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EARTH SCIENCE - The expansion of the universe is supported by the

observation that galaxies are receding from us.
Lesson 1.1: The Big Bang Theory - The high amount of light elements like
Hydrogen (H), Helium (He) and Lithium (Li).
- The Big Bang Theory is a cosmological model These elements were formed through the
that explains how the universe began. fusion of protons and neutrons immediately
- It suggests that the universe started its after the Big Bang.
expansion about 13.8 billion years ago. - The detection of the cosmic microwave
- The concept of the big bang was not a literal background (CMB) radiation which is the
explosion of something leading to the creation residue or heat leftover from the Big Bang.
of the universe.
PROPONENTS OF THE BIG BANG THEORY
BIG BANG THEORY AND THE BREAD-RAISIN
MODEL - Georges Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaître
was the first proponent of the theory. He
suggested the idea of the expanding universe
- Edwin Powell Hubble who established the
​Hubble’s law ​which provided evidence that
the universe was not static but expanding.
- Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered
that microwaves with wavelengths of about 7
centimeters were present in space.
- These waves were referred to as the cosmic
microwave background (CMB) radiation.
- The bread represents the universe; while
raisins are galaxies. DRAWBACKS OF THE BIG BANG THEORY
- The galaxies, represented by dots, are not
expanding. - It failed to explain how the universe was
- Distances in relation to other galaxies just created.
increase because of the expanding universe. - It just explains how it evolved and not where it
- In the big bang theory, matter dilutes as the originated.
universe expands - It also failed to explain how the galaxies
formed.
SINGULARITY KEY POINTS

- The universe started as a “​singularity​” - an - Big bang theory suggests that the universe
area predicted to be in the core of a black hole started as a “singularity” - an area predicted
with very high temperature and density. to be in the core of a black hole with very high
- The intense heat resulted in the formation of temperature and density.
matter and antimatter particles that were - Proponents of the idea of an expanding
destroyed every time they collided with each universe are Georges Henri Joseph
other. Edouard Lemaître, Edwin Powell Hubble,
Arno Penzias ​and​Robert Wilson.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS - Hubble’s law states that the relationship of
the velocities of distant objects in the universe
- Nucleosynthesis​ is the formation of elements, is directly proportional to their distance from
such as Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He). Earth.
- Presence of these elements led to the - The big bang theory failed to explain how the
formation of stars and galaxies. universe was created.
- The presence of stars led to the formation of
other cosmic bodies such as planets, comets,
and asteroids.

EVIDENCES THAT SUPPORT THE BIG BANG

THEORY
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LESSON 1.2: STEADY STATE THEORY AND - Then, it will expand again once it approaches
OSCILLATING UNIVERSE THEORY the point of singularity.

THE STEADY STATE THEORY THE BIG CRUNCH

- The steady state theory is another view that - The oscillating universe is a combination of big
proposes that the universe has always been crunch and big bang.
expanding. - Big crunch occurs when the universe expands
- As the universe expands, new stars and and eventually reverses, then collapses
galaxies are formed at the same rate that old causing the formation of a singularity.
ones become unobservable due to distance - Singularity result to a big bang and the birth of
and recession velocity. a new universe.
- Despite the continuous expansion, the - Once the universe reverses and attains the
average density of the universe remains the point of singularity, another universe will be
same; hence, the name steady state. born.
- In the steady state theory, matter is constantly -
created as the universe expands. PROPONENTS OF THE OSCILLATING UNIVERSE
THEORY
THE UNIVERSE ACCORDING TO THE STEADY
STATE THEORY - Richard Tolman, a Caltech professor,
proposed it.
- Has no beginning and has no end. - Tolman called the birth of another universe as
- Has always been here and will always be the big bounce.
present.
- Always looks the same in any time and space. DRAWBACKS OF THE OSCILLATING UNIVERSE
- Creates new matter as it continuously THEORY
expands.
- The suggestion that the universe would
PROPONENTS OF THE STEADY STATE THEORY collapse on its own after it reached its full
expansion violates some current laws of
- Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred physics, such as the postulated existence of
Hoyle proposed the steady state theory in dark energy.
1948. - The currently postulated end of the universe is
by big freeze or heat death.
DRAWBACKS OF THE STEADY STATE THEORY KEY POINTS
- Both the steady state theory and big bang
- It is not parallel with the law of conservation of theory suggest that the universe is expanding.
energy and mass. - Steady state theory proposes that as the
- The discovery of cosmic microwave universe continuously expands, its average
background (CMB) radiation significantly density remains constant.
supported the explanations given by the big - It was proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas
bang theory and led many scientists to reject Gold, and Fred Hoyle in 1948.
the steady state theory in 1965. - Steady state theory violates the law of
- Recent findings reject the idea that cosmic conservation of mass and energy.
radiation was a result of a supernova. - The oscillating universe theory discusses that
- It has been proven that radiation is equal in the universe is expanding and will contract
any direction of the universe and could not once all the energy after the big bang has
have resulted from supernovae. been used up, only to expand again once it
approaches the point of singularity.
OSCILLATING UNIVERSE THEORY - Richard Tolman is the proponent of oscillating
universe theory.
- Oscillating Universe theory, also known as - Oscillating universe theory violates current
pulsating theory, proposes that the universe laws of physics such as the postulated
is expanding and will contract once all the existence of dark matter.
energy after the big bang has been used up.
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LESSON 1.3: THE NEBULAR THEORY DRAWBACKS OF THE NEBULAR THEORY

