Financial Accounting Notes

COURSE CONTENT
FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING
Purpose: To develop the learners understanding of the principles of book-keeping and

accounts and the ability to maintain books of accounts and preparation of financ ia l
statements
Course Objectives: By the end of the course unit the student should be able to:-
Compile accounting data
• Prepare financial statements
• Interpret accounting information
• Use accounting information in decision making.
Course Content:
• Introduction to Accounting- Purpose of accounting, basic principles; concepts and
conversions underlying accounting reports, accounting equation, accounting
terminology, users of financial statements and their information needs
• Double entry book:- keeping and books of original entry
• Distinction between and treatment of capital revenue and expenditure in accounts
• Types of ledgers and their uses
• Petty cash book:- Analysis petty cash book; imprest system
• Reconciliation of bank and cash balances
• Types of errors and their correction
• Control ledger accounts
• Provisions:-
• Preparation of final accounts:- Preparation of the trading, profits and loss accounts;
balance Sheet
Recommended Text Books:

• Honrgren and Sundem, G. L, Introduction to Financial Accounting, (6th Edition),
New York; Prentice Hall.
• Heinz and Party, college accounting, 18th edition.
• International accounting standards (IASs ) and International reporting standards
(IFRs)
• KASNEB newsletters.
• The journal of accountants-ICPAK.
• Wood, Frank, Business Accounting (17th Edition), International Thompson. Other
support materials: Various applicable manuals and journals; variety of electronic
information resources.
TABLE OF CONTENT
COURSE CONTENT.......................................................................................................1
TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING .............................................3
1.1 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting.......................................................... 3
1.2 Users of Accounting Information ..................................................................... 4
1.3 Accounting Concepts and Conventions .......................................................... 6
1.4 Qualities of useful Financial Information ..................................................... 11
1.5 Review Questions ............................................................................................. 12
1.6 References ......................................................................................................... 13
TOPIC TWO: RECORDING BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS ...............................14
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Components of accounting equations ........................................................... 15
2.3 Cause of Changes in Capital ........................................................................... 21
2.4 Initial Capital and Final Capital of a Business.............................................. 22
2.5 Double Entry Aspects....................................................................................... 22
2.6 Accounting for Sales, Purchases, Incomes and Expenses ........................... 28
2.7 Returns Inwards and Returns Outwards ...................................................... 29
2.8 Accounting for Drawings, Discounts Allowed and Discounts Received. 33
2.9 Trial Balance ...................................................................................................... 35
2.10 Review Questions ........................................................................................... 43
TOPIC 3: SOURCE DOCUMENTS AND BOOKS OF ORGINAL ENTRY......46
3.1 Definition and Purpose .................................................................................... 46
3.2 Source Documents ............................................................................................ 46
3.3 Books of Prime Entry........................................................................................ 49
3.5 Cash Books......................................................................................................... 58
3.6 The General Journal.......................................................................................... 63
3.7 The Ledger ......................................................................................................... 65
3.9 References .......................................................................................................... 66
TOPIC 4: CONTROL ACCOUNTS ............................................................................67
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 67
4.2 Format of a Sales Ledger Control ................................................................... 69
4.3 Format of a Purchases Ledger Control Account .......................................... 71
Kopesha Ltd............................................................................................................. 72
4.5 References .......................................................................................................... 74
TOPIC 5: ERRORS AND CORRECTION.................................................................74
5.1 Errors that do not affect the ‘balancing’ of Trial Balance ............................ 74
5.2 Errors that affect the ‘balancing’ of Trial Balance and Suspense
Account .................................................................................................................... 77
5.3 Review Question ............................................................................................... 80
5.4 References .......................................................................................................... 82
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TOPIC 6: BANK RECONCIALIATION STATEMENT .........................................82
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 83
6.2 Purposes of Bank Reconciliation Statement.................................................. 84
6.4 References ......................................................................................................... 88
TOPIC 7: FINAL ACCOUNTS ....................................................................................88
7.1 Income Statements ............................................................................................ 88
7.2 Statement of Financial Position/Balance Sheet ............................................ 93
7.3 Capital and Revenue Expenditure ................................................................. 94
7.4 References ......................................................................................................... 97
TOPIC 8: YEAR END ADJUSTMENTS ....................................................................97
8.1 Depreciation....................................................................................................... 97
8.2 Methods of Calculating Depreciation ............................................................ 98
8.3 Accounting Treatment on Depreciation ...................................................... 100
8.4 Revenue and Cost Recognition..................................................................... 110
8.5 Prepayments .................................................................................................... 113
8.7 Bad & Doubtful Debts .................................................................................... 116
8.8 Provision for Discounts Allowable .............................................................. 124
8.9 Revision Questions ......................................................................................... 126
8.10 Refe ................................................................................................................127
Model Examination Paper 1 ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Model Examination Paper 2 ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Answers model paper 1. (Suggested) ........................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this topic you should be able to:
• Define the nature and purpose of accounting
• Explain the users of financial information and their needs
• Explain accounting concepts and conventions
• Explain qualities of useful accounting information
1.1 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting
Definition Accounting is defined as the process of identifying, measuring and reporting

economic information to the users of this information to permit informed judgment
Many businesses carry out transactions. Some of these transactions have a financ ia l
implication i.e. either cash is received or paid out. Examples of these transactions
include selling goods, buying goods, paying employees and so many others.
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Accounting is involved with identifying these transactions measuring (attaching a
value) and reporting on these transactions. If a firm employs a new staff member then
this may not be an accounting transaction. However when the firm pays the employee
salary, then this is related to accounting as cash involved. This has an economic impact
on the organization and will be recorded for accounting purposes. A process is put in
place to collect and record this information; it is then classified and summarized so that
it can be reported to the interested parties.
The main purpose of Accounting is to provide financial information about an economic

entity. It provides a means where the steward reports to the owner how the funds
entrusted to him are used to enhance the wealth of the business.
Business Transaction is an event which involves the transfer of money or money’s

worth of financial events. The following summarises the business transaction that a
firm might have:
Acquisition of assets from owners and other creditors

Investing resources in assets to produce goods or services
Using resources to produce goods and services
Selling goods or services of the firm
Paying those to whom money is owned
Returning assets to owners
Difference between Book-Keeping and Accounting

Book-keeping means the recording of transactions of a business in methodical manner
so that information relating to them may be quickly obtained. It intends to be
mechanical and repetitive.
Accounting includes the design of accounting system, preparation of financ ia l

statements, and development of budgets, cost studies, audits, income tax work, and
computer applications to accounting processes and the analysis and interpretation of
accounting information as an aid to making business decision.
Types of Business Firms

Proprietorship—a business owned by one person
Partnership—co-owned by two or more persons
Limited Companies—owned by investors called stockholders (The business—
not the owners—are responsible for the company’s obligations.)
1.2 Users of Accounting Information
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Accounting information is produced in form of financial statement. These financ ia l
statements provide information about an entity financial position, performance and
changes in financial position.
Financial position of a firm is what the resources the business has and how much
belongs to the owners and others.
The financial performance reflects how the business has performed, whether it has
made profits or losses. Changes in financial positions determine whether the resources
have increased or reduced.
The users of accounting information have an interest in the existence of the firm.
Therefore the information contained in the financial statements will affect the decision
making process.
The following are the users of accounting information:

i. Owners: They have invested in the business and examples of such owners include sole
traders, partners (partnerships) and shareholders (company). They would like to have
information on the financial performance, financial position and changes in financ ia l
position. This information will enable them to assess how the managers of the business
are performing whether the business is profitable or not and whether to make drawings
or put in additional capital.
ii. Customers: Customers rely on the business for goods and services. They would like to
know how the business is performing and its financial position. This informatio n
would enable them to assess whether they can rely on the firm for future supplies.
iii. Managers: The managers are involved in the day-to-day activities of the business.
They would like to have information on the financial position, performance and
changes in financial position so as to determine whether the business is operating as
per the plans. In case the plan is not achieved then the managers come up with
appropriate measures (controls) to ensure that the set plans are met.
iv. Lenders: Lenders are long term providers of capital to the firm. They have
provided loans and others sources of capital to the business. Such lenders include banks and
other financial institutions. They would like to have information on the financial performance
and position of the business to assess whether the business is profitable enough to pay the
interest on loans and whether it has enough resources to pay back the principal amount when
it is due.
v. Government and its agencies: The Government is interested in the financial performance
of the business to be able to assess the tax to be collected in the case there are any
profits made by the business. The other government agencies are interested with the
financial position and performance of the business to be able to come with National
Statistics. This statistics measure the average performance of the economy.
vi. Financial Analyst and Advisors: Financial analyst and advisors interpret the
financial information. Examples include stockbrokers who advise investors on shares to buy
in the stock market and other professional consultants like accountants. They are interested
with the financial position and performance of the firm so that they can advise their clients on
how much is the value their investment i.e. whether it is profitable or not and what is the
value. Others advisors would include the press who will then pass the information to other
relevant users.
vii. Employees: They work for the business/entity. They would like to have
information on the financial position and performance so as to make decisions on their terms
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of employment. This information would be important as they can use it to negotiate for better
terms including salaries, training and other benefits.
They can also use it to assess whether the firm is financially sound and therefore
their jobs are secure.
viii. Members of the Public: Institutions and other welfare associations and groups
represent the public. They are interested with the financial performance of the firm.
This information will be important for them to assess how socially responsible is the
firm. This responsibility is in form the employment opportunities the firm offers,
charitable activities and the effect of firm’s activities on the environment.
ix. Suppliers They supply goods or services to the firm. The supplies are either for cash
or credit. The suppliers would like to have information on the financial performance
and position so as to assess whether the business would be able to pay up for the goods
and services provided as and when the payment falls due.
1.3 Accounting Concepts and Conventions

Concepts/conventions/principles
Accounting Concepts are broad basic assumptions that underlie the periodic financ ia l
accounts of business enterprises. Examples of concepts include:
i) The going concern concept: implies that the business will continue in operational
existence for the foreseeable future, and that there is no intention to put the company
into liquidation or to make drastic cutbacks to the scale of operations.
Financial statements should be prepared under the going concern basis unless the entity
is being (or is going to be) liquidated or if it has ceased (or is about to cease) trading.
The directors of a company must also disclose any significant doubts about the
company’s future if and when they arise. The main significance of the going concern
concept is that the assets of the business should not be valued at their ‘breakup’ value,
which is the amount that they would sell for it they were sold off piecemeal and the
business were thus broken up.
ii) The accruals concept (or matching concept): States that revenue and costs must be
recognized as they are earned or incurred, not as money is received or paid. They must
be matched with one another so far as their relationship can be established or
justifiably assumed, and dealt with in the profit and loss account of the period to which
they relate.
Assume that a firm makes a profit of Sh.100 by matching the revenue (Sh.200) earned
from the sale of 20 units against the cost (Sh.100) of acquiring them.
If, however, the firm had only sold eighteen units, it would have been incorrect to
charge profit and loss account with the cost of twenty units; there is still two units in
stock. If the firm intends to sell them later, it is likely to make a profit on the sale.
Therefore, only the purchase cost of eighteen units (Sh.90) should be matched with
the sales revenue, leaving a profit of Sh.90.
If, however the firm had decided to give up selling units, then the going concern concept
would no longer apply and the value of the two units in the statement of financ ia l
position would be a break-up valuation rather than cost. Similarly, if the two unsold
units were now unlikely to be sold at more than their cost of Sh.5 each (say, because of
damage or a fall in demand) then they should be recorded on the statement of financ ia l
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position at their net realizable value (i.e. the likely eventual sales price less any
expenses incurred to make them saleable, e.g. paint) rather than cost. This shows the
application of the prudence concept.
In this example, the concepts of going concern and matching are linked. Because the
business is assumed to be a going concern it is possible to carry forward the cost of
the unsold units as a charge against profits of the next period.
Essentially, the accruals concept states that, in computing profit, revenue earned must
be matched against the expenditure incurred in earning it.
iii) The Prudence Concept: The prudence concept states that where alternative
procedures, or alternative valuations, are possible, the one selected should be the one
that gives the most cautious presentation of the business’s financial position or
results.
Therefore, revenue and profits are not anticipated but are recognized by inclusion in
the profit and loss account only when realized in the form of either cash or of other
assets the ultimate cash realization of which can be assessed with reasonable certainty:
provision is made for all liabilities (expenses and losses) whether the amount of these
is known with certainty or is best estimate in the light of the information available.
Assets and profits should not be overstated, but a balance must be achieved to prevent
the material overstatement of liabilities or losses.
The other aspect of the prudence concept is that where a loss is foreseen, it should be
anticipated and taken into account immediately. If a business purchases stock for Sh.1,
200 but because of a sudden slump in the market only Sh.900 is likely to be realized
when the stock is sold the prudence concept dictates that the stock should be valued at
Sh.900. It is not enough to wait until the stock is sold, and then recognize the Sh.300
loss; it must be recognized as soon as it is foreseen.
A profit can be considered to be a realized profit when it is in the form of:
• Cash
• Another asset that has a reasonably certain cash value. This includes amounts
owing from debtors, provided that there is a reasonable certainty that the debtors
will eventually pay up what they owe.
A company begins trading on 1 January 20X2 and sells goods worth Sh.100,000 during
the year to 31 December. At 31 December there are debts outstanding of Sh.15, 000.
Of these, the company is now doubtful whether Sh.6,000 will ever be paid.
The company should make a provision for doubtful debts of Sh.6,000. Sales for 20x5
will be shown in the profit and loss account at their full value of Sh.100,000, but the
provision for doubtful debts would be a charge of Sh.6,000. Because there is some
uncertainty that the sales will be realized in the form of cash, the prudence concept
dictates that the Sh.6, 000 should not be included in the profit for the year.
iv) Consistency concept: The consistency concept states that in preparing accounts
consistency should be observed in two respects.
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a) Similar items within a single set of accounts should be given similar accounting
treatment.
b) The same treatment should be applied from one period to another in accounting
for similar items. This enables valid comparisons to be made from one period
to the next.
v) Business entity concept: The concept is that accountants regard a business as a

separate entity, distinct from its owners or managers. The concept applies whether
the business is a limited company (and so recognized in law as a separate entity) or a
sole proprietorship or partnership (in which case the business is not separately
recognized by the law.
vi) Money measurement concept: The money measurement concept states that accounts
will only deal with those items to which a monetary value can be attributed. For
example, in the statement of financial position of a business, monetary values can be
attributed to such assets as machinery (e.g. the original cost of the machinery; or the
amount it would cost to replace the machinery) and stocks of goods (e.g. the origina l
cost of goods, or, theoretically, the price at which the goods are likely to be sold).
The monetary measurement concept introduces limitations to the subject matter of
accounts. A business may have intangible assets such as the flair of a good manager
or the loyalty of its workforce. These may be important enough to give it a clear
superiority over an otherwise identical business, but because they cannot be evaluated
in monetary terms they do not appear anywhere in the accounts.
vii) Separate valuation principle: The separate valuation principle states that, in
determining the amount to be attributed to an asset or liability in the statement of
financial position, each component item of the asset or liability must be determined
separately.
These separate valuations must then be aggregated to arrive at the statement of
financial position figure. For example, if a company’s stock comprises 50 separate
items, a valuation must (in theory) be arrived at for each item separately; the 50 figur es
must then be aggregated and the total is the stock figure which should appear in the
statement of financial position.
viii) Materiality concept: An item is considered material if it’s omission or misstate me nt

will affect the decision making process of the users. Materiality depends on the nature
and size of the item. Only items material in amount or in their nature will affect the
true and fair view given by a set of accounts.
An error that is too trivial to affect anyone’s understanding of the accounts is referred
to as immaterial. In preparing accounts it is important to assess what is material and
what is not, so that time and money are not wasted in the pursuit of excessive detail.
Determining whether or not an item is material is a very subjective exercise. There
is no absolute measure of materiality. It is common to apply a convenient rule of
thumb (for example to define material items as those with a value greater than 5% of
the net profit disclosed by the accounts). But some items disclosed in accounts are
regarded as particularly sensitive and even a very small misstatement of such an item
would be regarded as a material error. An example in the accounts of a limited
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company might be the amount of remuneration paid to directors of the company. The
assessment of an item as material or immaterial may affect its treatment in the
accounts. For example, the profit and loss account of a business will show the
expenses incurred by he business grouped under suitable captions (heating and
lighting expenses, rent and rates expenses etc); but in the case of very small expenses
it may be appropriate to lump them together under a caption such as ‘sundry
expenses’, because a more detailed breakdown would be inappropriate for such
immaterial amounts. Example:
a) If a statement of financial position shows fixed assets of Sh.2 million and stocks of
Sh.30, 000 an error of Sh.20, 000 in the depreciation calculations might not be
regarded as material, whereas an error of Sh.20, 000 in the stock valuation probably
would be. In other words, the total of which the erroneous item forms part must be
considered.
b) If a business has a bank loan of Sh.50,000 balance and a Sh.55,000 balance on bank
deposit account, it might well be regarded as a material misstatement if these two
amounts were displayed on the statement of financial position as ‘cash at bank
Sh.5,000’. In other words, incorrect presentation may amount to materia l
misstatement even if there is no monetary error.
ix) Historical cost convention: It’s a basic principle of accounting (some writers includ e
it in the list of fundamental accounting concepts) is that resources are normally stated
in accounts at historical cost, i.e. at the amount that the business paid to acquire them.
An important advantage of this procedure is that the objectivity of accounts is
maximized: there is usually objective, documentary evidence to prove the amount
paid to purchase an asset or pay an expense. Historical cost means transactions are
recorded at the cost when they occurred.
In general, accountants prefer to deal with costs, rather than with ‘values’. This is because
valuations tend to be subjective and to vary according to what the valuation is for. For
example, suppose that a company acquires a machine to manufacture its products. The
machine has an expected useful life of four years. At the end of two years the company is
preparing a statement of financial position and has decided what monetary amount to
attribute to the asset.
x) Objectivity (neutrality): An accountant must show objectivity in his work. This

means he should try to strip his answers of any personal opinion or prejudice and
should be as precise and as detailed as the situation warrants. The result of this should
be that any number of accountants will give the same answer independently of each
other. Objectivity means that accountants must be free from bias. They must adopt a
neutral stance when analysing accounting data. In practice objectivity is diffic ult.
Two accountants faced with the same accounting data may come to differe nt
conclusions as to the correct treatment. It was to combat subjectivity that accounting
standards were developed.
xi) Realization concept: Revenue and profits are recognized when realized. The concept
states that revenue and profits are not anticipated but are recognized by inclusion in
the income statement only when realized in the form of either cash or of other assets
the ultimate cash realization of which can be assessed with reasonable certainty.
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xii) Duality: Every transaction has two-fold effect in the accounts and is the basis of
double entry bookkeeping.
xiii) Substance over form: It’s the principle that transactions and other events are
accounted for and presented in accordance with their substance and economic reality
and not merely their legal form e.g. a non current asset on hire purchase although is
not legally owned by the enterprise until it is fully paid for, it is reflected in the
accounts as an asset and depreciation provided for in the normal accounting way.
Example
It is generally agreed that sales revenue should only be ‘realized’ and so ‘recognized’ in
the trading, profit and loss account when:
a) The sale transaction is for a specific quantity of goods at a known price, so that
the sales value of the transaction is known for certain.
b) The sale transaction has been completed, or else it is certain that it will be
completed (e.g. in the case of long-term contract work, when the job is well
under way but not yet completed by the end of an accounting period).
c) The critical event in the sale transaction has occurred. The critical event is the
event after which:
i) It becomes virtually certain that

cash will eventually be received
from the customer.
ii) Cash is actually received. Usually,
revenue is ‘recognized’
(a) When a cash sale is made.

