reactive power so confusing? Well, the math is daunting if not entirely obscure.
And the concept of "imaginary power" puts many people off. But this is not the only
problem. Unfortunately most of us are taught in grade school that an electric current is a flow
of energy, and that energy flows back and forth in AC power lines. This is completely wrong.
In fact the energy flows constantly forward, going from source to load. It's only the charges
of the metal wires which flow back and forth.
4.3. GENERATION AND ABSORPTION OF REACTIVE POWER:
4.3.1. Synchronous Generators:
Synchronous machines can be made to generate or absorb reactive power depending
upon the excitation (a form of generator control) applied. The ability to supply reactive power
is determined by the short circuit ratio.
4.3.2. Synchronous Compensators:
Certain smaller generators, once run up to speed and synchronized to the system, can
be declutched from their turbine and provide reactive power without producing real power.

4.3.3. Capacitive and Inductive Compensators:

These are devices that can be connected to the system to adjust voltage levels .A
capacitive compensator produces an electric field thereby generating reactive power An
inductive compensator produces a magnetic field to absorb reactive power. Compensation
devices are available as either capacitive or inductive alone or as a hybrid to provide both
generation and absorption of reactive power.

1. Overhead lines and underground cables, when operating at the normal system voltage, both
produce strong electric fields and so generate reactive power.
2. When current flows through a line or cable it produces a magnetic field which absorbs
reactive power.
3. A lightly loaded overhead line is a net generator of reactive power while a heavily loaded
line is a net absorber of reactive power.
4. In the case of cables designed for use at 275 or 400kV the reactive power generated by the
electric field is always greater than the reactive power absorbed by the magnetic field and so
cables are always net generators of reactive power.
5. Transformers always absorb reactive power.

4.4. METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL:

4.4.1. Reactors:
Inductive reactors absorb reactive power and may be used in circuits, series or shunt
connected, while series connected reactors are used to limit fault currents, shunt reactors are
used for var control. Reactors installed at line ends and intermediate substations can
compensate up to 70% of charging power while the remaining 30% power at no-load can be
provided by the under excited operation of the generator. With increase in load, generator
excitation may be increased with reactors gradually cut-out. Figure shows some typical shunt
reactor arrangements.

Figure4.1: Typical shunt reactor

4.4.2. Shunt Capacitors:

Capacitors produce var and may be connected in series or shunt in the system. Series
capacitors compensate the line reactance in long overhead lines and thus improve the stability
limit. However, they give rise to additional problems like high voltage transients, sub-
synchronous resonance, etc. Shunt capacitors are used for reactive compensation. Simplicity
and low cost are the chief considerations for using shunt capacitor. Further, for expanding
systems additions can be made. Fig. shows the connected of shunt capacitors through the
tertiary of a transformer.
 Figure4.2: Shunt capacitor

4.4.3. Series capacitors:

Here the capacitors are connected in series with the line. The main aim is to reduce
the inductive reactance between supply point and the load. The major disadvantage of the
method is, whenever short circuit current flows through the capacitor, protective devices like
spark gaps and non linear resistors are to be in corporated. Phasor diagram for a line with
series capacitor is shown in the figure (b).

Figure 4.3: a) Series capacitor b) Phasor diagram

Relative merits between shunt and series capacitors.
1. If the load var requirement is small, series capacitors are of little help.
2. If the voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are effective; also to some extent
the voltage fluctuations can be evened.
3. If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very effective and stability is
improved.
4. With series capacitors the reduction in line current is small, hence if the thermal
considerations limits the current, little advantage is from this, so shunt compensation is to be
used.

4.4.4. Synchronous compensators:

A synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running without a mechanical

load and depending on the excitation level; it can either absorb or generate reactive power.
When used with a voltage regulator the compensator can automatically run overexcited at
times of high loads and under excited at light loads. A typical connection of a compensator is
shown in the figure along with the associated voltage – var output characteristics

A great advantage of the method is the flexible operation for all load
conditions. Being a rotating machine, its stored energy is useful for riding through transient
disturbances, including voltage drops.