- Particles surrounding Saturn repel each other
- According to the Nebular Theory, the solar which is contrary to the assumption that dust
system originated from a nebula. particles will be attached to each other forming
- It is the widely accepted view about the a planet.
formation of the solar system some 4.5 billion - It does not follow the law of angular
years ago. momentum because if the nebular theory is
- A nebula is defined by NASA as a giant cloud correct then the sun should be spinning at a
of gas and dust in space. higher rate than the others.
- This interstellar cloud of dust contains - It did not consider Uranus and Venus, which
hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases. rotate in a clockwise direction while other
planets rotate in a counterclockwise direction.
MAJOR STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF THE
SOLAR SYSTEM KEY POINTS
- The formation of the solar system from a
nebula occurs in three major steps: (1) cloud - Nebular Theory, the solar system originated
collapse, (2) formation of protoplanetary from a nebula.
disk, and (3) growth of planets. - Nebula is a giant cloud of gas and dust in
space.
Step 1: Cloud Collapse - Nebular theory proposes that the solar system
- Hypothetically, a shockwave from a supernova was formed through three major steps: cloud
or the effect of a passing star may cause a ​collapse, formation of protoplanetary disk
cloud collapse. and ​growth of planets​.
- The collapse at the center of the cloud due to - Terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth,
gravity occurs when gas pressure becomes Mars) are closer to the sun and have higher
insufficient to support the mass of the cloud. metallic and silicate compounds. Jovian
- The collapsed cloud of interstellar gas and planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
dust results in a smaller radius which means it are farther from the sun where the lower
will spin faster. temperature allows gas to condense.
- Nebular theory was proposed by Emanuel
Step 2: Formation of Protoplanetary Disk Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and
- Metals and silicates could exist near the sun Pierre-Simon Laplace.
because these compounds have higher - The nebular theory is weakened by attributes
boiling points. of Saturn, the sun, Uranus, and Venus.
- As a result, terrestrial planets were eventually
formed containing high concentrations of these
compounds.
- The terrestrial planets could not grow in huge
diameter because of the limited reserve of
metallic elements in the solar nebula.

Step 3: Growth of Planets

- Dust and grains surrounding the sun
eventually formed clumps. These clumps then
accreted forming planetesimals.
- Planetesimal is a small celestial body that
once collides together, it tends to fuse to form
the planets of the solar system.

