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GMMMATOGRAPHY
MANUAL
OF REFERENCE
LANGUAGES
F.
BALLHOEN.
LONDON
TRUBNBR AND
CO.,
60,
1861.
PATERNOSTER ROW.
k.'L^^^%
PREFACE.
The Geammatogeapht
is
modem
languages.
Simple in
Amateur
Linguist, the Bookseller, the Corrector of the Press, and the diligent
Compositor.
Although substantially based on " BalUiorn's Alphabete," a German compilation, which, in the space of
present manual has in several articles been very considerably improved and
enlarged.
may prove
useful even
work
shall
Grammars.
With regard
may be
the lateral "Tones" have been adjoined to the 214 symbols of pronunciation.
These additions
by native
teachers, to re-
member
The
humble attempt
M.PHABETia!i.L INDEX.
Page
^han
(or Pnshto)
.
28
.
.
Hebrew (Judaeo-German),
13
.
Amhiaric
23.
24,25
73
14 68
63
Anglo-Saxon
Arabic
. ' .
20,21 21,22
.
Arabic Ligatures
Araraaeio
.
78
,
Italian (Old-)
9 34
Archaic Characters
8,9
.
Armeniau
Assyrian Cuneiform
58
Javanese
Lettish
.
.
. .
46.
47,48
69
50, 51
7
.
Bengali
45
Mantshii
Bohemian (Czechian)
Biigis
67,68
.
Median Cuneiform
6 57
.
45
Modem
Burmese
Chinese
Coptic
.
41
,
Mongolian
Ifumidian
52 8
Canaresef(or Camitaca)
42
30,31 32,33
.
58 9
29
60
Palmyrenian
Persian
.
Croato-Glagolitio
27
5
pufio
9 58
Persian Cuneiform
Cyrillic (or
Old SlaTonio)
Phoenician
Polish
.
67,68
71
.
65
Danish
28
Greek)
Demotic
8 9
Ecmaio
Kussian
(or
Modem
, .
57
Ethiopio
23,
24,25
9
Htmes
....
. . .
,
61,62
75,76
15
35-36, 37, 38
Etruscan
Georgian
Samaritan
Sanscrit
54
German
GlagoKtic
70
59
Servian
63
.
Slavonic (Old-)
58
Gothic
74
.
66
Greek
55
Swedish
Syriao
.72
ie, 17, 18,
.
.
Greek Ligatures
j^
56 9 48 8 8 10 11,12
19
Greek (^chaio)**l
Gujerati (or Guzerattee)
Hieratic
.
Tamil
Telugu
Tibetan
39,
40
44
.
Hieroglyphics
Turkish
26
Wallachian
64
66 41
'.
(Archaic)
8
.
WendishTPw Serbian)
Zend
. .
(Eabbinical)
18
^.#
and
is
now
read with tolerable accuracy. [.The other, however, not yet deciphered with
sufficient certainty,
Almost
in
Form
A8SYRIA1S CUISEIFOEM
CHARACTERS
OLDEST CHARACTERS
10
HEBREW
Form
Kame
Pronunciation
Numer.
value
NOTES.
The Hebrew Alphabet,
like all Semitic al-
Aleph
Spiritus
lenis
2
:
Beth Gimel
Daleth
b bh g
gli
,
2
3
number, some of which, however, hare also the force of vowels. Hebrew is read from right to left. Because at the end of the lines words
,
cannot be divided
d dh
4 5
6
7
racters (dilatabiles)
justify, or
fill
n
)
k
t
He
Vav
Zayiii
tice is all
but obsolete.
w
S sbft
cli
tzD
m S
r-i
!-i
&<
CONSONANTS.
Cheth
Teth
8
)j^
Notes on Pronunciation,
the softest guttural, an emission of the breath scarcely to be heard, the Spiritus
is
Yodh
]D, final
lenis of the
j
Greeks, similar
to -, but
much
10
softer.
*!
Kaph
Lamedh
k kh
1.
ni
20
30
PI befora a
ritus
vowel,
is
h
D,
J,
final
D Mem
Nun
I
40 50 60
70
final
n
s
guttural
1)
Samek
Ayin
final
like N. In reading
words,
e. g.
'iss;
it is
now
V
,
^,
tl
final ]>
Eli.
n
Pe
Tsadhe
Q'oph
is
German
P Ph
ss
80
90
100
is
pronounced in Hebrew more like a rattling guttural, than as a pure lingual, and
q
r
s
Resh
Sin
200
300
same
letter
when
written
this
without points
but as in
some words
to
s,
Shin
sh
t
Tav
th
400
*
*
is
(sh)
and a
(s).
z.
the English
?[
2,
LIGATURES.
or
=
also instead
differ essentially
equivalent to our
of
a-^n'-js
/K)
aspirated.
"
) )
11
The six consonants PESTja have a twofold pronunciation: 1) aharder and more slender sound (tenuis), like our b g d k p t, and
2) a smoother sound accompanied by a soft The harder sound is the primeval it occurs at the beginning of words and syllables without a vowel preceding immediately, and is indicated by a point (Daghesh tene) in those six consonants. They are aspirated after a vowel immediately preceding; in manuscripts this is indicated by the Raphe ( " ), but in printed books the aspiration is shown by the absence of the Daghesh.
aspiration.
The vowels, or vowel-points, are placed under the consonants after which they are pronounced (i ra); but the Patach, placed under a guttural at the end of a word is pronounced before this guttural, ~ni ruaoh, in which case it is named Patach furtleum. The Cholem (without Vav) is placed above the consonant on the leftside: Hro. The figui-e i is to be pronounced sometimes ov, the i being preceding it sometimes consonant and the vo, the Cholem being read after the Vav. It
,
is
a)
According
CLASSIFICATION OF THE CONSONANTS. to the organs of speech by which they are pronounced
1) gutturals (gutturales)
n
p S
*
j
n s
<
ou, i more accurate to distinguish thus vo,^ 6\ likewise also 1 (Shm-eq) and ! (Vav with Daghesh). As, however, 5 (Shureq) is readily discernible, because a vowel neither can precede nor follow it, only this form is made use of. In opposition to the vowels
:
i'
2) palatals (palatinae) 3)
Unguals llinguales) ts P i and ) h i 4) dentals (dentales) svi 5) labials (labiates) q n n i The 1 partakes of the 1. and 3. classes.
b) According to their sound: 1) aspirated consonants (aspirantes): -yrts 2) soft consonants (molles) liquids -i : a i,
:
-j Shva (Sh^va) indicates the absence of a Therefore full and distinct vowel.
1 )
semivowels
4)
3) sibilants (sibilantes):
"a
mutes (mutae)
s 3 t
D t a and p c
VOWELS.
That the scale of the five vowels a S o oo is derived from the three primitive vowels a t 00, is to be seen much more distinctly in the Hebrew and the other Semitic languages than in other languages. The S has been formed oo, and, properly speakby a -f- i, the o by a ing, both are contracted diphthongs e =; ai, The full vowels formed by this S z=: au.
i
placed under a consonant concluding a it indicates the complete absence of a vowel and serves to divide the preceding syllable from the following (Sh^va quiescens). It is not made use of, however, when the consonant concluding the syllable at the same time concludes the word, except in the case of the Final Qoph ('^), and those words ending in two consonants, when each of them is to be furnished with a Sh^va, c. g. 'I'l;
syllable ,
as
itrepresents a slight and indistinct vowel, it were only the onset or beginning
The Sh^va
clear
more
process are the following, arranged according to the three principal vowels and to their prosodical quantity:
Vowel a (X)
-^
half a
,
half 6
,
half
o.
Vowel e
^-r;"fr-
i C
READING -SIGNS.
There are some reading - signs which have
also
i
Chireq (magnum),
Seghol, 6, e (the
written
-;:-:r~
close connexion with the vowels and probably were introduced at the same time. Amongst these is to be noticed the diacritical point of
^~^)
it
r- Chireq (parvum),
(i).