(b) The customer promises to pay on or before a specified future date, and the debt is
legally enforceable.
The prudence concept is applied here in the sense that revenue should not be anticipated,
and included in the trading, profit and loss account, before it is reasonably certain to
‘happen’.
Required
Given that prudence is the main consideration, discuss under what circumstances, if any,
revenue might be recognized at the following stages of a sale.
(a) Goods have been acquired by the business, which it confidently expects to resell very
quickly.
(b) A customer places a firm order for goods. (c) Goods are delivered to the customer. (d)
The customer is invoiced for goods.
(e) The customer pays for the goods.
(f) The customer’s cheque in payment for the goods has been cleared by the bank.
Answer
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(a) A sale must never be recognized before a customer has even ordered the goods. There
is no certainty about the value of the sale, nor when it will take place, even if it is
virtually certain that goods will be sold.
(b) A sale must never be recognized when the customer places an order. Even though the
order will be for a specific quantity of goods at a specific price, it is not yet certain that
the sale transaction will go through. The customer may cancel an order, the supplier
might be unable to deliver the goods as ordered or it may be decided that the customer
is not a good credit risk.
(c) A sale will be recognized when delivery of the goods is made only when:
i) The sale is for cash, and so the cash is received at the same time.
ii) The sale is on credit and the customer accepts delivery (e.g. by signing a deliver y
note).
(d) The critical event for a credit sale is usually the dispatch of an invoice to the customer.
There is then a legally enforceable debt payable on specified terms, for a completed
sale transaction.
(e) The critical event for a cash sale is when delivery takes place and when cash is
received, both take place at the same time. It would be too cautious or ‘prudent’ to
await cash payment for a credit sale transaction before recognizing the sale, unless the
customer is a high credit risk and there is a serious doubt about his ability or intentio n
to pay.
(f) It would again be over-cautious to wait for clearance of the customer’s cheques before
recognizing sales revenue. Such a precaution would only be justified in cases where
there is a very high risk of the bank refusing to honour the cheque.
Accounting Bases
Bases are the methods that have been developed for expressing or applying fundame nta l
accounting concepts to financial transactions and items. Examples include:
Depreciation of Non current Assets (e.g. by straight line or reducing balance method)
Treatment and amortization of intangible assets (patents and trade marks)
Stocks and work in progress (FIFO, LIFO and AVCO)
Accounting Policies
Accounting policies are the specific accounting bases judged by business enterprises to be
the most appropriate to their circumstances and adopted by them for the purpose of
preparing their financial accounts.
1.4 Qualities of useful Financial Information
The four principal qualities of useful financial information are understandability,

relevance, reliability and comparability.
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Understandability: an essential quality of the information provided in the financ ia l
statements is that it is readily understandable by users. For these reason users are assumed
to have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and accounting.
Relevance: information has the quality of being relevant when it influences the economic
decisions of users by helping them evaluate past, present or future events or confirming or
correcting their past evaluations. The relevance of information is affected by its nature and
materiality.
Reliability: information is useful when it is free from material error and bias and can be
depended upon by users to represent faithfully that which it purports to represent or could
reasonably be expected to represent. To be reliable then the information should:
a) Be represented faithfully,
b) Be accounted for and presented in accordance with their substance and economic
reality and not merely their legal form,
c) Be neutral i.e. free from bias,
d) Include some degree of caution especially where uncertainties surround some events
and transactions (prudence),
e) Be complete i.e. must be within the bounds of materiality and cost. An omission can
cause information to be false.
Comparability: users must be able to compare the financial statements of an enterprise

through time in order to identify trends in its financial position and performance. Users
must also be able to compare the financial statements of different accounting policies,
changes in the various policies and the effect of these changes in the accounts. Compliance
with accounting standards also helps achieve this comparability.
1.5 Review Questions
Question One
Explain, with examples, each of the following terms:
 Fundamental accounting concepts

 Accounting bases
 Accounting policies
Question Two
Accounting practice depends upon the guidance provided by a number of accounting
concepts, some of which are to be found in IAS 1 and/or in the conceptional framework of
the International Accounting Standards Committee.
Required:
(a) Define and explain the relevance of the following accounting concepts.
 Neutrality
 Money measurement
 Accruals
 Substance over form
 Consistency (15 marks)
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(b) Give two examples of situations in which there is a clash or inconsistency between
two accounting concepts or conventions, and explain how the inconsistency should
be resolved. (In answering this part of the question, you need not confine yourself
to considering the concepts listed in part (a)) (5 marks)
Question Three
If the information in financial statements is to be useful, regard must be had to the
following:
 Materiality
 Comparability
 Prudence
 Objectivity
 Relevance
Required
Explain the meaning of each of these factors as they apply to financial accounting includ ing
in your explanations one example of the application of each of them.
(4 marks for each)
Question Four
a) Explain what is meant by materiality in relation to financial statements and state
two factors affecting the assessment of materiality. (4 marks)
b) Explain what makes information in financial statements relevant to use (5 marks)
c)
i) Two characteristics contributing to reliability are ‘neutrality’ and ‘prudence’.
Explain the meaning of these two terms.
ii) Explain how a possible conflict between them could arise and how that conflict
should be resolved. (5 marks)
d) One of the requirements of financial statements is that they should be free from material
error. Suggest three safeguards, which may exist, inside or outside a company to
ensure that the financial statements are free from material error.
(6 marks)
1.6 References
• Wood, Frank, Business Accounting (17th Edition), International Thompson. Pages
3-5, 82-93.
New York; Prentice Hall. pages 6-12
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TOPIC TWO: RECORDING BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS
Learning Objectives
Upon Completion of this topic you should be able to:
• Define the meaning of double entry book-keeping system
• Define assets, capital and liabilities
• Prepare simple balance sheet
• Explain what is meant by` double entry`
• Explain the debit and credit principles
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• Record assets capital and liabilities in accounts
• Extract the ledger balances into trail balances
• Identify the purpose of trail balances
2.1 Introduction
A business can be set up in two ways-

i) Owner supplying all the resources
ii) Owner supplying some of the resources and the rest being supplied
by outside parties.
The two cases bring out the accounting equation also called book- keeping equation
Case one: owner supplying all the resources
In this case we say that-
Resources in the business = Resources supplied by the owner…………… (i)
Resources in business are called assets and resources supplied by the owner are called
capital
Therefore equation (i) can be re -written as-
ASSETS = CAPITAL
Case two: resources supplied by owner and outside parties
In this case we say that-
Resources in business = Resources supplied by the owner + Resources supplied by

outside parties……………………………………………… (ii)
The new term in the equation is resources supplied by out side parties, in accounting,
we call them liabilities.
Therefore equation (ii) can be re-written as-
ASSETS = CAPITAL + LIABILITIES……………………………………… (ii)
2.2 Components of accounting equations
Assets: An asset is a resource controlled by a business entity/firm as a result of past events

for which economic benefits are expected to flow to the firm.
An example is if a business sells goods on credit then it has an asset called a debtor. The
past event is the sale on credit and the resource is a debtor. This debtor is expected to pay
so that economic benefits will flow towards the firm i.e. in form of cash once the customers
pays.
Assets are classified into two main types:
15
i) Non current assets (formerly called fixed assets).
ii) Current assets.
Non current assets are acquired by the business to assist in earning revenues and not for
resale. They are normally expected to be in business for a period of more than one year.
Major examples include
 Land and buildings
 Plant and machinery
 Fixtures, furniture, fittings and equipment
 Motor vehicles
Current assets are not expected to last for more than one year. They are in most cases
directly related to the trading activities of the firm. Examples include:
 Stock of goods – for purpose of selling.
 Trade debtors/accounts receivables – owe the business amounts as a resort of
trading.
 Other debtors – owe the firm amounts other than for trading.
 Cash at bank.
 Cash in hand.
Liabilities: These are obligations of a business as a result of past events settlement of which
is expected to result to an economic outflow of amounts from the firm. An example is when
a business buys goods on credit, then the firm has a liability called creditor. The past event
is the credit purchase and the liability being the creditor the firm will pay cash to the
creditor and therefore there is an out flow of cash from the business.
Liabilities are also classified into two main classes.
i) Non-current liabilities (or long term liabilities) ii)

Current liabilities.
Non-current liabilities are expected to last or be paid after one year. This includes long-
term loans from banks or other financial institutions. Current liabilities last for a period
of less than one year and therefore will be paid within one year.
Major examples:
 Trade creditors or accounts payable – owed amounts as a result of
business buying goods on credit.
 Other creditors - owed amounts for services supplied to the firm
other than goods.
 Bank overdraft - amounts advanced by the bank for a short-term
period.
Capital: This is the residual amount on the owner’s interest in the firm after deducting
liabilities from the assets.
The Accounting equation can be expressed in a simple report called the Statement of
financial position (formerly, balance sheet). The basic format is as follows:
Name
16
Sh Sh Sh Sh
xx Non Current Assets
Land & Buildings xx
Non Current Liabilities Plant & Machinery xx
Fixtures, furniture & fittings
Motor vehicles xx
Current xx
liabilities
Overdraft xx Current Assets
Creditors xx xx Stocks xx Debtor’s
xx
Capital and Liabilities Cash at bank xx
Statement of financial position as at 31.12.
Capital
Loan
xx
Cash in hand xx xx
xx Total assets xx
The above format of the statement of financial position is the horizontal format however
currently the practice is to present the Statement of financial position using the vertical
format which is shown below.
17
Name
Statement of financial position as at 31.12. 20xx
Shs. Shs. Shs.

Non Current Assets xx
Land & Buildings xx
Plant & Machinery xx
Fixtures, furniture & fittings xx
Motors vehicles xx xx
Current Assets
Stocks/inventories xx
Debtors/ trade receivables xx
Cash at bank xx
Cash in hand xx
xx
Current Liabilities
Bank Overdraft xx
Creditors/trade payables xx
xx xx
Net Current Assets xx
Net assets xxx
Capital xxx
Non current liabilities
Loan (from bank or other sources) xx
Total Capital & liabilities xxx
Pay attention to the format. The non current assets are listed in order of permanence as
shown i.e. from Land and Buildings to motor vehicles. The current assets are listed in
order of liquidity i.e. which asset is far from being converted into cash. Example, stock is
not yet sold, (i.e. not yet realised yet) then when it is sold we either get cash or a debtor (if
sold on credit). When the debtor pays then the debtor may pay by cheque (cash has to be
banked) or cash.
The current liabilities are listed in order of payment i.e. which is due for payment first.
Bank overdraft is payable on demand by the bank, then followed by creditors.
Note that in the vertical format, current liabilities are deducted from current assets to
give net current assets. This is added to Non Current assets, which give us net assets.
Net assets should be the same as the total of Capital and Non Current Liabilities.
18
Example 1.2
C.Murungi sets up a new business. Before he actually sells anything he has bought motor
vehicles of Sh.3, 000, premises of Sh.7, 000, stock of goodsSh.2,000. He still owesSh.800
in respect of them. He had borrowed Sh.4,000 from D Evans. After the events just
described and before trading starts, he hadSh.300 cash in hand andSh.600 cash at bank.
You are required to calculate the amount of his capital.
Solution
Asset Sh Sh
Motor Vehicle 3,000
Premises 7,000
Stock 2,000
Cash at bank 600
Cash in hand 300
12,900
Liabilities
creditors 800
Loan- D Evans 4,000
Capital 8,100
Remember the Accounting equation:

Assets = Liabilities + Capital.
To get capital we rearrange the equation as follows:

Capital = Assets - Liabilities
Total Assets =Sh.12,900
Total Liabilities =Sh.4,800
Capital =Sh. 12,900 - 4,800
=Sh. 8,100
Example 2.2
D Moody has the following assets and liabilities as on 31 April 2002:

Sh.
Creditors 15,800
Equipment 46,000
Motor Vehicle 25,160
Stock 24,600
Debtors 23,080
19
Cash at bank 29,120
Cash in hand 160
During the first week of May 2002 Moody:

a. Bought extra equipment on credit for Sh.5,520.
b. Bought extra stock by cheque Sh.2,280.
c. Paid creditors by cheque Sh.3,160.
d. Debtors paid Sh.3,360 by cheque and Sh.240 by cash.
e. Moody put in extra Sh.1,000 cash as capital.
Required:
a. Determine the capital as at 1st May 2002.
b. Draw up a statement of financial position after the above transactions have
been completed.
Solution:
(i) Using the accounting equation of Assets = Liabilities + Capital, then assets and
liabilities can be listed as follows.
Assets Sh. Liabilities Sh.
Equipment 46,000 Creditors 15,800
Stock 24,600
Debtors 23,080
Cash at bank 29,120
Cash in hand 160
148,120
Capital = Assets – Liabilities

= Sh.148,120 - Sh.15,800 = Sh.132,320
(ii) To draw up the statement of financial position, we consider the effect of the
above transactions on the relevant balances:
a. Buying extra equipment means that the equipment balance will increase by
Sh.5,520 and the creditors will also increase by the same amount.
b. Buying extra stock by cheque means that the level of stock goes up by Sh.2,280 and
the balance at bank reduces by the same.
c. Paying creditors by cheque reduces the balance on the creditors account and also
reduce the amount at the bank.
d. Debtor paying the firm reduces the debtors balance by Sh.3,600 and increases the
cash at bank and cash in hand by Sh.3,360 and Sh.240 respectively.
e. Additional cash of Sh.1,000 increases the cash in hand balance by Sh.1,000 and the
capital balances.
20
This is also summarized as follows:
Opening Adjustment Closing

Balance Increase/Decrease Balance
Assets/Liabilities Sh. Sh. Sh.
Equipment 46,000 +5,520 51,520
Motor Vehicle 25,160 25,160
Stock 24,600 +2,280 26,880
Debtors 23,080 -3,600 19,480
Cash at bank 29,120 (-2,280 – 3,160 + 3,360) 27,040
Cash in hand 160 (+240 + 1000) 1,400
Creditors 15,800 (+5,520 – 3,160) 18,160
Capital 132,320 +1,000 133,320
The statement of financial position will therefore be prepared as follows:
D Moody
Statement of financial position as at 7 May 2002
Non Current Assets Sh Sh

Equipment 51,520
76,680
Current Assets
Stock 26,880
Debtors 19,480
Cash at Bank 1,400
74,800
Current Liabilities
Creditors (18,160)
NetCurrent Assets
Net Assets
Capital 133,320
2.3 Cause of Changes in Capital
The capital in a business does not remain intact but changes over time due to the following
factors: additional investments, profits drawings or losses.
21
1) Additional investments (I)-occurs when the owner of the business brings in his personal
cash or assets into the business for business use. Addition investment increase the capital
of the business.
2) Profits (P) -defined as the excess revenue obtained after paying costs of a business
increase the level of capital and assets of the business.
3) Drawings (D)-refer to the money or other assets taken from the business by the owner
for personal use. Drawings reduce the of business capital.
4) Losses ( l )–occurs when the cost of goods or services are greater than their sale price
.losses reduce the level of business capital.
2.4 Initial Capital and Final Capital of a Business

Initial capital refers to any funds and other assets invested into the business by the owner
at the beginning of the trading period.
Final capital refers to the business capital at the end of the trading period. Thus, final capital
is initial capital when it has been influenced by factors such as additional investme nt,
profits, drawings and losses.
The formula for determining initial capital is represented as follows: Initial
capital =final capital – addition investment – net profits +drawings i.e :
I .C = F.C - I- P+D
Example 3.2
The following information was extracted from the books of Lima traders for the year ended
31st dec 2009.
a) Closing capital as at 31st /12/2009 -: sh 4000,000.
b) Made profit of -: sh .200,000.
c) The proprietor invested into the business from her
personal use -: sh. 250,000.
d) The proprietor withdrew in cash for her personal use -:sh
60,000.
Required
Using initial capital formula, find the intial capital
Solution
I.C = F.C – I – P + D
I,C =sh 4000,000 – sh 250,000 –sh 200,000 +sh 60,000 I.C
=sh 3,610,000.
2.5 Double Entry Aspects
The Accounting equation forms the basis of double entry and therefore it should always be
maintained. Any change in assets, liabilities or capital will have a double effect such that
22
assets will always be equal to liabilities plus capital. If the owners put in additional capital
then this will increase the cash at bank and the capital amount therefore the equation is still
maintained.
Name
Debit Credit
Date Detail Folio Amount Date Detail Folio Amount
In this account the date will show the opening period of the asset, liability or capital i.e. the
balance brought forward. It will also show the date when a transaction took place (i.e.
either an asset was bought or liability incurred).
The detail column (also called the particulars column) shows the nature of the transaction
and reference to the corresponding account. The Folio Column for purposes of detailed
recording shows the reference number of the corresponding account. The amount column
shows the amount of the asset, liability or capital.
The left side of the account is called the debit side and the right side is called the credit
side. All assets are shown or recorded on the debit side while all the liabilities and capital
are recorded on the credit side. Each type of asset or liability must have its own account
whereby all transactions affecting them are recorded in this account. Therefore there
should be an account for Premises, Plant and Machinery, Stock, Debtors, Creditors etc.
Under the accounting equation if all assets are represented by liabilities and capital
therefore all debits should be the same as credits.
For the double entry to be reflected in the accounts, every debit entry must have a
corresponding credit entry. The transactions affecting these accounts are posted in the
account as debit entry and credit entry to complete the double entry.
When we make a debit entry we are either:
i. Increasing the value of an asset. ii.

Reducing the value of a liability.
iii. Reducing the value of capital.
When we make a credit entry we are either:
i. Reducing the value of an asset.

ii. Increasing the value of a
liability. iii. Increasing the value of
capital.
Example 4.2
H Jumps has the following assets and liabilities as on 30 November 2002:
Creditors Sh.39,500; Equipment Sh.115,000; Motor vehicle Sh.62,900; Stock Sh.61,500;
Debtors Sh.57,700;Cash at bank Sh.72,800 and Cash in hand Sh.400.
Compute the balance on the capital account as at 30 November 2002.

23
During the first week of December 2002, Jump:
a. Bought extra equipment on credit for Sh.13,800.

b. Bought extra stock by cheque Sh.5,700.
c. Paid creditors by cheque Sh.7,900.
d. Received from debtors Sh.8,400 by cheque and Sh.600 by cash.
e. Put in an extra Sh.2,500 cash as capital.
You are to record the above transactions in respective accounts.
Answer:
Capital = Assets – Liabilities
Assets Sh. Liabilities Sh.

Equipment 115,000 Creditors 39,500
Motor vehicle 62,900

Stock 61,500
Debtors 57,700
Cash at bank 72,800
Cash in hand 400
371,300
Capital = Sh.371, 300 - Sh.39, 500 = Sh.330, 800
Creditors A/C
a/c Motor Vehicles
2002 Sh.B 2002
Bank Sh. 2002
1.12 Bal c/d 31,600 Sh.
7900 1.12 Bal b/d
39,500 1.12 Bal
b/d 62,900 1.12 Bal c/d 62,900 2002 Sh.
62,900 62,900
39,500 39,500
Equipment a/c
2002 2002 Sh.
Sh.
1.12 Bal b\d 115,000
24
Creditors 13,800 7.12 Bal c\d
128,800
128,800 128,800
Stock a/c
2002 2002 Sh.
Sh.
1.12 Bal b\d 61,500
Bank 5700 7.12 Bal c\d 67,200
67,200 67,200
Debtors a/c
2002 2002 Sh.
Sh.
1.12 Bal b\d 57,700 Bank 8,400
Cash 600
Bank 570 7.12 Bal c\d 48,700
57,700 57,700
Cash at Bank a/c

2002 2002
Sh. Sh.
1.12 Bal b\d 72,800 Stock 5,700
Creditors 7,900
Debtors 8,400 7.12 Bal c\d 67,600
81,200 81,200
Cash in hand a/c

2002 2002
Sh. Sh.
1.12 Bal b\d
400
Debtors 600
Capital 2500 7.12 Bal c\d 3500
3500 3500
Capital
25
2002 2002 Sh.
Sh.
1.12 Bal b\d 330800
7.12 Bal b\d 333300 Cash 2500
128,800 128,800
Creditors Of Equipment
2002 2002 Sh.
Sh.
7.12 Bal b\d 13800 Equipment 13800

13,800 13,800
Example 5.2
Write up the asset, capital and liability accounts in the books of M Crash to record the
following transactions:
2002
June 1 Started business with Sh.50,000 in the bank.
“ 2 Bought motor van paying by cheque Sh.12,000.
“ 5 Bought Fixtures Sh.4,000 on credit from Office Masters Ltd.
“ 8 Bought a van on credit from Motor Cars Ltd Sh.8,000.
“ 12 Took Sh.1,000 out of the bank and put it into the cash till.
“ 15 Bought Fixtures paying by cash Sh.600.
“ 19 Paid Motor Cars Ltd by cheque Sh.8000.
“ 21 A loan of Sh.10,000 cash is received from J Marcus.
“ 25 Paid Sh.8,000 of the cash in hand into the bank account.
“ 30 Bought more Fixtures paying by cheque Sh.3,000.
Capital a/c Cash at bank

a/c
2002 Sh. 2002 Sh. 2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.