PROPONENTS OF THE NEBULAR THEORY

- Emanuel Swedenborg
- Immanuel Kant
- Pierre-Simon Laplace
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- LESSON 1.4: ENCOUNTER THEORY - One problem of the tidal theory is that the hot
material from either star cannot contract.
- The Encounter Theory proposes that the - Thus, planets will not form.
planets were formed from the material ejected
from the Sun during an encounter with another KEY POINTS
celestial object, such as another star. - The encounter theory proposes that the
planets formed from the material ejected from
PLANETESIMAL THEORY the sun during an encounter with another
- Planetesimal Theory​, is a form of encounter celestial object.
theory. - It has several forms, including the
- It proposes that a passing star termed as an planetesimal theory and the tidal theory.
intruding star nearly collided with the - The ​planetesimal theory describes Earth
protosun. starting from a solid mass smaller than its
- The massive gravitational pull of the intruding present size. It was proposed by Thomas
star causes the protosun to eject filaments of Chrowder Chamberlin​ and Forest Ray
material which then condensed into Moulton.
planetesimals. - The planetary theory is no longer accepted
- This theory describes how Earth started from a due to the fact that hot material from the sun
solid mass smaller than its present size. will expand and dissipate rather than contract.
- The ​tidal theory proposes that the hot gas from
PROPONENTS OF THE PLANETESIMAL THEORY the passing star condensed into planets
- Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin proposed instead of condensing into planetesimals. It
that accretion of minute solid particles created was proposed by James Jeans and Harold
planets and their moons rather than by Jeffreys.
gaseous or liquid material condensation. - One problem of the tidal theory is that the hot
- Forest Ray Moulton provided the material from either star cannot contract so
mathematical calculations to Chamberlin’s planets will not form.
idea.
LESSON 2.1: THE ORIGIN OF PLANET EARTH
DRAWBACKS OF THE PLANETESIMAL THEORY
- Planetesimal theory is no longer accepted ACCRETION THEORY
today due to the fact that hot material from the
sun expands and dissipates rather than - One of the leading theories for the formation of
contracts. planet Earth.
- In addition, the force from the passing star will - A process that occurs when gravity attracts
pull dust and gasses far away from the sun, so tiny bits of matter towards an object.
that they would not be able to form the planets
in the solar system. STEPS OF ACCRETION

TIDAL THEORY a. Clump of dust grains

- The Tidal Theory explains that the solar b. Planetesimals
system formed as a result of a near collision c. Gravity
between a passing star and the sun. d. Protoplanet
- This theory proposes that the hot gas from the - Accretion forms planetesimals, which form
passing star condensed into planets instead of protoplanets.
condensing into planetesimals. - A protoplanet is a planetary embryo that
consists of a collection of matter, from which a
PROPONENTS OF THE TIDAL THEORY planet is formed.
- The tidal theory was proposed by James
Jeans, an English physicist and astronomer,
and Harold Jeffreys, an English
mathematician and astronomer in 1918.

DRAWBACKS OF THE TIDAL THEORY

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HOMOGENEOUS ACCRETION PROPERTIES OF WATER

- It is when Earth accreted from materials of the DENSITY

same composition after condensation. - Water is at maximum density at 3.98°C.
EVIDENCES LOOPHOLES
HEAT CAPACITY
It provides a mechanism The hypothesis cannot - Water has a relatively high heat capacity,
that explains the presence explain the abundance of which allows it to resist temperature changes.
of volatile elements in the elements such as osmium,
core. iridium, ruthenium, and
- These properties make aquatic habitats a
rhodium in the mantle. stable place for organisms to live in, since
aquatic habitats can somewhat resist
temperature changes.
HETEROGENEOUS ACCRETION
- It is when Earth accreted during condensation,
THE ORIGIN OF WATER ON EARTH
forming a differentiated planet as it grew in
size.
- The prevailing hypothesis on the origin of
EVIDENCES LOOPHOLES water on Earth suggests that water came from
comets that collided with Earth.
It qualitatively explains the Accretion must be very fast
density differences among (103 to 104 years for - Other studies suggest that water was already
terrestrial planets. completion). This rate does present within Earth since formation as
nor coincide with the volatiles trapped in magma.
occurrence of large impact
craters. Also, the
abundances of iron, KEY POINTS
calcium, titanium, and - Hydrosphere is the water environment of
aluminum do not coincide Earth.
with what was predicted by
the theory. - Saltwater has a significant amount of salt
content dissolved within.
- Freshwater has zero to minimal salt amounts
KEY POINTS
dissolved within.
- Accretion happens when gravity attracts tiny
- Only 2.5% of water on Earth is freshwater.
bits of matter towards an object.
- Homogeneous accretion is when Earth
LESSON 2.3: SUN AS THE MAIN SOURCE OF
accreted from materials of the same
ENERGY
composition after condensation.
- Heterogeneous accretion is when Earth
ALBEDO
accreted during condensation, forming a
- All objects can either absorb or reflect light.
different planet as it grew in size.
This is a property known as albedo. It has a
value that ranges from 0-1 (0:absorbs,
LESSON 2.2: WATER : THE MEDIUM OF LIFE
1:reflects).
THE SUN
THE HYDROSPHERE
- The Sun is the Earth’s main source of energy,
- Includes all of Earth’s water
and powers many of the processes in the
Bodies of water are classified into either saltwater or
planet.
freshwater, based on salinity.
- Plants are dependent on the Sun for
photosynthesis.
SALTWATER
- Saltwater (oceans and seas) primarily have
SOLAR ENERGY IS RENEWABLE
high salt content.
- As long as the Sun shines, solar energy is
FRESHWATER
available for everyone to utilize.
- It has zero to very little salt content.
- This is advantageous since the Sun is an
environmentally-friendly source of energy.
GLOBAL FRESHWATER
EARTH’S ENERGY BUDGET
- 2.5% freshwater (locked in glaciers 68.9%,
- Earth’s energy budget is the balance of energy
groundwater 30.8%, lakes and rivers 0.3%)vs
absorbed and energy reflected.
97.5% saltwater
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- 30% of the energy from the sun is reflected - Exosphere is the outermost layer of the
and scattered by clouds, atmosphere, and atmosphere, and the layer in contact with
Earth’s light colored surfaces. outer space.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE EARTH’S ENERGY THE STRATOSPHERIC AND TROPOSPHERIC