Vowel
j
00
fi
( T
and v. Meeting together with the Cholem {), only one point is made use of which represents both; therefore iuis to be pronoimced so if no other vowel - point is added and o$h,
ii
,
Cholera (magnum), 6
when
e.
Shureq,
is
unpointed,
_^
More frequently we see a point placed in the consonant to indicate in general a harder pronunciation. There are three cases to be distinguished, viz.:
2*
12
Dagheah forte doubling the consonants. Daghesh lene, hardening the consonant; it 3 a in stands only in the six mutae: n B S the above named oases otherwise the point occurring in these consonants must be a Da,
Segholta
'
"i
Zaqeph-qaton
Zaqeph-gadhol
'
"
Bebhia
ghesh forte.
Mappiq, indicates that those consonants, which are also us^d as vowels are then to be pronounced as consonants; in modern printing it is made use of only in the B at the end of the words.
,
~ Zarqa
^
^
Qadma
Pashta
i
Shalshelet
''
Paser
In opposition to the point hardening the consonant, a little stroke standing above the consonant indicates his softer sound. This
stroke called
'*''
Qarne-phara
Great-Telisha
Little-Telisha
Raphe
(") is
now
is
'
Garesh
"
Double- Garesh.
ACCENTS.
general design of the accents is to indicate the rhythmical members of the verses in the Old Testament. In doing this , they perform a twofold duty; for the accents mark at one and the same time partly the logical relation of each word to the whole sentence, and partly the accented syllable of each single word. In the first case the accents supply the punctuation, in the latter they are signs of tone. As signs of tone, the different accents are equivalent, '.because there is in Hebrew only one kind of accentuation. In most words, the last syllable is accented, more rarely the last but one. As signs of punctuation, their use is more complicated, because they not only separate words , like our points , commas and colons, but also join one to the other. Therefore they are divided in Distinctivi and Conjunctivi. In the following list they are arranged not according to their grammatical value, but according to their being placed below the consonants or above them, in order to give a more facile view of them.
The
ACCENTS CONSISTING OF TWO PARTS BELONGING TOGETHER, THE ONE ABOVE, AND THE OTHER BELOW CONSONANTS. Merkha mahpakhatum
Merkha sarqatum
Mahpakh sarqatum.
:
Soph-pasuq, separating
verses,
- Maqqeph, hyphen,
I
vowel).
ifUMERALS.
There are no numerical ciphers in Hebrew but consonants are used instead of them. The units are expressed by s is, the tens by s,
100400
by
p r.
=
''
[500
600
poo
800
1^900,
Silluq only at the end of the verse , therefore always joined with : Soph-pasuq, which stands between the single verses.
sometimes by r 400 with addition of the other hundreds , e.g. prr=500. In compound numbers , the greater is placed first, e. g. s' 11, SDp 121. The number' 15 is written with Its (9+6), instead of ni, because the name of God begins with these letters and for the same reason, 16 is written tp instead of T. The thousands are expressed by the units, superscribing two points, e. g. s 1000.
nw
Athnach, mostly
(
in the
midst of a verse
stroke aloft to the left of the consonant, c. g. 's, denotes that this consonant serves as a numeral. By the side of the last consonant of a word, e. g. 'oa (^micn) it marks an abbreviation. " Two strokes above a word, e. g. rr's, indicate that each of these letters stands for a separate word abbreviated.
'
^ Yethibh
.,
always
Tebhir
ABBREVIATIONS.
Tiphcha
initiale
Merkha
Double-Merkha
Munach
,
J
Mahpakh
Darga
Yarach
Tiphcha
vowel)
"
finale.
or * in copies of the Hebrew Bible refer to the readings placed in the margin or at the foot of the page. The first is of Masoretic, and the other is of modern origin.
13
14
HEBREW RUNNING-HAND
Form
15
SAMARITAN
Form
16
SYRIAC
Name
connected with a preceding letter
Pronunciation
Numer.
value
VOWELS.
The Syriac
left,
Olaph
Spiritas leni
are expressed by some marks iu imitation of the greek; the latter of which are now mostly in use. In former times both kinds were cmdiacritical signs or
Tlxe vowels
is written
from
riglit to
ployed promiscuously.
Beth
^s
^Cl.
a.
or
2
3
Figure
Gomal
Dolath
5
\
r
ai
g d
4
5
or
He
Vau
Zain
01
o
1
a
>
W
Z
6
7
Cheth
Teth
ch
t
8 9 10
Yud
Koph
5*
ch
1
20
Lomad
30 40 50
60
Mim
Nun
Semcath
la
m
J
Ee
Pe
Tsode
wj as in
faebrew
70
or f
80 90
100
tS or Z
Quph
Kish Shin
q
r
200
300
sh
Tau
thort
400
17
SYRIAC
Cut iu the printing-office of B. G. Teubner in Leipzig conformably to original drawings by Frofessor TuLLBERO of Upsala and Professor Berhsteim of Breslau.
Porm
18
19
SYRIAC
Form
Pronunciation
Name
Points and
Numbers
174 175
176 177
x:
Yud-Nun
POINTS.
.
X
H
Pethocho
204
la
LomadOlaph
205
206 207
178)^
179
);
Rebotzo
180^
208
181^ 182^
183^
184'^
Loraad-
209 210
211
.-
Chebotzo
Teth
212
Zekopho
185^
Double
186 >SS.
187 \SS.
188>{&>
213
Lomad
214
>
Etsotso
iS^
ORTHOGRAPHICAJ.
Lomadlee
SIGNS.
215
216 217
SS.
Ee
VSS.
Ribui
'^
Mehagyono
Marhetono
Qushoi,Ruchoch
193 !&.
194 &>
I It
Lomad-
218
Tau
195
196
197
-iS*.
&>.
^
Jj
Mim-
Nan
NunOlaph
Tsode-
219 220
198
199
end of a
word
221
U
Of:
222
I
Strokes between
>
200
201
Nun
Tsode-
223
202
Gomal
20
ARABIC
21
VOWELS.
-^
At
Fatha, a a e
-S_
^^
on
Kesre,
_jl
Damma,
oo o
-.
the end of the suhstantives the vowels are doubled to indicate the case, viz.
~'
in
-_ an
This
is
Nun
is
added
to the
vowel.
DIPHTHONGS:
"
^^^
ai
au
as i
ge^an.
"',-
ORTHOGKAPHICAL
Jezma^
SIGNS.
separating syllables, is written over the final. consonant of all shut syllable and indicates j that the syllable is finished and the consonant to .be pronounced with the preceding vowel ; it corresponds to the Shma quiescens of the Hebrew.
th?it
JH-
of doubling. The final consonant of a syllable being the same as , beginning the following one, this consonant is written only once, but marked with the sign which corresponds to the Hebrew Z)a^/ies/j/orte. In African manu,
Teshdid mark
scripts it is written v or
a.
,
^e_
placed genferally above the Elif when this is used as a consonant and furnished with a vowel; when this vowel is a Kesre, the Hamza is placed beneath; sometimes also it stands above the Y. In Kufic Korans it is supplied by a little green stroke, in Moorish or African manuscripts by a thick green or yellow dot.
is
Hamza
*"
Wesla, joining- mark. The Elif, at the commencement of a word) is sometimes in pronunciation absorbed by the final vowel of the preceding word. In this case, the vowel of the Elif is elided and marked by the Wesla.
above ap Elif pronounced by Fatha and followed by a Hamza; it indicates the prolongation of the a. It is placed , also , above an ^\ii at the commencement of a word, or instead of an omitted Elif. Besides, this sign is a mark of abbre-
~ Medda stands
'''**'".-
PUNCTUATION.
,
There are no signs of punctuation in Arabic only in the Koran the verses are separated by :^. This sign, however, or ' or < or a red dot, is employed also. in other books at the end of a section. In manuscripts, sometimes, anew section begins with a word written
in red colour; in manuscript dictionaries a red line
is
CIPHERS.