Figure4.4:Synchronous compensator

4.4.5. Static VAR compensators:

In Recent years reactive compensation of charging power is made feasible with the
application of 3-phase, thyristor, and power controller circuits with automatic control
functions.
 Figure4.5:Statin var compensator

The term static var compensator is applied to a number of static var compensation
devices for use in shunt reactive control. These devices consist of shunt connected, static
reactive element (linear or non linear reactors and capacitors) configured into a var
compensating system. Some possible configurations are shown in above Figure. Even though
the capacitors and reactors in are shown in figure connected to the low voltage side of a
down transformer, the capacitor banks may be distributed between high and low voltage
buses. The capacitor bank often includes, in part, harmonic filters which prevent the
harmonic currents from flowing in the transformer and the high voltage system. Filters for the
5th and 7th harmonics are generally provided. The thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) is
operated on the low voltage bus. In another form of the compensator illustrated in Figure the
reactor compensator is connected to the secondary of a transformer.

Figure 4.6: Reactor Compensator

With this transformer, the reactive power can be adjusted to anywhere between 10% to the
rated value. With a capacitor bank provided with steps, a full control range from capacitive to
inductive power can be obtained. The reactor's transformer is directly connected to the line,
so that no circuit breaker is needed.
 The primary winding is star connected with neutral grounded, suitable to the thyristor
network. The secondary reactor is normally nonexistent, as it is more economical to design
the reactor transformer with 200% leakage impedance between primary and secondary
windings. The delta connected tertiary winding will effectively compensate the triple
harmonics. The capacitor bank is normally subdivided and connected to the substation bus
bar via one circuit breaker per sub bank. The regulator generates firing pulses for the thyristor
network in such a way that the reactive power required to meet the control objective at the
primary side of the compensator is obtained. The reactor transformer has a practically linear
characteristic from no load to full load condition. Thus, even under all stained over voltages;
hardly any harmonic content is generated due to saturation. The transformer core has non
ferromagnetic .Gaps to the required linearity.

The following requirements are to be borne in mind while designing a compensator.

1. Reaction should be possible, fast or slow, whenever demanded. No switching of capacitor
should take place at that time to avoid additional transients in the system. Commutation from
capacitor to reactor and vice versa should be fast.
2. No switching of the capacitors at the high voltage bus bar, so that no higher frequency
Transients is produced at EHV level.
3. Elimination of higher harmonics on the secondary side and blocking them from entering
the system.
In a three phase system the thyristor controlled inductors are normally delta connected as
shown in Figure to compensate unbalanced loads and the capacitors may be star or delta
connected

Figure4.7: Unbalanced loads

In the thyristor controlled reactor, the inductive reactance is controlled by the thyristors. For a
limited range of operation the relationship between the inductive current i L and the applied
voltage V is represented in Figure. As the inductance is varied, the susceptance varies over a
range within the limits BLmin and BLmax (corresponding to XLmax and XLmin) while the voltage
Changes by v volts.

Figure4.7.1: Unbalanced loads

The current flowing in the inductance would be different in each half cycle, varying with the
conduction angle such that each successive half cycle is a smaller segment of a sine wave.
The fundamental component of inductor current is then reduced to each case. Quick control
can be exercised within one half cycles, just by giving a proper step input to the firing angle
control Static var compensators when installed reduce the voltage swings at the rolling mill
and power system buses in drive system applications. They compensate for the average
reactive power requirements and improve power factor.
Electric arc furnaces impose extremely difficult service requirements on electrical
power systems since the changes in arc furnace load impedance are rapid. Random and non
symmetrical. The three phases of a static var compensator can be located independently so
that it compensates for the unbalanced reactive load of the furnace and the thyristor controller
will respond quickly in order to minimize the voltage fluctuations or voltage flicker seen by
the system.
 Figure4.8: Application of the static var compensator

Thus, the furnace characteristics are made more acceptable to the power system by the static
var compensator. Above figure shows the application of the static var compensator to an arc
furnace installation for reactive power compensation at the HV bus level.