BUDGET OZONE
- The amount of light colored surfaces - Stratospheric ozone is good while tropospheric
- Amount of radiation received ozone is bad.
- Earth’s axial tilt - These harmful ozones when inhaled, can
- Presence of greenhouse gases irritate the lungs and breakdown lung tissues.
Plants are also affected by this tropospheric
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT ozone.
1. Absorbed radiation- Earth absorbs radiation
from the sun. ATMOSPHERE’S ROLE IN THE HYDROLOGIC
2. Reflected radiation- Greenhouse gases absorb CYCLE
some outgoing radiation. - The atmosphere is a crucial part of the water
3. Greenhouse gases emit absorbed radiation. cycle. It serves as the reservoir of large
This emission warms Earth and its amounts of water.
atmosphere. - Therefore, the atmosphere is an efficient
medium to move water around the globe.
LESSON 2.4: EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
LESSON 3.1: EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
- The bulk of the atmospheric composition of EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE
Earth is nitrogen and oxygen in which together - Is the study of the Earth as an integrated
comprises 99%. system. It seeks to understand the past,
- Only 0.9% is argon and the remaining 0.1% is current, and future state of our planet.
trace gases. - The interdisciplinary nature of ESS led to the
- Carbon dioxide and ozone, although available development of new ideas for research, as
in minute amounts, are very essential to life on well as promoting scientific studies to people
Earth. of different backgrounds.
- The Gaia Hypothesis by James Lovelock and
Lynn Margulis, states that the earth is a
ATMOSPHERIC TRACE GASES
COMPOSITION self-regulating system.
- Organisms interact with their surroundings and
oxygen, 21% carbon dioxide, 93.497% other organisms. These interactions make
Earth self-sustaining.
nitrogen, 78% neon, 4.675%
- Knowledge on Earth System Science is
argon, 0.9% helium, 4.675% essential to understand Earth’s components
that are essential in our daily lives and useful
trace, 0.1% methane, 0.442% in drafting policies for conservation of our
nitrous oxide, 0.078% planet.