Formerly, the Arabs, like other oriental nations, used the letters of the alphabet to express numbers; at a later period, however, they adopted the following 10 special figures, cfiUed by us Europeans the Arabian ciphers, by the Arabs themselves the Indian ones,
.
Regarding their composition and value they accord with our numerals which are taken from them, whereas the consonants expressing ciphers are written from right to left,
,
IfrfclVAl. 1234567890
viz.
Ulr
(1861).
22
ARABIC LIGATURES
23
24
AETHIOPIAN
Cut
ill
the printing-office of F, A.
Bkockhaus
in Leipzig
With a
25
DIPHTHONGS.
}]d
kua gua
V|.
kui gui
tf
kue gue
5p^
kuA
gud
Ij,
ku6 gu6
To
7.
^
-Jo
qua -J
hua
4* qui . -J
>.
4"" que ,
f
:5i
qua huA
^ ^
J.
qu6 hu6
hui
-^ hue
PUNCTUATION.
Comma
NUMBEES.
Semicolon
Full stop
1234567
,
89
10
11 etc.
'JO
30 40
50 60
70
80
90 100 200
c-ti-.
Ethiopic formerly the vernacular language of the Abyssinians by whom it was called GeEz, is only preserved in writings. As a Semitic language it bears a close affinity to the Himyaric, a South-Arabian dialect, which was superseded in the times of Mahomed. The Ethiopic possesses a high degree of flexibility which is mainly due to the diligence with which the study of Greek writings was cultivated in Abyssinia. The Alphabet originally consisted of consonants without indications of vowels. In form it approaches the Himyaric and thus differs from the other Semitic characters. Ancient Ethiopic inscriptions show examples of writing from right to left; owing, however, to the early influence of Greek literature, especially after the introduction of Christianity, the arrangement of words was fixed from left to right. At the same time the coalition of consonants and vowels was indicated by particular forms, which gave rise to the adoption of a complete syllabarium. With the change of the ruling power in the fourteenth century the Ethiopic language began to decay, and rapidly falling into disuse, it is now replaced by the Amharic language.
,
AMHARIC.
This language deriving its name from the kingdom of Amhara in Abyssinia, has supplanted the ancient Ethiopic idiom. The kings of Shoa, on gaining the upper handj efl'ected the preponderance of ths Amharic language, to the exclusion of the kindred Ethiopic. The Alphabets of both languages are identical, except the following Characters, which are peoiiliar to the Amharic language.
wilh
26
TURKISH.
a compound of wordB taken from the Tatar, Persian and Ara1>ic languages. The high dialect, only, spoken at Constantinople by people of quality, and serving as the written language, is Turkish is written and read a compound of Persian and Arabic words. Like most oriental languages
TJie Turkish language
is
,
from right
to left.
german vowels
a, y,
o,
<Ssa(2 like
sharp
ss.
consonants of the word being hard but the german e, i, o, u, the consonants being soft. When Alif is followed by hard consonant, the ( Ustun) is pronounced like a, the ~7~ {Esre) like y, and the _!_ {Utru) like o or u. Following, however, a soft consonant, the ^ {Ustun) is to be read as e, the~7" {Esre) as i, and the > {Utru) as o or u. In the middle and at the end of words, without Hamzalif the Alif is always pronounced like a, but with Hamzalif, like e.
,
Ddad,
it
Arabs pronounce
often
like d.
is
confounded
Zza
like
our
z.
Ain
y, "
and nasal
a,
;_
Ba
After Ta, Tlia, Jim, Cha, Sin, Shin, Ssa4, Tla\ Qaf, Gef it is often read like p.
is
our
b.
Qo/like
A,
iA or
ck.
Kaf,
Gef,
soft;
words
L^ Pa
tty
is is
our p.
our
it is
t.
qui, quel.
Ta
in
verbs
^AJ
some eases
Tha
tult.
is
our
word
like
i.
viJLj
th.
.
terminations like y.
it
^ t
Jim
or
When
i.
e.
mute Nun,
like the
meeting the consonants named above in connection with the letter i_j, it is pronounced like Tchim.
Tchin like. our Qh in chess.
J Lam
r
our I; in some cases it is soft like ^in limb, in some hard like ^ in all.
Mint, like m.
Hha
Nun ou*
lika ^ in h a V e.
it is
Dal
like d. It
is
pronounced
like
when
it is
meeting the consonants named above in connection with the letter i_y
.
our * or ; furnished with Utru, pronounced like in conjunction with hard consonants like german u or o, how ever, in conjunction with soft ones.
; ;
Waw
Dhal
Ha
like
z.
it is
Ra
; )
like;/-.
Lamelif, la or
z.
,
lia
(Ligature).
Za
like
our
Sin like
s, ss.
Shin like
sh.
like our y, when a vowel' like i\ it represents a vowel only in the middle or at the end of words.
Ya when a consonant
ORTHOGRAPHICAL
'
SIGNS.
placed over the consonants and pronounced like a with a hard consonant, like e with a soft one. ^ Esre below the consonants is pronounced like vowel y with a hard consonant, but like with a soft one. Utru is pronounced like o or u with a hard consonant, but like o or ti with a soft one.
{/ijton
is
"
con-
~ Meddelif or Medda,
ff
^ Iki esre (double Esre) like in. S Iki utru (double Utru) like on or un. The three last marks are only employed
Arabic words.
in
Hamzelif or /^amjo; placed over Elif, is pronounced like e\ over Waw, like , over Ya, like i; at the end of words, ending with a vowel like i.
,
27
PERSIAN
28
AFGHAN OR PUSHTOO
Figure
29
COPTIC
Figure
3V
30
CHINESE.
calculation, based upon the Imperial Chinese Dictionary, shows that the Chinese language is represented by 43,496 characters or symbols. Of this number 13,UO0 are totally irrelevant and consist of signs which are obsolete , incorrectly formed, and unexplained. For the expressions in ordinary literature about 4000 signs appear to suffice. The writings of Con-foo-tse (Confucius) and his disciples can even be read by the help of only 2500 characters, and a knowledge of these will enable the student tolera^ily to understand all Chinese works on history and philosophy. In lieu of the phonetic and lexicographical system, which appertains to most languages, the Chinese have adopted 214 signs any of which, being placed by the side of an unknown character, indicates at once its pronunciation. These indicators of sound, are termed by the Chinese "Tribunalu". European grammarians have called them **Keys" or "Radicals". Occasionally the "Tones" (modulating accents) are appended at the top or foot of the character, at the right or the left side. Such accents are described as follows,
1 o
[]
even tone.
ew^eritt^ tone.
3 Q
falling tone.
rising tone.
The "Keys" are divided into 17 Classes, according to the number of strokes of which each character is composed, and are arranged in the following order: Class Class 1. consisting of 1 stroke extends from Nr. 1 10. consisting of 10 strokes extends from Nr.lS7-^194
2.
..
w
..
..
..
..
31
49
50
^ m
~Y~
p
chi, self
73
Q
1^
yuih, to talk
9^ o IS.