30/6 Bal c/f 50,000 1/6 Bank 1/6 Capital 50,000 2/6 Van 12,000
50,000
12/6 Cash 8,000 12/6Cash 1,000
19/6Motor ltd 8,000

50,000 50,000 30/6 Fixtures 3,000
30/6 Bal c/f 34,000
58,000 58,000
Motor Van
26
2002 Sh. Sh.
2/6 Bank
12,000
8/6 Super M 30/6 Bal c/f
8,000 20,000
20000 20000
Fixtures
2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.
5/6young
4,000
15/6 Cash
600
30/6 Bank Bal c/f
7,600 7,600
Motor Car Ltd – Creditors

2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.
19/6 Bank 8/6 Van 8000
8000
8000 8000
Office Masters Ltd - Creditor

2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.
30/6 B\f 4000 8/6 Fixtures 4000
4000 4000
Cash in hand
2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.
12/6 Cash 15/6 Cash
1,000 600
25/6 Bank 800
21/6 J. Marcus 10000 30/6 Bal c/f 2400
11000 11000
J. Marcus - Loaner
2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.
27
30/6 c\f 21/6 Cash 10000
10000
Note that the difference between the debit side and the credit side is the balancing figure.
Most assets will have a balance on the credit side and most liabilities and capital accounts
will have a balance on the debit side.
2.6 Accounting for Sales, Purchases, Incomes and Expenses.
Sales: This is the sell of goods that were bought by a firm (the goods must have been bought
with the purpose of resale). Sales are divided into cash sales and credit sales.
When a cash sale is made, the following entries are to be made.
i. Debit cash either at bank or in hand.
ii. Credit sales account.
For a credit sale:

i. Debit debtors/ Accounts receivable account.
ii. Credit sales account.
A new account for sales is opened and credited with cash or credit sales.
Buying (Purchases:) of goods meant for resale. Purchases can also be for cash or on credit.
For cash purchases:
i. Debit purchases.
ii. Credit cash at bank/cash in hand
For credit purchases, we:
i. Debit purchases.
ii. Credit creditors for goods.
A new account is also opened for purchases where both cash and credit purchases are
posted. Note: no entry is made into the stocks account.
Incomes:
A firm may have other incomes apart from that generated from trading (sales). Such
incomes include:
 Rent
 Bank interest
 Discounts received.
When the firm receives cash, from these incomes, the following entries are made:
 Debit cash in hand/at bank.
 Credit income account.
Each type of income should have its own account e.g. rent income, interest income.
Incomes increase the value of capital and that is the reason why they are posted on the
credit side of their respective accounts.
Expenses: These are amounts paid out for services rendered other than those paid for
purchases. Examples include:
• Postage and stationery
• Salaries and wages
28
• Telephone bills
• Motor vehicle running expenses.
• Bank charges.
When a firm pays for an expense, we:
i. Debit the expense account.
ii. Credit cash at bank/in hand.
Each expense should also have its own account where the corresponding entry will be
posted. Expenses decrease the value of capital and thus the posting is made on the debit
side of their accounts.
The following diagram is a simple summary of the entries made for incomes and expenses.
Debit cash book/bank/in hand
INCOME
Credit Income
INCOMES/EXPENSES Debit Expense A/C
EXPENCES
Credit cash book /bank/in hand

2.7 Returns Inwards and Returns Outwards.
Returns Inwards: These are goods that have been returned by customers due to various
reasons e.g.
i. They may be
defective/damaged,
ii. Being of the wrong type.
iii. Excess goods being
delivered.
Goods returned may relate to cash sales or credit sales. For the goods returned in relation
to cash sales and cash is refunded to the customer the following entries are made:
i. Debit returns – inwards
ii. Credit cashbook.
For goods returned that relate to credit sales; no cash has been given to customer, the
following entry is to be made.
i. Debit returns inwards.
ii. Credit debtors.
Returns Outwards: These are goods returned to suppliers/creditors. They may be for cash
purchases or for credit purchases. For cash purchases a cash refund given to the firm by
the supplier,
29
i. Debit the cashbook (cash at bank/hand).
ii. Credit returns outwards.
For credit purchases and no refund has been made:

i. Debit creditors.
ii. Credit returns outwards.
Diagrammatically shown as follows:

Debit returns inwards.
Cash
Credit cashbook.
Inwards Debit returns inwards
Credit
Credit debtors
Debit cash Returns
Cash
Outwards Credit returns outwards

Debit creditors
Credit
Credit returns outwards

Now lets us take one example that includes most of the above transactions.
Example 6.2
You are to enter the following transactions, completing the double entry in the books for
the month of May 2002.
2002
May 1 Started business with Sh.2,000 in the bank.
“ 2 Purchased goods Sh.175 on credit from M Rooks.
“ 3 Bought furniture and fittings Sh.150 paying by cheque.
“ 5 Sold goods for cash Sh.275.
“ 6 Bought goods on credit Sh.114 from P Scot.
“ 10 Paid rent by cash Sh.15.
“ 12 Bought stationery Sh.27, paying in cash.
“ 18 Goods returned to M Rooks Sh.23.
“ 21 Let off part of the premises receiving rent by cheque Sh.5.
“ 23 Sold goods on credit to U Foot for Sh.77.
“ 24 Bought a motor van paying by cheque Sh.300.
“ 30 Paid the month’s wages by cash Sh.117.
“ 31 The proprietor took cash for himself Sh.44.
Solution
Bank a/c
30
2002 2002
Sh. Sh.
1/5 Capital 3/5Furn& fitting
2,000 150
24/5 Motor vehicle
300
21/5 Rent 31/5 Bal c/f
5 1,555
2,005 2,005
Capital a/c
31/5 Bal c/f 1/5 Bank 2,000
2,000
Purchases a/c
2002 2002
Sh. Sh.
2/5M Rooks
175
6/5 P Scot31/5 Bal c/f
114 289
289 289
Creditor – M Rooks a/c

2002 2002
Sh. Sh.
18/5 Returns in 2/5 Purchases
23 175
31/5 Bal c/f
152
175 175
Furniture & Fittings a/c
31
2002/5 Bank 150 31/5 Bal c/f Sh. 2002 Sh. Sales
3 150 a/c
Sh. 2002 Sh. 2002
150 150 31/5 Bal c/f 352 5/5 Cash 275

23/5 U. Foot 77
352 352
Cash in hand a/c

2002 Sh. 2002 Sh. P Scot a/c
5 /5 Sales 275 10/5 Rent 15 2002
Sh. Sh.
30/5 Wages
117 2002 12/5
31/5 Bal c/f
Stationery 27 31/5 Bal c/f 114 6/5Purchases
114
116
275 275 114 114
Expenses – Rent a/c Expenses – Stationery a/c
2002 Sh. 2002 Sh. 2002 Sh. 2002

Sh.
1/5 Bal c/f 15 10/5 Cash 15 12/5 Cash 27 31/5Bal c/f 27
27 27
Returns – Out a/c

2002 Sh. 2002 Income – Rent a/c Sh. 2002 Sh.
Sh. 2002
31/5 Bal c/f 23 18/5 M Rooks
23 21/5 Bal c/f 5 31/5 Bank
5
32
Debtors – U Foot a/c
2002 Sh. 2002 Motor
23/5 Sales 31/5 Bal c/f vehicle a/c
Sh. 300 31/5 Bal c/f 300
2002 Sh.
2002
Sh.
77 24/5 Bank
2002 Sh. 2002 200

Sh.
30/5 Cash 117 31/5 Cash 44 31/5 Bal c/f 44
31/5 Bal c/f Expenses – Wages a/c
Drawings a/c Sh. 2002
Sh.
117
2.8 Accounting for Drawings, Discounts Allowed and Discounts Received.
Drawings The owner makes drawings from the firm in various ways:
i) Cash or bank withdrawals

When the owner withdraws money from the business we debit drawings and credit
cashbook (cash in hand or cash at bank).
ii) Taking goods for own use and

When the owner takes out some of the goods for his own use, we debit drawings and credit
purchases.
iii) Personal expenses, paid by the business

Here we debit the drawings and credit expense account
Taking some of the other assets from the business e.g. motor vehicles or using part of the premises.
Sometimes the owner may take over some of the assets of the business e.g. vehicle or
converting business premises into living quarters or not paying into the business cash
collected personally from the customers. When this happens we debit drawings and credit
the relevant asset e.g. motor vehicles, premises or some building or even debtors.
Discounts
Discounts received.
33
A discount received is an allowance by the creditors to the firm to encourage the firm to
pay the amount dues within the agreed time. It is an amount deducted from the invoice
price.
When a discount is given by the supplier then we debit creditor’s account and credit
discounts received e.g. A. Ltd sells some goods on credit to B Ltd.Sh.1,000 under the terms
of sale, B Ltd, will receive a discount of 5% if they pay the amount due within one month.
B decides to take up the offer and pays the amount within the given time. B will record
the transaction as follows.
Debit: Creditor – A Ltd

Credit: Discounts Received
Creditor A. Ltd a/c Purchases a/c
2002 Sh. 2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.

Sh. 2002
Disc received 50 Bank 950 Purchases 1,000

A Ltd 1,000
1000 1000
Discounts Received a/c

Bank a/c
Sh.
200 Sh. 2002 2002 Sh.
2002 Sh.
Bal c/f 50 A Ltd 50 A Ltd
950
Discounts Allowed
These are the allowances made by a firm on the amounts receivable from the customers to
encourage prompt payment. The amounts deducted from the sales invoice. In the previous
example when A Ltd issued the discount and was taken up by B the entries will be:
i. Debit - discount allowed ii.
Credit - debtors - B Ltd.
Debtors B Ltd a/c Sales a/c

2002 Sh. 2002 Sh. 2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.
Sales 1,000 Bank 950
34
Discount 50 Debtor 1,000
1,000 1,000
Discount allowed a/c Bank a/c

2002 sh. 2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.
Debtor 50 Bal c/f 50 Debtor 950
2.9 Trial Balance

The trial balance is a simple report that shows the list of account balances classified as per
the debits and credits. The purpose of the trial balance is to show the accuracy of the
double entries made and to facilitate the preparation of final accounts i.e. the trading, profit
& loss account and a statement of financial position.
The debits of the trial balance should be the same as the credits; if not then there is an error
in one or more of the accounts.
The trial balance in example 1.8 would be extracted as follows:
Name
Trial balance as at 31 May 2002
Debit Credit
Sh. Sh.
Rent – income 5
Debtor – U Foot 7
Motor vehicle 300
Bank 1555
Purchases 289
Wages 117
Capital 2000
Creditor – M Rooks 152
Furniture & Fittings 150
Sales 352
Cash in hand 72
Creditor – P Scot 114
Expenses – Rent 15
Expenses – 27
Stationery
Returns Outwards 23
Drawings 44 .
2464 2464
From the trial balance please note that assets and expenses are on the debit side. Capital,
liabilities and incomes are normally listed on the credit side.
The next example is a detailed one that shows extracting of trial balance once all the
postings have been made in the relevant accounts.
35
Example7.2
Write up the following transactions in the books of S Pink:
2003
March 1 Started business with cash Sh.1,000.
“ 2 Bought goods on credit from A Cliks Sh.296.
“ 4 Paid Sh.1,000 of the cash of the firm into a bank account.
“ 5 Sold goods on credit to J Simpson Sh.54.
“ 7 Bought stationery Sh.15 paying by cheque.
“ 11 Cash sales Sh.49.
“ 14 Goods returned by us to A Cliks Sh.17.
“ 17 Sold goods on credit to P Lutz Sh.29.
“ 20 Paid for repairs to the building by cash Sh.18.
“ 22 J Simpson returned goods to us Sh.14.
“ 27 Paid A Cliks by cheque Sh.279.
“ 28 Cash purchases Sh.125.
“ 29 Bought a motor vehicle paying by cheque Sh.395.
“ 30 Paid motor expenses in cash Sh.15.
“ 31 Bought fixtures Sh.120 on credit from R west.
Solutions
Capital a/c
2003 Sh. 2003 Cash in hand a/c
Sh. 1/3 Cash 1,500 Sh. 2003 Sh. 2003
31/3bal c/d 1,500
1/3 Capital 1,500 3/3 Rent 28
1/3 Sales 49 4/3 Bank 1,000
20/3 Repairs 18
28/3 Purchases 125
30/3 Motor exp. 15
31/3 Bal c/d 363
1,549 1,549
Purchases a/c
36
h.
2003 S 2003
/3 Hanson 296 31/3 Bal
Sh. c/d 421
2 Creditors – A Cliks ac
28/3 Cash 125
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.

421 421 14/3 Returns out 17 2/3 Purchases 296
27/3 Bank 279
296 296
Rent –Expenses a/c Bank a/c

2003 Sh. 2003 Sh. 2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.
3/3 Cash 28 31/3 Bal c/d 28 3 Cash 1,000 5/3 Stationery 15
27/3 A. Hanson 279
29/3 Motor van 395
31/3 Bal c/d 311
1,000 1,000
Debtor – J Simpson a/c
Sh. 2002
2003
3 31/3 Bal c/d 11/3 Sales 49
17/3 P Lutz 29
Sales a/c
Sh. 2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.
/3 sales 54 22/3 Returns in 14 31/3 Bal c/d 132 5/3 JSimpson 54
40
54 54
132 132
Stationery a/c
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh. Returns outwards a/c
7/3 Bank 15 31/3 Bal c/d 15
2003 Sh. 2003
Sh.
/3 Bal c/d 17 14/3 A Cliks 17
P Lutz – Debtor a Building repairs - expenses
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.

2003 Sh.
37
17/3 Sales 29 21/3 Bal c/d 29 20/3 Cash 18 31/3 Bal c/d 18
Returns - Inwards
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh. 2003

Sh.
Motor
vehicle Sh. 2003
22/3 J Simpson 14 31/3 Bal c/d 14 29/3 Bank 395 31/3 Bal c/d 395
R West – Creditor (others) Motor expenses
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.

Sh. 2003
30/3 Cash
31/3 Bal c/d 15 Sh. 2003
15
31/3 Bal c/d 120 31/3 Fixtures 120
Fixtures
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.
31/3 A. Webster 120 31/3 Bal c/d 120
Pinks
Trial Balance As At 31 March 2003
Debit Credit (Sh.)

(Sh.)
Capital 1500
Purchases 421
Cash in hand 363
Bank 311
Rent expense 28
Sales 132
38
Fixtures 120
Debtor – J Simpson 40
Debtor – P Lutz 29
Motor vehicle 395
Creditors - -
Motor expenses 15
Returns inwards 14
Creditors others – R West 120
Stationery 15
Returns outwards 17
Building repairs 18 -
1769 1769
Example 8.2
The following transactions took place during the month of May:
2003
May 1 Started firm with capital in cash of Sh.250.
“ 2 Bought goods on credit from the following persons: R Kelly Sh.54;
Pcombs Sh.87;
J Role Sh.25; D Mobile Sh.76; I. Sims Sh.64.
“ 4 Sold goods on credit to: C Blanes Sh.43; B Long Sh.62; F Skin Sh.176.
“ 9 C Blanes paid us his account by cheque Sh.43.
“ 10 F Skin paid us Sh.150 by cheque.
“ 12 We paid the following by cheque: J Role Sh.25; R Kelley Sh.54.
“ 15 Paid carriage by cash Sh.23.
“ Bought goods on credit from P Combs Sh.43; Mobile Sh.110.
18
“ Sold goods on credit to B Long Sh.67.
21
“ Paid rent by cheque Sh.18.
31
Soluti
on
Capital Cash in Hand
39
200 Sh. 200 200 Sh. Sh. 200 Sh.
3 3 3 3
31/5 Bal 250 1/5 Cash
1/5 Capita
250 250 6/5 Rent 12
c/d l
15/ Carriage 23
5
. 31/ Bal c/d
5
250
Creditor R Kelly Creditor P Combs
200 Sh. 200 200 Sh. Sh. 2003 Sh.

3 3 3
12/5 Bank 54 2/5 31/5
Purchas
Bal c/d
54 130 2/5 Purchas 87
es es
. 18/5 Purchas 43
es
130 13
0
Creditor – J Creditor – D Mobile

Role
200 Sh. 200 Sh. Sh. 200 Sh.

3 3 3
12/5 Bank 25 2/5 Purchas
31/5 Bal
25 c/d 186 2/5 Purchas 76
es es
. 18/ Purchas
5 es
186
Creditor I Sims Debtor C. Blares
200 Sh. 200 200 Sh. Sh. 200 Sh.

3 3 3 3
31/ Bal c/d 64 2/5 Purchas
4/5 Sales
64 43 4/5 Bank 43
5 es
Debtor B Long Debtor F Smith
40
200 Sh. 200 200 Sh. Sh. 200 Sh.
3 3 3 3
4/5 Sales 62 31/ Bal
4/5 c/d Sales
129 176 10/ Bank 15
5 5 0
21/5 Sales 67 . . 31/ Bal c/d 26
129 129 5
176 17
6
Purchases Sales
2003 Sh. 20 200 Sh. Sh. 200 Sh.

03 3 3
2/5 R Kelly 54 31 Bal
31/5c/d Bal45c/f 348 4/5 C Blanes 43
/5 9
2/5 P 87 4/5 F Long 62
Combs 4/5 F Skin 17
2/5 J Role 25
6
2/5 D 76 4/5 B Long 67
Mobile .
2/5 L Sims 64 34
18/5 P 43 8
Combs
18/5 D. 100 .
Mobile
459 459
Bank Carriage Expenses
2 Sh. 2003 S 2003 Sh. 200 Sh.

0 h 3
0 . 15/5 Cash 23 31/ Bal c/d 23
3 5
9 1 J Role 2
/ C 43 2 5
5 Blan /
es 5
1HF 1 R Kelly 5
0 150 2 4
/ Skin /
5 5
3 Rent 1
1 8
41
/
5
. 3 Bal c/d 9
1 6
/
5
193 1
9
3
Rent
19x Sh. 19x Sh.

66
6/5 Cash 12 31/ Bal c/d 30
5
31/5 Bank 18 .
30
30
Trial Balance as at 31/5/2003

Debit Credit
Capital - 250
Cash 215 -
Creditor-P Comb - 130
Creditor – D Mobile - 186
Creditor-L. Simms - 64
Purchase 459 -
sales - 348
Debtor- B. Long 129 -
Debtor-F Skin 26 -
Bank 96 -
Carriage 23 -
Rent 30 -
978 978
42
Questions One
C Kings has the following items in his statement of financial position as on 30 June
2002.
Capital Sh.41,800, Creditors Sh.3,200, Fixtures Sh.7,000, Motor Vehicles Sh.8,400,
Stock of goods Sh.9,900, Debtors Sh.6,500, Cash at bank Sh.12,900 and Cash in hand
Sh.240.
During the first week of July 2002:

a. He bought extra stock of goods Sh.1,540 on credit.
b. One of the debtors paid him Sh.560 in cash.
c. He bought extra fixture by cheque Sh.2,000.
You are to draw up a statement of financial position as on 7 July 2002 after the above
transactions have been completed.
(10 marks)
Question two
a) Explain the nature of accounting and the accounting equation (8 marks)
b) Calculate the profit for the year ended 31 December 2001 from the following
information
(12 marks)
Non Current Assets 01.01.2001 31.12.2001

Sh. Sh.
Property 20,000.00 20,000.00
Machinery 6,000.00 9,000.00
26,000.00 29,000.00
Current Assets: Debtors
8,000.00
4,000.00
Cash 1,000.00 1,500.00
5,000.00 9,500.00
Current Liabilities:
Creditors 5,000.00 3,000.00
Overdraft 6,000.00 9,000.00
11,000.00 12,000.00
Net Current Liabilities (6,000.00) (2,500.00)
Net Assets 20,000.00 26,500.00
Drawings during the year amounted to Sh.4,500.00
Question Two
43
Mary- shop centre, is small business owned by Mary.
During the year to 31 December 2001 the following total transactions occurred:
a) Mary withdrew a total of Sh.10,000.00 in cash

b) Stock in trade was bought, all on credit, for Sh.34,000.00
c) Sales were made totaling 60,000.00 of stock in trade which had cost Sh.37,000.00.
Of these sales Sh.51,000.00 were on credit and Sh.9,000.00 for cash.
d) A total of Sh.16,000.00 was drawn from the bank in cash to the cash till.
e) Electricity for the year paid by cheque totaled Sh.2,000.00
f) Rates for the year paid by cheque totaled Sh.1,000.00
g) Wages for the year all paid cash totaled Sh.10,000.00
h) Sundry expenses all paid in cash totaled Sh.2,000.00
i) Creditors were paid a total of Sh.36,000.00 all by cheque
j) Debtors paid a total of Sh.54,000.00 all in cheques.
k) The bank charged interest on the loan deducting Sh.3,000.00.
Required:
Enter the above transactions in appropriate accounts. (20 marks)
Question Three
Brian Barmouth is a sole trader. At 30 June 2000 the following balances have been
extracted from his books:
Sh.
Sales 47,600.00
Purchases 22,850.00
Office expenses 1,900.00
Insurance 700.00
Wages 7,900.00
Rates 2,800.00
1,200.00
Heating and Lighting Telephone
650.00
Discounts allowed
1,150.00
Opening stock
500.00
Returns inwards
200.00
Returns outwards
150.00
Premises
40,000.00
Plant and Machinery 5,000.00
Motor Vehicles 12,000.00
Debtors 12,500.00
Bank balance 7,800.00
Creditors 3,400.00
Loan-long term loan 10,000.00
Capital 60,000.00
Drawings for the year 4,000.00
44
Closing stock 550.00
Required: Prepare a trial balance, from the above list of balances.
2.11 References
5-14,15-52.
New York; Prentice Hall. pages 6-12, 44-45
• Heinz and Party,College Accounting, (18th Edition).pages 6-12.
45
TOPIC 3: SOURCE DOCUMENTS AND BOOKS OF ORGINAL ENTRY
Learning Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter you will e able to b
• Identify the main data sources and records in an accounting system
• Describe the content and purpose of different types of business documentation
• Record transactions using the day books
• Post day books totals to the ledgers accounts
• Explain division of the ledger accounts
3.1 Definition and Purpose
A book of original entry is a book of record in which transactions are recorded as they
occur on a daily basis and in a chronological order, before they are posted to the relevant
accounts in the ledger. These books are also known as books of prime entry as transactions
are first recorded in them before they are posted to the accounts in the ledger.
Information from source documents is first recorded in such books before being posted to
the ledger. These books act as aid to the ledger in respect of certain transactions which
cannot be posted directly to the ledger. They are minor or subsidiary to the ledger which
remains the main book of account.
3.2 Source Documents

