Menu Terminology and Accuracy /

Nutrition

Prepared by:
Jonathan V. Ehina

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 Table of Contents

I. Menu Terminology and Accuracy …..………………………………………….…… 3

A. The Written Recipe
B. The Use and Limitation of Recipe
C. Standardized Recipe
D. Cooking with Judgment
E. Measuring Ingredients

II. Nutrition …………..…………………………………...………..………….…………... 7

A. Kinds of Nutrients and their Importance
B. Cooking a Healthful Meal
C. Mis en Place
D. Using the Knife
E. Basic Cuts and Shape
F. Cutting Techniques

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After the completion of the chapter, students will be able to:
1. Describe ways that cook can incorporate cooking principles into their cooking and menu
construction.
2. Understand standard recipe.
3. Perform the process of proper measuring ingredients and its importance

I. Menu Terminology and Accuracy

A. The Written Recipe

A recipe is a set of instructions for producing a certain dish. To duplicate a desired
preparation, it is necessary to have a precise record of the ingredients, their amounts, and the
way in which they are combined and cooked. This is the purpose of a recipe. Despite their
importance, written recipes have many limitations. No matter how detailed a recipe may be, it
assumes you already have certain knowledge—that you understand the terminology it uses, for
example, and that you know how to measure ingredients.
A written recipe is a set of instructions that, if followed correctly, will produce the desired
product. Although the final dish may be a creative work of art, crafting the recipe itself is a technical
skill. The written document is not the place for creativity or attempts at unique design. Chefs are
frequently called upon to craft recipes to share with the public. Unlike the standardized recipes
used in a specific restaurant operation, recipes for print or electronic publication have different
conventions. Various publications use different formats for presenting these directions, depending
on their own style and layout decisions, but the directions themselves—the actual recipe—should
follow certain conventions. The goal with all recipe writing is to guide the user to produce a dish
accurately, efficiently, and consistently.
Name: Although some creativity is certainly permitted in naming a dish, be sure that the name is
relevant and meaningful to potential users.
Yield/Servings: Yield, the term generally used in a professional context, or servings refers to the
total amount of the finished dish that will be produced by the quantity of ingredients stated. This
may be stated as “serves 8” or “makes 1 quart” or “one 9-inch pie.”
Ingredients: List ingredients in the order used. The quantity listed should be as specific as
possible, except for seasoning items, such as salt and pepper, which may be simply stated as “to
taste.”
Procedures: Procedures provide step-by-step explanations for preparing, cooking, and
assembling the ingredients. List each step in the order in which it should be performed, including
as much detail as necessary to ensure that the reader understands what is to be done and the
results desired from that step. Procedures may offer detail depending on your audience.

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B. The Use and Limitation of Recipe
Many people believe learning to cook means simply learning recipes. Knowledgeable
cooks, in contrast, can prepare food without written recipes, if they must, because they have a
good understanding of basic principles and techniques. A recipe is a way of applying basic
techniques to specific ingredients.
The main purpose of learning basic cooking principles is not to be able to cook without
recipes, however, but to understand the recipes you use. As we said in the beginning of this
section, every recipe assumes you have certain knowledge that enables you to understand the
instructions and follow them correctly. Some recipes supply very little information, and some
supply a great deal. But no matter how detailed it is, a written recipe can’t tell you everything, and
some judgment by the cook is always required. There are several reasons for this:
1. Food products are not uniform. Food ingredients are natural products, so they are not
uniform like machine bolts, ballpoint pens, and printer paper. One tomato may be riper
than another, one carrot more tender or sweeter than another, one oyster saltier than
another. Such variations may affect how the ingredients are handled, how long they are
cooked, what proportions are needed, and how much seasoning is required.
2. Kitchens do not have the same equipment. Different pans distribute heat at different rates.
Different broilers heat to different temperatures. Liquid evaporates from wide pots faster
than from tall, narrow ones, and so on.
3. It is impossible to give exact instructions for many processes. How do you set the burner
if the instructions say, “Cook over medium heat”? How thick is a “thick” sauce? How long
do you broil a rare steak? Training and experience will help you learn to make accurate
judgments about such questions. The difference between an experienced cook and a
beginning cook is the ability to make judgments about these variables.