^w^oA, melon
chin, cloth
o
fcaw, shielcl,spear
74
yueh, moon
98
^
1
wd/i, tiles,
earthenware
o fcon, sweet senn, to live, to birth
51
75
99
W
"-t-
fii?
yj
i/wSW; source
76
y^
_LL
chi&n, debtor
100
53o/
54 jy
55 ^
56
J/*n,
hut
77
fs',
to stop
fflgiveuse ybng, to
102
isow, long
walk
78 79
^
3^
"ft
^i^j
wicked
W
y
'^
o tihn, field
TT
Vi
kong , higher
yiSh, spear
^^^
>
^to
pj^/j,
piece
80
f'6, is not
104
o tsiSh, sick
57
*~^
kdng, a
bow
81
J^'
pi, to
compare 105
106
^o
fah, to divide
58
59
82 o
"C
i\t
'"<'*';
feather
f-I o buh
white
^
-^
san, coat
shuang-jin,
o
83
sz, clan
107 o
/X^ JJ^
o
6i,
skin
60
two
84
85
^1^
cni, an-
108
min, implement
y
61
men
sm, heart
ftd/i,
jL|\
^Ji^
7j>
shway, water
109
mbh, eye
62
a lance
86
,j^
/Iv
chaw,
fire
110 111
o'^
''^
"** D
mabh, spear
s/it,
63
P
"f"
to'oo^ inner
door
87
arrow
stone
64
sheu,
hand
88
^
?t
^1
ij
f'6h, father
112
sAi^ft,
65 66
^
^^
^>C.
tz',
branch
89 o >^.
yow,
sign
113
^Iv
sz^ to
admonish
or
90
chwang pole
,
114
1^
--.
nahy
cla pper of a
shbh, b ell
67
funn,
tou, a
gentiJe
91
/-J
pt^n, spUnter
115o^lV
116
Aaw,
J/M^/i,
grain
68
o^
/X
o
I
J,
measure
92
o^
7V
2/a/i,
teeth
y Vo
ji-o
'
cave
69
"'^
cto/, hatchet,
93o"T^
94
nJM;
ox
dog
117
Zi^, to
stand
pound
fang, a square, then
cA/.^n,
/J
o ..^
118
choh,
bamboo
^1
TC S
fi, no
sh^h, sun, day
95o.Z^
96
mi, rice
72
jG. o
w*'^^^
gem
120
s':, silk
32
21
'ffij
f'ow, jar
/canj,
45 ,^J
46 47
48'
ffi
i,
clothing
.69
Pt
mun, a door
/oM, a
22|)M|
23 24
hedge
yiu, twilight
70jjjp.
mound
j/an^, sheep
@
==
o
r-*
c/i!^K, to
see
71o^J
72
rf,
to accomplish
?|^
M,
long feathers
old
^
P5
-^p
o
|flj
cfea/i, fine
ner
25
^o
S
iffo,
49 50
51
ni&n,
/coA,
word
apertures
yu,
ram
green
26 27
Mr/i;
and
^
^-*
^^\^
o
m rocks
74
75
tsin,
fe, handle of a
spade
1^
tou, head
^ee/i,
not
28 29
jA-
ull, the
ear
52
:^^
sftw,
swine
.76
OTJew, face
yueh, to mani-
53
J^
'''**'
o
30
fest,
a baton
54
55
77
-^ o
-^
itt7
/i^ft^
leather
1^
t^J
jbh, flesh
m
,^^
/\zo
pei, valuables
78
ftwoy, high
31
cWn, an
<s'z,
official
cMh, red
tsou, to
'y
c/j}M^
leeks
32
go
'H
56
walk
.80
El
I
j/in^a
sound, tone
"^
-*-
isz, to arrive,
57
extreme
^
-^'
-^y-
<so/i,
leg
.81
hieh, a sheet, a
leaf
s/jm^
34
35
36
y
yif-
cMm, mortar
58
body
.82
f'^ng,
wind
59 o
C/JM, cart
.83
/ee, to fly
60
.84
ships
K'
"Sr
sheh, to eat
37
,
7n"
"^^
cfttM^
vessel
_/en,
38
Q
A;Mn, inferior or-
an hour, azure
run
.85
s/ieM,
head
62 63
der of nature
seh, colour
_^Ci
iseW; to
.86
shiang, scent
39
"gf^
!/Jll*
E
l=J
o /e, a
town
87
maa,
horse
40
fsa6
grass
64
j^oo^ twilight
kivilh.
bones
65 66
7|\
fsj'g^
to separate
.89
/cao, high
IHJ
.90
c
42
ii^
chdng, insects
li,
43 44
^'
# o -^^
shweh, blood
y^n, to walk, to act
67
.St. o cto,gold,metal
.91
68,
chang, long
.92
ift
lii
,.
33
193
li^h, to
cup
201
hwmig, yellow
208
^
S_
^K
cte; rat
194
kway,
devil
202
o ''l>
^i
shii, millet
209
joje/i,
nose
195
^
@L
nil, fish
203
M
"3^
'M/,, black
210
'SJ,
196
w6,
bird
204
cfe',
embroidery 211
I44|
/s'S;
the back
teeth
197
loOf brine
205 o hI,
206
mix, a toad
212^^1
213
^""S' dragon
198
Ibh, stag
ml
^2W,
tripod
^k
'ffiS"
kway,
tortoise
199
m^ft,
wheat
207 o
8^
^00;
drum
214
"fl o
200,
md, hemp
AEITHMETICAL FIGURES.
All arithmetical combinations are performed by 17 Cardinal iigures. In the subjoined
table, three different forms of numerical characters are given.
The
column represents the jj/am hand which serves for literary and' ordinary purposes. In the middle column wards are employed instead of figures. This class is used in bonds contracts etc., where it Is of importance to guard against alterations and fraud. The figures in the right column, written in a "running hand", are used by merchants and traders in
,
+ tS^+
l|
shihh
10
urh,
sail,
2
-j5
peh,
tsi^n
100
ll|
^
~Tj
1000
10,000
If
rAi-
^
-g
s'z,
4
5
van,
ee.
00,
loh,
100,000
1,000,000
chab*
c/im^ 10,000,000
10, 100 etc. are multiplied are placed at the top of the multiplicand.
ten
etc.,
are
figure.
Example
-f-
ten.
or 22.
34
JAPANESE
IN
(This
tyiJe
THE
KATA-KANA
chaeaCtee.
was cut
35
SANSCRIT
CONSONANTS.
Each couaonant
is
VOWELS.
The vowels
in the left row are uttered as initials or are placed before their consonants. The vowelsigns in the right division being medials and finals, coalesce with their consonants, and are respectively p.aced over, under, before and after the letters.
GUTTDBALS.
LABIALS.
ka
li.ha
pa
COALESCENT VOWELS.
pha
ba
blia
Ta follows
(
llie
consonant
3T
ga
^ T
gha
I'la
f. precedes
I
r
I
ma
SEMI-VOWELS.
follows
PALATALS.
^ U under
u
<^
cha
r
ch'ha
u
r
^
rJf
ra
la
r
I
<t.
j'ha
fia
va
FT
nl
c^l
..
..
CEREBEALS.
fa
DIPHTHONGS.
^
J^
srr
"^
e
=^
C
ai
over
tha
5r
sha
ai
da
sh'ha
follows
).
dba
na
DENTALS.
FT
ta
tlia
sa
ha
35
m
.
au
NASAL SOUNDS. Anusvcira and Anundsika,
isj
da
dha
na
^
This character peculiar to the Big -Veda has a, Bound which partakes of^andr. It stands for the cerebral da. When it represents the aspirate of this letter it is expressed by^gj {l/ia).
,
are substitutes for and ii. The auun&sika has its place above the letter or laterally wth viraraa
underneath.
;
and
}i
upadhra^niya
are strong final aspirates. The visdMTOfhich Is the substitute for s ancUe^s the only one in common use. The last twoTBgns bear also the common designation of ardhavisarga.
ADDITIONAL SIGNS. Virama (pause) is placet! under a final consonant and denotes the absence of the inhe,
denotes brevity,
rent short a. indicates the close of a sentence, ending in a vowel, a diphthong or a visarga. In poetry it denotes the half of a verse. At the end of a verse or a period this mark is doubled .|{. sX serves 1. as the sign of hiatus, 2. as sign of the elision of a aiter e and o, 3. as the sign of coalescence of two a. O is the 'Sign of abbreviation. The former sign r and -^ represent the letter r. is pronounced before the consonant (and the of which it is placed; semivowel ri) at the top the latter sign is placed under the consonant
I
Svarita or circumflex is put over the vowel, in connexion with these marks the numerals J and 3 serve as accents.