This shows the evidence transactions. They are collected, filed and posted in the books of
prime entry. Example, if a firm sells goods on credit, then an invoice is raised. The source
documents as shown in the above include:
 Sales invoice
 Purchases invoice
 Credit note
 Debit note
 Receipts, cheques and petty cash vouchers  Other correspondences.
(i) Sales Invoice

The sales invoice is raised by the firm and sent to the debtor/customer when the firm
makes a credit sale.
The sales invoice contains the following:
i. Name and address of the firm
ii. Name and address of the buying firm
iii. Date of making the sale – invoice date. iv. Invoice number
v. Amount due (net of trade discount) vi.
Description of goods sold
46
vii. Terms of sale
(ii) Purchases Invoice

A purchase invoice is raised by the creditor and sent to the firm when the firm makes a
credit purchase. It shows the following:
i. Name and the address of the creditor/seller
ii. Name and address of the firm
iii. Date of the purchase (invoice date)
iv. Invoice number
v. Amount due
vi. Description of goods sold
vii. Terms of sale
(iii) Credit note

A credit note is raised by the firm and issued to the debtor when the debtor returns some
goods back to the firm. It’s contents include:
ii. Name and address of the debtor
iii. Amount of credit iv. Credit note number
v. Reason for credit e.g. if goods sent but of the wrong type.
The purpose of the credit note is to inform the debtor or customer that the debtor’s
account with the firm has been credited i.e. the amount due to the firm has been reduced
or cancelled.
The credit note may also be issued when the firm gives an allowance of the amounts due
from the debtors. From the context we can assume that all credit notes are issued when
goods are returned.
(iv) Debit note

This is raised by the creditor and issued to the firm when the firm returns some goods
to the creditor. It includes the following items:
ii. Name and address of the creditor
iii. Amount of debit
iv. Debit Note number
v. Reason for the debit
The purpose of the debit note is to inform the firm that the amount due to the creditor
has been reduced or cancelled.
The The
Firm Credit sales (sales invoice) Debtor
Returns inwards (credit note)
47
Credit purchase (purchase invoice)
The
The Creditor
Firm
Returns outwards (debit note)
(vi) Receipts
A receipt is raised by the firm and issued to customers or debtors when they make
payments in the form of cash or cheques. It shows:
i. The name and address of the firm

ii. The date of the receipt
iii. Amount received (cash or cheque or other means of payment)
iv. Receipt number.
Cheques
When a firm opens a current account with the bank, a chequebook containing cheques
issued. The cheques allow the firm to make payments against the account with the bank.
When a firm issues a cheque to its creditors for payments, it authorizes the bank to honour
payments against the firm’s account with the bank. The cheque contains the following
information:
i. Name and account number of the firm (account holder)
ii. The date of the cheque
iii. Name of the payee (creditor)
iv. Name of the firm’s bank
v. Amount payable in words and figures
vi. The cheque number
vii. The authorized signature(s)
Petty cash vouchers

A petty cash voucher is raised by a cashier to seek authority for payments (payments of
small value in the firm which require cash payments e.g. fuel, bus-fare, office snacks),
which is approved by a senior manager and filed for record purpose. It shows:
i. Date of payment
ii. Amount paid
iii. Reason for payment
iv. Authorized signature(s):
v. Person approving
vi. Person receiving
The person receiving the money must then return a document supporting how the money
was utilized e.g. fuel receipt, bus ticket e.t.c.
(vii) Other correspondence
48
These include information received within or outside the firm that has a financ ia l
implication in the accounts. Examples are:
i. Letters from the firm’s lawyers about a debtors balance. ii. Hire-purchase/cred it
sale or credit purchase agreements that relate to noncurrent assets. iii.
Memorandum from a senior manager requiring changes to be made in the
accounts.
iv. Bank statement from the bank, e.g. bank charges.
3.3 Books of Prime Entry

They record the source documents.
Sales Journal
It is also called a Sales Day Book. It records all the sales invoices issued by the firm during
a particular financial period. The format is as follows (with simple records of invoice).
Sales Journal Page 5
Date 19x 8 Detail Folio Amount Sh.
1st March S.Spikes SL.10 200
3rd March T.Binns SL.19 350.00
5th March L.Thompson SL.8 150.00
Total 700.00
The individual entries in the sales journal are posted to the debit side of the debtor’s
accounts in the sales ledger and the total is posted on the credit side of the sales account in
the general ledger.
This is shown below:
Sales Ledger General Ledger
S Spikes Gener Acco nt al u

19x8 Sh. 19x8 Sh. 19x8 Sh. 19x8 Sh.
49
1/3 Sales 200 5/3 Credit sales 700
for period
Sales L dger e
T Binu s
19x8 Sh. 19x8
3/3 Sales 350
19x8 Sh. 19x8 Sh. 3/3 Sales 150

L Thompson
Example 1.3
You are to enter up the sales journal from the following details. Post the items to the
relevant accounts in the sales ledger and then show the transfer to the sales account in the
general ledger.
2003
Mar 1 Credit sales to J Gordon Sh.1,870
“ 36 Credit sales to G Abrahams Sh.1,660
“ 10 Credit sales to V White Sh.120
“ Credit sales to J Gordon Sh.550
“ 17 Credit sales to F Williams Sh.2,890
“ 19 Credit sales to U Richards Sh.660
“ 27 Credit sales to V Wood Sh.280
“ 31 Credit sales to L Simes Sh.780
Answer
Sales Journal Page 10

Date (2003) Detail Folio Amount
1st March J. Gordon 1,870.00
3rd March G.Abrahams 1,6660.00
6th March V.White 120.00
10th March J. Gordon 550.00
17th March F.Williams 2,890.00
19 March U. Richards 660.00
27th March V.Wood 280.00
31st March L.Simes 780.00
8,810.00
Sales Ledger
50
J Gordon U Richards
2003 Sh. 2003 2003 Sh. Sh. 2003 Sh.

1/3 1570 19/3 Sales 660
10/3 550
V Wood
G Abrahams
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.
27/3 Sales 280
3/3 Sales 1,660
L Simes
U White
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.
2003 Sh. 2003 Sh.
31/3 Sales 750
6/3 Sales 120
F Williams Sales a/c

2003 Sh. 2003 Sh. 2003 Sh. 2003 Sh. 17/3 Sales 2890 Credit
Sales
Purchases Journal
Purchases journal is also called a purchases day-book. It records all the purchase invoices
received by the firm during a particular financial period. It has the following format
(including records of invoices).
Purchase Journal Page 15

DATE 19x 6 Description/Detail Folio Amount
1st May C.Kelly PL.10 400
2nd May L.Smailes PL.20 350
Total 750
The individual entries in the purchases journal are posted to the credit side of the creditor’s
accounts in the purchases ledger and the total is posted to the debit side of purchases
account of the general ledger. This is shown below:
C Kelly Purchases a/c
19x6 Sh. 19x6 19x6 Sh. Sh. 19x6 Sh.

1/5 31/5 400
Purchases Sundry 750
Creditors
L Smailes
51
19x6 Sh. 19x6 Sh.
2/5 Purchases 250
Returns Inwards Journal

It is also called the returns inwards day-book. It records all the credit notes raised by the
firm and sent to customers during a particular financial period, it has the following format.
Returns Inwards Journal Page 10

Date Detail Folio Amount Sh.)
1st March S.Spikes SL.22 20
2nd March C.Kelly SL.18 18
5th March T.Bills SL.9 15
Total 15
Individual entries in a return inwards journal are posted to the credit of the debtors accounts
in the sales ledger and the total is posted to the debit side of the return-inwards account of
the general ledger
Sales Ledger Sh. Sh.

Sh. Sh.
31/3 Sundry 53
1/3 Returns In 20
Debtors
General Ledger
C Kelly a/c
S. Spikes a/c Returns Inwards a/c
T. Bills a/c
Sh. Sh. Sh. Sh.
2/3 Returns In 18 5/3 Returns 15
In
Returns Outwards Journal

It is also called the returns outwards daybook. It records all the debit notes received by the
firm from the creditors during a particular financial period. It has the following format.
52
Returns outwards
journal
Date Detail Folio Ampunt(Sh)
2nd May L.Thompson PL.15 14

3rd May M.Hyatt PL.10 12
4th May T.Bills PL.7 19

Total 35
Individual entries are posted on the debit side of the creditors account in the purchases
ledger and on the total to credit side of the returns outwards account in the general ledger.
Purchases Ledger General Ledger

L. Thompson a/c
` Sh. Returns Outwards a/c
2
Sh. Sh. Sh.

/5 Returns out 14 31/5 sundry
creditors 35
M. Hyatt a/c
Sh. Sh.
3/5 Returns out 12
T. Bills a/c
Sh. Sh.
4/5 Returns Out 19
The following example 2.5 shows how the four journals are used.
Example 2.3
53
You are to enter the following items in the books, post to personal accounts, and show
transfers to the general ledger.
19x5
July 1 Credit purchases from: K Hill Sh.3800; M Norman Sh.500; N Senior
Sh.106.
“ 3 Credit sales to: E Rigby Sh.510; E Phillips Sh.246; F Thompson Sh.356.
5 Credit purchases from: R Morton Sh.200; J Cook Sh.180; D Edwards
Sh.410; C Davies Sh.66.
“ 8 Credit sales to: A Green Sh.307; H George Sh.250; J Ferguson Sh.185.
“ 12 Returns outwards to: M Norman Sh.30; N Senior Sh.16.
“ 14 Returns inwards from: E Phillips Sh.18; F Thompson Sh.22.
“ 20 Credit sales to: E Phillips Sh.188; F Powell Sh.310; E Lee Sh.420.
“ 24 Credit purchases from: Ferguson Sh.550; K Ennevor Sh.900.
“ 31 Returns inwards from: E Phillips Sh.27; E. Rigby Sh.30.
“ 31 Returns outwards to: J Cook Sh.13; C Davies Sh.11.
Study the solution provided:
Sales Journal
Date Detail Amount(Sh)
3rd July E.Rigby 510
3rd July E.Phillips 246
3rd July F.Thomspson 356
8th July A.Green 307
8th July H.George 250
8 July J.Ferguson 185
20th July E.Phillips 188
20th July F.Powell 310
20th July E.Lee 420
Total 2,772
Sales Ledger
E Rigby E Phillips
19x5 Sh. 19x5 19x5 Sh. Sh. 19x5 Sh.

3/7 Sales 510 3/7 Returns
3/7 Sales
30 246 14/7 Returns 18
Inwards
20/7 Sales 188 31/7 27
Retuns in
F. Thompson
J. Ferguson
54
19x5 Sh. 19x5 19x5 Sh. Sh. 19x5 Sh.
3/7 Sales 356 14/7 Returns
8/7 22 Sales 185
in
Green F. Powell
19x5 Sh. 19x5 19x5 Sh. Sh. 19x5 Sh.
8/7 Sales 307 20/7 Sales 310
H George E Lee
19x5 19x5 Sh. 19x5 Sh. 19x5 Sh.
8/7 Sales 250 20/7 Sales 420
Purchase Journal
Date Detail Amount(Sh)
1st July K.Hill 380
1st July M.Normarn 500
1st July N.Senior 106
5th July R.Mortan 200
5th July J.Cook 180
5th July D.Edwards 410
5th July C.Davies 66
24th July C.Ferguson 550
24th July K.Ennevor 900
Total 3,292
Purchases Ledger N.
Senior
1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
12/7 Returns out 16 1/7 Purchases
22
M. Norman
1995
Sh. 1995 Sh.
55
500
J. Cook
1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
180
C. Davies
1995
Sh. 1995 Sh.
31/7 Returns out 11 Purchases
5/7 60
K. Hill
1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
1/7 Purchases
380
R. Morton
1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
5/7 Purchases
200
D. Edwards
1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
5/7 Purchases
410
C. Ferguson
1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
27/7 Purchases
550
K. Ennevor
1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
24/7 Purchases
900
56
Returns Inwards Journal
Date Details Amount

14 July E. Phillips 18
14 July F. Thompson 22
31 July E. Phillips 27
31 July E. Rigby 30
97
Returns Outwards Journal
12 July M. Norman 30
12 July N. Senior 16
31 July J. Cook 13
31 July C. Davies 11
70
General Ledger Sales
a/c
1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
31/7 Sundry debtors
2772
Purchases a/c
1995
Sh. 1995 Sh.
31/7 Sundry creditors
3292
Returns Inwards a/c

1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
31/7 Sundry debtors
97
Returns Outwards a/c

1995 1995
Sh. Sh.
31/7 Sundry creditors
70
57
3.5 Cash Books
A cashbook records all the receipts (cash and cheques from customers and debtors or other
sources of income) and all the payments (to creditors or suppliers and other expenses) for
a particular financial period. The cashbook will also show us the cash at bank and cash in
hand position of the firm.
There are two types of cashbooks:
i. Cash in hand cashbook, which records the cash transactions in the firm or business.
ii. Cash at bank cashbook, which records the transactions at/with, the bank.
The cashbook is the most important book of prime entry because it forms part of the general
ledger and records the source documents (receipts and cheques). The cash at bank
cashbook and cash in hand cashbook are combined together to get a two-column cashbook.
The format is as follows:
Two-column cashbook.
CASH BOOK
Date Details Cash Bank Date Details Cash Bank
(Sh) (Sh) (Sh) (Sh)
Additional columns for discounts allowed and discounts received can be included with the
cash at bank columns to get a 3 – column cashbook. The format is as follows:
Date Details Discount Cash Bank Date Discount Details Cash Bank
Allowed (Sh) (Sh) Receive (Sh) (Sh)
The balance carried down (Bal c/d) for cash in hand and cash at bank will form part of the
ledger balances and the discounts allowed and discounts received columns will be added
and the totals posted to the respective discount accounts. The discount allowed total will
be posted to the debit side of the discount allowed account in the general ledger and the
total of the discount received will be posted to the credit side of the discountreceived
account of the general ledger.
58
Cash at bank can have either a credit or debit balance. A debit balance means the firm has
some cash at the bank and a credit balance means that the account at the bank is overdrawn
(the firm owes the bank some money).
Example 3.3
Write up a two-column cashbook from the following details, and balance off as at the end
of the month:
2003
May 1 Started business with capital in
cash Sh.1,000.
“ 3 F Lake lent us Sh.5,000, paid by
cheque.
“ 4 We paid B McKenzie by cheque
Sh.650.
“ 5 Cash sales Sh.980.
“ 7 N Miller paid us by cheque
Sh.620.
“ 9 We paid B Burton in cash Sh.220.
“ 11 Cash sales paid direct into the
bank Sh.530.
“ 15 G Moores paid us in cash Sh.650.
“ 16 We took Sh.500 out of the cash till and paid it into
the bank account.
“ 19 We repaid F Lake Sh.1,000 by cheque.
“ 22 Cash sales paid direct into the bank Sh.660.
“ 26 Paid motor expenses by cheque Sh.120.
“ 30 Withdrew Sh.1,000 cash from the bank for
business use.
“ 31 Paid wages in cash Sh.970.
Cash Book
Cash Bank Cash Bank
Capital 1000 Rent 100
F. Lake 5000 B McKenzie 650
(Loan)
Sales 980 B Burton 220
N Miller 620 Bank C 500
Sales 530 F Lake (loan) 1000
G Moores 650 Motor 120 100
Expenses
Cash C 500 Cash C
Sales 660 Wages 970
Bank C 1000 Balances c/d 1840 4540
3630 7310 3630 7310
59
Example 4.3
A three-column cashbook is to be written up from the following details, balanced off, and
the relevant discount accounts in the general ledger shown.
19x8
Mar 1 Balances brought forward: Cash Sh.230; Bank Sh.4,756.
“ 2 The following paid their accounts by cheque, in each case deducting 5
percent
discounts: R Burton Sh.140; E Taylor Sh.220; R Harris Sh.800.
“ 4 Paid rent by cheque Sh.120.
“ 6 J Cotton lent us Sh.1,000 paying by cheque.
“ 8 We paid the following accounts by cheque in each case deducting a 2 ½ per
cent cash discount: N Black Sh.360; P Towers Sh.480; C Rowse Sh.300.
“ 10 Paid motor expenses in cash Sh.44.

“ 12 H Hankins pays his account of Sh.77, by cheque Sh.74, deducting Sh.3
cash discount.
“ 15 Paid wages in cash Sh.160.
“ 18 The following paid their accounts by cheque, in each case deducting 5 per
cent cash discount: C Winston Sh.260; R Wilson & Son Sh.340; H
Winter Sh.460.
“ 21 Cash withdrawn from the bank Sh.350 for business use.
“ 24 Cash Drawings Sh.120.
“ 25 Paid T Briers his account of Sh.140, by cash Sh.133, having deducted Sh.7
cash discount.
“ 29 Bought fixtures paying by cheque Sh.650.
“ 31 Received commission by cheque Sh.88. solution
Cash Book
Disct Cash Bank Disct Cash Bank
Bank Bal
b/d 230 4756 Rent 120
R Burton 7 133 N Black 9 351
E Taylor 11 209 P Towers 12 468
R Harris 15 285 C Rowse 20 780
J Cotton: loan 1000 Motor expenses 44
H Hankins 3 74 Wages 160

C Winston 13 247 Cash 350
R Wison & 17 323 Drawings 120
Son
H Winter 23 437 T Briers 7 133
Bank 350 Fixtures 650
Commission 88 Balances c/d 123 4833
89 580 7552 48 580 7552
60
Discounts Received
3/1 Sundry Creditors 48
Discounts Allowed
3/1 Sundry 89
Debtors
Petty Cash Book and Imprest System of Accounting.