C. Standardized Recipe
A standardized recipe is a set of instructions describing the way a particular
establishment prepares a particular dish. In other words, it is a customized recipe developed by
an operation for the use of its own cooks, using its own equipment, to be served to its own patrons.
The structure of a standardized recipe. Recipe formats differ from operation to operation,
but nearly all of them try to include as much precise information as possible. The following details
may be listed:

 Name of the recipe.

 Yield, including total yield, number of portions, and portion size.
 Ingredients and exact amounts, listed in order of use.
 Expected trim yields for any produce or other ingredients that must be fabricated.
 Equipment needed, including measuring equipment, pan sizes, portioning equipment, and
so on.
 Directions for preparing the dish. Directions are kept as simple as possible.
 Preparation and cooking temperatures and times.
 Directions for portioning, plating, and garnishing.
 Directions for breaking down the station, cleaning up, and storing leftovers.

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 The function of standardized recipes. An operation’s own recipes are used to control
production. They do this in two ways:

 They control quality. Standardized recipes are detailed and specific. This is to ensure the
product is the same every time it is made and served, no matter who cooks it.
 They control quantity. First, they indicate precise quantities for every ingredient and how
they are to be measured. Second, they indicate exact yields and portion sizes, and how
the portions are to be measured and served. By controlling quality and quantity, recipes
are a key tool in controlling costs.

Standardized recipes have the same problems as all recipes—the problems we discussed
earlier regarding variations in foods and equipment and vagueness of instructions. These
problems can be reduced by writing the recipe carefully, but they cannot be eliminated. Even if
an operation uses good, standardized recipes, a new employee making a dish for the first time
usually requires supervision to make sure he or she interprets the instructions the same way as
the rest of the staff. These limitations don’t invalidate standardized recipes. If anything, they make
exact directions even more important. But they do mean that experience and knowledge are still
very important.

D. Cooking with Judgement

When you make a recipe for the first time, you should apply your knowledge and think
about the recipe in relation to the skills you have. The first step in preparing a recipe is to read it
carefully. Then read it again. Make sure you understand every ingredient and every instruction in
the procedure. A common fault is to prepare a recipe according to what you think it says rather
than what it says. You are especially likely to make this error if the procedure in the recipe is
different from the way you usually prepare a similar dish.
After you have reread the recipe carefully, you should determine the following points:
1. What are the basic cooking methods? After reading the entire recipe, immediately look
for the cooking methods used. After identifying the cooking methods used, you should
review in your mind everything you know about basic procedures.

2. What are the characteristics of the ingredients? If the sauerbraten recipe calls for
bottom round of beef, for example, you should ask yourself, “What do I know about bottom
round? Is it lean or fatty? tough or tender? How do these traits affect cooking?”

3. What are the functions of the ingredients? What does the vinegar do in the sauerbraten
recipe? What about the vegetables? the gingersnaps? When you have gained more
experience, you will be able to easily answer these questions. You will know what
ingredients contribute to flavor, to texture, or to body, and how they do it.

4. What are the cooking times? Most of the recipes in this book do not give cooking times,
except as general guidelines to help you plan production. This is because cooking times
are too variable to be stated exactly.

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E. Measuring Ingredients
Many restaurants budget a net profit of 10 percent or less. This means a sandwich selling
for $5.00 makes a profit of only 50 cents. If the cook happens to put a half-ounce too much meat
in the sandwich, the operation may be losing money on it. No wonder so many restaurants go out
of business. (See the sidebar on page 115 for an explanation of net profit and gross profit.) Careful
measurement is one of the most important parts of food production. It is important for consistent
quality each time a recipe is prepared and served. And it is important for cost controls.
There are two important kinds of measurement in the kitchen:
1. Ingredient measurement
2. Portion measurement, or portion control

(1) Ingredient Measurement

WEIGHT
Weighing measures how heavy an item is. Weighing is the most accurate method of
measuring ingredients. It is the method used for most solid ingredients. Accurate scales are
necessary for weighing. Small portion scales are often used in the kitchen because of their
convenience. Balance scales are used in the bakeshop.
To be able to weigh ingredients, you must observe the difference between AP (as
purchased) weight and EP (edible portion) weight.

