INTERRELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE LANGUAGE ARTS

The language arts are commonly classified according to the tasks involved such as listening, speaking,
reading and writing. (Viewing.) These tasks may in turn be classified as Receptive (listening and reading) and
Expressive (speaking and writing). Another way of classifying them would be as Oral Activities (listening and
speaking) and Written Activities (reading and writing). Such a variety of possible classification schemes attests
to the commonality of the skills among the various language arts.
In the early childhood years, listening and speaking are closely linked. Listening is a major avenue of
learning. Through listening, children acquire a knowledge of their world translated into language. They learn
vocabulary through repeated associations of objects and their vocal symbols, they assimilate syntactic patterns
by hearing those patterns spoken over and over. Although very young children do not speak in the whole sentence
patterns that they hear, research indicates that they are, nevertheless, thinking in. As their language performance
develops, they sentence equivalents gradually expand their beginning minimum utterances to include all the
surface elements of adult language. Listening provides the models for oral language development.
The similarity of skills among the four language arts makes learning in one area complementary to that in
another area. Although each task may involve different cognitive processes, many skills involving language and
thought are used in all language arts activities. In both reading and writing for example, children use their
knowledge of such things as vocabulary, inflected form of words, sentence structure, and punctuation.

The relatedness of the language arts is graphically represented in Figure 1 above. The four categories-
listening, speaking, reading and writing- are shown as having overlapping sets of skills and abilities which operate
within a universe of language.
Cognition, at the center of the universe, is reflected in both the content and the process of using language.
It is the mind that controls our capacity for knowing and thinking and that allows us to organize and share
knowledge through the language system.
The Importance of Language
Language is the key to all human activities. It is the vehicle through which the world can be understood
and appreciated. Without language, people are isolated and helpless. (Gertrude Boyd,1976). Language is a
conscious or unconscious part of nearly everything we do. It is a personal matrix for receiving, processing, and
sharing ideas and information.
The need for language is a basic premise underlying language teaching and learning. Language permits
functional and creative exploration of the world of meaning by allowing us to communicate with others and with
ourselves. Competency in language is a prerequisite for productive and satisfying experience.
Language Functions
The uses of language are derived from the needs and customs of a given society. In addition to using
language to think, to communicate information and to direct behavior, we use language in social and very
personal ways.
Language is an important aspect of human relationships. Consider its use in greetings, conversation,
organizational meetings, ceremonies and informal written communications. It is also used as an expression of
emotion, as a release from tension, as a reaction to an emergency and as a means of sharing unique personal
perceptions.
DeStefano (1978) gives seven universal functions of language originally identified by Halliday (1975):
1. Instrumental language
• “I want” or “I need”.
 • Language is used to satisfy needs or desires. It often takes the form of a request.
2. Regulatory Language
• “Do this,” or “Get out of here!” or “Stop it!”
• Language is used for controlling others.
3. Interactional Language
• “Will you play with me?” or “Let’s go for a walk together.”
• Language is used for establishing relationships, defining them and maintaining them. It is also used
for participating in social behavior.
4. Personal Language
• “I’m going to be a doctor” “I think….”
• Language is used for expressing individuality, to give personal opinions and feelings.
5. Imaginative Language
• “Let’s pretend” or “Once upon a time,” etc.
• Language is used to create a world of one’s own.
6. Heuristic Language
• “Why?” “What’s that for?” or “Why is the sky blue?” or “Why do people talk differently?”
• Language is used for exploring the world, for finding things out.
7. Informative Language
• “I’ve got something to tell you.”
• Language is used for conveying information.
To be competent users of language, children need to be aware of its functions and they should develop
skill in using it for different purposes. A balanced language program gives attention to the full range of language
functions. Through many activities, children discover the relationships of language choice and language function
and become flexible and competent in using language appropriately.

END GOALS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

The end goals of teaching and learning English are communicative competence and multiliteracies.
Communicative competence is the student’s ability to understand and use language appropriately and
correctly to communicate in authentic situations.
The second goal of English language teaching is multiliteracies. The term comes from two words: “multi”
and “literacy” and implies that text is not the only way to communicate.
Text is combined with sounds and images. It is incorporated into movies, billboards, almost any site on
the internet and television. All these ways of communication require the ability to understand a multimedia world.
At the base of the framework are theories of language teaching, theories of language learning and
acquisition and theories of language. This means English language teaching in the K12 Curriculum is anchored
on various theories. Making meaning is at the center of the framework for English.
What does this imply?
• Whatever concepts or skills are learned must make sense to the learner, must have meaning to the
learners, must capacitate learners to make meaning through language. This is constructivism.
Assessment and feedback are essential elements of language teaching. The words assessment and
feedback are also found in the MTB-MLE framework.
The Six Main Processes that form part of the core of English language teaching are:
1. Construction 4. Interaction
2. Spiral Progression 5. Contextualization
3. Integration 6. Learner-Centered Instruction
The Five Macro Skills that are found in MTB-MLE and Filipino frameworks namely:
1. Listening 4. Writing
2. Speaking 5. Viewing is also found in the framework for
3. Reading English language teaching.
The curriculum framework for English language teaching mentions more than five macro skills. It added
responding and representing. The addition of responding and to reading and viewing ensures learners’ making
meaning out of what they read and view. The addition representing to writing likewise ensures writing with
meaning. Making meaning, making sense through language is central to language teaching.
 The Learning Area Standard
The Learning Area Standard specifies the intended outcomes of the English subject from K to Grade 12.
For English the subject the Learning Area Standard is: The learner demonstrates mastery of basic skills in the
English Language Arts, communicates appropriately, fluently and orally and writes for a variety of purposes in
different social and academic context at his/her level while carrying out real life tasks necessary to cope with the
demands of functionally literate and competent, local, national and global citizen.
The Key Stage Standards
What outcomes in every key stage of the K to 12 Curriculum are expected to be realized from the teaching
of English. The key stages are at the end of Grade 3, Grade 6, Grade 10, and Grade 12.
Grade 3 Grade 6 Grade 10 Grade 12
Students should be able to Students should be able to Students should be able to
Students should be able to
demonstrate eagerness to construct meaning and interpret, evaluate and
integrate communication
explore and experience communicate them using represent information
and language skills for
oral and written texts and creative, appropriate and within and between creating meaning using
to communicate grammatically correct learning area texts and
oral and written texts,
meanings and feelings oral and written language. discourses. various genres and
effectively. discursive contexts for
personal and professional
purposes.
The Grade level standards spell out competencies from Grade 1 to Grade 12. They are given below.
Kindergarten – Grade Level Standards – ENGLISH

Grade 1 The learner listens for comprehension, speaks clearly and uses appropriate expressions in talking
about oneself, family. and other social context interactions.
Grade 2 The learner listens critically to one-two paragraphs: use appropriate expressions in varied
situations; reads texts for pleasure and information critically in meaningful thought units'
responds property to environmental prints likes signs, posters, commands and requests; and
writes legibly simple sentences and messages in cursive form.
Grade 3 The learner listens critically to get information from text heard. demonstrates independence in
using the basic language structure in oral and written communication. and reads with
comprehension.
Grade 4 The learner listens critically to news reports and other radio broadcasts and expresses ideas
accurately in oral and in written forms: demonstrates confidence in the use of the language to
meet every day needs; and reads independently and gets relevant information from various text
types.
Grade 5 The learner listens critically to different text types: expresses ideas logically in oral and written
forms; and demonstrates interest in reading to meet various needs.
Grade 6 The learner listens critically: communicates feelings and ideas orally and in writing with a high
level of proficiency: and reads various text types materials to serve learning needs in meeting a
wide range of life's purposes.
Grade 7 The learner demonstrates communicative competence through his/her understanding of
Philippine Literature and other texts types for a deeper appreciation Of Philippine Culture.
Grade 8 The learner demonstrates communicative competence through his/her understanding Of Afro-
Asian Literature and other texts types for a deeper appreciation Of Philippine Culture and those
Of other countries.
Grade 9 The learner demonstrates communicative competence through his/her understanding Of British-
American Literature, including Philippine Literature and other text types for a deeper
appreciation of Philippine Culture and those of other countries.
Grade 10 The learner demonstrates communicative competence through his/her understanding of literature
and other text types for a deeper appreciation of World Literature. including Philippine Literature.

DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE
Linguistic define language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols through which members of a group
communicate. This definition contains several concepts that help us understand what language is and how it
works.
Nature of Language
1. Language is Systematic – Language is consistent and predictable. It follows patterns or rules that allow
an infinite number of communications. We develop an intuitive knowledge of the language system which
allows us to generate and receive and messages that are totally new to us.
 2. Language is Arbitrary – The elements of a language system are arbitrarily determined. Individuals
cannot utter any string of sounds in any order and expect others to understand them. Communication is
dependent on an established system and decisions about the elements within that system are necessarily
arbitrary.
3. Language is Vocal – Language is based on a set of speech sounds produced by the vocal organs of the
body. Words are made by combining those sounds. Thus, speech is the primary language of a group.
Writing is a symbolic representation of speech and was developed thousands of years later.
4. Language is Symbolic – Words stand for objects and things and they allow us to talk about them when
they are not present. A word is not the thing; it is a symbol for the thing. The symbolic nature of our
language allows us to think and talk about abstract ideas such as democracy and love, as well as about
concrete objects and things.
The Purpose of Language is Group Communication
The need for communication among members of a group gives rise to language. The language that
develops belongs to the group and binds them together. They in turn are responsible for knowing the language; it
is a prerequisite for functional membership in the group.
Four Phases of the Teaching and Learning of English as a Second Language
Phase I: Establishing Meaning
The first of the four phases is the establishment of meaning. A teacher cannot teach without giving careful
attention to the critical task of setting a clear-cut meaning for the student. The learner must not be practicing
meaningless language. The student must have a meaning for the language, and it must be clear to the student and
the teacher that comprehension has been achieved.
Student comprehension, within the limits set by the teacher and the situation, must not be sacrificed in the
name of speed, curriculum, objectives and time or materials.
There are at least Five Ways to Teach Meaning:
1. The first is through the use of a tangible object-a glass, a vase, a table.
2. Second, through illustrations, paintings, photographs, drawings.
3. The third way is through the development of a verbal context- a number of already known elements are
recombined so that student can guess the meaning of the new item from the language which surrounds it.
4. A fourth effective way to establish meaning is through actions-walking, running, swimming.
5. The last means is through translation. Where all other means of establishing meaning have been considered
and found wanting, translation should be used. Remember, however, translation occurs once. After that,
it is practiced. These “h
6. ows” can be used independently or in any variety of combinations.
Through each phase, a certain set of conditions or life-giving environment should be maintained. The
teacher needs to develop for the learner a non-threatening environment where the learner is safe enough to take
personal risks without fear of personal loss of self-esteem, peer respect, and teacher acceptance. To foster such
a safe and, therefore, effective learning environment, the teacher should first draw the language content of the
materials from the students’ own lives. Students have friends, work, concerns, needs-in short, they have
experiences for which they need language. Secondly, the teacher should vary the activities. Language learners
especially need a variety of experiences that are both relaxing and exhilarating.
Finally, and this one may be the most difficult-the teacher should sustain her enthusiasm. The teacher’s
performance should be as fresh and enthusiastic as if she were hearing or saying or reading or writing it for the
first time. All of these conditions make for a setting which helps learning occur.
Phase II: Practice
The second phase of the teaching and /learning function has three characteristics. Practice must be
manipulative, meaningful, and communicative, if pupils are to reap maximum benefits.
1. Manipulation ensures that the learner won’t be dealing with linguistic functions he is incapable of
handling.
2. Meaningful practice goes a long way toward easing the boredom factor long associated with the phase by
eliminating extraneous effort on the part of the students. It guarantees that students will practice only as
long as that practice is meaningful (i.e., necessary) for them.
3. Communicative practice is essential in helping students make the jump between the security of the
classroom and the real-life surprise of communication in the second language outside the classroom.
 These characteristics must be ever-present in the practice phase and must be carefully woven together by
the teacher. The three characteristics are consistently interdependent and omission of any one of the characteristics
will result in lessened lesson effectiveness and increased frustration, boredom, and parroting.
The backbone of the Practice Phase consists of the Audio-Lingual Drill types. Although the audio-lingual
method has come under fire in recent years, drills of this type remain an important component of any English
class and methodology. The bottom line is that drills must be meaningful.
1. Minimal Pair Drill – This refers to a pair of words, phases or sentences which sound alike except for one
phonemic difference. The students may be asked solely to recognize the difference between the two
examples or may be expected to recognize the difference and incorporate it into a productive activity
(saying the two examples, etc.).
2. Substitution Drill – This consists of a base phrase or sentence in which one element is replaced by
another.
Examples:
Teacher: Mary has a book.
Teacher: Train
Student/s: Mary has a train.
Teacher: Truck
Student/s: Mary has a truck.
3. Multiple Slot Substitution Drill – This employs some features of single slot substitution. However,
introduction of the first new element necessitates the change of a second element.
Examples:
Teacher: John called his mother.
Teacher: Mary
Student/s: Mary called her mother
Teacher: They
Student/s: They called their mother.
4. Moving Slot Substitution – This is more complex because attention is focused on different slots on the
frame.
Examples:
T: The play starts at seven tonight.
S: The play starts at seven tonight.
T: _______ tomorrow.
S: The paly starts at seven tomorrow.
T: _______ eight.
S: The play starts at eight tonight.
5. Transformation – This drill effects a change in sentence type or tense.
Examples:
John is happy. John isn’t happy.
John wrote a letter yesterday.
John will write a letter tomorrow.
6. Integration – Two separate statements are combined into one.
Examples:
I saw the dog. The dog had brown spots.
I saw the dog that had brown spots.
7. Expansion – This refers to the use of an additional word/words to an utterance.
 Examples:
The dress is pretty.
The blue dress is pretty. (Blue)
A second form of practice is achieved through the Question-Answer Sequence. There are four basic
question types.
1. Yes/No – It asks for nothing more than affirmation or negation of information presented.
Examples:
Are you going to the party?
Do you know the answer?
2. Choice – It presents the respondent with two or more alternatives.
Example:
Are they watching Vilma or Awitawanan?
3. Interrogation Word – It requires the respondent to supply the information to the question.
Examples:
Where is my chicken sandwich?
How long have you lived in Manila?
4. Tag – This requires affirmation or negation of a statement which precede it. The tag agrees with the
statement part in number, tense, and in verb type.
Examples:
He’s not serious, is he?
He’s serious, isn’t he?
Sharon sings nightly, doesn’t she?
Sharon doesn’t sing nightly, does she?
The third component of practice is Dialogue Completion. In this circumstance the student is given a
contextual situation to which he must respond. It may also supply a response to which the student supplies a
question.
S1: ________________
S2: No, I was at the library last night.
S3: Did you find the book you wanted?
S4: No, _______________________.
The practice components of Phase II may be implemented in several ways. All are essentials to complete
the Practice Phase.
1. The first method of implementation is repetition. Repetition includes the old stand-bys, choral,
individual, backward build-up, chain and songs.
2. The second type of implementation is recombination of oral/aural drills for reading and writing practice.
3. The final method of implementing the Practice Phase is through a category called selection. Selection
implies that the teacher has set up a fairly controlled communication situation based on what has been
learned previously in an even more controlled situation.
Three major areas of selection are available to teachers and pupils; open-ended questioning, description
and games.
1. Open-ended questioning may be either teacher or student initiated. In the case of teacher initiation, she
has no way of predicting the student’s answer.
Example:
What’s your favorite food?
 Student initiated questioning may be found in such circumstances as student interviews or as a component
of the other two categories of selection: description and games.
2. Description entails the teacher controlling what is to be described where she sets up the pattern to be used
in describing through instructions to the student.
Example:
The class has been studying “there is,” “there are” and types of food. A picture of a supermarket is handed
to the student and the teacher says. “Tell me all the things there are in the picture.” If the class has been
studying the simple present tense, the teacher may instruct the student, “Tell me five things you see using
there is or there are.”
3. Games are included as part of selection due to the more flexible nature of most games.
As demonstrated in the First Phase “Establishing Meaning,” the four conditions the teacher must maintain
to foster a good learning environment remain in the Practice Phase. There is, however, an additional condition
imposed on the teacher in this phase. The teacher must vary the difficulty level of the drill or activity. The
difficulty level has a direct impact on whether the student will be bored or frustrated.
Phase III: Purposeful Student Communication
The third phase of the teaching/learning function is one which pushes the student out of the “practice
nest.” It encourages students to try their wings in the second language through student-initiated manipulation and
recombination of what has been previously taught as well as student-initiated introduction of patterns and
vocabulary.
The bulk of the third phase rests within a single concept-student utilization of what has been introduced and
learned (whether inside or outside of the classroom) to suit the individual’s purposes. It is a time of
experimentation, both for the student and the teacher, as both parties try to move through the shock-waves of
increasing language variations on what has been taught, to the epicenter of effective communication.
Selection may be implemented in several ways:
1. Role-playing – A situation is established which requires certain behavior on the part of the students. The
student responds to the situation using language which best fits his own role in the situation with regard
to reactions issued by other students taking part in the role-play.
2. Gaming-simulation – It is best viewed as an extended role-play. Here the student creates not only a
character in a single situation but a whole environment-a culture, an economy, a life- style. Role-play may
be considered a single scene in the play while gaming simulation is the play itself.
3. Problem-solving – A real life problem is introduced to the students. Student communication takes place
within the context of brainstorming to find a solution to the problem.
4. Hypothetical Recombination – This involves stretching language capacities to deal with situations that
will probably not occur. It is a matching of creativity and imagination with functional language patterns.
Example:
What would you be like if you lived on Mars?
5. Directed Discourse – This is the use of a structured situation to encourage the student both to choose and
use language that is appropriate to the specific situation and at the same time to help the student safely
encounter situations which she has avoided.
The additional condition introduced is that of identification and incorporation of learner goals into the
class.
Phase IV: Review, Recombination or Reteaching
It is important to review and recombine language already covered in the first three phases using any or all
of the three phases and activities outlined in each for 1) establishing a meaning; 2) practicing; and 3) purposeful
communication. This fourth phase may also mean reteaching the material or the need once again to move the
student through each of the first three phases.
Below is the diagram summarizing the conditions, skills and ways to accomplish the said skills.
Conditions Environment What How
Phase I: Establishing Meaning
1. Draw language content 1. Establish Meaning 1. Tangible Objects
from student’s own 2. Introduce A. The classroom itself.
experiences. 3. Present B. Common Objects
2. Sustain enthusiasm. 4. Explore C. Common Substances
 3. Vary the type of activities. 5. Clarify D. Models (such as toy cars)
4. Vary the pace of activities. E. Actual student experiences
F. Anything that can be seen,
heard, smelled, touched.
2. Illustrations
A. Pictures
B. Cards
C. Charts
D. Films
E. Video Tapes
F. Sketches
G. Cartoons, Comic Strips
H. Stick Figures
I. Maps
J. Filmstrips
3. Contexts
A. Phrases
B. Clauses
C. Sentences
D. Dialogues
E. Anecdotes
F. Songs
G. Newspaper Articles
H. Stories
I. Poetry
J. Jokes
K. Riddles
L. Cartoons, Comic Strips
M. Questions and Answers
4. Actions
A. Gestures
B. Mime
C. Films
D. Television
E. Isolated Actions
F. Action Chains
G. Action Sequences
5. Translation
A. Oral
B. Written
C. Combination of Oral and
Written
Phase II: Practice
1. Draw language content 1. A-L Drill Techniques 1. Repetition
from students’ own A. Minimal Pair (Recognition A. Choral
experiences. and Reproduction) B. Individual
2. Sustain enthusiasm. B. Substitution C. Backward Buildup
3. Vary the type of drill C. Multiple-Slot-Substitution D. Chain
4. Vary the pace. D. Transformation E. Songs
5. Vary the difficulty of the E. Integration 2. Recombination of
drill. F. Expansion Oral/Aural Drills for
2. Questions and Answers Reading and Writing
A. Yes-No Practice
B. Choice 3. Selection
C. Interrogative Word A. Questions and Answers
D. Tag B. Descriptions
3. Dialogue Completion C. Games
Phase III: Purposeful Student Communication
1. Draw language content 1. Language initiated by 1. Role-playing
from students’ own student. 2. Gaming-simulation
experiences. 2. Language choice left up to 3. Problem-solving
2. Sustain enthusiasm. student. 4. Hypothetical
3. Vary the type of activities. 3. Purpose chosen by student. Recombination
4. Vary the difficulty of the 4. “Teacher” role greatly 5. Directed Discourse
drills. reduced or eliminated.
 5. Identify and incorporate
specific learner goals into
the class content.
Phase IV: Review, Recombination or Reteaching
1. Conditions appropriate for 1. Teacher selection based on 1. Teacher selection based on
Phases One, Two, three student needs and student needs and
remain the same. requirements. requirements.

CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION (CBI)

Concept – Is an effective method of combining language and content learning. Method of language instruction
in which content and language are integrated instead of focusing on language forms, the curriculum in this method
is based on content.
Background – Content-based instruction (CBI) is teaching organized around the content or information that
students will acquire, and not around the linguistic or other type of syllabus. Content refers to the substance or
subject matter that we learn or communicate through language content rather that the language used to convey
it. CBI is built on the principles of Communicative Language Teaching. Classroom needs to be filled with real
and meaningful communication where information is exchanged.
Approach – Content-based instruction is based in Two Assumptions:
1. People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring
information. This assumption reflects one of the motivations for CBI noted earlier that it leads to more
effective language learning.
2. It better reflect learners needs for learning a second language. Many ESL, EFL programs focus on
preparing students for academic studies or for mainstreaming.
Theory of Language

Theory of Learning
CBI makes an assumption that learners learn best when they are given language in a meaningful,
contextualized form with the primary focus on acquiring information.
• People learn a second language more successfully when the information they are acquiring is
perceived as interesting, useful and leading to a desire goal.
• Language learning is more motivating when students are focusing on something other than
language, such as ideas, issues and opinions.
• Some content areas are more useful than others.
• Teaching builds on the previous experiences of the learners. CBI build on students’ knowledge
and previous experiences. Students bring a wealth of knowledge to the classroom.
Language is Purposeful – Language is used for a specific purpose such as, vocational, social or recreational.
In order to make the content comprehensible, teachers need to make adjustments and simplifications for the
students to learn.
Objectives – In CBI, the language is second to learning the content. The objectives relate to the content, not to
the language.
Syllabus – The syllabus comes from the content. However, it is common for a topical syllabus to be used in
theme-based CBI.
Types of Learning and Teaching Activities
Stroller (1997) proposed Classification Categories:
 1. Language Skills 3. Discourse Organization 5. Study Skills
Improvement 4. Communicative 6. Synthesis of Content,
2. Vocabulary Building Interaction Materials, and Grammar
Learner ´s Role
1. Become autonomous. 4. Willing to tolerate uncertainty.
2. Support each other. 5. Willing to explore alternative learning
3. Active interpreters of input. strategies and sources of content.
6. And have a learn by doing attitude.
Teacher ´s Role
1. A good language teacher. 3. Be able to draw out that knowledge from
2. Knowledgeable in the subject matter. students.
Stryker & Leaver suggest the following Essential Skills for any CBI Instructor:
1. Varying the format of classroom instruction.
2. Using group work and team-building techniques.
3. Organization jigsaw arrangements.
4. Defining the background knowledge and language skills required for students’ success.
Role of Materials
1. Whatever facilitates subject matter of the content course.
2. Comprehensibility and authenticity are both important in CBI. In addition, instructional media
enriches the context.
Types of Classes
1. Sheltered Content 2. Adjunct Language 3. Team Teach Approach
Instruction Instruction
Principles of CBI
1. The subject matter content is used for language teaching purposes.
2. Teaching should build on students' previous experiences.
3. Learners feel motivated when they perceive the relevance of the language used.
4. The Teacher helps students to complete or build expressions when they can´t.
5. Language is learned most effectively when it is used with a real purpose.
6. Vocabulary is easier to acquire when it is used to convey meaning.
7. Language support is needed when they work with authentic subject matter.
8. Learners work with meaningful and cognitively demanding language and content.
9. Communicative competence involves more than using language conversationally.

TASK BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBLT)

What is Task?
• A piece of work that must be done, especially one that is difficult or that must be done regularly.
• To give someone the responsibility for doing something. (Longman English Dictionary)
• A task is any activity that learners engage in to process of learning a language. (Williams and Burden,
1997:168)
• A task is a range of learning activities from the simple and brief exercises to more complex and lengthy
activities such as group problem-solving or simulations and decision-making. (Breen, 1987:23)
• An activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process
of thought and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process was regarded as a task. (Prabhu,
1987:24)
What is Task Based Language Teaching?
• An approach which offers students opportunities to actively engage in communication in order to achieve
a goal or complete a task. TBLT seeks to develop students’ interlanguage through providing a task and
then using language to solve it.
• It was first developed by N. Prabhu in Bangladore, Southern India. Prabhu believed that students may
learn more effectively when their minds are focused on the task, rather than on the language they are
using. (Prabhu, 1987; as cited in Littlewood, 2004)
• On the other hand, using tasks for teaching first appeared in the vocational training practice of the
1950’s. Task focused here first derived from training design concerns of the military regarding new
military technologies and occupational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focused on solo
psychomotor tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved. (Richards & Rodgers,
2001:225)
• TBLT makes the performance of meaningful tasks central to the learning process. Instead of a language
structure or function to be learnt, students are presented with a task they have to perform or a problem
they have to solve. (Harmer, J. The practice of English Language Teaching, 2007:71)
o Preparing a meal.
o Ordering food in a café. o Two pictures or text find the
o Talking to someone on the phone. differences.
o Compiling qualities of a good friend. o Solving a problem.
o Designing a brochure.

• A task taken from a task-based syllabus for beginners.

• TBLT constitutes a strong version of Communicative Language Teaching. (Skehan, 2003b)
• Teacher’s dominant authority turns into teacher’s guiding in TBLT; because, teacher centered learning
(PPP) becomes learner centered.
• It can be seen as both a refinement of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and a reaction to the
use of PPP. (Ellis, 2003: ix)
Why do we use a task-based approach?
• Tasks can be easily related to students’ real-life language needs.
• They create contexts that facilitate second language acquisition.
• Tasks create opportunities for focusing on form.
• Students are more likely to develop intrinsic motivation in a task-based approach.
• A task-based approach enables teachers to see if students are developing the ability to communicate in an
L2.
What is Focusing on Form? Two essential characteristics of focus-on-form:
1. The overriding focus in a form-focused classroom is meaning or communication, and
2. Attention to form arises incidentally in response to communicative need (Ellis, 2001)
A. Approach
Theory of Language
1. Language is primarily a means of making meaning.
2. Multiple models of language inform task-based instruction. (Richards & Rodgers, 2001: 226-228)
3. Lexical units are central in language use and language learning.
4. “Conversation” is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition. (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001: 227-228)
Theory of Learning
1. Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisition.
2. Task activity and achievement are motivational.
3. Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purpose. (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001: 228-229)
Principles
1. Making errors is natural and is considered as a part of the process in acquiring the target language.
2. Exposure to comprehensible input is crucial.
3. Learning tasks facilitating learners to engage in interactions are essential. (Priyana, 2006)
4. Learners need to be encouraged to produce the target language as producing the target language
facilitates learning.
5. Although language production may be encouraged from the early stage in the learning process, it is
reasonable to allow a silent period.
6. Focus on form is necessary. (Priyana, 2006)
7. Second language teaching and learning pace should be made reasonable for both learners with higher and
lower aptitude.
8. Language learning tasks should be varied to cater for the needs for both extrovert and introvert learners.
 9. Learning tasks should encourage learners to attend to both meaning and form and be varied in order to
accommodate learners with different learning strategy preferences. (Priyana, 2006)
10. Teaching and learning processes should foster motivation and minimize learner anxiety.
11. The choice of teaching and learning tasks and content should be based on learner age.
12. Learning tasks should arouse and maintain learners’ learning motivation. (Priyana, 2006)
B. Design
Objectives
To facilitate students’ language learning by engaging them in a variety of tasks that have a clear outcome.
(Larsen-Freeman, 2001: 156)
a) To give learners confidence in trying out whatever language they know,
b) To give learners experience of spontaneous interaction,
c) To give learners the chance to benefit from noticing how others express similar meanings,
d) To give learners chances for negotiating turns to speak, (Willis, 1996: 35-6
e) To engage learners in using language purposefully and cooperatively,
f) To make learners participate in a complete interaction, not just one-off sentences,
g) To give learners chances to try out communication strategies,
h) To develop learners’ confidence that they can achieve communicative goals. (Willis, 1996: 35–6)
Types of Learning and Teaching Activities
Processes
Listing Brainstorming, fact-finding.
Ordering and Sorting Sequencing, ranking, categorizing, classifying.
Comparing Matching, finding similarities, finding differences.
Problem Solving Analyzing real or hypothetical situations, reasoning, and decision making.
Sharing Personal Experiences Narrating, describing, exploring and explaining attitudes, opinions, reactions.
Creative Tasks Brainstorming, fact-finding, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem
solving and many others (Willis 1996).

Types of Learning and Teaching Activities:

Syllabus
1. Jigsaw Tasks 4. Decision-making Tasks
2. Information-gap Tasks 5. Opinion exchange Tasks Analytic Synthetic
3. Problem-solving Tasks Syllabus Syllabus
Learner Roles
1. Group Participant 2. Monitor 3. Risk-Taker and
Innovator
Teacher Roles:
1. Selector and Sequencer 2. Preparing Learners for 3. Consciousness-Raising
of Tasks Tasks
Instructional Materials:
1. Books 4. Radio Programs 7. Internet
2. Newspaper 5. CDs 8. Board
3. Magazine 6. TV 9. Worksheets
C. Procedure
The Framework for TBL Instruction
Pre-task Task Cycle Post-task
• Use materials such as • Pair work and small group • Students give a report.
picture/text/song etc. to work versus the whole • Repeat the task (e.g.,
lead into the topic. class. students switch groups)
• Brainstorming, comparing • Introduce a surprise • Consciousness-raising
ideas, sharing experiences. element. activities.
• Provide elicit vocabulary. • Set a time for completing • Students listen to a
• Provide a model, exploit the task. recording or watch a clip of
role-play. • Vary the number of fluent speakers doing the
• Do a similar task. participants. same task, and compare
• Allow the students time to • Tell students they will have their tasks with theirs.
plan. to present a report to the
whole class.
 • Teacher gives feedback and
evaluates the success of the
task.
D. Conclusion
How is error correction done?
Advantages of TBLT
1. TBLT is applicable and suitable for students of all ages and backgrounds.
2. Students will have a much more varied exposure to language with TBLT.
3. Students are free to use whatever vocabulary and grammar they know, rather than just the target
language of the lesson.
4. TBLT helps students pay close attention to the relationship between form and meaning.
5. TBLT allows meaningful communication.
6. Students will be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases, collocations and patterns as well as
language forms.
7. Encourages students to be more ambitious in the language they use.
8. The psychological dynamics of the group which works together to complete a task will have a great
influence on the success.
Disadvantages of TBLT
1. TBLT requires a high level of creativity and initiative on the part of the task.
2. There is a risk for learners to achieve fluency at the expense of accuracy.
3. TBLT requires resources beyond the textbooks and related materials usually found in language
classrooms.
4. Task-based instruction is not teacher-centered and it requires individual and group responsibility and
commitment on the part of students. If students are notably lacking in these qualities, task-based
instruction may, indeed, be difficult to implement.
5. Evaluation of task-based learning can be difficult. The nature of task-based learning prevents it from being
measurable by some of the more restricted and traditional tests. (Krahne, 1987)
6. While Task-Based Instruction may fruitfully develop learners’ authority of what is known, it is
significantly less effective for the systematic teaching of new language. This is especially so where time
is limited and out-of-class exposure is unavailable, such as in Turkey.
TBLT is based on the principle that language learning will progress most successfully if teaching aims
simply to create contexts in which the learner’s natural language learning capacity can be nurtured rather than
making a systematic attempt to teach the language bit by bit. (Ellis, 2009:222)
It may help to encourage students to use the target language actively and meaningfully. But still, many
aspects of TBLT have to be justified such as task type, task sequencing and evaluation of task performance.
The basic assumption of TBLT -that it provides for a more effective basis for teaching than other language
teaching approaches- remains in the domain of ideology rather than fact. It depends on tasks as the primary source
of pedagogical input in teaching, but the absence of a systematic grammatical syllabus entails current versions of
TBLT.
FUNCTIONAL-NOTIONAL APPROACH
Historical Background
• In 1972, British linguist D.A. Wilkims published a document to describe language to an analysis of the
communicative meanings.
• In 1976 Notional Syllabuses work followed it.
• Wilkins‟ work was used by Council of Europe in drawing up a communicative language syllabus.
• In 1970s, first books based on functional syllabuses began to appear.
Basic Claims
• Functional- Notional approach focuses on the purposes for which language is used. It emphasizes
communicative purposes of a speech act.
• It underlines what people want to do or what they want to accomplish.
• The Functional Notional Approach helps learners to use real and appropriate language for communication.
• The basic communicative purposes can be expressed in two ways, depending on the function;
• Either formulas, fixed expressions.
• Communicative or functional expressions.
 What is function?
Function is the communicative act; it is the use of language to achieve a purpose; inviting sb, writing an
apology, ordering, promising, greeting…
Function: Greeting Function: Acknowledging an Introduction
(Informal) Hello (Informal) Please to Meet You
(Formal) Good Evening (Formal) How Do You Do?
Function: Leave-taking Function: Expressing and Acknowledging
Gratitude
(Informal) So Long or Bye
(Formal/Informal) Thank You or You Are Welcome
(Formal) Goodbye
In English, formulas are fixed. In other languages fixed formulas also exist but not necessarily in the same
social situation. For example; Italian and Turkish
What is Notion?
• It is important that functional language must also incorporate with specific notions; vocabulary, nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, structure verbs, miscellaneous words.
• The words following the functional expression would be considered notions.
• A notion is a concept, or idea and it may be quite specific, such as a vocabulary (dog, house, for example);
or it may be very general – size, emotion, movement, place.
• A notion may be “time past”; this may include past tenses, phrases like a month ago, in 1990, last week,
and utterances using temporal clauses beginning with when, before, after, and so on.
• Universal linguistic phenomena; time, space, quantity, motion, matter, case and deixis.
• Structural and vocabulary items.
• The notion of time, the notion of place.
For example; “I’d like to invite your son to come to my club for lunch on Saturday.”
Specific notions depend on Three Major Factors;
1. The function.
2. The elements in the situation.
3. The topic which is being discussed.
Situation includes;
1. The persons taking part in the speech act.
2. The place where the conversation occurs.
3. The time it is taking place.
4. The topic or activity which is being discussed.
The function+ the situation + the topic.
What are Exponents?
Exponents are language utterances or statements which stem from the function, the situation and the topic.
They are language forms a speaker uses to express a message or indicate social roles, formality, informality.
Exponents are mostly depended on our personalities, level of linguistic competence, social statue.
Possible exponents in one example;
1. Please open the window.
2. Open the window, please.
3. Would you open the window?
4. Would you mind opening the window?
5. I wonder if you would mind opening the window?
6. It might be a good idea to open the window.
Also, variations of language result from dialects, informality, formality, mode, wishes.
Function Situation Specific Notions
Communicative expressions and/or People, place, time, and topic. Nouns, verbs, adj/adv, structure
formulas. words, miscellaneous words.
Unit-Credit System
How are topics organized?
1. Functions are classified and put into units or modules.
2. Units can be limited to specific duties such as serve as a receptionist in a doctor’s office.
3. They are specific as global content but free as to internal organization and mode of presentation.
4. Units will specific general grammatical, lexical, notional-semantic items; that is , meaningful and
appropriate use in context or social situations.
Sample Unit Function: Making an Appointment, Persuading, Refusing
Situation (Notion) Function Actual Language Language Patterns and
Tenses
Getting things connected Understanding and asking I’m looking for a large I’m looking for… Have
e.g., gas, phone, TV. for information. wardrobe. What sort of you got…? Could I
Rent-payment–contract Understanding directions price did you have in have…? Can I…? Can
Buying furniture – and local information. mind? Have you got you tell me…? Would
Second-hand, markets, Expressing intentions.anything cheaper? I’m you like…? Sorry, I…
auctions, small ads. Declining. Giving moving to... Can I have Comparatives/Adjectives
Paying bills-when and information. Making the gas/electricity Where can I…?
how. At the door: requests to. connected, please?
milkman, dustman, What’s your address? It’s
salesman. Repair- £70 deposit. Hello, I’m
plumber, electrician. the… Could I see your
Making appointments, identification, please?
Electoral Register. Where can I get a…? Are
you interested in…? No,
not today, thank you.
Lexis Literacy System Aids and Materials
Names of households’ Reading bills, final Types of shops best for Simplified maps of
items, including plugs, demands, meter and certain items. Where to locality – grading up to
etc. Equipment. Names of filling in estimated bills, buy what. Use of the actual maps. Simplified
local institutions e.g., checking meter readings. telephone for buying, and graded gas bills and
clinic, library. Library-Section headings inquiring. Filling bills and meter readings. «7 days a
Form-fillings Reading receipts. Guarantees. week» Pack Tapes – of
contracts. What is delivered-milk, dialogues situations.
etc. How and when to pay
bills. Where to get local
information library, rent
officer, Legal center.
Asking for identification
from strangers at the door.
Meaning of deposit.
Meaning of electoral
register.
The same function may repeatedly occur in different situations at succeeding units so there is a cyclical order.
Grading is very difficult so it is expected that performance tests are used instead of achievement test.
Theoretical Bases
F-N approach combines “communicative grammar” with cognitivism and humanism.
The primary focus is the learner and the function or functions of language- the communicative purpose s/he wishes
to express and to understand.
Varied sociolinguistic situations are taken into considerations.
Social roles, psychological attitudes of participants, the place, time, the activity, topic are all discussed.
Communicative behavior is always situationally conditioned. On that point, there are three factors underlie
speech acts;
1. The functions 3. The shared sociocultural allusions -
2. The varieties of language presupposition-
Categories of Functions
1. Personal 3. Directive 5. Imaginative
2. Interpersonal 4. Referential
Varieties of Language
 • Geographical factors
• Social factors
• Status in the community or nation
• Differences related to social classes
• Educational background
• Register; a.) formality, informality b.) the topic, activity, work or profession c.) the mode-oral or written-
of the course.
• Code-switching; a person’s individual use of the language or dialect. Ex: A doctor use a casual, informal
register at home while using a formal register at a professional dinner.
Cultural Knowledge
• F-N curriculum provides implicit and explicit information for learning of culture. radio broadcasts,
television, tapes, cassettes, documentaries, films, pictures, short illustrated dialogues, real-life situations.
• Curriculum set realistic objectives as paralinguistic feature of languages, gestures, convey meaning to
listeners. Ex: cultural insights for immigrants. Cultural immersion – explicit information.
Psycholinguistic Components
F-N curriculum takes cognizance;
• Basic needs of learners; need for survival Threshold Level, self-realization, general competency or
advanced.
• Self – motivating; social, vocational, cultural needs of learners.
• Individual differences: varying abilities: cyclical or spiral approach.
Linguistics
• F-N approach will provide learner to acquire a reasonable, basic knowledge of the phonological,
grammatical and lexical subsystems of the language and the use of language in actual communication.
• Encoding and decoding a message; appropriateness, acceptability.
• Oral or written communication.
• Gestures and other paralinguistic features.
Psychological Bases
• Related material with needs and experiences of the learners.
• Student motivation.
• Meaningful material through their use in real life.
• Active participation of learner depending on learning strategies.
• Make a relationship among the elements in language, situation and culture.
• Different learning styles and rates of learning.
• Time for transfer of learning.
Educational Principles
• Transfer of learning is not always automatic.
• A spiral and cyclical approach is recommended.
• The curriculum is divided into units and modules.
• The starting point is the communicative function and the social situation in which situation or purpose is
being expressed.
• The title of the units is expressed in functional terms.
• The same function may be presented in different situations.
• The grammar and vocabulary to be taught in each unit result from the integration of function and situation.
• In F-N curriculum, a number of different functions may be clustered in one unit.
• In the F-N approach grammatical structure and function do not overlap. The same structure may be used
to express more than one function of language.
• Concepts and language needed in social studies, geography, mathematics, art, music and literature are
integrated into the curriculum.
• Units contain linguistic and cultural materials the learners will need for sociocultural and sociovocational
purposes
Reasons for Optimism
• It sets realistic learning tasks.
• It provides every day, real world language in a variety of sociocultural situations.
 • It emphasizes the need for numerous, varied and receptive activities.
• The language used should be based on a situation or setting. The speaker must have a real purpose to talk
about. The act of communication is motivating as it expresses basic, universal communicative functions
of language.
• It enables teachers refer to psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, linguistic and educational principles.
• It does not insist upon mastery of anybody material presented.
• It makes provision through a unit and module system for admission to certain programs at any time during
the year.
• In F-N approach grammatical structure and function do not overlap. There is no obligatory one to one
relationship.
A Debatable Issue
Some linguists and notably Halliday developed a theory of language showing how the formal grammatical
patterns reflect the functions of language structure.
No pedagogical use and not formulated.
There is an arbitrary relationship between function and grammar.
Form and Function
Meaning of an utterance is derived from the whole situation and not from words and sentences used in isolation
• Request
• It’s cold here
• Would you ease close the door
• I wonder if someone could close the door
• You have left the door open
• Suggestion
• Statement
• Requesting Threat
Critics
• Dividing language into items is against the nature of language.
• It neglects linguistic items and gives more attention to fixed expressions and formulas.
• Grading is problematic and subjective.