Petty Cash Book is a record of all the petty cash vouchers raised and kept by the cashier.
The petty cash vouchers will show summary expenses paid by the cashier and this
information is listed and classified in the petty cash book under the headings of the relevant
expenses such as:
 Postage and stationery

 Traveling
 Cleaning expenses.
The format is as shown:
Petty Cash Book

Receipts Date Details Payment Expenses
The Amount
ledger
Postage Stationery Travelling
The balance c/d of the petty cash book will signify the balance of cash in hand or form part
of cash in hand. The totals of the expenses are posted to the debit side of the expense
accounts. If a firm operates another cashbook in addition to the petty cash book, then the
totals of the expenses will also be posted on the credit side of the cash in hand cashbook.
The Imprest system

This system of accounting operates on a simple principle that the cashier is refunded the
exact amount spent on the expenses during a particular financial period. At the beginning
of each period, a cash float is agreed upon and the cashier is given this amount to start with.
Once the cashier makes payments for the period he will get a total of all the payments made
against which he will claim a reimbursement of the same amount that will bring back the
amount to the cash float at the beginning of the period. This is demonstrated as follows:
61
Sh.
Start with (float) 1,000
Expenses paid (720)
Balance 280
Reimbursement 720
Cash float 1,000
Example 5.3
A cashier in a firm starts with Sh.2,000 in the month of March (that is the cash float). I n
the following week, the following payments are made:
Sh.
1st March – bought stamps for 80
2nd March – paid bus fare for 120
2nd March – cleaning materials 240
3rd March – bought fuel 150
3rd March – cleaning wages 300
4th March – bought stamps 200
4th March – paid L. Thompson (creditor) 400
5 March – fuel costs
th 150
th
On the 5 of March the cashier requested for a refund of the cash spent and this amount
was reimbursed back.
Required:
Prepare a detailed petty cash book showing the balance to be carried forward to the next
period and the relevant expense accounts, as they would appear on the General Ledger.
Solution
Receipts Date Detail Payments Expenses THE

LEDGER
Amount Postage Cleaning Travel
(Sh.) (Sh.) (Sh.) (Sh.) (Sh.) (Sh.)
2000 1/3 Bal b/d
1/3 Stamps 80 80
2/3 Bus Fare 120 120
2/3 Cleaning 240 240
Materials
3/3 Fuel 150 150
3/3 Cleaning wages 300 300
4/3 Stamps 200 200
4/3 L Thompson 400 400
5/3 Fuel 150 . . 150 .
1640 280 540 420 400
62
1640 5/3
5/3 Bal c/d 2000
3640 3640
2000 6/3 Bal b/d
3.6 The General Journal

It records information from other correspondence (information that is not recorded in the
above books of prime entry). It explains the type of entries that will be made in the ledger
accounts giving a reason for these entries.
The type of transactions recorded here are:
i. Writing off of assets from the accounts e.g. bad-debts. ii. Drawings for goods or
other assets from the business by the owner, not cash drawings.
iii. Purchase or sale of non-current assets on credit.
The format is as shown:
The General Journal
General Journal
Date Detail Debit Credit

1st March Account to be debit X
Account to be X
credited (Narrative)
Example 6.3
You are to show the journal entries necessary to record the following items:
• 2003 May 1 Bought a motor vehicle on credit from Motors Ltd for Sh.6,790.
• 2003 May 3 A debt of Sh.34 owing from N Smart was written off as a bad debt.
2003 May 8 Furniture bought by us for Sh.490 was returned to the supplier Wood
Offices, as it was unsuitable. Full allowance will be given us.
• 2003 May 12 we are owed Sh.150 by W Hayes. He is declared bankrupt and we
received
• Sh.39 in full settlement of the debt.
• 2003 May 14 we take Sh.45 goods out of the business stock without paying for
them.
• 2003 May 28 Some time ago we paid an insurance bill thinking that it was all in
respect
• of the business. We now discover that Sh.76 of the amount paid was in fact
insurance of our private house.
63
• 2003 May 28 Bought Machinery Sh.980 on credit from Xerox Machines Ltd.
a. Answer
General Journal
Date Detail Debit (Sh.) Credit
1st May Motor Vehicle 6,790
Motor Ltd. 6,790
Motor vehicle
bought n credit
From Moor Ltd.
3rd May Bad debts 34
N Smart-Debtors 34
Amount due from N
Smart
Written off as bad
8th May Wood offices 490
Furniture 490
Office furniture
returned to Wood
office
12th May Bad debts 111
W.Hayes amount 111
owed now written
off as bad debt.
14th May Drawing for goods 45

Purchase 45
Goods taken from
the business
for personal
use.
8th May Drawings 76
Insurance Expe 76
Insurance relating to
private house now
transferred to
drawings.
28th May Machinery Xerox 980
Machines 980
Machinery
bought from
Xerox Machines
64
3.7 The Ledger
The ledger is simply the accounts. The Ledger is classified into 3 main classes.
1. Sales Ledger, which has the accounts of all the debtors.
2. Purchases Ledger, which has the accounts of all the creditors.
3. The General Ledger. Have all the other accounts i.e. other assets, liability, incomes
and expenses and capital.
The ledger accounts can also be classified as follows:
Ledger
Accounts
Impersonal
Accounts
Personal
Accounts
Real Normal
Accounts Accounts
Debtors Creditors Non-current other liability

(for goods) (For goods) Liabilities
Other assets
Income
assets Expenses
Inventories/ Stocks
Capital
65
Question One
Mr J Ockey commenced trading as a wholesaler stationer on 1 May 2000 with a capital of
Sh.5, 000.00 with which he opened a bank account for his business.
During May the following transactions took place.
May 1 Bought shop fittings and fixtures from store fitments Ltd for Sh.2,000.00
May 2 Purchased goods on credit from Abel Sh.650.00
May 4 Sold goods on credit to Bruce Sh.700.00
May 9 Purchased goods on credit from Green Sh.300.00
May 11 Sold goods on credit to Hill Sh.580.00
May 13 Cash sales paid into bank account Sh.200.00
May 16 Received cheque from Bruce in settlement of
his account
May 17 Purchased goods on credit from Kay
Sh.800.00
May 18 Sold goods on credit to Nailor Sh.360.00
May 19 Sent Cheque to Abel in settlement of his account
May 20 Paid rent by cheque Sh.200.00
May 21 Paid delivery expenses by cheque Sh.50.00
May 24 Received from Hill Sh.200.00 on account
May 30 Drew cheque for personal expenses Sh.200.00 and assistant
Sh.320.00 wages
May 31 Settled the account of Green.
Required
a) Record the transactions in the books of prime entry.
b) Post the entries in the ledger accounts
c) Balance the ledger accounts where necessary
d) Extract a trial balance as at 31 May 2000.
3.9 References
107-164
New York; Prentice Hall. pages 49-57
• Heinz and Party,College Accounting, (18th Edition).pages 47-52.
66
TOPIC 4: CONTROL ACCOUNTS
Learning Objectives:
Upon completion of this topic you will be able to:
• Define self-balancing ledgers and explain their purpose
• Explain control accounts and prepare debtors and creditors control account
4.1 Introduction
Control accounts are so called because they control a section of the ledgers. By control we
mean that the total on the control accounts should be the same as the totals on the ledger
accounts. There are two main types of control accounts:
(i) Sales ledger control Account – also called total debtors. The balance on the sales
ledger control account should be the same as the total of the balances in the sale
ledger.
(ii) Purchases Ledger Control Account – also called total creditors .The balance
carried down (Bal c/d) on the purchases Ledger Control Account should be the
same as the total of the balances in the purchases ledger.
Example (Sales Ledger Control a/c)
Sales Ledger Control A/c
Sales = 200 + 300 + 400 + 500

Sales 1400 CashBookCashbook
700 = 50 + 100 + 250 + 300
Bal C/D Balance
700c/d = 150 + 150 + 200 + 200
1400 1400
67
Sales Ledger
Debtor A a/c
Sales 200 C/B 50

Bal c/d 150
200 200
Debtor B a/c
Sales 400 C/B 250

Bal c/d 150
400 400
Debtor C a/c
Sales 300 C/B 100

Bal c/d 200
300 300
Debtor D a/c
Sales 500 C/B 300

Bal c/d 200
500 500
Example 4.1 Purchases Ledger Control a/c
Purchases Ledger Control a/c
C/B 1900 Purchases 2600

Bal c/d 700
2600 2600
Purchases Ledger
Creditor A

Bal c/d 200
600 600
68
Creditor B

Bal c/d 250
700 700
itor C
Cred

Bal c/d 150
500 500
Creditor D

Bal c/d 100
800 800
Purpose of Control Accounts

1. Provide for arithmetical check on the postings made in the individual accounts
(either in the sales ledger or purchases ledger.)
2. To provide for a quick total of the balances to be shown in the trial balance as
debtors and creditors.
3. To detect and prevent errors and frauds in the customers and suppliers account.
4. To facilitate delegation of duties among the debtors and creditors clerks.
4.2 Format of a Sales Ledger Control

Sales Ledger Control a/c
1. Balance b/d of the total debit 1. Total credit balances of the sales
balances from previous period ledger brought forward
2. Total credit sales for the period (from 2. Total cash received from credit
the sales journal) customers/debtors (from cash
book)
3. Refunds to (from 3. Total cheques received from credit
customers cashbook) customers/debtors (from cash
book)
69
4. Dishonored cheques (from 4. Total returns-inward s
cashbook) (returnsinwards journal)
5. Bad debts recovered general (from 5. Total cash discount allowed to
journal) customers (from cash book)
6. Bad debtors written-off (from
general journal)
7. Cash received from bad debtors
recovered (cash book)
8. Purchases Ledger contra
9. Allowances to customers (price

reduction in excess to discounts
allowed)
6. Total credit balances of the sales 10. Total debit balance carried down
Ledger carried forward to the next period – to be derived
after posting all those transactions
Refunds to Customers
Sometimes a firm can refund some cash on the customers account. This takes place when
there is a credit balance on the debtor’s a/c and the customer is not a creditor too. The
entry will be:
Dr. Debtor’s a/c

Cr. Cashbook
Example 4.2
Debtor A
Sh. Sh.
Sales 1000 Cashbook 950
(Refunds) C/B 100 Discounts 50
Returns 100
1100 1100
If the firm has not paid this amount owed to the customer, then it’s carried forward to the
next period then is a credit balance in the customer’s a/c. Therefore, if a firm has several
customer, this information will be shown in the control a/cs as total balance c/f (Debit
side).
Contra against the purchases ledger balances:

Some debtors may also be creditors in the same firm and therefore, if the amount due to
them as creditors is less than what they owe as debtors, then the credit balance is transferred
from their creditors a/c to their debtors a/c as a contra entry.
Example:
Debtor (A)
70
Sales 2000 Contra- purchases 1000 1000
Bal c/d
2000 1100 Contra - Debtor
1000 Purchases
1000 Creditor (A)
4.3 Format of a Purchases Ledger Control Account

Purchases Ledger Control A/C
1. Total debit balances from purchases 1. Total credit balance brought forward
ledger brought forward from (of purchases ledger from the
previous period previous period)
2. Total cash paid to creditors 2. Total credit purchases for the period
(from cash book) (from purchases journal)
3. Total cheques paid to creditors 3. Refunds from suppliers
(from cash book) (from cash book)
4. Total cash discounts received

(from cash book)
5. Allowances by suppliers
6. Sales ledger contra
7. Total returns outwards

(from returns-outwards
journal)
8. Total credit balance 4. Total debit balances (of
(to be derived after posting entries) the purchases ledger carried
forward)
Notes:
The following notes should be taken into consideration:
1) Cash received from cash sales should not be included in sales ledger control a/c.
2) Only cash discounts (allowable & receivables) should be included. Trade discounts
should NOT be included.
3) Provision for doubtful debts is NOT included in the sales ledger control a/c. i.e.
increase or decrease in provisions for doubtful debts will not affect this account.
4) Cash purchases are NOT posted to the Purchases Ledger Control A/C. However in
some cases it can be included especially where there are incomplete records (Topic
to be covered later).
5) Interest due that is charged on over due customers’ account may also be shown on
the debit side of the sales ledger control. However when trying to determine the
turnover under incomplete records then it is wise to omit it.
Example 4.3
71
The balances and transactions affecting the control accounts of Kopesha Ltd. for the month
of November 1997 are listed below:-
Sh.
Balances on 1 November 1997:
Sales ledger 9,123,000 (debit)
211,000 (credit)
Purchases ledger 4,490,000 (credit)
88,000 (debit)
Transactions during November 1997:
Purchases on credit 18,135,000
Allowances from suppliers 629,000
Receipts from customers by cheques 27,370,000
Sale on credit 36,755,000
Discount received 1,105,000
Payments to creditors by cheques 15,413,000
Contra settlements 3,046,000
Bills of exchange receivable 6,506,000
Allowances to customers 1,720,000
Customers cheques dishonored 489,000
Cash received from credit customers 4,201,000
Refunds to customers for overpayments 53,000
Discounts allowed 732,000
Balances on 30 November 1997
Sales ledger 136,000 (credit)
Purchases ledger 67,000 (debit)
Required:
The sales ledger and purchases ledger control accounts for the month of November 1997 and show
the respective debit and credit closing balances on 30 November 1997.
Kopesha Ltd
Sales Ledger Control A/C

1997 Sh 1997 Sh
1/11 Bal b/d 9,123,000 1/11 Bal b/d 211,000
Sales 36,755,000 Bank 27,370,000
Dishonored cheques
489,000 Contra 3,046,000
Refunds to Bills of exchange
customers 53,000 receivable 6,506,000
Allowances 720,000
Cash 4,201,000
30/11 Bal c/d 30/11 Bal c/d 2,770,000
46,556,000
72
Purchases Ledger Control A/C
1997 Sh 1997 Sh
1/11 Bal b/d 88,000 1/11 Bal b/d 4,490,000
Allowances from Purchases 18,135,000
suppliers 629,000
Discounts received 1,105,000
Bank 15,413,000
Contra settlement 3,046,000
30/11 Bal c/d 30/11 Bal c/d 67,000
22,692,000
Question one
You are required to prepare a purchases ledger control account from the following for the
month of June. The balance of the account is to be taken as the amount of creditors as on
30 June.
2003 Sh.
June 1 Purchases ledger balances 36,760
Totals for June:
Purchases journal 422,570
Returns outwards journal 10,980
Cheques paid to suppliers 387,650
Discounts received from suppliers 8,870 June 30 Purchases ledger
balances ?
Question two
Prepare a sales ledger control account from the following:

Sh.
2003
May 1 Debit balances 64,200
Totals for May:
Sales journal 128,000
Cash and cheques received from debtors 103,700
Debit balances in the sales ledger set off against
credit balances in the purchases ledger 1,450
May 31 Debit balances ?
Credit balances 500
73
4.5 References
Wood, Frank, Business Accounting (17th Edition), International Thompson. Pages

334-345
TOPIC 5: ERRORS AND CORRECTION
Learning Objectives
• Discover and correct errors that do not affect the balancing of the trial balance
• Discover and correct errors that affect the balancing of the trial balance
5.1 Errors that do not affect the ‘balancing’ of Trial Balance

The trial balance produced from the accounts appears to be okay/correct, i.e the debits are
the same as the credits. However, on taking a close check on the balances and transactions
posted, errors may have been made and therefore the balances shown on the trial balance
may be incorrect i.e. under/over stated.
There are 6 main types of errors that don’t affect the trial balance and these are explained
as follows:
a) Error of omission
Here, a transaction is completely omitted from the accounts and therefore the double entry
is not made e.g. a sales invoice of Sh.400 is not posted in the sales journal therefore no
entry is made in the debtor’s account and the sales account i.e. both debit of Sh.400 in
debtor’s account and credit of Sh.400 in the sales account.
The effect of the error is understates both the debtors and the sales. To
correct this error, the transaction is posted in the books by:
Debiting debtors Sh.400

Crediting sales Sh.400
b) Error of Commission
This error occurs when a transaction is posted to a wrong account but the account is of the
same class. Example: a credit sale to T Thompson is posted to L Thompson’s account for
74
an amount of Sh.200. Instead of a debit to T Thompson’s account it is made to L
Thompson’s account and the corresponding credit in the sales account is correct.
Although the debit entry is made into the wrong account, the two accounts are of the same
class i.e. debtors.
To correct this error a transfer is made from L Thompson’s account to T Thompson by:
Sh.
(i) Debit T Thompson a/c 200

(ii) Credit L Thompson a/c 200
c) Error of principle
In this type of error a transaction is posted not only to the wrong account but also of a
different class e.g. Motor vehicle purchased for Sh.400 is posted to the motor vehic le
expenses a/c. (Instead of debiting motor vehicles, we debited motor vehicle expenses a/c
and the credit entry in the cashbook is correct)
The motor vehicles account is a non-current asset, and motor vehicles expenses a/c is an
expense account. Therefore a capital expenditure has been posted as revenue expenditure.
To correct this error a transfer is made from the motor expenses account to the motor
vehicles a/c by:
Sh.
(i) Debit Motor vehicles a/c 400
(ii) Credit Motor expenses a/c 400
d) Complete reversal of entries

A transaction is posted to the correct accounts but to the wrong sides of the accounts i.e. a
debit is posted as a credit and a credit is posted as a debit. Example: cash drawn from the
bank of Sh.150 for business use is posted as a debit in the bank account and credit in cash
in hand.
To correct this error, two entries are made in the relevant accounts:
(i) Correct the error
(ii) Post the transaction correctly
The entries will therefore be as follows:
(i) Debit Cash in hand by Sh.150

Credit bank by Sh.150
To correct the error of Sh.150 posted in the wrong sides of these account
(ii) Debit cash by Sh.150

Credit bank by Sh.150
To post the entries correctly
75
e) Error of Original entry
Here a transaction is posted to the correct accounts but the amount posted is not correct i.e.
it is either under/over stated. In some cases, this is known as a transposition error e.g. cash
received from a debtor of Sh.980 is credited/posted to the customer’s account as Sh.890.
To correct this error, the amount understated or overstated is posted to these accounts to
reflect the correct balance. In this case, we will:
Sh.
Debit cash book 90
Credit debtors 90
f) Compensating Errors
These are errors that tend to cancel out each other i.e. if the effect of one error is to
understate the debits or credits then another error may take place to overstate the debits or
credits by the same amount, hence canceling out each other. E.g. if the balance c/d of the
purchases a/c is Sh.3,980 but shown in the trial balance as Sh.3,890 and another error
carried to the trial balance of fixture amounting to Sh.4,540 instead of Sh.4,450:
Sh.
Purchases 3,980
3,890
(90)
Sh.
Fixtures 4,450
(4,540)
90
This type of error is corrected by use of a suspense account.
Example 5.1
Give the journal entries needed to record the corrections of the following. Narratives are
required.
a) Extra capital of Sh.10, 000 paid into the bank had been credited to Sales account.
b) Goods taken for own use Sh.700 had been debited to General Expenses.
c) Private insurance Sh.89 had been debited to Insurance account.
d) A purchase of goods from C Kelly Sh.857 had been entered in the books as Sh.587.
e) Cash banked Sh.390 had been credited to the bank column and debited to the cash
column in the cashbook.
f) Cash drawings of Sh.400 had been credited to the bank column of the cashbook.
g) Returns inwards Sh.168 from M McCarthy had been entered in error in J Charlton’s
account.
h) A sale of a motor van Sh.1, 000 had been credited to Motor Expenses.
Solution
The Journal
Debit Credit
76
Sales 10,000
Capital 10,000
Additional capital passed into sales a/c
now transferred to capital a/c
Drawings 700
General expenses 700
Drawings debited in general expense
now transferred to drawing a/c
Drawings 89
Insurance 89
Private insurance transferred from
insurance a/c to drawings a/c
Purchases 270
C Kelly 270
Purchases and creditors amount to 857
initially entered as Sh.587
Bank 390
Cash 390
Correct error in posting
Bank 390
Cash 390
To post the cash banked correctly
Bank 400
Cash 400
Cash drawings correctly started from
bank to cash J Charlton
168
M McCarthy
Returns in from McCarthy entered in
error in J Carlton now transferred to his 168
a/c 1000
Motor expenses 1000
Motor disposal a/c
To correct error in recording sales
proceeds In expense account
5.2 Errors that affect the ‘balancing’ of Trial Balance and Suspense Account
These types of errors are reflected on the trial balance because the debits will not be same
as the credits. The debits may be more than the credits and vice versa. Examples include:
1. Transaction is posted on one side of the accounts i.e. only a debit entry or a credit entry.
Example cash received from a debtor is debited to the cashbook and no other entry is
made in the account, i.e. no credit entry on the debtor’s a/c.
77
2. A transaction is posted on one side of both the accounts i.e. two debits or two credits.
Example a payment to a creditor of Sh.300 is credited in the cashbook and also credited
in the creditor’s accounts.
3. A transaction is posted correctly but different amounts i.e. debit is not the same as the
credit. Example – cash received from a debtor of Sh.450 is debited in the cashbook as
Sh.450 and credited as Sh.540 in the debtor’s a/c.
4. Error on balances of accounts – i.e. understatement or overstatement of an account
balance due to mathematical errors.
5. Balance on an account is shown on the wrong side of the account when opening the
ledger accounts or when taken up to the trial balance. Example Bal c/d in the cash book
for cash at bank of Sh.2000 is shown as a credit i.e. an overdraft, instead of a debit in
the trial balance. The balance may also be brought down as an overdraft instead of a
debit balance in the trial balance.
6. A balance is omitted from the trial balance on the accounts in total.
To correct the above errors, the appropriate or the adjusting entries are made through an
account called a suspense account.
The difference in the accounts is posted to this account and the entries to correct the
accounts are posted here. The balance to be shown on the suspense accounts depends on
which side the error is shown on the trial balance.
If the debits credits, then an amount is included on the credit side of the trial balance so
that the debits = credits. This is a credit balance and will be taken to the suspense account
on the credit side.
Example 5.2
DR CR
Total 240 200 Suspense - 40
240 240
Suspense a/c
Sh. Sh.
Difference as per T/B 40
If the credits are more than the debits this is a debit balance and therefore we require an
amount to be added to the total of the debits for the two side to be same. This debit balance
is posted to the debit side of the suspense a/c.
DR CR
Total 260 300
Suspense 40 -
300 300
Suspense a/c
78
Sh. Sh.
Difference as per T/B 40
Posting the correct entries should eliminate the balance on the suspense account.
In some cases, after checking for all errors that can affect the trial balance, the suspense a/c
has a balance. This balance depends on whether it is a credit or debit and whether it is
material or not for purposes of proper accounting treatment. The following is the
recommended approach:
Balance Material Not Material