 AP weight is the weight of the item as purchased before any trimming is done. Also
known as APQ (as purchased quantity).
 EP weight is the weight after all inedible or non-servable parts are trimmed off. Also
known as EPQ (edible portion quantity).
Recipes sometimes specify which weight they are referring to. When they don’t, you must
judge from the instructions.

 If a recipe calls for “2 lb potatoes” and the first instruction is “scrub, peel, and eye the
potatoes,” then you know AP weight is called for.
 If the recipe calls for “2 lb peeled, diced potatoes,” then you know EP weight is called for.
You will need more than 2 lb AP.

VOLUME
Volume measures how much space an item fills. Volume measures are used for liquids.
Measuring a liquid by volume is usually faster than weighing it, and accuracy is good.
Solid ingredients are usually not measured by volume because they cannot usually be
measured accurately by this method. One pint of chopped onions will vary considerably in weight,
depending on how large or small the onions are cut and whether the pint measure is filled loosely
or packed.

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 Dry ingredients such as flour or sugar are usually weighed in the bakeshop. However, they
are sometimes measured by volume in the kitchen when speed is more important than accuracy.
To measure dry ingredients by volume, fill a dry-volume measure until the ingredient is mounded
over the top. Then level it off with a spatula or other straightedge.
Very small quantities, such as 1 ⁄4 teaspoon salt, may be measured by volume when the
amount is too small to weigh.

COUNT
Measuring ingredients by count is done in these circumstances:

 When units are in standard sizes. Examples: 6 large eggs for a pancake batter; 8 parsley
stems for a stock.
 When serving portions are determined by numbers of units. Examples: 1 baked apple per
portion; 6 fried shrimp per portion.

II. Nutrition

A. Kinds of Nutrients and their Importance

Menu planners must have a basic understanding of nutrition because the human body
requires a variety of foods to function and be healthy. The food-service worker’s responsibility to
provide nutritious food and well-balanced menus depends, in part, on the operation. School and
hospital food services must, of course, plan menus carefully to meet basic nutritional needs. A
qualified dietitian is usually required in such establishments. The obligations of restaurateurs are
more subtle. Because they are in business to sell food, they must offer foods that will attract
customers. People who plan menus are as concerned with presenting attractive, flavorful foods
as they are with serving nutritious foods. Also, if the menu is à la carte, there is no way to ensure
a customer will order items that make up a nutritionally balanced meal.
Nutrients are chemical compounds that are present in foods and that fulfill one or more
of the following functions:

 Supply energy for body functions.

 Build and replace cells that make up body tissues.
 Regulate body processes.
There are six categories of nutrients:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Vitamins
3. Fats
4. Minerals
5. Proteins
6. Water

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 Calories is a unit of measurement of energy. It is defined as the amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1 kilogram water by 1°C.
Remember that one of the functions of nutrients is to supply energy to the body. The calorie
is used to measure how much energy certain foods supply for these functions. In our overfed
society, calories have come to be viewed as something to be avoided. Nevertheless, without
sufficient food energy, we could not live.
Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats can be used by the body to supply energy.
1 gram carbohydrate supplies 4 calories
1 gram protein supplies 4 calories
1 gram fat supplies 9 calories

There is a direct connection between calorie intake, physical activity, and weight gain. Simply
put, if you consume more calories than you burn, you gain weight. If you consume fewer calories
than you burn, you lose weight. All the diet schemes and fashions in the world—at least the ones
that are medically sound—can be reduced to this. In other words, losing weight is possible only
by eating fewer calories, by burning more calories through exercise, or, preferably, by both.
To lose weight while maintaining good nutrition and health, one should avoid empty calories
as much as possible and eat primarily foods of high nutrient density. Empty calorie foods are
those that provide few nutrients per calorie. Refined sugars and starches are examples of empty
calories. Foods of high nutrient density are those that provide relatively many nutrients per calorie.
Fruits, vegetables, and whole grains are examples of foods with high nutrient density.