NUMEBALS.
and sounded
after
it.
H 1234567 890
?
t;
5*
36
SANSCRIT
similarity of shape occasions mistakes in correcting proofs; it may therefore be of compositors and readers of proofs to make use of the annexed numbers of reference.
The
is
37.
SANSCRIT
105
38
ay
TAMIL
The Tamil language was
It includes
is
two
earlier cultivated than the other members of the Dravidian family. dialects the (ancient) Shen -Tamil and the (modern) Kodun -Tamil. Tamil
spoken throughout the plain of the Carnatic, below the ghauts from Pulicat to cape Comorin, to the neighbourhood of Trivandrum; also in the northern and western part of Ceylon where in ancient times Tamilians established their settlements. This language has 12 vowels and 18 consonants. It is read from left to right.
40
The Tamil Alphabet being
sonant remains united with
its
syllabic,
word
is
diyisible in
vowel.
In punctuation the
full stop
employed.
The vowels, in their separate forms, are only used as initials. The following table shows their mode of coalition whith the consonants. The short a, as in Sanscrit, is not
expressed before a consonant.
41
42
CANARESE
Malabar
(carnataca).
coast.
TUis language, belonging to the Drftvidian family, is spoken throughout the plateau of Mysore, in some of the western districts of the Nizam territory, and in the district of Canara on the
43
GUJERATI
OR
GUZERATTEE.
,
This Alphabet is derived from the Sanscrit (Devauagari) characters, ftom which it principally differs in the omisaion of the connecting lines. Gujerati is spoken in the province of Gujerat (Guzerat) especially by the Parsee inhabitants, and is considered to be the mercantile language ofWestern India. In modem times various Gujerati publications have appeared in Bombay.
44
TELUGU
one of the branches of the Dravidian stock, is spokfin along the eastern coast of India from the neighbourhood of Pulicat to Chicacole. Inland it extends to the eastern boundary of the Maratha Country and Mysore, including within its range the ceded districts and Kurnool, the greater part of the territories of the Nizam, the Hyderabad Country and a portion of the Nagpore Country. This language is spoken by about 14 millions.
^
S%
3
<0
?;nga
CS cha
(ee)
2o
u
6
chha
to
1
(ee)
^
"^UiO
u (oo)
6 (66)
r
:
Kb
jha
3^
h
nya
t'a
6)
1^
ka
S
2
2
I
t'ha
^J kha
d'a
ga
d'ha
n'a(hard)
CUJ gha
gQ
45
BENGALI.
based on the Sevanagari character. In some instances the circular shape has been altered into an angular form, in others the form has been entirely changed. The Bengali language is less mixed than the neighbouring idioms.
This Alphabet
is
VOWELS.
. .
46
JAVANESE
ORDINARY LETTERS
Ordln.
INITIAL LETTERS
Ordin.
Form
Fasangans
Sound
Form
Fasangans
Sound
(Uin
-jin
.ha
.
ainn
Na
(K1
d
TO
nk
Tya.
.
aoi
.tya
(KV
Ka
Ta
(a'
,
in(Kin
(ki,'
.ra
i^
or
tim,
OA
.
sa
(10
^
(151,
da
,ta
.
(Ui
pa
(ism
Nya.
(lOJl
.
(KJI
Ga
(a
oaii
o
.la
-Jl
^
UNCONNECTED VOWELS,
pa
ga.
(U
(Ul
CT
a^
c,
CJ
(IK
(IIUI
ADDITIONAL CONSONANTS.
mill"
letters,
a (Sastrosworo) as
dnm
(J1
nya
.ma
.
there are no oonaonants in the Javanese Alphabet, which fully express these sounds.
am
Tfri
ICTl
ga
(KIT
Cha
fa
L'hd
.ba
cci'
(ui
NUMERALS.
.ta
03'
Ilk
za
j ze
ghain
(b'
nga
m
im
gha
Pa-tyere', re
ig
ll^jl
Qj
CL,
(I'Ul
(L\
aiui
Ngd-letet, 16
47
VOWELS
Form
48
LIGATURES.
The following
ligatures consist of the (Vowel-) sings Suku, Tyohro, Keret
The
diacritical
49
TIBETAN
Form
sss
50
cc
--3
"TS
--s
'TIS
pW
&C
t<
>^
<
o
rr
fe?
J
n
h
LP. IP
IP'.l5>'r>u-
t-00Ck
<-<^"^MMp^^^
i/i^o0'<
03
J3
ee_^
U^
OS =3^3^=3
aS,'*.'^
'2^'^
H
uuniasQ ui su
OS (U
.rt
<^-
-i><
fee
,=3
.a
Ph
1^
<r
<-
1/
'
->'
I:
-t
"-t
<4>
5^
-t
>
^ ^
'J'
^.
"(i^
Cp
?p
<
< H
51
NH
to
H d 3 mo " Wo" gS ^ 5 h
fe
fl BO
5
W
-.s
'B
"^
5^
ft
ja
J
CO
9 h
<
g..
boo
5 Is
fl S SCO 73
-a .p
fi,
W OS
Q}
u B b
sere
khergen
+*
4 1
Of
J3-S
EH eScfl
B 3
^
<3
OJ
=i
(13
=>
-^
<^
00
(3 '(3
(^^
(^ '(^
(^^ C?^
c^(^4^ ^*-(^(^<^<?a
C5
cp(b(3(^ ?^(?'C^(^c^cB;t
<S(3'(3(r^^'^^^^
52
MONGOLIAN
CONSONANTS
53
ARMENIAN
Form
54
GEORGIAN.
The Georgian language
Mkhedruli
(or rather
is
The
called
KhutSuri
printing.
(i. e
sacerdotal).
The
character
MkhedruU
and
55
GREEK
Form
56
GEEEK LIGATURES
These contractions are peculiar
AifD
ABBREVIATIONS.
works.
in
modern typography.
eivai
av a%
6/K,
el
V^
ell
>?
Cf4
av dno p
ag
It
e->^
cv
elatTOV
ev
oUi
ami
cum^
G
av avrov
avrvj
ft
71 EV
*v
f ya
7 ya
ya()
J=
-ye
rr rr
ys
ysi
yi
%
yr,
ysX
yeU. ytv
yf()
rv
yi^
yt
^
<yv
yiverai
yv
yo
y(j
y>
ryU
yv
yco
yd)
f^^
m
(J^
dsv
(Jfl Jior
dif
SI
1
57
ROMAIC
The Alphabet
(J
OR
MODERN GREEK.
which are the same
as in ancient Greek. S,
Aa, Bp, ry, A5, Es, ZS, Ht], 0^, It, Kx, AX,-M(jl, Nv, O 0, n TT, P p, 2 (final ?), T t, Y u, $ 9, X x, ^ 4^, 2
The Towels
are a, &,
r],
k,
i,
u, u
and
lu.
PRONUNCIATION.
A B
a (Alpha) short or long as in papa. P (Vita) is represented by 6A or o. In sound it differs slightly from the English v the mouth being somewhat rounded in the articulation of the Bomaic letter.
,
of ecu, Eu, ir)u sounds like before a vowel, or the soft and liquid letters p, y ^ '^j ^> [^ '^j Pf:t
01 is like ee
and
o'j
like 00 in pooeZ.
The diaeresis over the second vowel of diphthongs restores to each vowel its original sound; at, Qiu, si, sO are pronounced separately a-i, cc-u &c.
,
Y (Gamma) is an aspirate of g in go. In yy the nret gamma becomes naaal; oeyysXq?, for instance, is pronounced aiig-ye-los. It receives the same sound before the palatals x ^ and y^ as ocva-piT] (a-nang-ki). Before e i and u it is like y in yes. To produce the sound of our g in yrey^ the Modem Greeks use I'x as I'xpiixctp. ((xra/tam).