Debit Show as an asset (eg) other Charge in P& L as an
debtors expense
Credit Show as a liability (eg) other Report as income in P&L
creditors
Example 5.3
A bookkeeper extracted a trial balance on 31 December 2002 that failed to agree by Sh.3,
300, a shortage on the credit side of the trial balance. A suspense account was opened for
the difference.
In January 2003 the following errors made in 2003 were found:
(i) Sales daybook had been undercast by Sh.1, 000.
(ii) Sales of Sh.2, 500 to J Church had been debited in error to J Chane account.
(iii) Rent account had been undercast by Sh.700.
(iv) Discounts received account had been under cast by Sh.3, 000.
(v) The sale of a motor vehicle at book value had been credited in error to Sales account
Sh.3, 600.
You are required to:
a) Show the journal entries necessary to correct the errors.
b) Draw up the suspense account after the errors described have been corrected.
Journal Entries
Sh. Sh.
Suspense 1,000
Sales ,1000
Sales under cast of Sh.100 now corrected
J Church 2,500
J Chane 2,500
Sale to J Church posted to J Chane corrected
Rent 700
Suspense 700
Under cast in rent balance now corrected
Suspense 3,000
Discount received 3,000
Under cast in discount received balance now corrected
Sales a/c 3,600
Disposal ,3600
79
Sale of motor vehicle entered in sales a/c now corrected
Suspense a/c
Sh. Sh.
Sales 1,000 Bal b/d 3,300
Discount received 3,000 Rent 700
4,000 4,000
5.3 Review Question

Question one
The statement of financial position of N Patel, a sole trader, as at 31 March 2000 was as
follows:
Sh’000 Sh’000 Sh’000 Sh’000

Capital 1 April 1999 1,890 Land and buildings (at
valuation) 1,650
Profit for the year ended 31 Machinery (at cost) 1,200
March 2000 450
Deduct: drawings 150 300 Deduct: depreciation 750 450
Creditors 630 Stock at cost 570
Bank overdraft 270 Debtors 420 990
3,090 3,090
Further investigation reveals the following information:

1. The closing stock includes damaged goods which, although they had cost Sh.
10,000 have an estimated sale value of Sh.7, 500.
2. Debtors include Sh. 20,000 in respect of a customer who has gone bankrupt. A
provision for doubtful debts of 2 ½% is also required on the balance of the debtors.
3. The machinery was acquired five years ago and is being depreciated to its scrap
value on a straight- line basis over eight years. A more realistic estimate indicate s
that the life span will be 10 years.
4. Wages owing at 31 March 2000 amounted to Sh. 9,500 but this has not been
reflected in the accounts.
5. Charges for the bank overdraft, amounting Sh 8,000 have not been reflected in the
accounts.
6. In arriving at the profit for the period, a drawing of Sh 100,000 paid to Mr. Patel
had been deducted as an expense.
7. Sh 20,000 rent owing to Mr. Patel for the letting of part of his business premises to
external party had not been received and no entry had been made in the books in
respect of this item.
Required:
a) Journal entries to correct errors and omissions. (10 marks)
b) A statement of revised profit for the year ended 31 March 2000. (8 marks)
c) A revised statement of financial position as at 31 March 2000.
(7 marks)
Question two
80
On 31 December 2001, an inexperienced bookkeeper working for Wanji, a sole trader
extracted a trial balance. Due to errors committed by the bookkeeper, the trial balance
failed to balance by Sh 369,400. He placed the difference in a suspense account as shown
below:
Wanji trial balance as at 31 December 2001

Sh Sh
Fixed assets – cost 832,000
Stocks:
1 January 2001 148,000
31 December 2001 98,800
Trade debtors 76,000
Prepayments 10,000
Trade creditors 34,600
Bank overdraft 15,200
Accruals 16,000
Drawings 359,600
Capital 1,054,000
Sales 1,043,200
Provision for depreciation 166,400
Purchases 733,000
Operating expenses 126,000
Provision for doubtful debts 3,800
Discounts received 5,000
Suspense account ________ 369,400
2,548,400 2,548,400
Investigations carried out after preparing the above trial balance detected the following
errors:
1. The total of the sales daybook for December 2001 was overcast by Sh 25,700.
2. On July 2001, the business purchased office equipment for Sh 40,000. These were
debited to purchases account. Depreciation on the equipment is at the rate of 10% per
annum on cost and based on the period (months) of usage in the year.
3. A payment to a creditor by cheque of Sh. 8,500 was erroneously credited to the
creditor’s account.
4. A payment of Sh. 4,500 for telephone expenses was debited to telephone account as
Sh 5,400.
5. An amount of Sh 15,000 received from a debtor was not posted to the debtor’s account
from the cashbook.
6. Purchases daybook for October 2001 was under cast by Sh 28,000.
Assume the business had reported a net profit of Sh 85,800 before adjusting for the above
errors.
Required:
(a) The adjusted trial balance and the correct balance of the suspense account.(6 marks)
(b) Journal entries to correct the errors (Narrations not required) (6 marks) Suspense
81
account starting with the balance determined in the adjusted trial balance in (a) above.
(4 marks)
5.4 References
Wood, Frank, Business Accounting (17th Edition), International Thompson Pages 346350
TOPIC 6: BANK RECONCIALIATION STATEMENT
Learning Objectives
• Explain why the bank column of the cashbook may not balance with bank statement
• Explain the importance of bank reconciliation statement
82
• Prepare a bank reconciliation statement
6.1 Introduction
The cashbook for cash at bank records all the transactions taking place at the bank i.e. the
movements of the account held with the bank. The bank will send information relating to
this account using a bank statement for the firm to compare.
Ideally, the records as per the bank and the cashbook should be the same and therefore the
balance carried down in the cashbook should be the same as the balance carried down by
the bank in the bank statement.
In practice however, this is not the case and the two (balance as per the bank and firm) are
different. A bank reconciliation statement explains the difference between the balance at
the bank as per the cashbook and balance at bank as per the bank statement. Causes of the
differences:
Items appearing on Cashbook and not reflected on bank statement.
Unpresented Cheques: Cheques issued by the firm for payment to the creditors or to other
supplies but have not been presented to the firm’s bank for payment.
Uncredited deposits/cheques: These are cheques received from customers and other
sources for which the firm has banked but the bank has not yet availed the funds by
crediting the firm’s account. Errors made in the cashbook These include:
• Payments over/understated
• Deposits over/understated
• Deposits and payments misposted
• Overcastting and undercasting the Bal c/d in the cashbook.
ii) Items appearing in the bank statement and not reflected in the cashbook:
Bank charges: These charges include service, commission or cheques, interest charges on
overdrafts.
Direct Debits (standing orders) e.g. to pay Alico insurance.
Dishonored cheques
A cheque would be dishonored because:
• Stale cheques
• Post – dated cheques
• Insufficient funds
• Differences in amounts in words and figures.
Direct credits
Interest income/dividend incomes
Errors on the Bank Statement (made by the bank).

Such errors include:
• Overstating/understating.
• Deposits
• Withdrawals
83
6.2 Purposes of Bank Reconciliation Statement.
1. To update the cashbook with some of the items appearing in the bank statement e.g.
bank charges, interest charges and dishonored cheques and make adjustments for
any errors reflected in the cashbook.
2. To detect and prevent errors or frauds relating to the cashbook.
3. To detect and prevent errors or frauds relating to the bank.
Steps in preparing a bank reconciliation statement

1. To update the cashbook with the items appearing in the bank statement and not
appearing in the cashbook except for errors in the bank statement. Adjustme nts
should also be made for errors in the cashbook.
2. Compare the debit side of the cashbook with the credit side of the bank statement
to determine the uncredited deposits by the bank.
3. Compare the credit side of the cashbook with the debit side of the bank statement
to determine the unpresented cheques.
4. Prepare the bank reconciliation statement which will show:
a) Unpresented cheques
b) Uncredited deposits
c) Errors on the bank statement
d) The updated cashbook balance.
The format is as follows:
Format 1 Name:
Bank Reconciliation Statement as at 31/12
Sh. Sh.
Balance at bank as per cashbook (updated) x
Add: Un presented cheques x
Errors on Bank Statement (see note 1) x x
x
Less: Uncredited deposits x
Errors on Bank Statement (see note 2) x (x)
Balance at bank as per Statement of financial position x
Note 1: These types of errors will have an effect of increasing the balance at bank e.g. an
overstated deposit or an understated payment by the bank.
Note 2: These types of errors will have an effect of decreasing the balance at bank e.g. an
understated deposit or an overstated payment by the bank, or making an unknown payment.
Format 2
Name:
Bank Reconciliation Statement as at 31/12
Sh. Sh.
Balance at bank as per bank statement x
84
Add: Uncredited deposits x
Add errors on bank statement (note 2) x x
x
Less: Unpresented cheques x
Errors on bank statement (note 1) x (x)
Balance at bank as per cashbook (updated) x
===
Example 6.1
Draw up a bank reconciliation statement, after writing the cashbook up to date, ascertaining
the balance on the bank statement, from the following as on 31 March 2003:
Kshs
Cash at bank as per bank column of the cashbook (Dr) 38,960
Bankings made but not yet entered on bank statement 6,060
Bank charges on bank statement but not yet in cashbook 280
Un presented cheques C Clarke 1170
Standing order to ABC Ltd entered on bank statement, but not in cash book 550 Credit
transfer from A Wood entered on bank statement, 1,890 but not yet in cashbook
Solution
Cashbook – Bank
19X9 £ 19X9 £
31/3 Bal b/d Bank charges
38960 280
ABC (standing order) 550
A Wood (credit transfer) 1890 31/3 Bal C/D 40,020
40,850 40,850
Bank Reconciliation as at 31/03/2003

Kshs Kshs
Balance at bank as per cashbook 40,020
Add: Unpresented cheques 1,170
41,190
Less: Uncredited deposits (6,060)
Balance at bank as per Statement of financial position 35,130
=====
Example 6.2
The following are extracts from the cashbook and the bank statement of J Richards. You
are required to:
a) Write the cashbook up to date, and state the new balance as on 31 December
2002, and
b) Draw up a bank reconciliation statement as on 31 December 2002.
85
Cashbook
2002 Dr Kshs 2002 Cr Kshs
Dec 1 Balance b/d 1,740 Dec 8 A Dailey 349

Dec 7 J Map 88 Dec 15 R Mason 33
Dec 22 J Cream 73 Dec 28 G Small 115
Dec 31 K Wood 249 Dec 31 Balance c/d 1,831
Dec 31 M Barrett 178
2,328 2,328
Bank Statement
2002 Dr Cr Balance
Kshs Kshs Kshs
Dec 1 Balance b/d 1,740
Dec 7 Cheque 88 1,828
Dec 11 A Dailey 349 1,479
Dec 20 R Mason 33 1,446
Dec 22 Cheque 73 1,519
Dec 31 Credit transfer: J Walters 54 1,573
Dec 31 Bank charges 22 1,551
Cashbook –Bank
2002 Kshs 2002 Kshs

31/12 Bal b/d 1,831 31/1 Bank charges 22
31/12 J. Walters (C/T) 54 31/12 Bal C/D 1,863
1,885 1,885
J. Richards
Bank Reconciliation Statement as at 31/12/2002
£ £
Balance at bank as per cashbook – bank 1,863
Add: Unpresented cheques – (G Small) 115
1,978
Less: Uncredited deposits
K Wood 249
M. Barret 178 (427)
Balance at bank as per statement of financial position OR: 1,551
Balance at bank as per statement of financial position Add: 1,551

Uncredited deposits:
K. Wood 249
M. Barret 178
86
1,978
Less: Unpresented cheques (115)
Balance at bank as per cashbook – bank 1,863

Question one.
a) Explain the term “bank reconciliation” and state the reasons for its preparation.
(b) Ssemakula, a sole trader received his bank statement for the month of June 2001. At that date the
bank balance was Sh. 706,500 whereas his cash book balance was Sh.2, 366,500.
His accountant investigated the matter and discovered the following discrepancies:
1. Bank charges of Sh.3, 000 had not been entered in the cashbook.
2. Cheques drawn by Ssemakula totaling Sh.22, 500 had not yet been presented
to the bank.
3. He had not entered receipts of Sh.26, 500 in his cashbook.
4. The bank had not credited Mr Ssemakula with receipts of Sh.98, 500 paid into
the bank on 30 June 2001.
5. Standing order payments amounting to Sh.62, 000 had not been entered into the
cashbook.
6. In the cashbook Ssemakula had entered a payment of Sh.74, 900 as Sh.79, 400.
7. A cheque for Sh.15, 000 from a debtor had been returned by the bank marked
“refer to drawer” but had not been written back into the cashbook.
8. Ssemakula had brought forward the opening cash balance of Sh.329, 250 as a
debit balance instead of a credit balance.
9. An old cheque payment amounting to Sh.44, 000 had been written back in the
cashbook but the bank had already honored it.
10. Some of Ssemakula’s customers had agreed to settle their debts by paying
directly into his bank account. Unfortunately, the bank had credited some
deposits amounting to Sh.832, 500 to another customer’s account. However
acting on information from his customers Ssemakula had actually entered the
expected receipts from the debtors in is cashbook.
Required:
i. A statement showing Ssemakula’s adjusted cashbook balance as at 30 June 2001.
reconciliation statement as at 30 June 2001.
Question Two
The cash book of Ramogi stores had adebt balance of sh 24000 on 30 th June 2006. On
the same date the bank statement had a credit balance of sh 25900. The two
documents were compared and the following differences were realized.
i) Acheque of sh 7600 deposited on june 29 had not been evident by the bank.
ii) Cheque no. 003 drawn for sh 5,200 was recorded in the cash book as sh
2500 iii) The bank had collected cheque from debtors worth sh 9700.
iv) The bank charges for the month amounted to sh 1600
87
v) Acheque issued to a creditor of sh 11,200 was paid bank as sh 12000 vi)
Acheque drawn against Runninga stores for sh 6800 was charged in error
against Ramogi strores account
vii) A standing order of sh5500 had been paid by the bank
viii) A dividend cheque for sh 9000 had been collected and credited by the bank.
ix) Un represented cheques amounted to sh 15,800. Required.
a) Prepare an adjustment cash book (5 marks)
b) Bank reconciliation statement
6.4 References
Wood, Frank, Business Accounting (17th Edition), International Thompson Pages 308318
TOPIC 7: FINAL ACCOUNTS
Learning Objectives
• Explain the importance of income statement and balance sheet
• Prepare an income statement and balance sheet
• Distinguish between capital and revenue expenditure
7.1 Income Statements

(a) Trading Account
The trading account summarises the trading activities (sale and purchase of goods/stocks)
of the business and tries to determine the gross profit for the relevant financial period.
The gross profit is then taken up in the profit and loss account as part of the income.
Format for the trading account:
Name
Trading Account for the year ended 31 Dec.
Sh. Sh. Sh.
Sales x
Less: Returns Inwards (x)
88
x
Less: Cost of Sales

Opening stock x
Purchases x
Add: Carriage Inwards x
x
Less: Returns Outwards x x
Cost of stock available for sale x
Less: Closing stock x (x)
Gross Profit x
Example: 7.1
From the following details draw up the trading account of Springs for the year ended 31
December 2002, which was his first year in business.
Sh.
Carriage inwards 6,700
Returns outwards 4,950 Returns
inwards 8,900
Sales 387,420
Purchases 333,330
Stock of goods: 31 December 19x7 74,890
Springs
Trading Account for the year ended 31 Dec 2002
Sh. Sh.
Sales 387,420
Less: Returns Inwards 8,900
378,520
Less cost of sales
Purchases 333,330
Add: Carriage Inwards 6,700
340,030
Less: Returns outwards 4,950
335,080
Less: Closing stock 74,890 260,190
Gross Profit 118,330
Example 7.2
The following details for the year ended 31 March 2003 are available. Draw up the trading
account of R Sings for that year.
89
Sh.
Stocks: 1 April 2002 16,523
Returns inwards 1,372 Returns
outwards 2,896
Purchases 53,397
Sales 94,600
Stocks: 31 March 2003 14323
Solution
R Sings
Trading Account for the year ended 31 Mar 19x8
Sh. Sh. Sh.
Sales 94,600
Less: Returns Inwards (1,372)
93,228
Less: Cost of sales
Opening Stock 16,523
Purchases 53,397
Add: Carriage Inwards 1,122
54,519
Less: Returns Outwards 2,896 51,623
Cost of goods available for sale 68,146
Less: Closing stock 18,504 (49,642)
Gross Profit 43,586
(b) Profit and Loss Account
It shows the net profit or net loss that the business has made from all the activities during
a financial period.
The net profit (or loss) is determined by deducting all the expenses from all the incomes of
the same financial period.
In practice, the trading account is combined together with the net profit and loss account
into one report called comprehensive statement of income (formerly, trading, profit and
loss account) . Format is as shown below:
Name
Trading, Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31/12/19xx
Sh. Sh. Sh.

Sales x
Less: Returns Inwards x
x
Less: Cost of sales

90
Opening stock x
Purchases x
Add: Carriage Inwards x
x
Less: Returns Outwards x x
Cost of goods available for sale x
Less: Closing stock x (x)
Gross Profit x
Discount received x
Rent received x
Interest received x
Other incomes x
x
Less: Expenses
Carriage Outwards x
Discounts allowed x
Postage & stationary x
Salaries & wages x
Rent paid x
Insurance & rates x
Bank charges x
Other expenses x (x)
Net profit/ (loss) x/(x)
Example 7.3
From the following trial balance of P Boones draw up statement of comprehensive income
for the year ended 30 September 2002, and a statement of financial position as at that date.
Dr Cr
Sh. Sh.
Stock 1 October 19x8 23,680
Carriage outwards 2,000
Returns inwards 2,050
Returns outwards 3,220
Purchases 118,740
Sales 186,000
Salaries and wages 38,620
Rent 3,040
91
Insurance 780
Motor expenses 6,640
Office expenses 2,160
Lighting and heating expenses 1,660
General expenses 3,140 Premises
50,000
Motor vehicles 18,000
Fixtures and fittings 3,500
Debtors 38,960
Creditors 17,310
Cash at bank 4,820
Drawings 12,000
Capital 126,360
332,890 332,890
Solution
P Boones
Income Statement as at 30 September 2003
Sh. Sh. Sh. Sales

186,000
Less: Returns Inwards (2,050)
183,950
Less: Cost of sales

Opening stock 23,680
Purchases 118,740
Add: Carriage inwards 3,100
12,1840
Less: Returns Outwards 3,220 118,620
Cost of goods available for sale 142,300
Less: Closing stock 29,460 (11,2840)
Gross Profit 71,110
Less Expenses
Salaries & wages 38,620
Rent 3,040
Insurance 780
Motor expenses 6,640
Office expenses 2,160
Lighting & heating 1,660
General expenses 3,140 (58,040)
Net Profit 13,070
92
7.2 Statement of Financial Position/Balance Sheet
This is a simple report that shows the assets and liabilities of the business and the capital
of the owner as at a certain point in time. The format is at shown below:
Name
Statement of financial position as at 31/Dec/19xx
Sh. Sh. Sh.
Non Current Assets
Land & Buildings x
Plant & Machinery x
Fixtures, Furniture & Fittings x
Motor vehicles x
x
Current Assets
Stock/inventories x
Debtors – trade x
Debtors – others x
Cash at bank x
Cash at hand x
x
Current Liabilities
Bank overdraft x
Creditors – trade x
Creditors – others x (x)
Net current assets x
Net Assets x
Capital x
Add: Net profit x
x
Less: Drawings (x)
x
Non Current Liabilities
Loan (s) x
x
The statement of financial position of P Boones in example 2.3 will be produced as follows :
P Boones
Statement of financial position as at 30 Sept 2002
Sh. Sh.
Non Current Assets
93
Premises 50,000
Fixtures & fittings 3,500
Motor vehicles 18,000
71,500
Current Assets
Stock 29,460
Debtors 38,960
Cash at bank 4,820
73,240
Current Liabilities
Creditors (17,310)
Net Current Assets 55,930
Net Assets 127,430
Capital
126,360
Add: Net Profit
13,070
139,430
Less: Drawings (12,000)
127,430
7.3 Capital and Revenue Expenditure
Capital Expenditure: This is the amount spent on the acquisition of a non-current asset or
adding value to a non-current asset.
Examples of expenses incurred in acquisition:

i. Purchase price/cost of the asset.
ii. Delivery/carriage inwards costs (e.g. shipping charges or import
taxes). iii. Costs incurred to get the asset in use (e.g. assembly, testing)
iv. Installation
v. Demolition costs in order to construct a new building.
vi. Architect fees for construction and supervision
vii. Legal fees incurred in acquisition of a new asset (e.g. lease agreement)
Examples of expenses incurred in adding value to an asset:

i. Modify plant to increase its useful life.
ii. Upgrading plant to improve quality of output. iii. Adopting or
upgrading the production process to improve or reduce costs.
Revenue Expenditure: There’s an amount spent by the firm in the normal trading process
or to assist in earning revenues or income. Examples:
i. Postage and
stationery. ii. Carriage
94
outwards (sales). iii.
Repairs and maintenance.