Kinds of Nutrients
Each of the nutrients listed has certain characteristics and functions in the body. These are
discussed in general terms.
1. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms bound
together in chains of varying lengths. Sugars are simple carbohydrates. Simple sugars,
such as glucose, are small compounds containing 6 carbon atoms. Table sugar, or
sucrose, is a larger sugar molecule with 12 carbon atoms. Sugars are found in sweets
and, to a lesser extent, in fruits and vegetables. Starches are complex carbohydrates
consisting of long chains of simple sugars bound together. They are found in such foods
as grains, bread, peas and beans, and many vegetables and fruits.

2. FATS
Fats supply energy to the body in highly concentrated form. Also, some fatty acids are
necessary for regulating certain body functions. Fats act as carriers of fat-soluble vitamins
(vitamins A, D, E, and K). Because of these important functions, it is necessary to have
some fats in the diet. Fats may be classified as saturated, monounsaturated, or
polyunsaturated.

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 These terms reflect chemical differences in the composition of fats. Cooks do not need to
know the chemical structure of fats, but they should understand their nutritional
characteristics and the foods in which they are found. Many foods contain a combination
of these three types, with one type predominating.

3. PROTEINS
Proteins are known as the building blocks of the body. They are essential for growth, for
building body tissues, and for basic body functions. They can also be used for energy if
the diet does not contain enough carbohydrate and fat. Proteins consist of substances
called amino acids. The body can manufacture many of them, but there are nine amino
acids it cannot manufacture and must get from foods. A food protein that contains all nine
essential amino acids is called a complete protein. Meats, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy
products contain complete proteins.

4. VITAMINS
Vitamins are present in foods in extremely small quantities, but they are essential for
regulating body functions. Unlike proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, they supply no energy,
but some of them must be present for energy to be utilized in the body. Also, lack of certain
vitamins causes deficiency diseases.
Vitamins are classified as water-soluble and fat-soluble. The water-soluble vitamins (the
B vitamins and vitamin C) are not stored in the body and must be eaten every day. Foods
containing these vitamins should be handled so the vitamins are not dissolved into the
cooking water and lost.

5. MINERALS
Minerals, like vitamins, are consumed in very small quantities and are essential for
regulating certain body processes. Minerals that must be consumed in relatively large
amounts—more than 100 milligrams daily—are called major minerals. These include
calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium, and potassium. Minerals that
must be present in smaller amounts are called trace minerals. These include chromium,
copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. Less is
known about the functions of some of the trace minerals. It is important to understand,
however, that although small quantities are needed by the body, too much of any of them
can be harmful.

6. WATER
The adult human body is 50 to 60 percent water by weight. Water plays a role in all the
body’s functions, including metabolism and other cell functions, digestion, delivery of
nutrients, removal of waste, temperature regulation, and lubrication and cushioning of
joints and tissues. Water forms a large part of most of the food we eat and all the
beverages we drink. The body is good at regulating its own water content and tells us
when we need more by making us feel thirsty. This signal should not be ignored. Even
better is to drink enough fluids to prevent feeling thirsty.