5 (Delta) is aspirated as ^A in e (Epsilon) as the e in pet.
^/te.
Z C e a
I
(Zita) like
3.
Ziot) (zo-I).
C2%;7a; llke (A in thick. t Ciota^ like i in machine when t is placed under the vowels as in a iq ip or by the side of capital
The Bomaic or Modern Greek admits like the ancient language two marks over initial vowels, namely the Smooth breathing Spirilus lenis ('), which is not noticed in reading, and the Rough breathing Spiritus asper ('), which in classical Greek takes the sound of our A, but is not audible in the modern language. The p, as an initial, is invariably marked with the rough breathing. In double p the first has the smooth and the second the rough
breathing.
stops are,
*
TEXetct, full
stop (),
vowels (Ai, Hi, il\) it is not sounded and only lengthens the principal vowel. This i is known
as the Iota subacriptum.
colon
uTioaTiYp^T)
or
{)7co8iffToX7)
comma
(,)
and
UTipi^Iov
spuiTi^asiu^
sign of inter-
K A
X (Kappa) like our k. It is softened after the nasal 7 hence ctYxXid is pronounced anglid. X (Lamvda) like I in long. sound of Hi in William.
|JL
Before
it
has the
(Mi) like m. Placed before*:, these two letters acquire the sound of b (jLTtnpoOtt (barooH). This combination of pm takes the sound of b in words received from foreign languages, but in compound Bomaic words, each letter retains its original pronunciation. Example [jL7k'Jp>j(i.ct (empee -rev -ma).
The mark of exclamation (I) is rogation (;) rarely used. To these signs must be added the apostrophe and the diaeresis. The former (') denotes the elision of one or more vowels. E. g. diC Epieva, d' Tjfic instead of aico etc. This elision of vowels' occurs even before consonants as 'an' ih instead of ccjCo to. In xav (instead of xal ccv) and xdvdvcci; (instead the mark (') denotes the coof kal av %y(i<i) etc alescence of vowels (xpdaiO and is called coronis. This mark is often used in contractions as [jlo-)xo,
'|iav
-0
y_i^i-
Placed before t, the two letters coalesce in the sound of d, which is articulated somewhat harder than the 5. For example UTi('/Ctut (diwani). vtC hAve conjointly the sound
V (Ni) is n.
E.
of j; as v-^c((jLi (Jami), When the letters v and form part of two syllables in a compound word, they retain their natural sound of nt. For example Before the vowel the v is evTifjLOc (en-timos).
i
prevents the union of diphthongs. sounds bo-ij-an-jis. Another mark of separation is the diastole (,), which resembles the comma, and is used to distinguish the pronoun ?, ti and the adverb to, it Irom the conjunction Sti and the adverb t6~s.
diaeresis
g.
\j.Tzrjictyx^riz
The
vititiu (n^ipto).
ACCENTS.
,
5 (^i) is
X.
in dot.
(Omikron) like
n
P
1
(Pi) like p. (Ho) like r in rod. If doublad, ithasasharper sound. a (Sigma) like in so. Before B, F, A, Z, A, M, N, V and in the proclitics (such as Toyi; to?) before the same consonants, the Sigma is sounded
Tz
generally like c/j, as TCsXeTri)? (chelepis). with tC are mostly of foreign origin.
Words
TpuffXiov
indicated by three accents namely the circumfiex (icspitJiutoftivT)) ' or long accent, the acute (oYsia)' ox sharp accent, and the grave (popsTa)' or heavy accent in final syllables. Some monosyllabic words, being unaccented, are called atona. The circumflex can only be placed on the ultimate and penultimate syllable. When the vowel of a final syllable is long, tbe penultimate vowel cannot take the circumflex. A. word is termed perispom.enon, when it has the circumflex on its last syllable or if it is a monosyllable and is marked with this accent. When the circumflex occurs over the penult, the word is properispomenon.
The tone
is
T
<b
'J
For example
(trielion).
German
or Scotch ch.
The Acute takes its place in the penultimate and ante -penultimate syllable. Also on the final syllable at the end of a period, or when an enclitic follows (i, e, a word like uoO, [loi, (jle which throws its accent on the antecedent).
a, 0, Uj it is
W
Q
01
'^
(Psi) like
ps in
^ipsy.
0.
(u
(Omega)
(a).
is
the long
The following
and ou
are diphthongs ai, ao, st, eu, t/j, Ai sounds like c in ethics. The y
When the final syllable is long, the acute cannot revert to the ante -penultimate. When the acute occurs in a monosyllable or in a final syllable, the word is called oxytononj the penultimate, thus accented, is cailed paroxytonon; and the ante -penultimate with the acute is proparoxytonon.
58
OLD-SLAVONIC
(CYRILLIC).
Based on the most ancient MSS, and cut under the direction of the I. B. Aulic Councillor Dr. Paul Jos. Schafahik t the type- factory of Gottlieb Haase Sohme in Prague.
59
GLAGOLITIC.
According
to ancient
JISS
(sec.
XI XII)
of Gottlieb
designed by Dr. Paul Jos. Schafarjk, cut at the type-factory Haase Sohke in Prague.
Form
60
CROATO GLAGOLITIC.
Designed from Croatian
MSS and
Paul
factory of
in Prague.
Form
iTi
Name
Num:
Value
value
61
RUSSIAN
Form
Straight
Italic
Name
Value
Observations
A
B
B r
E
at
e
5K
62
RUSSIAN
Observations
attended by i, .1 final, sounds very hard. accented, sounds like the oinjTo. When unaccented it is pronounced like the a in
far.
CURRENT HAND
t^ jt
oc Ob
mm y
1/
Y y
like tz in Fritz.
T &^
S &
n e
J' t
B
r
B
r
X X XX
4
"r
-a.
ordinarily like ch in church. In 4to (what) and before n it takes the sound oish. cousists of the sounds oish-ch. notion of its pronunciation may be formed by a connected articulation of the letters sh-chi in the
A ^ ^^
e e
aic
e
H{
da iMy r
%
3
3 3
/ .% 7i M U
H
I
H
i
sound.
is
J ^
Jb
ZJL
words where
m Ma
^ 6
3
in m tu mm III m Of mm
fi(
bl
softens the
,
preceding consonant and adds to it the sound of ye, such as is heard in theFrench pronunciation of Charlemagne. In the middle of a word, mostly between two consonants, it is uttered with a slight sound of ee. Bi is identical with the Polish ^, and somewhat like the English we, when rapidly
articulated.
b
Tb
fJL
n
Ji
tA,
K 1
n a
^
cr
j(k
%M
n
H,
M
H
M
H
WW
9L
Jlo
a
10
/o
ji
K)k)
o o
e e e e 31 n as an initial like yai. of this diphthong is also sounded in the middle \ 1) P P .ft' of a syllable after n, but is scarcely audible after the e c C c other consonants. 3 This reversed e is the initial of words in Latin words as AHHHCaa'B, Hannibal. 2) c commencing with the sound ai. It occurs in before e, i, y, sounding like the German z or foreign words in which, it replaces oe. tz, is expressed by b, as I^HqepoB'B, and before
The y
J,
c r
sounds like etc. In foreign words it is similar to the French . H when accented, sounds like ja in yard. In
a, u, uhy k, as Ko.l.ieria. 3) x is expressed by KC, as AjeKClH (Alexius). 4) / and the German v are changed into <&, as j'pnApiix'B
sounds ye. After pronounced like e in met. As a final letter it takes the sound of ya in yard. e represents the same Greek letter but is pronounced like F. In modern derivations from the Greek it is replaced by F. Y only occurs in Greek words. At the beginning of a word or after a consonant it sounds like ee, and after a vowel like v. The letters h, e, x,f, do not occur in the Russian alphabet. They are represented as follows: 1) h is replaced by r, as in TaMSypri.
initial syllables it
it is
unaccented consonants
Frederick.