4.5. TYPES OF SVC

1. Variable impedance type
2. Current source type
3. Voltage source type
The followings are the basic types of reactive power control elements which makes all or
parts of SVC

1. Saturated reactor
2. Thyristor controlled Reactor
3. Thyristor switched capacitor
4. Thyristor Switched Reactor
5. Thyristor controlled Transformer

4.6. APPLICATION OF STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR

Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage ("Transmission

SVC")
Connected near large industrial loads, to improve power quality ("Industrial SVC")

4.7. EXCITATION SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS

1. Meet specified response criteria.
 2. Provide limiting and protective functions are required to prevent damage to itself, the
generator, and other equipment.
3. Meet specified requirements for operating flexibility
4. Meet the desired reliability and availability, by incorporating the necessary level of
redundancy and internal fault detection and isolation capability.

4.8. ELEMENTS OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

Exciter: provides dc power to the synchronous machine field winding constituting the
power stage of the excitation system.

Regulator: Process and amplifies input control signals to a level and form appropriate for
control of the exciter. This includes both regulating and excitation system stabilizing
function.

Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator: Senses generator terminal voltage,
rectifier and filters it to dc quantity, and compares it with a reference which represents the
desired terminal voltage.

Power system stabilizer: provides an additional input signal to the regulator to damp
power system oscillation.

Limiters and protective circuits: These include a wide array of control and protective
function which ensure that the capability limits of the exciter and synchronous generator
are not exceeded.
Figure4.9: Schematic picture of a synchronous machine with excitation system with several
control, protection, and supervisory functions.

4.9. TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

Today, a large number of different types of exciter systems are used. Three main
types can be distinguished:
• DC excitation system, where the exciter is a DC generator, often on the same axis
as the rotor of the synchronous machine.
• AC excitation system, where the exciter is an AC machine with rectifier.
• Static excitation system, where the exciting current is fed from a controlled
rectifier that gets its power either directly from the generator terminals or from the
power plant’s auxiliary power system, normally containing batteries. In the latter case,
the synchronous machine can be started against an unenergised net, “black start”. The
batteries are usually charged from the net.

Block Schematic of Excitation Control:

A typical excitation control system is shown in Fig. The terminal voltage of the
alternator is sampled, rectified and compared with a reference voltage; the difference is
amplified and fed back to the exciter field winding to change the excitation current.
Block Diagram of excitation system:

Figure4.10: Block Diagram of excitation system

4.9.1. Static Excitation System:
In the static excitation system, the generator field is fed from a thyristor network
shown in Fig. It is just sufficient to adjust the thyristor firing angle to vary the excitation
level. A major advantage of such a system is that, when required the field voltage can be
varied through a full range of positive to negative values very rapidly with the ultimate
benefit of generator Voltage regulation during transient disturbances. The thyristor network
consists of either 3-phase fully controlled or semi controlled bridge rectifiers. Field
suppression resistor dissipates Energy in the field circuit while the field breaker ensures field
isolation during generator faults.

Figure 4.11: Static Excitation System:

4.9.2. Brushless Excitation Scheme:

Figure4.12: Brushless Excitation Scheme:

In the brushless excitation system of an alternator with rotating armature and
stationary field is employed as the main exciter. Direct voltage for the generator excitation is
obtained by rectification through a rotating, semiconductor diode network which is mounted
on the generator shaft itself. Thus, the excited armature, the diode network and the generator
field are rigidly connected in series. The advantage of this method of excitation is that the
moving contacts such as slip rings and brushes are completely eliminated thus offering
smooth and maintenance-free operation.
A permanent-magnet generator serves as the power source for the exciter field. The
output of the permanent magnet generator is rectified with thyristor network and is applied to
the exciter field. The voltage regulator measures the output or terminal voltage, compares it
with a set reference and utilizes the error signal, if any, to control the gate pulses of the
thyristor network.
4.9.3. AC Excitation system:

Figure 4.13: Ac Excitation systems

4.9.3.1. Exciter and Voltage Regulator:

The function of an exciter is to increase the excitation current for voltage drop and decrease
the same for voltage rise. The voltage change is defined

Where V1 is the terminal voltage and Vref is the reference voltage.