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B. Cooking a Healthful Meal
Restaurateurs and chefs are becoming more and more attentive to people’s health and
diet concerns. Many of them are re-examining their menus, modifying their cooking practices, and
adding new, healthful items to their menus. Some have developed new menus intended to follow
as closely as possible the eight recommendations listed above.
An increased health consciousness has affected the way we think about food and the way
we cook. Professional cooks are making their foods more healthful in several ways:
1. Using less fat in cooking. Cooking methods that require no added fat, such as
simmering, poaching, baking, steaming, and grilling, can be considered the most healthful.
For sautéing, nonstick pans are becoming more widely used because little or no fat is
needed.
2. Using unsaturated fats. When you do use fats, try to substitute monounsaturated fats,
such as olive oil or canola oil, for saturated fats when appropriate.
3. Emphasizing flavor. Taste is the most important factor in preparing nutritious food. The
most vitamin packed dish does no one any good if it is uneaten because it doesn’t taste
good. Preparing flavorful foods requires knowledge of the principles of cooking. You can’t
rely simply on nutritional information. Rely more on the natural flavors of foods and less
on salt and other additives that should be decreased in the diet.
4. Using the freshest, highest-quality foods possible. To prepare delicious foods with
little or no added salt and with less reliance on high-fat, high-sodium sauces, and
condiments, it is important to use high-quality natural ingredients at their peak of flavor.
Healthful cooking means letting the true flavors of foods dominate. To enhance natural
flavors without added salt, cooks are using more fresh herbs, hot seasonings such as
chiles, ginger, and pepper, and flavorful ingredients like garlic, browned onions, and
flavored vinegars.
5. Storing foods properly. Foods in storage lose nutrients as they age. The loss of nutrients
can be slowed, however, by proper storage. This applies particularly to proper
refrigeration. For each category of perishable food discussed in this book, pay close
attention to how the foods should be stored.
6. Modifying portion sizes. It is not necessary to feature huge slabs of meat to serve
satisfying meals. Smaller portions of well-trimmed meat, poultry, or fish, nicely balanced
on the plate with an assortment of attractive fresh vegetables and complex carbohydrates,
are likely to be more healthful.
7. Giving customers a healthful choice. Offer a menu with a variety of foods so customers
can choose a well-balanced meal suited to their needs and desires. It’s not necessary to
cook only “diet food,” but a menu that offers French fries as the only available starch is
not well balanced.
8. Training the dining room staff. Unfortunately, this approach may suggest to some
people that the highlighted menu items are boring “health food,” while the other menu
items are unhealthful because they aren’t flagged. Consequently, many chefs prefer to
train their dining room personnel to answer customers’ questions about the menu and to
offer suggestions when asked.
9. Using nutritional information. Study the nutritional content of foods to plan healthful
menus. Many publications are available that list the nutritional content of common food
items.

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C. Mis en Place
To be successful in the food-service industry, cooks need more than the ability to prepare
delicious, attractive, and nutritious foods. They also must have a talent for organization and
efficiency. In every kitchen, a great many tasks must be completed over a given time and by a
limited number of workers. No matter when these tasks are done, they all must come together at
one crucial point: service time. Only if advance preparation is done thoroughly and systematically
can service go smoothly. Good chefs take pride in the thoroughness and quality of their advance
preparation, or mise en place (meez-on-plahss). This French term, meaning “everything put in
place,” has become almost a professional password in North American kitchens because food-
service professionals understand its importance to the success of the establishment. This chapter
deals with the basic concepts of mise en place as well as specific operations that are normally
part of the mise en place.
Our planning helps us determine the tasks we must do before beginning the final cooking
during the meal service period. Chefs refer to performing these preliminary tasks as “doing the
mise en place.” In many restaurants, especially large ones, the mise en place is extensive. It
includes the preparation of stocks, sauces, breading, and batters as well as the cutting and
trimming of all the meat, poultry, fish, and vegetables the chef expects will be needed during the
meal service.
A large part of a cook’s workday is spent doing mise en place. This means that a large
part of learning how to cook is learning how to do mise en place. In fact, a large part of this book
is devoted to these tasks of preparation. There are many more such tasks than can be included
in a single chapter.