DIPHTHONGS.
Proper diphthongs are only formed .by the h following a vowel; This letter receives in such a casS a
characteristic sign at the top
(fi).
aii efi
in
tH
are
ACCENTS.
The stress of an accented vowel is indicated by the acute (') and the grave (\). The former denotes the raising, the latter the depression of the tone. The accents are only then marked iu writing, when corresponding forms are to be distinguished from one another. They are placed over the following vowels
/fojniMz-jr,
or
it is
aenioyu'BaAv.
63
.
SERVIAN.
in Iieipzio.)
ILLYHIAN.
Nr. I represents the "organic" orthography now and used in Boman-Catholic publications Nrs. in are to some extent current in Slavonia,
;
This language is divided into the dialects of the Herzegovina, of Bessava and Syimia. The Servians use the
Slavonic (Cyrillic), the Croats and Wends the characters.
Boman
11.
Cyrillic
Latin
Pronunciation
a
ni.
a
Pronunciation
A
B B
r
a 6 B
r
A
B V G D E
b
V
b
c
b
c
b
cz
The Vowels
Italian.
a, o, u,
i,
e sound as in German or
ch
CS
cb
es
A
^
E
3
d
dy, Hungarian gy
d
dj
d
dj
d
dy
e
i
all
gutturals.
final letter
initial.
I
rarely
is a
%
e
e
m
H
I
e
j
e
in
e e
f
Its
m
3
Z
Z
I
z
z
i
French
e
f
e
f
is lilie
ye
it
Z
i
govina
H
i
g
gj
g
gj
g gy
pronunciation
when
not
it
lengthened, otherwise
y y
h
i
h
i
h
i
sounds
with
like
ee combined
K
L
Lj
k
1
k
1
A M H
H>
k
I
k
1
k
I
A M
H
H.
ye, as is heard in see yet. Before i, like y In the Syrmian in ye. dialect it varies between
ayandee.
dialect
it
In
theRessava
(in
Ji> Jb
Ij
lj
lj
ly
almost invariably
M m
N
Nj
m
n
m
n
Ital.
m
n
nj
m
n
sounds
This e
ie.
like
is
ay
nay).
n
nj
andFr.
ng
nj
ny
c
is like
ts in lots.
c and
tj
almost
like ts.
n
P
C
P
r
s
P
r
n
p
c
The
difference
between
is,
p
r
s
t
p
r
s
r
s s
I
these spellings
that
R
S
ss sz
sh
t
sc
t
and
tj
only in derived
words.
I
lj
b
X n
ch
u V
z
t\
c
dj
like j in jar.
"ly.
'j
u
V
z
u
V
z
and gj are
jar.
nearly
y y
X n
U
F
u
f
like j in
lj
like like
Hi
in
William.
H
C
h
Is
nj
ni in opinion.
dz
z
dx ex
ds
s like sh.
mm
C
s
S6
1
1(5
like s in
measure.
jar.
ch sh
shell
hardening suffix
dz
like j in
mm
bl
bi
r has the power both of a consonant and a vowel. As a consonant it sounds as in other languages. As
a vowel
it
is
pronounced
ee, French
Some
spell
softening suffix
ar.
others
% e
K)
again write
u
e
H)
Je je e Je
je
ie
ye, ie
ye
yfl
Accents used
Icnglh
(')
;
in Servian
acute
(>);
sign of
Ju ju
Ja
,ja
H e
a
e
ya
j
Dz dz Th th
th
64
WALLACHIAN
Form
Name
65
POLISH
a
like
66
SORBIAN
TliB vowels are:
in e.
OR
i.
WENDISH OF LUSATIA.
The union of a
.mil
3)
h with e; w with a O u. The consonants are divided 1) into Labials w, f, V, b, p, m. 2) Palatals and Linguals n, 1, r. Dentals d, t, (5. 4) Sibilants z Z, s , c c. 5) Gutturals h ch (g) k. With regard to tlieir articulation these consonants are divided into broad and slender sounds, accordThe semi-consonant
j
is
a, o, u, y, e,
coalesce
connected with i;
Broad sounds: w, w, b,
Slender sounds:
Between these
letters nine
b, z, z, d, dz, dz, h, g.
s, s, t, c,
(5,
f,
v, p, p,
intermediates
talte their
place:
m,
,
ii'i,
n, n,
1', 1, i,
r,
r.
and 32 consonants.
i',z,
w, w
(f,
v) b,
b',
p,p, m,
n,
ii, }, 1, (l'), i
z,s,
s,
e,
o,
ts,h, ch, g,
In
k.
\Yith a \o\vel to for.m
a syllable, a distinction
is
made
between
hard soft
be observed.
declension, comparison
e and
follow a
hard
j vv
may he succeeded by
either
or
i.
In
Soft,
b'
ji
in
r z s c
d^
c.
Hard,
r z
d dz
t c
(h ch g k).
ts.
Neutral,
The
letters
b p
n ds
qu
and x,
in
words of foreign
kw
in hut
w
is
b p
lit
differ
in softness of sound.
to soften the
Before e
preceding
consonants.
I sounds like V.
it
is
1,
For instance
colo.
dz dz
z
as
in
E.xaniple
na
iidzy.
like in
z as
f.
i.
zolty.
s like
sh,
f.
i.
saty, sery.
in churn,
f.
i.
like
ts, as
like
cybac.
c nearly
ds, ts
ch
f.
cern.
in
c the sharpest
like ts,
sibilant like
i.
tch
wretch,
f.
i.
corny.
at
ch
is
like
c before a, O, u, especially
instance
j like
chory.
yes.
in
s like z.
w like
V.
as the vowels in
.
are
here true.
,
acute
grave
or long.
After
c z
it
is
6 deep nearly
e
like
like u.
ea
in
dear.
deep as ea in dearth.
67
CZECHIAN
OR
BOHEMIAN.
u
Boman.
abcdefghchijklmnoprstuvyz aeioiiy
C
D'
d'
Gs
r-
tit'
German.
abcbcf9l)^ijflmnoprftuoi)j
q
and
de'idup u
kv
as
qu
is
generally replaced by
kvitance
(rcccipl)-
Some
writer^ use
for
and
ou
for
au.
u y
and
fi
are long
like
y, as
i
jaro
(pr.
yaro)
springtime,
ii,
short.
n
o
before
i,*or
when marked
sounds
like
ni
in
opinion.
as in of. as in
is
h ch k
c c d'
j
f s t z are
soft
and
called inJednite
door.
o
(in
bdfglmnp
consonants.
stvzare
ou
pole) with
as s (in t
(in
their
po,
poubrati (po-u-bra-ti).
German type
i
ff,
and as a
final, g) like
sh
in fish.
in
papa,
before
i, or
when marked
in
father.
like ts, as
tyoo-le-pan)
luhp.
necky
(nets-kii)
tray.
u
ii
as in
put.
ft
like
ch
is
in
i i
church.
or
and
like
long as in blue.
in the
before
French pure.
(d)
sounded dy.
This consonantal
is
softly
z as in English but.
7.
blended with
d, as div or
diw
(pronounced
like s in
measure.
dyiv).
e e
like like
in
den.
1)
It
ORTHOEPIC RULES.
The vowels with
the long accent (') should not
in late.
in
S as
ye
m,
a
yet.
be lengthened
2)
to e.\cess.
century.
like
z, z,
cy
in
late followed by
This final
It
in
yet
as
woley
3)
The consonant
is
(call thou).
consonant,
lable
not pronounced, as
in
jscm. When
the j
a syl-
g
h
as in
garnet.
ending
vowel precedes,
becomes
audible.
word
what
like
in
house. At
the
end of a syllable
it
4)
like
ch and
loch.
is
some-
ch
in the Scotch
5) Prepositions
ch
i
i
like
ch
in
the Scotch
word loch,
as
chleb
' (bread).
such as k, s, V, z, although standing by themselves, do not form a syllable, hut are sounded together with
the first syllable of the nctt word, for instance
k tobe
as in grin.
like
ee
in
green.