Question one
The following trial balance has been drawn up from the accounts of Endpages bookshop.
Endpages Bookshop
Trial balance as at 31 December 2002
Dr Cr
Sh. Sh.
Sales 151,500.00
Purchases 103,500.00
Salaries and wages 18,700.00
Office expenses 2,500.00
Insurance 1,100.00
Electricity Stationery 600.00
2,400.00
Advertising 3,500.00
Telephone 800.00
Rates 3,000.00
Discount allowed 100.00
Discount received 200.00
Rent received 2,000.00
Returns inwards 1,500.00
Returns outwards 3,500.00
Stock at 01 Jan 2001 46,000.00
Premises 80,000.00
Stock as at 31 Dec 2001 41,000.00
Fixtures and fittings 5,000.00
Debtors and Creditors 4,800.00 7,500.00
Cash in Hand 200.00
Cash in bank 12,000.00
Capital 11,000.00
Drawings 14,000.00
Stock as at 31 Dec 2001
________ 41,000.00
328,700.00 328,700.00
Required
95
Prepare a statement of comprehensive income for the year ended 31 December 2002 and a
statement of financial position as at that date. (20 marks)
Question two
The following is the trial balance of KSmooth as at 31 March 2002. Draw up a set of final
accounts for the year ended 31 March 2002.
Creditors 816,000
Fixtures 285,000
Cash at bank 297,000
Cash in hand 11,500
Drawings 762,000
Capital 5,088,800
Dr Cr
Sh. Sh.
Stock 1 April 2001 1,816,000
Sales 9,234,000
Purchases 6,918,500
Returns outwards 64,000
Wages and salaries 1,024,000
Rent and rates 301,500
Communication expenses 62,400
Commissions payable 21,600
Insurance 40,500
Sundry expenses 31,800
Buildings 2,000,000
Debtors 1,432,000
96
152,028
152,028
7.4 References
Wood, Frank, Business Accounting (17th Edition), International Thompson
TOPIC 8: YEAR END ADJUSTMENTS
Learning Objectives
• Explain the reasons for making provision for depreciation on fixed assets
• Explain the methods for calculating provision for depreciation
• Distinguish between accrued revenues and expenses
• Correctly account for accrued revenues and expenses
• Correctly account for prepaid expenses
8.1 Depreciation
It is the loss of value of a non-current asset throughout its period of use by the firm. IAS
16 on property, plant and equipment defines depreciation as the allocation of a depreciable
amount of a non-current asset over its estimated useful life. Under the matching concept,
all incomes or revenues and expenses for a particular period should be reported in the
financial statements and because depreciation is an expense of the business therefore, it
will be charged in the profit and loss account.
Causes of Depreciation
1. Physical Factors
i) Wear and tear: Some non-current assets depreciate or lose value due to use
overtime e.g. machinery and motor vehicles.
ii) Rot/decay/rust: This happens on assets that are not well maintained by the
firm e.g. some machines.
2. Economic Factors
i) Inadequacy: Some assets lose value due to them becoming inadequate
e.g. when a business grows or expands then some buildings may become
inadequate due to space. Also some machines are unable to manufacture a
large number of goods.
ii) Obsolescence: Some assets become obsolete due to change in technology or
different methods of production e.g. computers.
3. Time Factors
Some assets have a legal fixed time e.g. properties on lease.
4. Depletion
97
This occurs when some assets have a wasting character due to extraction of raw
materials, minerals or oil. Such assets include mines, oil wells, and quarries.
8.2 Methods of Calculating Depreciation

These are the methods developed to assist in estimating the amount of depreciation to be
charged in the profit and loss account as an expense. The methods chosen by a firm should
be in accordance with the agreed accounting practice, accounting standards and suit the
firm’s non-current assets. There are two main methods of estimating depreciation and five
others that will apply in a firm’s situation.
The main methods are: Straight-line method and Reducing Balance method. The other 5
methods include:
i. Sum of the digits methods – uses a formular.
ii. Revaluation method – applies to a non-current asset of low value. iii. Machine-
Hour method – depreciation is based on number of hours a machine is expected to
operate (manufacturing process).
iv. Unit of output method – depreciation is based on the number of units a machine is
expected to produce.
v. Depletion of units – depreciation is based on number of units extracted from the
asset.
The Straight-Line Method

This method ensures that a uniform amount of depreciation is charged in the P&L a/c for
a particular asset and is based on the following formular:
Depreciation for year = Cost of asset – Residual Value = Sh.100,000

- Sh.20,000
Estimated useful life 8
= Sh.10,000 per year.

Cost of Asset – Residual Value
Estimated useful life of asset.
Residual Value
The amount the firm expects to sell the asset after the period of use in the firm, also called
Sales Value / Scrap Value.
Estimated Useful Life

The period the asset is expected to be used in the firm.
Example 8.1
A firm buys a machine for Sh.100, 000 which it expects to use in the firm for eight years.
After the eight years the machine will be sold for Sh.20, 000. Under the straight- line
method, the depreciation amount will be computed as follows:
98
This means for this asset Sh.10, 000 will be charged in the profit and loss account as
depreciation expense on the machine.
The straight line method assumes that benefits accruing on use of a non-current asset are
spread out evenly over the life of the asset e.g. buildings use straight- line method.
Percentage rate based on cost as opposed to number of years can also be used to calculate
the depreciation.
Reducing Balance Method
The firm determines a fixed percentage rate that is applied on the cost of the asset during
the first period of use. The same rate is applied in the subsequent financial periods but the
rate is applied on the reduced value of the asset. (Cost of asset – total depreciation provided
to date).
This method ensures that higher amount of depreciation are charged in the P&L account in
the earlier periods of use and lower amounts in the latter periods of use as shown in the
following example:
Example 8.2
Assume a firm buys machinery for Sh.100, 000 and provides depreciation on machines at
20% p.a. on reducing balance method. The depreciation charged to the P&L will be as
follows for the next 3 years.
Year 1
Sh.
Cost 100,000
Depreciation 20% of 100,000 (20,000) P&L YR 1
Balance to YR 2 80,000
Year 2
Depreciation 20% of 80,000 80,000
(16,000) P&L YR 2
Year 3
Depreciation 20 % of 64,000 64,000
(12,800) P&L YR 3
Reducing balance method (diminishing balance method) assumes that benefits accruing
from the use of an asset are higher in the first periods of use and lower in the latter
period’s e.g.
 Fixtures, furniture and fitting.
 Plant and machinery.
 Motor vehicles.
99
8.3 Accounting Treatment on Depreciation
When non-current assets are depreciated, a new account for each type of asset is opened;
this account is called a provision for depreciation whereby the following entries will be
made: Debit – P&L a/c
Credit – Provision for depreciation a/c
With the amount of depreciation charged for the period.
Example on straight-line method

The entries will be as follows:
Debit – P&L a/c with Sh.10, 000
Credit – Provision for depreciation. Machines a/c with Sh.10, 000 being depreciation
provided for the machine.
The ledger accounts will be as follows:
Sh. Sh. Sh. Sh.

Cashbook 100,000 31 /12 Bal c/d 100,000 31/12 Bal c/d 10,000 P&L 10,000
Machinery Provision for Depreciation Machinery
The final accounts extracts will be shown as follows:

(a) Profit And Loss Account (Extract) for the year ended
Expenses Sh. Sh.

Depreciation:
Buildings x
Plant and machinery 10,000
Furniture, Fixtures and Fittings x
Motor vehicles x
(b) Statement of financial position (Extract) as at________
Non Current Assets Cost Total NBV (Net Book Value)

Sh. Depreciation (Sh.) Sh.
Land x - x
Buildings x (x) x
Plant and Machinery x (x) x
Furniture, Fixtures & fittings x (x) x
Motor vehicles x (x) x
100
x x x
Example 8.3
A company starts in business on 1 January 2002. You are to write up the motor cars
account and the provision for depreciation account for the year ended 31 December 2002
from the information given below. Depreciation is at the rate of 20 per cent per annum.
Using the basis of one month’s ownership needs one month’s depreciation.
2002 Bought two motor vans for Sh.12, 000 each on 1 January
Bought one motor van for Sh.14, 000 on 1 July.
Motorcars a/c
2002
2002 Sh.
Sh.
1/1 Cashbook 24,000
1/7 Cashbook 14,000 31/12 Bal c/d 38,000
38,000 38,000
Calculation for depreciation

1/1 24,000 x 20 x 12 = Sh.4, 800 + 1/7(14,000 x 20 x 6 = 1,400)
100 12 100 12
= Sh.4, 800 + 1,400 = Sh.6, 200
Provision- Depreciation for Motor cars A/c

2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.
6,200
31/12 Bal c/d 31/12 P&L
6,200
Profit And Loss Account (Extract) for the period.
Expenses Sh. Sh.

Depreciation:
Motor vans 6200
101
Statement of financial position (Extract) as at 31/12/2002
Non-current Assets Cost Total NBV

Depreciation
Motor vans 38,000 (6200) 31,800
Example 8.4
A company starts in business on 1 January 1999, the financial year end being 31 December.
You are to show:
a. The plant account.

b. The provision for depreciation account.
c. The statement of financial position extracts for each of the years 1999, 2000, 2001,
2002.
The machinery bought was:
1999 1 January 1 plant costing Sh.8, 000

2000 1 July 2 plant costing Sh.5, 000 each
1 October 1 plant costing Sh.6, 000
2002 1 April 1 plant costing Sh.2, 000
Depreciation is at the rate of 10 per cent per annum, using the straight- line method, plant
being depreciated for each proportion of a year.
Plant a/c
1999 Sh. 199
Sh.
1/1 Cashbook 8000 31/12 Bal c/d 8000
2000 2000
1/1 Bal b/d 8000
1/7 Cashbook 10,000
1/10 Cashbook 31/12 Bal c/d 24,000
6,000 24,000
24,000
2001 2001
1/1 Bal b/d 24,000 31/12 Bal c/d 24,000
2002 2002
1/1 Bal b/d 24,000
102
1/4 Cashbook 2,000 31/12 Bal c/d 26,000
26,000 26,000
Calculation for Depreciation
1999 Sh. Accumulated Depreciation

Sh.8,000 x 10/100 x 12/12 = 800 800
2000
Sh.10,000 x 10/100 x 6/12 = 500
Sh.6,000 x 10/100 x 3/12 = 150
Sh.8,000 x 10/100 x 12/12 = 800

1,450 2,250
2001
Sh.24,000 x 10/100 x 12/12 = 2400 4,650
2002
Sh.24,000 x 10/100 x 12/12 = 2400
Sh.2,000 x 10/100 x 9/12 = 150

2,250 7,200
Provision – Depreciation Machines
103
1999 Sh. 1999 Sh.
31/12 Bal c/d 800 31/12 P&L 800
2000 Sh. 2000 Sh.

1/1 Bal b/d 800
31/12 Bal c/d 2,250 P&L 1,450
2,250 2,250
2001
2001 Sh. 1/1 Sh.
Bal b/d 2,250
31/12 Bal c/d P&L 2,400

4,65 4650
0 4650
2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.

1/1 Bal b/d 4,650
31/12 Bal c/d 7,200 P&L 2,550

7,200 7,200
Statement of financial position (Extract) as at 31/12/99 – 31/12/02
Non Current Assets Cost Total NBV

Depreciation
1999
Motor vans 8,000 (800) 7,200
1999
Motor vans 24,000 (2,250) 21,750
1999
Motor vans 24,000 (4,650) 19,350
1999
Motor vans 26,000 (7,200) 18,800
Disposals of Assets
A firm may dispose off its non-current assets in the following 3 ways:
i. Selling the asset.
ii. Asset being written-off from damage/accident/theft.
104
iii. Asset is scrapped/not used anymore.
When an asset is disposed and is no longer used by the firm, the appropriate entries should
be made in the asset account and the total depreciation provided to date on the asset and
the entries required will depend on the type of disposal. When the asset is sold, the
following entries will be made:
(a) Debit – asset disposal a/c

Credit – asset a/c
With the cost of the asset being disposed.
(b) Debit – provision for depreciation of asset a/c.

Credit – asset disposal a/c
With the total depreciation provided to date on the asset.
(c) Debit – cashbook.

Credit – asset disposal a/c With
the cash received on disposal.
When an asset is written off as a result of damage/accident/theft. If it was insured and the
insurance company accept liability but by the end of the period the insurance company has
not yet paid.
(a) Debit – asset disposal a/c Credit – asset a/c
With the cost of the asset damaged.
(b) Debit – provision for depreciation of asset a/c

(c) Debit – insurance receivable a/c

With the amount expected from the insurance.
If the insurance pays before the end of the financial period, it will not be necessary to create
an insurance debtor so the following entries will be made:
Debit – cashbook. Credit

– asset disposal a/c
If the asset is not used anymore or scrapped by the firm, the appropriate entries will be
made in the asset account and provision for depreciation a/c only.
Debit – asset disposal a/c

Credit – asset a/c
With the cost of the asset no longer in use.
Debit – provision for depreciation for asset

With the total depreciation provided to date.
105
The balance in the disposal a/c after the above entries will either be a debit balance or a
credit balance. A credit balance represents a profit on disposal, which is reported in the
profit and loss a/c together with other incomes. The entry will be:
Debit – asset disposal a/c

Credit – P&L a/c
With the balance in the account.
A debit balance in the asset disposal a/c is loss on disposal which is reported in the P&L
a/c as an expense and therefore the entry will be.
Example 8. 5
A firm has a motor vehicle costing Sh.1, 000 total depreciation provided to date is Sh.800.
The firm decides to trade in the motor vehicle with a new one the value of the new one
being Sh.500. The supplier of the new vehicle agree with the firm that the old motor
vehicle is worth Sh.300; therefore the difference will be paid by cash.
Motor vehicle a/c

Sh.
1,000
Bal b/d Sh. Motor vehicle disposal 500

1,000 1,500
Disposals 300
=====
Cashbook 200 Bal c/d
====
1,500
Motor Vehicle Disposal a/c
Sh. Sh .
800
Motor vehicle a/c 1,000 Provision for depreciation
P&L 100 Motor vehicle 300
1,100 1,100
Journal Entries Sh Sh
Debit – motor vehicles disposal 1,000
Credit – motor vehicles a/c 1,000

(Motor vehicle being traded in now transferred to disposal a/c)
Debit – Provision for depreciation – motor vehicles 800
Credit – Motor vehicle disposal a/c 800

(Total depreciation provided for motor vehicle)
106
Debit – Motor vehicle a/c 500
Credit – Asset disposal a/c 300

- Cashbook 200
(New motor vehicle acquired by trade-in value of
Sh.300 and cheque payment of Sh.200)
Debit – Asset disposal a/c 100
Credit – P&L 100

(Profit made on disposal)
In case of a loss,
Debit – P&L a/c

If the firm trades in an old asset for a new one, the following entries will be made in addition
to the movements in the asset and depreciation a/c.
Debit – asset a/c (value of the new asset)
Credit – cashbook (cash paid as difference of new value i.e. trade in value of old asset)
Asset disposal a/c (with trade-in value of old asset)
Example 8. 6
A company depreciates its plant at the rate of 20 per cent per annum, straight line method,
for each month of ownership. From the following details draw up the plant account and
the provision for depreciation account for each of the years 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002.
107
1999 Bought plant costing Sh.900 on 1 January.
Bought plant costing Sh.600 on 1 October.
2001 Bought plant costing Sh.550 on 1 July.
2002 Sold plant which had been bought for Sh.900 on 1 January 1999 for
the sum of Sh.275 on 30 September 2002.
You are also required to draw up the plant disposal account and the extracts from the statement
of financial position as at the end of each year.
Solution
1999 Sh. 1999

Sh. 1/1
Cashbook 900
1/10 Cashbook 600 31/12 Bal c/d 1,500
1,500 1,500
2000 Sh. 2000

Sh.
1/1
Bal b/d 1,500 31/12 Bal c/d 1,500
2001 Sh. 2001
Sh. 1/1
Bal b/d 1,500
1/7 Cashbook 550 31/12 Bal c/d 2,050
2,050 2,050
2002 2002
1/1 Bal b/d 2,050 30/9 Disposal 900
31/12 Bal c/d 1,150
Plant a/c
2,050 2,050
Plant Provision for Depreciation a/c

1999 Sh. 1999 Sh.
31/12 Bal c/d 210 31/12 P&L 210
2000 2000
1/1 Bal b/d 210
31/12 Bal c/d 510 P&L 300
510 510
2001 2001
1/1 Bal b/d 510
31/12 Bal c/d 865 P&L 355
865 865
2002 2002
110
109
31/12 Disposals 675 1/1 Bal b/d 865
Bal c/d 555 P&L 365
1,230 1,230
Calculation for Depreciation

Date Cost Months Depreciation charge Sh.
1999 8.4
1/1 900 12 20/100 x 900 x 12/12 = 180
1/10 600 3 20/100 x 600 x 3/12 = 30
210
2000
1/1 1,500 12 20/100 x 1,500 x 12/12 = 300
2001
1/1 1,500 12 20/100 x 1,500 x 12/12 = 300
1/2 550 6 20/100 x 550 x 6/12 = 55
355
2002
30/9 900 9 20/100 x 900 x 9/12 = 135
31/12 550 12 20/100 x 550 x 12/12 = 110
31/12 600 12 20/100 x 600 x 12/12 = 120
365
Plant Disposal a/c

2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.
Plant a/c 900 30/9 Provision for depreciation 675
P&L 50 30/9 Cashbook 275
950 950
Statement of financial position (Extract)

Total
Non Current Assets Cost Depreciation NBV
1999 Plant 1,500 (210) 1,290
2000 Plant 1,500 (510) 990
2001 Plant 2,050 (865) 1,695
2002 Plant 1,150 (555) 595

Revenue and
Cost Recognition
Revenue and costs must be recognized as they are earned or incurred, not as money is
received or paid. They must be matched with one another so far as their relationship can
be established or justifiably assumed, and dealt with in the profit and loss account of the
period to which they relate. Therefore all incomes and expenses that relate to a particular
financial period will be matched together to determine the profit for the year.
110
Accruals
Income: Accrued Income
This is income that relates to the current year but cash has not yet been received. An accrued
income should be reported in the profit & loss account and the same income will be
shown in the statement of financial position as a current asset.
Example 8.7
A firm lets out part of its properties and receives rent of Sh.2,000 per month, assuming that
this is the first year of renting and rent is received in arrears (rent 4 January is received
early Feb).
The ledger accounts of the firm will be as follows:
Cashbook
Year 1
Sh.
Feb (rent 4 Jan)
2,000
Mar (rent 4 Feb) 2,000
April (rent 4 Mar) 2,000
May (rent 4 Apr) 2,000
June (rent 4 May) 2,000
July (rent 4 Jun) 2,000
Aug (rent 4 July) 2,000
Sept (rent 4 Aug) 2,000
Oct (rent 4 Sept) 2,000
Nov (rent 4 Oct) 2,000
Dec (rent 4 Nov) 2,000
22,000
Rent – Income
Year 1 Sh. Year 1 Sh.
Jan C/B 2,000
Feb C/B 2,000

Mar C/B 2,000
April C/B 2,000
May C/B 2,000
Jun C/B 2,000
July C/B 2,000
Aug C/B 2,000
111
Sept C/B 2,000
Oct C/B 2,000
31/12 P&L 24,000 Nov C/B 2,000
Dec Accrued c/f 2,000
24,000 24,000
Although the cashbook is showing that rent received amounts Sh.22,000, the full rental
income of Sh.24,000 will be reported in the Profit & Loss a/c as rent income and the
accrued rent for Dec of Sh.2,000 will be reported in the statement of financial position as
a current asset.
Expenses: Accrued Expenses