SCAFFOLDING INSTRUCTION
For ELs Brooke Ahrens EDTE 162 Summer 2008
Interaction
• To learn a new language and be successful you need interaction with others.
• Many of you indicated that you learned another language, only to lose it when you stopped using it or that
it was hard to acquire because you couldn’t practice.
ZPD and Vygotsky
• All of this will be revisited in your foundation’s classes.
• If you feel fuzzy on it, that is okay for right now!
• The biggest focus is on the idea of scaffolding in the developmental area where a student is ready to learn
math.
1. Learning precedes development.
• Introduce concepts as you are coming into the ability to know them.
2. Language is a vehicle of thought.
• We are always running internal dialogues with ourselves.
• Learning occurs in a dialogue with ourselves or others.
3. Mediation is central to learning.
• Language is a tool we use for learning.
4. Social interaction and internalization.
• The basis for all learning.
• Initially things are “outside” the child (riding a bike)- society’s tool • Become internalize and “inside” the
child- Becomes the child’s tool to use.
 ZPD and scaffolding
• The Zone of Proximal Development – what you can do without help vs what you can do with help.
• A child follows the example of the adult until they are able to do the task on their own.
o Dressing a young child is a good example.
Scaffolding
1. Contingent – Dependent on the needs of the student at the moment.
2. Collaborative – Working together toward an end goal.
3. Interactive – Not a script that the teacher uses but a dialogue. Everyone participates.
Scaffolding and ZPD
• It is meant to be fluid and flexible. Removed when it appears the student doesn’t need it anymore.
• It can be rebuilt and may need to be!
3 Levels of Scaffolding
• Level 1: Classroom Procedures – How we enter the classroom or are called on.
• Level 2: Instruction of a Lesson – How we will divide fractions.
• Level 3: In the Moment Interaction – How I will help you solve that particular math problem.
Features of Scaffolding
1. Continuity – Repeated practice of a task.
2. Contextual Support – Exploration is ok- coming to the answer in different ways.
3. Intersubjectivity – The teacher and learner are working together.
4. Contingency – We change the scaffolding or dialogue as needed.
5. Handover/Takeover – As the learner is ready, they do more and more of the task while the teacher
monitors.
6. Flow – We are not at frustration level- skill and challenges are in balance.
Scaffolding “Talk”
• Instead of looking for correct or right answer we are in discussion with the student.
• We are leading the student toward the answer by means of conversation.
• It is not an oral quiz like IRF.
1. Doesn’t have to be a teacher.
• Researchers have found that students of varying ability will scaffold for each other.
• Hard to talk to all 30 students all the time.
• Easier to all them to collaborate.
• It isn’t cheating! It is problem solving.
Way of Providing Scaffolding
1. Teacher as expert scaffolds.
2. Collaboration with other learners (all in ZPD).
3. Student teaches another student.
4. Student teaches self.
• Might be a progression.
How to use Scaffolding with Els
• Spiral – Revisit the same concept within different tasks
o How can you spiral in your subject area?
• Help them be meta-cognitive.
o “This is going to be hard because it is new.” or “This should be getting more familiar to you.”.
Scaffolding with EL students.
• Remind them of the scaffolds that have fallen away - give them a sense of accomplishment!
• Repeat, repeat, repeat- but not always in the same way.
Modeling
• Give students clear examples.
o EL students need them.
o Do your native speakers?
• Model the use of academic language “when I fill in the Venn Diagram – I am comparing and contrasting
these ideas – what is the same and what is different?”
Bridging
• (Oh! Loved the bookmark!)
• Use prior knowledge from life and from class. Connections!
• LINK (remember that?) is an example of anticipation guide.
• Cultivate and honor what is already known - they are pretty savvy.
Contextualization
• The INTO
o Introduce the unit before you teach it.
o Give background, context and more information than you think is needed.
o You have been around the block a few more times.
o Beowulf.
Contextualization
• Build on what they know.
• Harry Potter.
Schema Building
• Again – You will see this in your foundation’s classes.
• Introduce the through and go over it before you teach it.
• Lower their fears – How many times have you taken a class and thought “I can’t do this” only to find you
could?
Text Re-Presentation
• Also called “Recreation” as I learned it…
• Getting the students to revisit and come to own the text as their own.
• Making plays from short stories…. a waste of time? Not really….
Metacognitive Development
• As educated adults we are able to do this automatically OR after asking for help… (the boxes).
• Kids have to be told to do it and reminded and told again.
1. Give them strategies and explain their purpose. We are using a Venn diagram.
2. Choose the most effective strategy – I am not a file cabinet person. Is this the best outline for this task?
What else might work?
3. How did that work for me? Should I use it again? How could it work? When will I not use it again?
Scaffolding Conclusion
• You can basically learn anything if someone scaffolds it for you.
• A funny story about our toilet.
Chapter 5 of our SIOP book
• Lots of familiar-ish stuff – I hope… Feature 13.
• Metacognitive Strategies
• Cognitive Strategies – creating context for themselves.
• Social/Affective strategies – interaction with others while learning.
Feature 14 – Scaffolding
• Love thinks – Aloud… Feel totally insane while doing them. It cracks older kids up.
• Contextual definitions – Vocab asides in the book.
• Repeating back the correct pronunciation – Do it carefully.
Feature 15 – Questioning
• Blooms Taxonomy is great fun for kids.
• Write/create quizzes.
• Quiz each other.
• Dice rolling game.
 PARTICIPATORY APPROACH
Participatory approach is based on solving the learner’s problem in real life, using the target language as
a tool this purpose. Learners bring their outside problems into class. Participatory approach is geared towards
planning and conducting the research process with those people whose life-word and meaningful actions are under
study.
Typelogy of Participation
1. Passive Participation 4. Functional Participation
2. Participation in Information Giving 5. Interactive Participation
3. Participation by Consultation 6. Self-mobilization
The Goal of Participatory Approach
• Is to help student to understand the social, historical cultural forces that effect their lives, and then to help
empower students to take action and make decision in order to gain control over their lives.
Advantages of Participatory Approach
• Participation carries with it feelings of ownership, and builds a strong base for the intervention in the
community.
• It can bring together and establish ties among community members who might normally have no contact.
• A participatory planning process builds trust.
• A participatory planning process generally reflects the mission and goals of grass roots and community-
based organizations.
Disadvantages of Participatory Approach
• A participatory process takes longer.
• Members of the target population or the community may not agree with the “experts about what is
needed”.
• It may be difficult to assure that all the right people get to the table.
• A participatory planning process takes patience and commitment on everyone’s parts.
Two Elements of Participatory Approach
1. Group Work (Discussion) 2. Public Speaking
Role of Student
1. Actives in pursuing on going learning 2. Upholds democratic values.
process. 3. Interacting and find a way out.
Roles of Teacher
1. Motivate students. 3. Group work (discussion).
2. Shows and guide learners so that learners 4. Public speaking.
learning activities.
This history of participatory approaches adapted from G. Backman, in bergt et. al 1997 in this method the
teacher applies the scientific principle contextually and proportionally to create effective teaching and learning.
Conclusion
Participatory approach is based on solving the learner’s problem in real life, using the target language as
a tool this purpose, Learners bring that be active in the community-based organization and in their lives.

THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

Presented at Teacher Training Bekasi. February 20, 2015
What Is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)?
• It is a set of principles about the goals of language teaching,
• How learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning,
• The roles of teachers and learners in the classroom.
What is the Communicative Approach?
 • Language is communication.
• The final aim of CLT is communicative competence.
Four Competence Areas
1. Linguistic Competence: Knowing how to use the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a language.
2. Sociolinguistic Competence: Knowing how to use language appropriately, given the setting, the topic,
and the relationships among interlocutors.
3. Discourse Competence: Knowing how to interpret the larger context and how to construct longer
stretches of language so that the parts make up a coherent whole.
4. Strategic Competence: Knowing how repair communication breakdowns, work around gaps in one’s
knowledge of the language, and learn more about the language and in the context.
Communicative Approach Principles
• Learners learn through using it to communicate.
• Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities.
• Fluency is an important dimension of communication.
• Communication involves the integration of different language skills.
• Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error.
Teacher’s Role
The teacher has two main roles:
1. To facilitate the communication process in the classroom.
2. To act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group.
• The teacher is also expected to act as a resource, an organizer of resources, a motivator, a counselor, a
guide, an analyst and a researcher.
• There are many other minor roles of a teacher, some of these would include being an actor and an
entertainer.
• After all, a good lesson must be interesting or the students will “switch off’ and learn nothing.
Learners had to…
• Participate in classroom activities that were based on a cooperative approach to learning.
• Become comfortable with listening to their peers in group work or pair work tasks, rather than relying on
the teacher for a model.
• Expected to take on a greater degree of responsibility for their own learning.
In practical terms, what does that mean?
We need to concentrate on the following:
• Teacher – Student Activities
• Activities
• Materials
Teacher-Student Interaction
• Since communicative competence is our aim, it is essential that students be given every opportunity to
practice communicating. In the communicative classroom Teacher Talking Time (TTT) must be kept to
a minimum. This is not to say that the teacher shouldn’t speak at all, but TTT should be controlled and
appropriated.
• The classroom should be learner centered.
• The teacher’s role is to facilitate student communication which is done through careful selection of
materials and activities relevant to the aims of the lesson in which they are used.
Communication can be divided into two categories:
A. Input (Receptive)
1. Reading
2. Listening
B. Output (Productive)
3. Speaking
4. Writing
The Four Communicative Skills can be put into these categories.
• Whichever of these skills is being taught the main focus must be on the student and not on the teacher.
 • The interaction should usually be the student to student and should include the teacher only where
necessary.
• During most classroom activities the teacher will monitor and intervene only where necessary.
Structuralism

Language Analysis Identification of Structures Syllabus Development

Behaviorism
Correct Behavior = Positive Reinforcement = Habit
Incorrect Behavior = Negative Reinforcement = Formation

A Model for Part of a Communicative Lesson Presentation – Practice – Production

Stage 1: Teacher (T) gives a short presentation of a grammar or vocabulary point. T then gives students (Ss)
opportunity to practice the point in a controlled exercise. (Interaction: T›Ss)
Stage 2: Ss carry out the controlled exercise while T monitors and intervenes where appropriate. (Interaction:
S‹›S)
Stage 3: The Ss are asked to take part in an activity designed to get them to produce the vocabulary and grammar
they have been taught. T monitors and notes errors and interesting points. T intervenes only when asked or when
absolutely necessary. (Interaction: S‹›S)
Stage 4: Feedback session, in which T feeds back in a non-threatening way the errors s/he noted during the
activity. Ss also have the opportunity to clear up puzzling points. (Interaction: T‹›Ss)
There are many different types of activities. They provide speaking, listening, writing and reading practice
as well as aiding production. A few ideas for activity types:
1. Games 3. Simulations
2. Role-plays 4. Information Gaps
Accuracy Fluency
Exercises Tasks
Discrete Integrative
Form Meaning
Predictable Unpredictable
Close-ended Open-ended
Contrived Realistic / Life-like
Correctness Message
Full-class Work Closed-pair Work
Open-pair Work Group Work
The characters of fluency-oriented activities:
• Students put their hands up to speak.
• Students speak without putting their hands up.
• Students’ utterances are single sentences addressed to the teacher.
• Students use paraphrase or other communication strategies.
• Students make comments on other students’ contribution.
• The teacher uses prompts (suggests ideas).
• The teacher uses clues (for guided responses).
• The teacher asks for alternative answers.
• A student is asked to repeat another student’ response.
• Students’ remarks are addressed to their peers.
The characteristics of accuracy-oriented activities:
• Requests / enquiries from student.
• Correction and discussion of written answers to comprehension question tasks.
• Practice in full class of new structures, functions and lexis.
• Oral answers to inferential comprehension questions.
• Closed pair-work activities with an information-gap.
• Open pair-work in full class.
• Oral answers to comprehension questions of a literal type.
 • Memorization and recitation of dialogs.
• Reading isolated sentences aloud.
Some recommendations:
• Teachers were recommended to use a balance of fluency activities and accuracy.
• Accuracy work could either come before or after fluency work.
• While dialogs, grammar, and pronunciation drills now appeared as part of a sequence of activities that
moved back and forth between accuracy activities and fluency activities.
Pre-communicative vs Communicative Activities
1. Structural Activities – Functional communication activities, quasi - communicative activities, social
interactional activities, and functional communication activities require students to use their language
resources to overcome an information gap or solve a problem.
2. Social Interactional Activities – Require the learner to pay attention to the context and the roles of the
people involved, and to attend to such things as formal versus informal language.
3. Information-Gap Activities – More authentic communication is likely to occur in the classroom if
students go beyond practice of language forms for their own sake and use their linguistic and
communicative resources in order to obtain information. In so doing, they will draw available
vocabulary, grammar, and communication strategies to complete a task.
4. Jigsaw Activities – These are also based on the information- gap principle. Typically, the class is divided
into groups and each group has part of the information needed to complete an activity. The class must fit
the pieces together to complete the whole. In so doing, they use their language resources to communicate
meaningfully and part in meaningful communication practice.
Other Activity Types in CLT
1. Task-Completion Activities: Puzzles, games, map-reading, and other kinds of classroom tasks in which
the focus is on using one’s language resources to complete a task.
2. Information-Gathering Activities: Student-conducted surveys, interviews, and searches in which
students are required to use their linguistic resources to collect information.
3. Opinion-Sharing Activities: Activities in which students compare values, opinions, or beliefs.
4. Information-Transfer Activities: These require learners to take information that is presented in one
form, and represent it in a different form.
5. Role Plays: Activities in which students are assigned roles and improvise a scene or exchange based on
given information or clues.
Where do I find activities?
• They can be found in books containing supplementary material such as the Reward Resource Packs.
• Many teachers enjoy creating their own activities, which can be tailored specifically to their classes needs.
• Activities used in the classroom must be selected carefully as if they are above the level of the students,
they can destroy self-confidence and if below they can bore the students.
• Activities usually involve the students working together either in pairs or in small groups.
Materials fall into Three Broad Categories:
1. Text-Based – For example practice exercises, reading passages, gap fills, recordings, etc. can be found in
almost any course book as well as in books containing supplementary materials. They form an essential
part of most lessons.
2. Task-Based – These include game boards, roleplay cards, materials for drilling, pair work tasks, etc. They
might be used to support 'real life' tasks such as role-playing booking into a hotel, or a job interview.
3. Realia – This includes such things as magazines, newspapers, fruit and vegetables, axes, maps - things
from the real world outside the classroom. They can be used in many activities. For example, fruit and
vegetables could be used in a shopping activity, an axe could be used to show the effect of using the
present perfect continuous on a short action verb.
They can be used as the basis for classroom activities. Once again not only must the activity be appropriate
to the level of the students but the materials used must be appropriate too.
So, what does the communicative approach mean in practical terms?
We should now understand that the teacher's job is to get their students to communicate using real
language by providing them with instruction, practice, and above all opportunities to produce English in activities
which encourage acquisition and fluency.
Conclusion
 • CLT should be fun for both teacher and students.
• Enabling students to communicate successfully is also very rewarding. In Conclusion

COOPERATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING

CLL is part of a more general instructional approach also known as Collaborative Learning (CL). It is an
approach that makes maximum use of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups of learners in the
classroom.
Cooperative Learning is group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent on the socially
structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for
his or her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others. (Olsen and Kagan 1992:8)
U.S. educator John Dewey is usually credited with promoting the idea of building cooperation in learning
into regular classrooms on a regular and systematic basis. It was more generally promoted and developed in the
United States in the 1960’s and 1970’s as a response to the forced integration of public schools.
Educators were concerned that traditional models of classroom learning were teacher-fronted, fostered
competition rather than cooperation, and favored majority students. They believed that minority students might
fall behind higher- achieving students.
Cooperative Learning sought to do the following:
• Raise the achievement of all students, including those who are gifted or academically handicapped.
• Help the teacher builds positive relationships among students.
• Give students the experiences they need for healthy social, psychological and cognitive development.
• Replace the competitive organizational structure of most classrooms and schools with a team-based, high
performance organizational structure.
In second language teaching, CLL has been embraced as a way of promoting communicative interaction
in the classroom and is seen as an extension of the principles of Communicative Language Teaching. It is
viewed as a learner-centered approach to teaching held to offer advantages over teacher-fronted classroom
methods.
In Language Teaching, its goals are:
• To provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use of interactive pair
and group activities.
• To provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve this goal and one that can be applied
in a variety of curriculum settings (e.g., content- based, foreign language classrooms).
• To enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures, and communicative functions
through the use of interactive tasks.
• To provide opportunities for learners to develop successful learning and communication strategies.
• To enhance learner motivation and reduce learner stress and to create a positive affective classroom
climate.
Approach
A. Theory of Language
Cooperative Language Learning is founded on some basic premises about the interactive/cooperative
nature of language and language learning.
• Premise 1 (From a Child Language Book entitled Born to Talk) – “All normal children growing up
in a normal environment learn to talk. We were born to talk… We may think of ourselves as having been
programmed to talk… Communication is generally considered to be the primary purpose of language.”
(Weeks 1979:1)
• Premise 2 is that most talk / speech is organized as conversation. – “Human beings spend a large part
of their lives engaging in conversation and for most of them, conversation is among their most significant
and engrossing activities.” (Richards and Schmidt 1983:117)
• Premise 3 is that conversation operates according to a certain agreed-upon set of cooperative rules
or “maxims”.
• Premise 4 is that one learns how these cooperative maxims are realized in one’s native language
through casual, everyday conversational interaction.
• Premise 5 is that one learns how the maxims are realized in a second language through participation
in cooperatively structured interactional activities.
 B. Theory of Learning
Cooperative learning advocates on the theoretical work of developmental psychologists Jean Piaget and
Lev Vygotsky. A central premise of CLL is that learners develop communicative competence in a language by
conversing in socially or pedagogically structured situations. CLL also seeks to develop learners’ critical thinking
skills.
One approach to integrating the teaching of critical thinking adopted by CLL advocates is called the
Question Matrix (Wiederhold 1995). Wiederhold has developed a battery of cooperative activities built on the
matrix that encourages learners to ask and respond to a deeper array of alternative question types. (The matrix is
based on the well-known Taxonomy of Educational Objectives devised by Bloom, which assumes a hierarchy of
learning objectives ranging from simple recall of information to forming conceptual judgments.)
Six Learning Advantages for ESL students in CLL Classrooms (McGroarty):
1. Increased frequency and variety of second language practice through different types of interaction.
2. Possibility for development or use of language in ways that support cognitive development and increased
language skills.
3. Opportunities to integrate language with content-based instruction.
4. Opportunities to include a greater variety of curricular materials to stimulate language as well as concept
learning.
5. Freedom for teachers to master new professional skills, particularly those emphasizing communication.
6. Opportunities for students to act as resources for each other, thus assuming a more active role in their
learning.
Design
Objectives:
• To develop critical thinking skills;
• To develop communicative competence through socially structured interaction activities.
The Syllabus:
CLL does not assume any particular form of language syllabus, since activities from a wide variety of
curriculum orientations can be taught via cooperative learning. Thus, we find CLL used in teaching content
classes, ESP, the four skills, grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary. CLL is the systematic and carefully
planned use of group-based procedures in teaching as an alternative to teacher-fronted teaching.
The types of learning ad teaching activities:
Johnson et al., describe Three Types of Cooperative Learning Groups
1. Formal Cooperative Learning Groups – Established for a specific task and involve students working
together to achieve shared learning groups.
2. Informal Cooperative Learning Groups – Used to focus students’ attention or to facilitate learning
during direct learning.
3. Cooperative Base Group – Allows members to give each other the support, help, encouragement, and
assistance they need to succeed academically.
Key Elements of Successful Group=based Learning in CL (Olsen and Kagan)
1. Positive Interdependence – This occurs when group members feel that what helps one member helps all
and what hurts one member hurts all. It is created by the structure of CL tasks and by building a spirit of
mutual support within the group.
2. Group Formation – Factors involved in setting up groups: Deciding on the size of the group, assigning
students to groups, and student roles in groups.
3. Individual Accountability – This involves both group and individual performance.
4. Social Skills – This determines the way students interact with each other as teammates.
5. Structuring and Structures – This refer to ways of organizing student interaction and different ways
students are to interact such as Three-step interview or Round Robin.
Three Major Kinds of Cooperative Learning Tasks
1. Team practice from common input – Skills development and mastery of facts.
2. Jigsaw: Differentiated but predetermined input – evaluation and synthesis of facts and opinions.
• Current communicative approaches.
3. Cooperative Projects: Topics/resources selected by students – discovery learning.
Examples of CLL Activities (Olsen and Kagan)
 1. Three-step Interview 4. Solve-Pair-Share
2. Roundtable 5. Numbered Heads
3. Think-Pair-Share
Design
A. Learner Roles
• The learner is as a member of a group who must work collaboratively on tasks with other group members.
They have to learn teamwork skills.
• Learners are also directors of their own learning. They are taught to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own
learning.
B. Teacher Roles
• The teacher has to create a highly structured and well- organized learning environment in the classroom,
setting goals, planning and structuring tasks, establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom,
assigning students to groups and roles, and selecting materials and time.
• The teacher is the facilitator of learning.
• Teachers speak less than in teacher-fronted class.
• They provide broad questions to challenge thinking.
• They prepare students for the tasks they will carry out.
• They assist students with the learning tasks and they give few commands, imposing less disciplinary
control.
• They restructure lessons so that students can work on them cooperatively.
C. The Role of Instructional Materials
• Materials play an important part in creating opportunities for students to work cooperatively.
• Materials might be specially designed for CLL learning (such as commercially sold jigsaw and
information-gap activities), modified from existing materials, or borrowed from other disciplines.
Procedure
• The teacher assigns students to pairs with at least one good reader in each pair.
• Student A describes what he or she is planning to write to Student B, who listens carefully, probes with a
set of questions, and outlines Student A’s ideas. Student B gives the written outline to Student A.
• This procedure is reversed, with Student B describing what he or she is going to write and Student A
listening and completing an outline of Student B’s ideas, which is then given to Student B.
• The students individually research the material they need for their compositions, keeping an eye out for
material useful to their partner.
• The students work together to write the first paragraph of each composition to ensure that they both have
a clear start on their compositions.
• The students write their compositions individually.
• When the students have completed their compositions, they proofread each other’s compositions. They
also give suggestions for revision.
• The students revise their compositions.
• The students then reread each other’s compositions and sign their names to indicate that each composition
is error-free.
Conclusions
• In Cooperative Learning, group activities are the major mode of learning and are part of a comprehensive
theory and system for the use of group work in teaching.
• Group activities are carefully planned to maximize students’ interaction and to facilitate students’
contributions to each other’s learning.
• Proponents of CLL stress that it enhances both learning and learners’ interaction skills.

CURRENT TRENDS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (TESL)