ozone, 0.010% NASA ESS COMMITTEE

- Was formed in 1983
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE - NASA continuously collects data through their
The atmosphere is made up of 5 major layers: satellites.
- Troposphere is where humans and most of - Scientists and data analysts process the data
the biosphere reside, and is the lowest layer. for human use. Examples of uses are for
- The Stratosphere contains the ozone layer. weather, atmospheric analysis, and many
- Mesosphere is where meteorites burn up. more.
- Thermosphere is a layer with extremely high
temperatures.
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LESSON 3.2 THE FOUR SUBSYSTEMS OF EARTH continents and is about 15 to 70 km thick. The
boundary between the crust and mantle is known as
ATMOSPHERE the Mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho. This was
- Came from the word atmos meaning gas. named after the Croatian scientist, Andrija
- Makes up all the gases on earth. Mohorovicic.
- This is the gaseous layer where the air in 2. The mantle is a 2 900 km thick layer below the crust
earth’s system surrounds the entire planet. that is mostly made up of silicate rocks rich in
- It extends to a length of more than 10,000 km magnesium and iron. Mantle's temperature increases
above the planet’s surface. with its depth. The layer directly below the crust has
- The Karman Line separates the atmosphere the lowest temperature and is soft enough to allow
and outer space. plates of the crust to move. On the other hand, the
- The most abundant gas is nitrogen, which layer with the highest temperature is found in contact
makes up 78.1% of the atmosphere. Oxygen with the heat-producing core.
comes second at 20.9%, and argon, a noble Based on its mineral composition and the type
gas, is at 0.9%. Lastly, carbon dioxide and the of deformation, the mantle can be divided into several
rest of the gases combined constitute 0.16. layers. The uppermost mantle is cold and brittle, and
together with the crust forms the lithosphere, the hard
rigid outermost layer of Earth. It is broken up into
DIFFERENT LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE tectonic plates.
- The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km The asthenosphere is the layer directly
above the surface of Earth. It is the lowest beneath the lithosphere that is hot enough to flow and
layer where the weather disturbances occur, minimally melt, allowing the lithospheric or tectonic
- The stratosphere is found 14.5 to 50 km above plates above to move. The lower mantle is hotter and
Earth's surface. The ozone layer that protects denser than the upper mantle but it remains solid
Earth from the sun's harmful UV radiation is because of the immense pressure.
part of this. 3. The core, which has a radius of 3 480 km, is the
- The mesosphere extends from 50 to 85 km innermost layer of Earth. It is made up of iron and
above Earth's surface. It protects Earth from nickel. It is composed of two layers, the outer core and
the impact of space debris. The coldest the inner core. These two regions are separated by a
temperatures on Earth, at -90°C are found boundary called Bullen discontinuity
near the top of this layer.
- The thermosphere is found 85 to 600 km HYDROSPHERE
above Earth's surface. It has charged particles - Hydrosphere comes from the Greek word
that are affected by Earth's magnetic field. The “hydro” which means water. It is composed
particles create the Auroras or Northern and of all water on Earth in any form: water vapor,
Southern lights. Many satellites also orbit liquid water, and ice.
Earth in this layer. - It is 97.5% saltwater and 2.5% freshwater.
- The exosphere is the outermost layer. It - It includes all bodies of water such as oceans,
extends to about 10 000 km above Earth's lakes, rivers, and marshes. Clouds and rain
surface, though there is no clear boundary are also part of the hydrosphere.
where the exosphere ends and space begins.
BIOSPHERE
GEOSPHERE - Biosphere comes from the Greek word “bio”
- Geosphere comes from the Greek word “geo” which means life.
which means ground. It includes all the soil, - It is composed of all living things. It includes all
rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the microbes, plants, and animals.
core of Earth. It is divided into three layers, - It extends to the upper areas of the
namely: crust, mantle, and core. atmosphere where insects and birds can be
found. It also reaches the deep parts of the
1. The crust is the outermost layer of the geosphere. It oceans where marine organisms can still
is made mostly of silicate materials. There are two survive.
different types of crust, the oceanic and continental - Organisms interact with other organisms and
crusts. The oceanic crust lies beneath the oceanic the physical environment. They form
floors which is about 5 to 10 km thick. On the other communities called biomes.
hand, the thicker continental crust makes up the
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-Biomes exist all over the world. Examples of

biomes include deserts, tropical rainforests,
swamps, or coral reefs.
LESSON 3.4 THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

- Water, carbon, and the nitrogen cycle are

important biogeochemical processes that
describe how the substance is transported
through each sphere.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

- The movement of water from the ocean to the
atmosphere to land and back to the ocean is
called the water or hydrologic cycle.
- Evaporation is liquid water to gas.
- Condensation is the formation of clouds, gas
to liquid.
- Precipitation is the release of water from
clouds, solid to liquid.

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

- It refers to the transference and conversion of
nitrogen across many forms
- Both organisms and natural processes (like
lightning) play a role in the nitrogen cycle.
- Nitrogen Fixation - atmospheric to usable
nitrogen
- Nitrification - ammonia/ammonium to
nitrite/nitrates
- Ammonification - nitrogen releases as
ammonia after decomposition
- Denitrification - nitrogen returns to the
atmosphere Carbon and Oxygen Cycle
- It includes the photosynthesis and respiration
of organisms, as well as some natural
processes.
- The most well known among these are
respiration in animals and photosynthesis in
plants.
- Respiration uses oxygen and releases carbon
dioxide. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide
and releases oxygen.