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D. Using the Knife
The chef’s knife or French knife, however, is still the cook’s most important and versatile
cutting tool. The knife is more precise than a machine. Unless you are cutting a large quantity,
the knife can even be faster. Cleaning a large machine takes time. To get the best use out of your
knife, you must learn to keep it sharp and to handle it properly.
Handling the Knife

 THE GRIP - A proper grip gives you maximum control over the knife, increases your
cutting accuracy and speed, prevents slipping, and lessens the chance of an accident.
The type of grip you use depends, in part, on the job you are doing and the size of the
knife. Many chefs feel that grasping the blade with the thumb and forefinger in this manner
gives them greatest control. Holding the knife may feel awkward at first, but practice will
make it seem natural. Watch your instructors demonstrate the grips they use, and then
practice under their supervision.
 THE GUIDING HAND - While one hand controls the knife, the other hand controls the
product being cut. Proper positioning of the hand achieves three goals:
1. Hold the item being cut.
2. Guide the knife. Note the knife blade slides against the fingers. The position of the
hand controls the cut.
3. Protect the hand from cuts. Fingertips are curled under, out of the way of the blade.

E. Basic Cuts and Shape

Basic Cuts and Shapes Cutting food products into uniform shapes and sizes is important
for two reasons:
1. It ensures even cooking.
2. It enhances the appearance of the product.
Basic Cuts
1. Large Dice – The large dice is a culinary knife cut measuring 3/4 inch × 3/4
inch × 3/4 inch. This square cut is most often used for vegetables like
potatoes, and sometimes fruits such as watermelon.

2. Medium Dice - The medium dice measures 1/2 inch × 1/2 inch × 1/2 inch
and is a smaller version of the large dice. This is generally a good choice
when recipes don't specify the size of the dice and the ingredient list just
says, "diced tomatoes."

3. Small Dice- The littlest of the dice cuts, the small dice measures 1/4 inch ×
1/4 inch × 1/4 inch and is produced by slicing the allumette into 1/4-inch
sections.

4. Batonnet - The batonnet (pronounced bah-tow-NAY) is basically creating a

rectangular stick that measures 1/2 inch × 1/2 inch × 2 1/2 to 3 inches. It is
also the starting point for another cut, the medium dice.

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 5. Allumette - Measuring 1/4 inch × 1/4 inch × 2 1/2 to 3 inches, the allumette is
sometimes referred to as the "matchstick cut." It's also the starting point for
the small dice.

6. Julienne - The julienne cut measures 1/8 inch × 1/8 inch × 2 1/2 inches and
is basically the allumette cut once more lengthwise. You will most often use
this cut for carrots, celery, or potatoes, and see the thin strips used as a
garnish.

7. Brunoise - The brunoise knife cut (pronounced BROON-wahz) measures 1/8

inch × 1/8 inch × 1/8 inch, which makes it the smallest of the dice cuts.
Brunoise is usually used for garnishes.

8. Fine Julienne - The fine julienne knife cut measures 1/16 inch × 1/16 inch × 2
inches. It is also the starting point for the fine brunoise cut. This cut is often
used for garnishes.

9. Fine Brunoise - The fine brunoise knife cut (pronounced BROON-wahz)

measures 1/16 inch × 1/16 inch × 1/16 inch. It sure is tiny.

10. Mince - Smaller than a fine brunoise, the mince is less precise since it is
supposed to be finely cut. We most often mince garlic, or other aromatics,
when we want the flavor to be distributed more throughout the dish.

11. Chiffonade - This cut is mainly used for vegetable leaves and fresh herbs basil.
The leaves are stacked, rolled, and then sliced perpendicularly, creating thin
strips.

F. Cutting Techniques
(Please refer to Kitchen Laboratory Handout 01)

REFERENCE:
The Spruce Eats. Basic Techniques for Professional Culinary Arts Knife Cuts. Retrieved September 10,
2021, from https://www.thespruceeats.com/culinary-arts-knife-cuts-photo-gallery-4121795
Gisslen. W. (2015). Professional Cooking 7TH Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

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