An accrued expense is an expense that is payable or due for payment but has not yet been paid
during that period.
An accrued expense should be charged in the P&L account and shown in the statement of
financial position as a current liability.
Assume in the above example that the firm is meant to pay the rent, thus it becomes an
expense with the facts still the same i.e. Sh.2,000 payable in arrears. The ledger account
will be as follows.
Year 1 h. Year 1 Cashbook

S Feb (rent 4 Jan) 2,000 Sh.
Mar (rent 4 Feb) 2,000
Apr (rent 4 Mar) 2,000
May (rent 4 Apr) 2,000
June (rent 4 May) 2,000
July (rent 4 June) 2,000
Aug (rent 4 July) 2,000
Sept (rent 4 Aug) 2,000
Oct (rent 4 Sept) 2,000
Nov (rent 4 Oct) 2,000
Dec (rent 4 Nov) 2,000

112
C/B Rent for Jan 2,000
Rent
Rent for Feb 2,000 –
Rent for Mar 2,000
Rent for Apr 2,000
Rent for May 2,000
Rent for June 2,000
Rent for July 2,000
Rent for Aug 2,000
Rent for Sept 2,000
Rent for Oct. 2,000
Rent for Nov 2,000
31/12 Bal c/d 2,000 31/12 P&L 24,000

24,000 24,000
Expenses
The cashbook shows that the rent for the 11 months was paid for. However in the profit
and loss account we should report rent for the full year of Sh.24, 000 and the Sh.2, 000,
rent for Dec being the accrued expense will be shown in the statement of financial position
as a current liability.
8.5 Prepayments
Prepaid Income
This is income that is not yet due but cash has been received for it. This happens where an
income is payable in advance e.g. Rent payable 3 months in advance.
A prepaid income should not be reported in the current financial period but should be carried
forward and reported in the period it relates to.
The accounting treatment will be to show it as a current liability.
Example 4.2
113
A firm receives rent income of Sh.5, 000 per month payable quarterly in advance.
Assuming that the firm’s rental income began in 1 st March and the financial year, end is
on 31st Dec. The ledger accounts will be:
15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000
1.3 1.6 1.9 1.12 1.3
Year 1 Sh. Year 1 Sh

1/3 Rent 15,000
1/6 Rent 15,000
1/9 Rent 15,000
Cashbook
.
1/12 Rent 15,000
Rent – Income

1/3 Cashbook 15,000
1/6 Cashbook 15,000
P&L (10 x 5,000) 50,000 1/9 Cashbook 15,000
31/12 Bal c/d 10,000 1/12 Cashbook 15,000
60,000 60,000
114
Rent for the 4 quarters of 12 months has been received as per the cashbook but because the
end of the financial year is at 31 Dec, rent for 2 months is pre-paid. This Sh.10,000 is not
charged in the P&L but is carried forward as current liability in the statement of financ ia l
position.
Prepaid Expenses
A prepaid expense is an expense that is not payable but cash has already been paid. A
prepaid expense should not be charged in the P&L a/c but should be carried forward to the
next financial period and should be shown in the statement of financial position as a current
asset.
Example 8.8
Assume as in the previous illustration, that all the facts are as stated except that rent is an
expense. The ledger accounts are as follows:
Cashbook
1/3 Rent 15,000
1/6 Rent 15,000
1/9 Rent 15,000
1/12 Rent 15,000
Rent – Expenses

1/3 C/B (Mar, April, May) 15,000
1/6 C/B (June, July, Aug) 15,000
1/9 C/B (Sept, Oct, Nov) 15,000 P&L (10 x 5,000) 50,000
1/12 C/B (Dec, Jan, Feb) 15,000 31/12 Bal c/d (2 x 5,000) 10,000
60,000 60,000
Rent of Sh.10, 000 for 2 months is carried forward to the next financial period and shown in
the statement of financial position as a current asset.
The following is the summary of treatment for Accruals and Prepayments:

P&L
B/Sheet
Accrued - Report as
Current
Income Assets
Income
115
Prepaid -Not
reported Current
Liability
Accruals/
Prepayments
Accrued - Charge as
Current
an expense
Liability
Expense
Prepaid - Not charged

Current
In P& L Assets
Accrued Incomes and Expenses and Prepaid Incomes and Expenses are shown in the
Statement of financial position as follows: Statement of financial position Extracts
Sh. Sh.
Current Assets
Stock x
Debtors x
Accrued Incomes/Prepaid Expenses x

Cash at bank x
Cash in hand x
x
Current Liabilities
Bank overdraft x
Creditors x
Prepaid Incomes/Accrued Expenses x
The accruals and expenses items may also be adjusted in the relevant income and expense
accounts so that the correct amount of expense or income is reported in the profit and loss
account for the year.
8.7 Bad & Doubtful Debts
116
Some debtors may not pay up their accounts for various reasons e.g. a debtor may go out
of business. When a debtor is not able to pay up his/her account this becomes a bad debt.
Therefore the business/firm should write it off from the accounts and thus it becomes an
expense that should be charged in the profit & loss account.
In practice a firm may also be unable to collect all the amounts due from debtors. This is
because a section of the debtors will not honor their obligations. The problem posed by this
situation is that it is difficult to identify the debtors who are unlikely to pay their accounts.
Furthermore the amount that will not be collected may also be difficult to ascertain. These
debts that the firm may not collect are called doubtful debts. A firm should therefor e
provide for such debts by charging the provision in the profit and loss account. Provisio n
for doubtful debts maybe specific or general. Specific relate to a debtor whom we can
identify and we are doubtful that he may pay the debt (if one of our debtor goes out of
business).
Accounting for bad & doubtful debts. Bad

debts
When a debt becomes bad the following entries will be made:
i. Debit bad debts account
Credit debtors account with the amount owing. ii.
Debit Profit and Loss Account.
Credit bad – debts account to transfer the balance on the bad – debts account to the
Profit and Loss Account.
Doubtful Debts
A provision for doubtful debts can either be for a specific or a general provision. A specific
provision is where a debtor is known and chances of recovering the debt are low.
The general provision is where a provision is made on the balance of the total debtors i.e.
Debtors less Bad debts and specific provision.
The accounting treatment of provision for doubtful debts depends on the year of trading
and the entries will be as follows. If it is the 1 st year of trading (1st year of making
provision):
i. Debit P&L a/c.

ii. Credit provision for doubtful debts (with total amount of the provision).
In the subsequent periods, it will depend on whether if it is an increase or decrease required on

the provision.
If it is an increase:
i. Debit P&L a/c.
ii. Credit provision for doubtful debts (with increase only).
If it is a decrease:
i. Debit provision for doubtful debts.
117
ii. Credit P&L a/c (with the decrease in provision only).
Example 8.9
Debtors x Bad debts (x)
x
Specific Provision (x)
x
General Provision (x)
x
A firm started trading in the year 1999, the balance on the debtor’s account was Sh.400,
000. Bad debts amounting to Sh.40, 000 were written off from this balance, there was a
specific provision of Sh.5, 000 to be made to one of the debtors and a general provision of
Sh.5% was to be made on the balance of the debtors. The ledger accounts of 1999 were as
follows:
Debtors
1999 1999 Sh. Provision for doubtful debts
Sh. Sh. 1999 Sh. 1999
22,750 Bal B/d 400,000 Bad debts 40,000 31/12
Bal c/d 22,750 31/12 P&L
Bal c/d 360,000
400,000 400,000
Bad debts
1999 Sh. 1999 Sh.
Debtors 40,000 31/12 P&L 40,000
Sh.
Debtors 400,000
Bad debts (40,000)
360,000
Specific Provision (5,000)
355,000
General Provision (5%) (17,750)
118
337,250
Profit & Loss A/C (Extract) for the year ended 31/12/99
Sh. Sh.
Expenses:
Bad debts 40,000
Increase in provision for D/debts 22,750

Sh. Sh.
Current Assets
Stocks x
Debtors 360,000
Provision for D/debts (22,750) 337,250
337,250 337,250
In the year 2,000, the debtors balance goes up to Sh.500,000 from which bad debts of
Sh.50,000 needs to be written off there is no specific provision but the general provision is
to be maintained at 5%. The ledger accounts will be as follows:
Debtors 500,000
Bad debts (50,000)
450,000
General Provision (5%) 22,500
427,500
Debtors
2000 Sh. 2000 Sh.
Bal b\d 500,000 Bad Debts 50,000
______ Bal c\d 450,000
500,000 500,000
Provision for Doubtful Debts

2000 Sh. 2000 Sh.
P\L 250 1\1 Bal b\d 22,750
Bal c\d 22,500
22,750 22,750
Bad Debts
2000 Sh. 2000 Sh.
Debtors 50,000 31\12 P& L 50,000
119
Profit And Loss Account (Extract) for year ended 31/12/2002.
Sh. Sh.
Incomes
Decrease in provision for D/debts 250
Expenses
Bad debts 50,000

Sh. Sh.
Current Assets
Debtors 450,000
Provision for bad debts (22,500)
427,500
In the year 2001 the debtors balance goes up to Sh.600,000 from which bad debts of
Sh.50,000 need to be written off, there is no specific provision but the general provision is
to be maintained at 5% the ledger accounts is as shown: Sh.
Debtors 600,000
Bad debts (50,000)
550,000
General provision % (27,500)
522,500
Debtors
2001 Sh. 2001 Sh.
Bal b\ Bad Debts 50,000
600,000
______ Bal c\d 550,000
600,000 600,000
Provision for Doubtful Debts

2001 Sh. 2001 Sh.
1\1 Bal b\d 22,500
Bal c\d 27,500 P& L 5,000
22,500 27,500
120
Bad Debts
2001 Sh. 2001 Sh.
Debtors 50,000 31\12 P& L 50,000
Profit And Loss Account (Extract) for the year ended 31/12/2001
Sh. Sh.
Expenses
Bad debts 50,000
Increase in provision 5,000

Sh. Sh.
Current Assets
Debtors 550,000
Less: Provision for Doubtful Debts (27,500) 522,500
Example 4.6
In a new business during the year ended 31 December 2002 the following debts are found to
be bad, and are written off on the dates shown:
30 April H Gordon Sh.1,100

31 August D Bellamy Ltd Sh.640
31 October J Alderton Sh.120
On 31 December 2002 the schedule of remaining debtors, amounting in total to Sh.68,500,

is examined, and it is decided to make a provision for doubtful debts of Sh.2,200.
You are required to show:

a. The Bad Debts Account, and the Provision for Doubtful Debts Account.
b. The charge to the Profit and Loss Account.
c. The relevant extracts from the Statement of financial position as at 31
December 2002.
121
Sh. 70,036 2002 Sh.
Bad Debts
Debtors 2002 Bad debts 1860 31/12 P\L
Sh.
Bad debts (1,860)
1860
68,500
Provision for D/Debt (2,200)
66,300
Provision for doubtful debts
2002 Sh. 2002 Sh.

31/12 Bal c/d 2,200 31/12 P&L 2,200
Profit & Loss Account (Extract)

Sh. Sh.
Expenses
Bad debts 1,860
Increase in provision for Doubtful debts 2,200

Sh. Sh.
Current Assets
Debtor 8,500
Less: Provision for D/Debts (2,200)
6,300
Example 8.10
A business started trading on 1 January 2001. During the two years ended 31 December
2001 and 2002 the following debts were written off to the Bad Debts Account on the dates
stated:
31 August 2001 W Best Sh.850

30 September 2001 S Avon Sh.1,400
28 February 2002 L J Friend Sh.1,800
122
31 August 2002 N Kelly Sh.600
30 November 2002 A Oliver Sh.2,500
On 31 December 2001 there had been a total of debtors remaining of Sh.405,000. It was
decided to make a provision for doubtful debts of Sh.5,500.
On 31 December 2002 there had been a total of debtors remaining of Sh.473,000. It was
decided to make a provision for doubtful debts of Sh.6,000.
You are required to show:

i. The Bad Debts Account and the Provision for Doubtful Debts Account for each of the
two years. ii. The relevant extracts from the Statement of financial position as at 31
December 2001 and 2002.
Solutions
Bad debts = 2,250
405,000
Provision (5,500)
399,500
Bad Debts
2001 Sh. 2001 Sh.
31\8 W.Best 850
30\9 S.Aron 1400 31\12 P&L 2250
2250 2250
Provision for D/Debts

2001 Sh. 2001 Sh.
31\12 Bal c\d 550 31\12 P&L 550
2001 Sh. 2001 Sh.

1\1 Bal b\d 550
1\1 Bal c\d 600 31\12 P&L 50
600
600
Bad Debts
123
2001 Sh. 2001 Sh.
28/2 J. Friend 1,800
31/8 N. Kelly 600
30/11 A. Oliver 2,500 31/13 P&L 4,900
4,900 4,900
19x6 Sh. Sh.
Expenses
Bad debts 2,250
Provision for Doubtful Debts 5,000
19x7
Bad debts 4,900
Increase in provision for D/Debts 500
Statement of financial position as at 19x6

Sh. Sh.
Current Assets
Debtors 405,000
Less provision (5,500) 399,500
19x7
Debtors 473,000
Less: provision (6,000) 467,000
8.8 Provision for Discounts Allowable.

In some cases a firm may create a provision for discounts allowable in addition to provision
for doubtful debts. This happens where a firm anticipates that some of the debtors may
take up cash discounts offered by the firm. The accounting treatment is similar to
124
accounting for provision for doubtful debts. The provision should be made after creating
a provision for doubtful debts (debtors figure less either general/specific provision for
doubtful debts).
Debtors x Bad debts (x)

x
Specific provision (x)
x
(x)
x
Provision for discount allowed (on balance) (x)
x

Sh. Sh.
Incomes
Decrease in provision for D/Debts x
Decrease in provision for discounts allowed x
Expenses
Bad debts x
Increase in provision for D/Debts x
Increase in provision for discounts allowed x
Curre nt Assets Sh. Sh.

Debtors x
Less: provision for Doubtful Debts (x)
Less: provision for discounts allowed (x) x
Bad Debts Recovered

A firm may be able to recover a debt that was previously written off. The following entries
will be made if this happens:
i. Debit – Debtors
Credit – credit bad debts recovered account – to restore the bad debt recoverable. N/B:
This should be the amount to be recovered.
ii. Debit – Cashbook
Credit – Debtors with the cash received.
iii. Debit – bad debts recovered account.
125
Credit – P & L account with the same balance as bad debts account.
Example: 8.11
A firm recovers debts amounting to Sh.10,000 that had been written off in the previous
periods. In the same financial period the firm writes off bad debts amounting Sh.30,000.
The ledger accounts will be as follows:
Bad debts
Sh. Sh.
Debtors 30,000 Bad Debt Recovered 10,000
P\L 20,000
30,000 30,000
Bad debts recovered

Sh. Sh.
Bad Debt 10,000 Debtors 10,000
8.9 Revision Questions
Question one
James Mbuvi started a taxi business in Nairobi March 1990 under the firm name Mbuvi
Taxis. The firm had two vehicles KA and KB, which had been purchased forSh.560, 000,
and Sh.720, 000 respectively earlier in the year.
In February 1992 vehicle KB was involved in an accident and was written off. The
insurance company paid the firm Sh.160, 000 for the vehicle. In the same year the firm
purchased two vehicles, KC and KD for Sh.800, 000 each.
In November 1993 vehicle KC was sold for Sh.716, 000. In January 1994 vehicle KE was
purchased for Shs.840, 000. In March 1994 another vehicle KF was purchased for Sh.960,
000.
The firm’s policy is to depreciate vehicles at the rate of 25 per cent on cost on vehicles on
hand at the end of the year irrespective of the date of purchase. Depreciation is not
provided for vehicle disposed of during the year. The firm’s year ends on 31 December.
Required:
a) Calculate the amount of depreciation charged in the profit and loss account for
each of the five years.
b) Prepare the motor vehicle account (at cost).
c) Calculate the profit and loss on disposal of each of the vehicles disposed of by the
company.
Question two
126
The financial year of H Seamers ended on 31 December 2002. Show the ledger accounts
for the following items including the balance transferred to the necessary part of the fina l
accounts, also the balances carried down to 2003:
a) Motor expenses: Paid in 2002 Sh.7,440; Owing at 31 December 2002 Sh.2,800.
b) Insurance: Paid in 2002 Sh.42,000; Prepaid as at 31 December 2002 Sh.3,500.
c) Stationery: Paid during 2002 Sh.18,000; Owing as at 31 December 2001
Sh.25,000; Owing as at 31 December 2002 Sh.49,000.
d) Rates: Paid during 2002 Sh.95,000; Prepaid as at 31 December 2001 Sh.2,200;
Prepaid as at 31December 2002 Sh.2,900.
e) Seamers sub-lets part of the premises. Receives Sh.5,500 during the year ended
31 December 2002. Tenant owed Seamers Sh.1,800 on 31 December 2001 and
Sh.2,100 on 31 December 2002
Question two
The financial year of H Seamers ended on 31 December 2002. Show the ledger accounts
for the following items including the balance transferred to the necessary part of the fina l
accounts, also the balances carried down to 2003:
a) Motor expenses: Paid in 2002 Sh.7,440; Owing at 31 December 2002 Sh.2,800.
b) Insurance: Paid in 2002 Sh.42,000; Prepaid as at 31 December 2002 Sh.3,500.
c) Stationery: Paid during 2002 Sh.18,000; Owing as at 31 December 2001 Sh.25,000;
Owing as at 31 December 2002 Sh.49,000.
d) Rates: Paid during 2002 Sh.95,000; Prepaid as at 31 December 2001 Sh.2,200; Prepaid
as at 31December 2002 Sh.2,900.
e) Seamers sub-lets part of the premises. Receives Sh.5,500 during the year ended 31
December 2002. Tenant owed Seamers Sh.1,800 on 31 December 2001 and
Sh.2,100 on 31 December 2002
8.10 References
• Wood, Frank, Business Accounting (17th Edition), International Thompson. Pages 171-
189.
• Honrgren and Sundem, G. L, Introduction to Financial Accounting, (6th Edition), New
York; Prentice Hall. pages 143-148
127

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COURSE CONTENT

Purpose: To develop the learners understanding of the principles of book-keeping and

Recommended Text Books:

TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING

1.1 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting

Definition Accounting is defined as the process of identifying, measuring and reporting

The main purpose of Accounting is to provide financial information about an economic

Business Transaction is an event which involves the transfer of money or money’s

Acquisition of assets from owners and other creditors

Difference between Book-Keeping and Accounting

Accounting includes the design of accounting system, preparation of financ ia l

Types of Business Firms

1.2 Users of Accounting Information

The following are the users of accounting information:

1.3 Accounting Concepts and Conventions

v) Business entity concept: The concept is that accountants regard a business as a

viii) Materiality concept: An item is considered material if it’s omission or misstate me nt

x) Objectivity (neutrality): An accountant must show objectivity in his work. This

i) It becomes virtually certain that

(a) When a cash sale is made.

1.4 Qualities of useful Financial Information

The four principal qualities of useful financial information are understandability,

Comparability: users must be able to compare the financial statements of an enterprise

1.5 Review Questions

 Fundamental accounting concepts

A business can be set up in two ways-

Case one: owner supplying all the resources

In this case we say that-

Resources in the business = Resources supplied by the owner…………… (i)

Case two: resources supplied by owner and outside parties

In this case we say that-

Resources in business = Resources supplied by the owner + Resources supplied by

Therefore equation (ii) can be re-written as-

ASSETS = CAPITAL + LIABILITIES……………………………………… (ii)

2.2 Components of accounting equations

Assets: An asset is a resource controlled by a business entity/firm as a result of past events

Liabilities are also classified into two main classes.

i) Non-current liabilities (or long term liabilities) ii)

Shs. Shs. Shs.

Remember the Accounting equation:

To get capital we rearrange the equation as follows:

D Moody has the following assets and liabilities as on 31 April 2002:

During the first week of May 2002 Moody:

Capital = Assets – Liabilities

Opening Adjustment Closing

The statement of financial position will therefore be prepared as follows:

Non Current Assets Sh Sh

2.3 Cause of Changes in Capital

2.4 Initial Capital and Final Capital of a Business

2.5 Double Entry Aspects

When we make a debit entry we are either:

i. Increasing the value of an asset. ii.

i. Reducing the value of an asset.

Compute the balance on the capital account as at 30 November 2002.

a. Bought extra equipment on credit for Sh.13,800.

You are to record the above transactions in respective accounts.

Assets Sh. Liabilities Sh.

Motor vehicle 62,900

Capital = Sh.371, 300 - Sh.39, 500 = Sh.330, 800

Cash at Bank a/c