Exciter ceiling voltage: It is defined as the maximum voltage that may be attained by
an exciter with specified conditions of load.
Exciter response: It is the rate of increase or decrease of the exciter voltage.
When a change in this voltage is demanded. As an example consider the response curve
shown in Figure.
Exciter builds up: The exciter build up depends upon the field resistance and the charging of
its value by cutting or adding. The greatest possible control effort is the complete shorting of
the field rheostat when maximum current value is reached in the field circuit. This can be
done by closing the contactor.

Figure 4.14: AC excitation operations

When the exciter is operated at rated speed at no load, the record of voltage as function of
time with a step change that drives the exciter to its ceiling voltage is called the exciter build
up curve. Such a response curve is show in Figure.4.14

Figure 4.15: Response curve

 SCR
Response Conventional
exciter
ratio Exciter

0.5 1.25-1.35 1.2

1.0 1.4-1.5 1.2-1.25
1.5 1.55-1.65 1.3-1.4
2.0 1.7-1.8 1.45-1.55
4.0 2.0-2.1
Table 4.1 Comparison between Exciters

In general the present day practice is to use 125V excitation up to IOMVA units and
250V systems up to 100MVA units. Units generating power beyond IOOMVA have
excitation system voltages variedly. Some use 350V and 375V system while some go up to
500V excitation system.
4.9.4. DC Excitation System

The excitation system of this category utilize dc generator as source of excitation

power and provide current to the rotor of the synchronous machine through slip ring. The
exciter may be driven by a motor or the shaft of the generator. It may be either self excited or
separately excited. When separately excited, the exciter field is supplied by a pivot exciter
comprising a permanent magnet generator. Below figure a simplified schematic
representation of a typical dc excitation system. It consists of a dc commutator exciter which
supplies direct current to the main generator field through slip ring.
 Figure 4.16:.Dc excitation system

Dc machine having two sets of brush 90 electrical degree apart, one set on its direct
(d) axis and the other set on its quadrature (q) axis. The control field winding is located on
the d axis. A compensating winding in series with the d axis armature current, thereby
cancelling negative feedback of the armature reaction. The brushes on the q axis are shorted,
and very little control field power is required to produce a large current in the q axis
armature. The q axis current is supplied mechanically by the motor.

4.10 RECENT DEVELOPMENT AND FUTURE TRENDS:

The advances in excitation system over the last 20 years have been influenced by
development in solid state electronics. Development in analogue integrated circuitry has
made it possible to easily implemented complex control strategies.

The latest development in excitation system has been the introduction of digital
technology. Thyristor continue to be used for the power stage. The control, protection, and
logic function have been implemented digitally, essentially duplicating the function
previously provided by analog circuitry.

4.11 MODELING OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

Mathematical model of excitation system are essential for the assessment of desired
performance requirement, for the design and coordination of supplementary control and
protective circuits, and for system stability studies related to the planning and purpose of
study.

Generator Voltage Control System

The voltage of the generator is proportional to the speed and excitation (flux) of
the generator. The speed being constant, the excitation is used to control the
voltage. Therefore, the voltage control system is also called as excitation control
system or automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
For the alternators, the excitation is provided by a device (another machine or a
static device) called exciter. For a large alternator the exciter may be required to supply a
field current of as large as 6500A at 500V and hence the exciter is a fairly large
machine. Depending on the way the dc supply is given to the field winding of the alternator
(which is on the rotor), the exciters are classified as: i) DC Exciters; ii) AC Exciters;
and iii) Static Exciters. Accordingly, several standard block diagrams are developed by
the IEEE working group to represent the excitation system. A schematic of an
excitation control system is shown in Fig4.16

Figure4.17: A schematic of Excitation (Voltage) Control System.