A. The Grammar –Translation Method
As the names of some of its leading exponents suggest (Johanr Seidenstucker, Karl Plotz,H.S. Ollendorf
and Johann Meidinger),Grammar-translation was the offspring of German scholarship, the object of which was
“to know everything about something rather than the thing itself” (W.H.D. Rouse, quoted in Kelly 1969:53)
Grammar-translation was in fact first known in the United States as the Prussian Method (Kelly1969).The
principal characteristics of this method are these:
 1. Grammar-translation is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed
analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences
and texts into and out of the target language.
• It therefore views language learning as consisting of little more than memorizing rules and facts in order
to understand and manipulate the morphology and syntax of the foreign language. The first language is
maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language” (Stren 1983:455).
2. Reading and writing are the major focuses; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening.
3. Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual
word lists, dictionary study, and memorization.
• In a typical Grammar-Translation Text, the grammar rules are presented and illustrated; a list of
vocabulary items is presented with their translation equivalents; and translation exercises are prescribed.
4. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to
translating sentences into and out of the target language and it is this focus on the sentence that is a
distinctive feature of the method (Howatt 1984:131).
5. Accuracy is emphasized.
• Students are expected to attain high standards in translation because of “the high priority attached to
meticulous standards of accuracy which, as well as having an intrinsic moral value, is a prerequisite for
passing the increasing number of formal written examinations that has grown up during the century”
(Howatt 1984:132).
6. Grammar is taught deductively
• That is, by presentation and study of grammar, which are then practiced through translation exercises
7. The students’ native language is the medium of instruction.
• It is used to explain new items and to enable comparisons to be made between the foreign language and
the students’ native language.
B. The Direct Method
Gouin had been one of the first of the nineteenth-century reformers to attempt to build a methodology
around observation of child language learning. Other reformers toward the end of the century turned their attention
to naturalistic principles of language learning and for this reason they are sometimes referred to as advocates of
a “natural’ method.
Among those who tried to apply natural principles to language classes in the 19th century was L. Sauveur
(1826-1907), who used intensive oral interaction in the target language, employing questions as a way of
presenting and eliciting language. His method was soon referred to as the Natural Method.
Sauveur and other believers in the Natural Method argued that a foreign language could be taught without
translation or the use of the learner’s native tongue if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration and
action.
These natural language learning principles provided the foundation for what came to be known as the
Direct Method, which refers to the most widely known of the natural methods.
The Direct Method became widely known in the United States through its use by Sauveur and Charles
Berlitz in successful commercial language schools. (Berlitz, in fact, never used the term; he referred to the method
used in his schools as the Berlitz Method.)
In practice it stood for the following principles and procedures:
1. Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
3. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-
answer exchanges between teachers and students is small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar is taught inductively.
5. New teaching points are introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught
by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
The foregoing principles are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral language, which are still
followed in contemporary Berlitz schools:
• Never translate; demonstrate. • Never speak with single words: use
• Never explain: act. sentences.
• Never make a speech; ask questions. • Never speak too much: make students speak
• Never imitate mistakes: correct. much.
 • Never use the book: use your lesson plan. • Never speak too slowly; speak normally.
• Never jump around: follow your plan. • Never speak too quickly: speak naturally.
• Never go too fast: keep the pace of the • Never speak too loudly: speak naturally.
student. • Never be impatient: take it easy.
Although the Direct Method enjoyed popularity in Europe, not everyone embraced it enthusiastically. The
British applied linguist Henry Sweet and other applied linguists argued for the development of sound
methodological principles that could serve as the basis for teaching techniques.
Subsequent developments led to Audiolingualism in the United States and the Oral Approach or Situational
Language Teaching in Britain.
C. The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
Palmer, Hornby and other British applied linguists from the 1920’s onward, developed an approach to
methodology that involved systematic principles of selection (the procedures by which lexical and grammatical
content were chosen), gradation (principles by which the organization and sequencing of content were
determined) and presentation (techniques used for presentation and practice of items in a course).
This approach was referred to as the Oral Approach to language teaching. This is not to be confused with
the Direct Method, which, although it uses oral procedures, lacks a systematic basis in applied linguistic theory
and practice. The main characteristics of this approach are as follows:
1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in
written form.
2. The target language is the language of the classroom.
3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.
4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is
covered.
5. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that the simple forms should be taught before
complex ones (inductive method).
6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis are established.
The theory of language underlying Situational Language Teaching (SLT) can be characterized as a type
of British “structuralism”. Speech is regarded as the basis of language and structure is viewed as being at the heart
of speaking ability.
“The emphasis now is on the description of language activity as part of the whole complex of events
which, together with the participants and relevant objects, make up actual situations” (Halliday, McIntosh and
Strevens 1964:38).
The theory of learning underlying Situational Language Teaching is a type of behaviorist habit-learning
theory. It addresses primarily the processes rather than the conditions of learning.
The objectives of SLT are to teach a practical command of the four basic skills of language. But the skills
are approached through structure.
Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all
costs. Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental to reading and writing skills and
this is achieved through speech work (Pittman 1963:186).Writing likewise derives from speech.
Basic to the teaching of English in SLT is a structural syllabus and a work list. A structural syllabus is a
list of the basic structures and sentence patterns of English, arranged according to their order of presentation.
Situational Language Teaching employs a situational approach to presenting new sentence patterns and a
drill-based manner of practicing them. By situation, Pittman (1963:155-156) means the use of concrete objects,
pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures can be used to demonstrate the meanings of the new
language items.
The practice techniques employed generally consist of guide repetition and substitution activities,
including chorus repetition, dictation, drills and controlled oral-based reading and writing tasks. Other oral-
practice techniques are sometimes used, including pair practice and group work.
D. The Audiolingual Method
The approach developed by linguists at Michigan and other universities which became known variously
as the Oral Approach, the Aural-Oral Approach and the Structural Approach, advocated aural training first, then
pronunciation training, followed by speaking, reading, and writing. Language was identified with speech and
speech was approached through structure.
 The incorporation of the linguistic principles of the Aural-Oral Approach with state-of-the-art
psychological learning theory in the mid-fifties led to the method that came to be known as Audiolingualism.
The combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures and behaviorist
psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.
Audiolingualism (the term was coined by Professor Nelson Brooks in 1964) claimed to have transformed
language teaching from an art to a science, which would enable learners to achieve mastery of a foreign language
effectively and efficiently.
The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism was derived from a view proposed by American
linguists in the 1950’s-a view that has come to be known as structural linguistics. Structural linguistics developed
in part as a reaction to traditional grammar.
The term structural refers to these characteristics:
• Elements in a language are thought of as being linearly produced in a rule – governed (structured) way.
• Language samples can be exhaustively described at any structural level of description (phonetic,
phonemic, morphological, etc.).
• Linguistic levels are thought of as systems within systems-that is, as being pyramidally structured;
phonemic systems have led to morphemic systems and these in turn have led to the higher-level systems
of phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Out of these various influences emerged a number of learning principles, which have become to shape its
methodological practices. Among the more central are the following:
• Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation. Good habits are formed
by giving correct responses rather than by making mistakes.
• By memorizing dialogues and performing pattern drills, the chances of producing mistakes are minimized.
Language is verbal behavior-that is, the automatic production and comprehension of utterances- and can
be learned by inducing the students to do likewise.
• Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented
in spoken form before they are seen in written form.
• Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Analogy involves the processes
of generalization and discrimination.
Explanation of rules are not given until later. Drills can enable learners to form correct analogies. Hence,
the approach is inductive rather than deductive.
The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in linguistic
and cultural context and not in isolation. Teaching a language thus involves teaching aspects of the cultural system
of the people who speak the language (Rivers 1964:19-22).
Audiolingualism is a linguistic, or structured –based approach to language teaching. The starting point is
a linguistic syllabus, which contains the key items of phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language
arranged according to their order of presentation. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking,
reading, and writing.
Listening is viewed largely as training in aural discrimination of basis sound patterns. The language may
be presented entirely orally at first; written representations are usually with-held from learners in early stages.
When reading and writing are introduced, students are taught to read and write what they have already learned to
say orally.
Dialogues and drills form the bases of audiolingual classroom practices. Dialogues provide the means of
contextualizing key structures and illustrate situations in which structures may be used as well as some cultural
aspects of the target language. Dialogues are used for repetition and memorization. Correct pronunciation, stress,
rhythm, and intonation are emphasized. After a dialogue has been presented and memorized, specific grammatical
patterns In the dialogue are selected which become the focus of various kinds of drill and pattern- practice
exercises.
The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. Various kinds of
drills are used. Brooks (1964:156:161) includes the following:
1. Repetition – The student repeats an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it. He does this without
looking at a printed text. Sound is as important as form and order.
Example: This is the seventh month. – This is the seventh month.
2. Inflection – One word in an utterance appears in another form repeated.
Examples: I bought the ticket. – I bought the tickets. He bought the candy – She bought the candy.
3. Replacement – One word in an utterance is replaced by another.
 Examples: He bought this house cheap. – He bought it cheap. Helen left early. – She left early.
4. Restatement – The student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else, according to
instructions.
Examples: Tell him to wait for you. – Wait for me. Ask her how old she is. – How old are you?
5. Completion – The student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, then repeats the
utterance in completed form.
Examples: I’ll go my way and you go____. – I’ll go my way and you go yours. We all have ___own
troubles. – We all have our own troubles.
6. Transposition – A change in word order is necessary when a word is added.
Examples: I’m hungry. (so) – So am I. I’ll never do it again. (Neither – Neither will I.
7. Expansion – When a word is added, it takes a certain place in the sequence.
Examples: I know him. (hardly) – I hardly know him. I know him(well) – I know him well.
8. Contraction – A single word stands for a phrase or clause.
Examples: Put your hand on the table. – Put your hand there. They believe that the earth is flat. – They
believe it.
9. Transformation – A sentence is transformed by being made negative or interrogative or through changes
in tense, mood, voice, aspect or modality.
Examples: He knows my address. – Does he know my address? He doesn't know my address.
10. Integration – Two separate utterances are integrated into one.
Examples: I know the man. He is looking for you. – I know the man who is looking for you.
11. Rejoinder – The student makes an appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance.
Examples: Thank you. – You’re welcome. May I take one? – Certainly. He’s following us. – I think you’re
right.
12. Restoration – The student is given a sequence of words that has been culled from a sentence but still
hears its basic meaning.
Examples: students/waiting/bus – The students are waiting for the bus.
Noam Chomsky, the MIT linguist, rejected the structuralist approach to language description as well as
the behaviorist theory of language learning. According to him, sentences are not learned by imitation and
repetition but “generated” from the learner’s underlying “competence”.
Suddenly, the whole audiolingual paradigm was called into question. This created a crisis in American
language teaching circles from which a full recovery has not yet been made. The lack of an alternative to
Audiolingualism has led to a period of adaptation, innovation, experimentation and some confusion.
On the other hand, are new methods that have been developed independently of current linguistic and
second language acquisition theory (e.g., Total Response, Silent Way, Counseling - Learning; on the other hand
are competing approaches that are derived from contemporary theories of language and second language
acquisition (e.g. The Natural Approach, Communicative Language Teaching.)
E. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
The communicative approach in language teaching is partly a response to criticisms of Noam Chomsky
against structural linguistics. Chomsky has demonstrated that the current standard structural theories of language
are incapable of accounting for the fundamental characteristics of language-the creativity or uniqueness of
individual sentences:
British applied linguists saw the need to focus on communicative proficiency rather than mastery of
structures (Candlin, Widdowson, Firth, Halliday and Americans Hymes, Gumpers, Labov, Austin, & Searle).
D.A. Wilkins (1972) proposed a functional or communicative definition of language that could serve as a
basis for developing communicative syllabuses for language teaching. Wilkin’s contribution is an analysis of the
communicative meanings that a language learner needs to understand and express.
He described two types of meanings:
1. Notional Categories (concepts such as time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency).
2. Categories of Communicative Function (requests, denials, offers, complaints).
Wilkins later revised and expanded his1972 document into a book called Notional Syllabuses (Wilkins
1976) which has a significant impact on the development of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or the
Communicative Approach.
(The terms notional-functional approach and functional approach are also sometimes used.)
Finocchiario and Brumfit (1983;1991-93) contrast the major distinctive features of the Audiolingual
Method and the Communicative. According to their interpretation:
 Audiolingual Communicative Language Teaching
It attends to structure and form more than meaning. Meaning is paramount.
It demands memorization of structure-based dialogs. Dialogs, if used, center around communicative
functions and not normally memorized.
Language items are not necessarily contextualized. Contextualization is a basic premise.

Language learning is learning structures. Language learning is learning to communicate.

Mastery, or “over-learning” is sought. Effective communication is sought.

Drilling is a central technique. Drilling may occur but peripherally.

Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.