These unconnected propositions cannot he placed by themselves at Ibe end of a line or a page.
B naini.
68
6)
The
auxiliary verb,
ilic
jsem,
ilie
jsi,
jest-jsme,
to ascertain the
component
syllables.
In this language
jste, jsou,
conjuncu'onal particles
bych, bys,
pronouns
blended
by,
se
,
bychom,
in
reflcciive
most syllables end in vowels, The following circumstances must be noticed in applying this rule,
1)
si allacJiocl
an aclive
|iarticiple, are
A
a
togeiher
tween
vowel and
The same
is
nouns or adjectives. 7) The soft consonants must bo carefully disting:uished in articulation from the indefinites, and the i
i
a vowel, only
yet sk,
e must properly coalesce with the latter. 8) The sibilants o s z differ from each other as well as from c s z. 9) h is never mute. Example hrom (thunder) in which the h sounds as the h in the Scotch pronunciation of
10)
sk, st, ^t are not separated but join the next, syllable. In such mstances the preceding syllable is often without a vowef, while 1 or r forms the medial consonant.
Example, hrn-cif.
3) 1,
which.
The accent always rests on the first syllable, as be-zim, pri-nesu. The accented syllable may at the same lime be lengthened, as sna-zim, kra-sa.
forms an exception.
st, st
annexed
to the syl-
lable
which follows.
DIVISION OF SYLLABLES.
In
to the
sve-tlo, han-li-vy.
4)
diflicult
to
pronounce, owing
it
Compound words
parts, as
complication of consonants,
is
of importance
component
ou-voz, na-dvo-H.
HUNGARIAN.
bet.
The Hungarian language comprises 31 sonants which are expressed by Owing to the combinations of some letters the Alphabet is formed as
the
Roman
Alpha-
follows:
abcsczdefggyhijkllymnnyooprssz
t
ty
ii
V z
zs.
vowels d
as in
German.
With
The combinations
in spelling.
gy
ly
ny
*
cs sounds like ch as kocsi.
.
cz
a
1)
)i
ts as
czukor.
.
:
gy
ly
i
"
ny
:
ni in
"
sz ty
s as szag.
ti in
II
zs
1)
in the
'
With regard
j
to the consonants is to
is
pronounced
like
in yes,
and
The
letters c
ch q
'
y does not represent an independent sound, but simply helps to soften the antecedent letter. Nevertheless in Old-Hungari^n words y and ch are employed as independent letters.
lijfe i
in it,
and ch as
in church.
The compounds
this
and cz are often denoted by tS and tz. Modern Orthography spelling except in words where the t is radical, as bardtsdg (not baracsag).
cs
69
LETTISH.
The Lets have adopted
the following 22 letters of the
German Alphabet,
abcbegnj.JIiinoprfStuwj.
The c and b are only used in combination with f to express the sounds of (c^ and fc^). moreover serves to lengthen the vowels. The German consonants ^ The b never f occur in Lettish. Nor are o and ii in use. The q y ^ are represented by flu, U, i. By means of the 22 characters the following 34 simple sounds of the I^ettish language
\) (?)
are formed.
obbibegs@ji!l^ttgmmiu3?op^3JrrSi
f
bf fc^
bf(^
(s) fdj
tfc^
ft)
iDJ
i.
u are short.
When
A
t
a
The
accented
is
o(;
u
mark
to distinguish the
it
and
o.
is
CONSONANTS.
The following
y;
letters
sounds as
U,
and
have the English sound, bblmnlJrt. The j is a consonant like our like t6. The labials 6 m ^ lU may be followed by the modifying j,
which
after
it.
i-
to ring
letter.
tnx
are virgulated as
i=,
j.
g like the German { before e and t; g i hard like k iri Jcing, f as c in come,
f,
f
is
like
before a
U.
cut.
f.
s.
j.
is
is
our
bf
fd^
The
virgnla of
and
fd;
does not
soft
and
the latter
is
French^
in
jour.
and
bfd^ like
in gentle.
syllable or in
two
syllables,
must be
is
The n
its
someis
by the g and t. It being assimilated with these that in the English words sing, sink (not as in tingle, tinkle).
sound
{
like
When
and
are
marked
It
is
is
70
GERMAN
%
b
31
ci
^ ^
t
(3^
ii
ff
S^
'J
3 S
k
1
J-
3K
tn
71
DANISH
1
a
72
SWEDISH.
The Alphabet
consists of the following
28
letters,
Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hli li Jj Kk LI Mm Nn Oo 6. Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Xx Yy Zz Aa Aa
PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS.
The vowels a o u d are hard and e i y & 6 German or Italian, a is like a in bare, a like o
,
are soft.
in tone.
like ai in
inflections, derivations
syllable, Ex: ande and compounds, e sounds the next syllable of the same word is a consonant,
(eternal). 2) at the
many monosyllables, as elg (elk). These rules when it constitutes a syllable by itself, or at the end of a word also before the radical m, in nouns and adjectives; in all derivatives of words ending in o; before x and in various other forms of words. 2) o Ijas
as efter (after). 2) before^' as nej (no). 3) in
1)
nearly as in move,
final /,
m np r
sound
t.
is
is
sharper
(for).
in this language.
CONSONANTS.
b retains
C before
its
'
ordinary sound.
like
2/
in yes. Aiter
fmnp the j
like the
is elea,Tly
k stands for Jck. Before h it ojlly occurs in the Swedish word Och (pronounced ock). Before the soft vowels it k
like
final
somewhat
German
vowels
eh.
same
it
d sounds
silent.
our d.
Before
like n.
t like f.
As a
it is
rules as g.
is like
2) before the
soft
final after
n almost
Before J
our ch.
mute.
like
t.
word
like v.
before j
is
In the middle of a word before v of the same syllable, also after I and r, it is mute
m
'
as in English.
The
final
sounds like
two
m in those
radical
worHs which, on
f and
v of
their
original
(=
driv-ved).
g
,
1) as in i
and
e in a sharp
nounced as
t
sh.
same
soft
syllable. 2) like
,
y
I
and
Ex ge (like
:
it,
like schone,
ya).
tions.
Of
3) like
ck
wheh a
and
after a
fon as
is
in
it
borrowed.
like ks.
5) before J it is
X
Z
is
is
mute.
is
pronounced
like
s.
73
ANGLO-SAXON.
The Anglo-Saxon language developed
the
itself
from
Low-German (Old-Saxon)
was
cul-
the
in writing, and obtained currency through agency of laws and translations. In the eleventh century, with the overthrow of the Saxon dynasty and the commencement of the Norman rule French became the language of the court and of judicial pro,
The knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language was confined to the dependent classes and to the residents of convents. In the thirteenth century, when this idiom once more became popular, it had received such an amount of foreign elements, and had lost so
ceedings.
many
it
modern
Aa
a e
in
PRONUNCIATION.
i
o u have German or
the
the
same sound
as
Italian.
y
SB
has
lish.
same
force
as in
Eng-
sounds as a
in
that.
the following
peculiarities of pronunciation,
in all instances hard like k.
cw
stands for
kw.
a final like v.
pronounced
like-
is
always
the
5
modern g
in
go. Qccasionally
of g. of
occurs instead
yes.
eg
Ij,
is
is
As
a final
sonant ch.
it
hw
is 1,
answers
also
to the
English
wh. h
n, I.
1.
w
J>
<!r
th
in
thick.
is
the initial
a syllable.
^
-j5
and
i stands
oMe.
its
The accent
{')
length. In
words of equal spelling this accent points out the For instance ac difference of sound and meaning. The elision of m and n is indi(but, eke) ac (ooli).
cated by a short line
(-)
letter.
74
GOTHIC
Form
75
RUNES
Form
Name
Value
76