A simplified block diagram of the generator voltage control system is

shown in Fig2.2. The generator terminal voltage Vt is compared with a voltage
reference Vref to obtain a voltage error signal ∆V. This signal is applied to the
voltage regulator shown as a block with transfer function KA/ (1+TAs). The
output of the regulator is then applied to exciter shown with a block of transfer
function Ke/ (1+Tes). The output of the exciter Efd is then applied to the field
winding which adjusts the generator terminal voltage. The generator field can be
represented by a block with a transfer function KF/(1+sTF). The total transfer
function

The stabilizing compensator shown in the diagram is used to improve the

 dynamic response of the exciter. The input to this block is the exciter voltage and
the output is a stabilizing feedback signal to reduce the excessive overshoot.

Figure4.18: A simplified block diagram of Voltage (Excitation) Control System.

Performance of AVR loop

The purpose of the AVR loop is to maintain the generator terminal voltage with
in acceptable values. A static accuracy limit in percentage is specified for the AVR, so
that the terminal voltage is maintained within that value. For example, if the accuracy limit
is 4%, then the terminal voltage must be maintained within 4% of the base voltage.

4.12. STEADY STATE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION:

The control loop must regulate the output voltage VI so that the error is made equal to zero. It
is also imperative that the response must be reasonably fast, yet not cause any instability
problem.

The performance of the AVR loop is measured by its ability to regulate the terminal
voltage of the generator within prescribed static accuracy limit with an acceptable speed
of response. Suppose the static accuracy limit is denoted by Ac in percentage with
reference to the nominal value. The error voltage is to be less than (Ac/100)∆|V|ref.
From the block diagram, for a steady state error voltage ∆e;

∆e=∆ [V]ref -∆ [V]t =∆ [V]ref

 ∆e=∆ [V]ref -∆ [V]t =∆ [V]ref- ∆ [V]ref

=1- ∆ [V]ref

For constraint input condition (s-0)

∆e=1- ∆ [V]ref

= 1- ∆ [V]ref

= ∆ [V]ref

= ∆ [V]ref

K= G (0) is the open loop gain of the AVR .Hence

∆ [V]ref =∆ [V]ref

Larger the overall gain of the forward block gain K smaller is the steady state error. But too
large a gain K cans instability.
4.13. DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF VOLTAGE REGULATION CONTROL:
Consider
The response depends upon the roots of the characteristic eqn. 1 + G(S) = o.
As there are three time constants, we may write the three roots as S1, S2 and S3. A typical
root locus plot is shown in Figure

Figure4.19: Root locus

From the plot, it can be observed that at gain higher than Kc the control loop becomes ln
stable.

QUESTION BANK
 PART- A

1. List the various components in AVR loop.

2. What is the significance of stability compensation in AVR loop?
3. What is meant by stability compensation?
4. Distinguish between on-load and off-load tap changing.
5. Compare series and shunt capacitors.
6. What are requirement of voltage and reactive power control?
7. Define excitation system.
8. What is mean by AVR root loci?
9. State the elements of an excitation system.
10. What are the different types of static VAR compensators?
11. What is SVC? When and why it is used?
12. What is static VAR compensator?

PART-B
1. Derive the relation between voltage, power & reactive power at a node for applications in
power system control.
2. Discuss generation and absorption of reactive power.
3. Discuss about the various methods of voltage control.
4. Explain different types of static VAR compensators with a phasor diagram.
5. Explain the A.C and D.C excitation system.
6. Draw the circuit diagram for a typical excitation system and derive the transfer
function model and draw the block diagram (OR) Draw the diagram of a typical
automatic voltage regulator (AVR) & develop its block diagram representation. (OR)
the typical brushless AVR with static and dynamic performance of AVR loop.
7. Explain the injection of reactive power by switched capacitors to maintain acceptable
voltage profile & to minimize transmission loss in a power system.