Grammatical explanation is avoided. Any device which helps the learners is accepted-
varying according to their age, interest, etc.
Communicative activities only come after a long Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from
process of rigid drills and exercises. the very beginning.
The use of the student’s native language is forbidden. Judicious use of native language is accepted where
feasible.
Translation is forbidden at early levels. Translation may be used where students need it or
benefit from it.
Reading and writing are deferred till speech is Reading and writing can start from the first day, if
mastered. desired.
The target linguistic system will be learned through The target linguistic system will be learned best
the overt teaching of the patterns of the system. through the process of struggling to communicate.
Linguistic competence is the desired goal. Communicative competence is the desired goal (i.e.,
the ability to use the linguistic system effectively and
appropriately.
Varieties of language are recognized but not Linguistic variation is the central concept in materials
emphasized. and methodology.
The sequence of units is determined solely by Sequencing is determined by any consideration of
principles of linguistic complexity. content, function, or meaning which maintains
interest.
The teacher controls the learners and prevents them The teacher helps the learner in any way that motivates
from doing anything that conflicts with the theory. them to work with the language.
“Language is habit”, so errors must be prevented at all Language is created by the individual often through
costs. trial and error.
Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal;
goal. accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context.
Students are expected to interact with the language Students are expected to interact with other people,
system, embodied in machines or controlled materials. either in flesh, through pair and group work, or in
writing.
The teacher is is expected to specify the language that The teacher cannot know exactly what language the
the students are to use. students will use.
Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in
structure of the language. what is being communicated by the language.
The communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication.
The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes(1972) referred as “communicative competence.”
In Hyme’s view, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability
for language use with respect to:
• Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible
• whether (and to what degree) something is feasible by virtue of the means of implementation available.
• Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a
context in which it is used and evaluated.
• Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what it’s doing entails.
(Hymes 1972:281)
Halliday described (1975:11-17) seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their
first language:
1. The instrumental function: using language to get things.
 2. The regulatory function: using language to control the behaviors of others.
3. The interactional function: using language to create interaction with others.
4. The personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings.
5. The heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover.
6. The imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination.
7. The representational function: using language to communicate information.
Canale and Swain (1980) identified four dimensions of communicative competence:
1. Grammatical Competence, socio-linguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic
competence.
2. Grammatical competence refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence and what Hymes intends
by what is “formally possible. “It is the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity.
3. Sociolinguistic Competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication
takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the communicative
purpose for their interaction.
4. Discourse Competence refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their
interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relation to the entire discourse or text.
5. Strategic Competence refers to the coping strategies that communicators employ to initiate, terminate,
maintain, repair, and redirect communication.
At the level of language theory, Communicative Language Teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic,
theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of this communicative view language as follows:
1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
2. The primary function of language is for interactions and communication.
3. The structure language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of
functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
Finochiarro and Brumfit provided a lesson outline for teaching the function “making a suggestion.”
1. Presentation of a brief dialog or several mini-dialogs, preceded by a motivation (relating the dialog
situation/s to the learners’ probable community experiences) and a discussion of the function and
situation-people, roles, setting, topic, and the informality or formality of the language which the function
and situation demand.
2. Oral practice of each utterance of the dialog segment to be presented that day (entire class repetition, half-
class, groups, individuals) generally preceded by a model. If mini-dialogs are used, engage in a similar
practice.
3. Questions and answers based on the dialog topics and situation itself. (Inverted wh, or or questions).
4. Questions and answers related to the students’ personal experiences but centered around the dialog theme.
5. Study one of the basic communicative expressions in the dialog or one of the structures which exemplify
the function. Give several additional examples of the communicative use of the expression or structure
with familiar vocabulary mini-dialogs (using pictures, simple real objects or dramatization)to clarify the
meaning of the expression or structure.
6. Learner discovery of generalization or rules underlying the functional expression or structure.
7. Oral recognition, interpretative activities.
8. Oral production activities-proceeding from guided to freer communication activities.
9. Copying of the dialogs or mini dialogs or modules.
10. Sampling of the written homework assignment, if given.
11. Evaluation of learning (oral only) e.g. “How would you ask your friend to ______? And how would you
ask me to ______?”
(Finocchiaro and Brumfit 1983:107-108)
F. Total Physical Response (TPR)
A language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach
language through physical (motor) activity. Developed by James Asher, it draws on several traditions, including
developmental psychology, learning theory and humanistic pedagogy as well as on language teaching procedures
proposed by Harold and Dorothy Palmer in 1925.
Asher’s emphasis on developing comprehension skills before the learner is taught to speak links him to a
movement in foreign language teaching sometimes referred to as the Comprehension Approach (Winitz,1981).
This refers to several different comprehension-based language teaching proposals, which share the belief
that
 a. Comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning a language;
b. The teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are established;
c. Skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills;
d. Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form; and
e. Teaching should minimize learner stress.
An important condition for successful language learning is the absence of stress. By focusing on meaning
interpreted through movement, rather than on language forms, the learner is able to devote full energy to learning.
Imperative drills are the major classroom activity in TPR. They are typically used to elicit physical
actions and activity on the part of the learners. Other class activities include role plays and slide presentations.
Role plays center on everyday situations. The slide presentations are used to provide a visual center for teacher
narration. Reading and writing activities may also be employed to further consolidate structures and vocabulary
as follow-ups to oral imperative skills.
G. Community Language Learning
In Curran’s CLL (1976) there are four major aspects of the learning process, namely: security, assertion,
reflection, and discrimination. The language teacher starts out by giving the student a feeling of security and a
sense of community. Then he encourages the student to make investment in his own learning by asserting himself
through participation in the group experience.
In this way, the student’s attention is infallibly guaranteed. The third and possibly, the most important step
is reflection which occurs during moments of silence. The student is asked to reflect on his own learning
experience, including his interactions with the group.
Retention of material learned is usually reinforced during the periods of reflection. Finally, there is the
discrimination stage during which the student scrutinizes linguistic material used in the group conversation in
order to infer linguistic relationships, functions, classes, etc.
H. Silent Way
The concepts underlying Gattegno’s Silent Way (1972) may be outlined as follows: Learning is work that
has to be done by the student. Teaching is subordinated to learning and the teacher’s concern, therefore, is not
how he teaches but how he can help the student to learn.
Hence, silence on the teacher’s part is of the essence. In the initial stages, learning must be conscious and
must take place within the learner. The learner tries to adjust to the outside unknown and, in the process, increases
his understanding of himself as a learner and of the learning process itself.
In order to avoid wasteful practices, the time available for the student’s work is limited. Moreover, the
Silent Way places a heavy emphasis on the value of sleep and idle moments during which, it is claimed, much
learning takes place (particularly, the types of learning commonly referred to as sorting-out, establishing
interconnections, etc.)
I. Suggestopaedia
Lozanov’s Suggestopaedia consists of “creating learning conditions that remove the results of previous
conditioning and suggestion, permitting the student’s reserves to be reached, his memory to be increased, and his
intellectual functions to be activated” (Racle, 1975:217).
The language learner (or any other learner, for that matter), according to Lozanov, surrounds himself
protectively with anti-suggestive barriers which may be broken down in suggestopaedic teaching by means of the
teacher’s prestige, the building up of the student’s confidence, the teacher’s awareness of the double level
(conscious-unconscious) in teaching, and the appropriate utilization of the arts in teaching. The teacher’s prestige
promotes the student’s acceptance and retention of whatever information is given to him by the teacher. The
teacher must always be on the alert, removing the student’s tensions that may be caused by the conscious and
unconscious elements of the teacher’s behavior. Furthermore, the suggestive influence of the arts, i.e., music,
must be put to good use in furthering the student’s relaxed, tension-free, joyous feelings.
J. Eclectic Method
An eclectic approach is one which utilizes the best (most appropriate and/useful) parts of existing methods.
These are some general principles which comprise the eclectic method in teaching English.
1. Language learning must be meaningful, real.
2. Translation is a specialized language skill and is inappropriate for the beginning language learner and for
the most teachers to rely on as a method of learning.
3. Language learning should be done in the target language.
 4. Mimicry, memorization, and pattern practice do not “teach” language. They may be appropriate
techniques for a variety of classroom needs but are in general, disfavored because of their mechanical
nature, they’re overused by teachers and their tendency to be stilted and boring.
5. Reading aloud (oral reading) while useful during the decoding stage does not teach reading. It promotes
word reading and does not allow for normal regressions in reading nor does it facilitate comprehension.
6. Vocabulary acquisition, the use of a large and varied vocabulary should come early. Vocabulary should
be dealt with in meaningful contexts. Retention is not required of all new items but continuous, appropriate
usage is encouraged.
7. Reading and writing should not be delayed but taught as soon as the student is ready.
8. Structure is still generally accepted as being most efficiently taught in some organized way.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF TEACHING

1. Direct and Indirect Method
The direct is teacher-dominated. You lecture immediately on what you want the students to learn without
necessarily involving them in the process This is the traditional OBE that emphasizes on subject-specific content.
Example:
a. You want to teach students how to pronounce a how to write a paragraph, how to add fractions, how to
thread sewing machine. how to dribble a ball, how to draw a G-clef or how read a map. To teach them the
skill or process, you show them how by demonstrating it. This is the "'telling" and the "showing" method.
You are a lecturer and demonstrator.
The indirect method is learner-dominated. You give the student an active role in the learning process.
Example:
a. You ask students to share their comments on a news article, share their thoughts about a lesson-related
picture, their stand on controversial issues like the proposed Chaner Change, Presidential Development
Assistance Fund (PDAF). After listening to their thoughts, you continue facilitating the teaching-learning
process by asking more thought-provoking questions and by leading them to the drawing of generalization,
abstraction or conclusion.
In the indirect method, you synthesize what have been shared to connect loose ends and give a whole
picture of the past class proceedings and ideas shared before you lead them to the drawing of generalizations or
conclusions. As a teacher who is expected to know more than the student, you add to what your students shared.
You must have a significant input. It is important that you supplement information given by the students. These
are essential in the drawing of valid conclusions.
In the indirect method, your task is to ask your students questions to provoke their thinking, imagination,
thought-organizing skills. You are a questioner, a facilitator, a thought synthesizer.
2. Deductive and Inductive Methods
In the deductive method, you begin your lesson with a generalization, a rule, a definition and end with
examples and illustrations or with what is concrete.
Examples:
a. You start your lesson in economics with the law of supply and demand and then give examples to illustrate.
b. You state the rule on deriving the area of a rectangle then apply it with an example.
c. You state the rule on subject-verb agreement then give sentences that illustrate the rule.
d. You give the definition of pollination then show a video clip of the pollination process.
In contrast to the deductive method, in the inductive method you begin your lesson with the examples,
with what is known, with the concrete and with details. You end with the students giving the generalization,
abstraction or conclusion.
Examples:
a. For a lesson on the law of supply and demand, you start by giving many instances that illustrate the law
then with your questioning skills the class will arrive at a general statement showing the relationship of
supply and demand which is actually the law of supply and demand in economics.
b. For the lesson on deriving the area of a rectangle, you proceed this way: present at least five rectangles of
different lengths and widths with computed areas; then you ask the class how the areas were derived;
finally ask them to state in a sentence how the area of a rectangle is derived.
c. For the lesson on subject—verb agreement, you give sentences that make use of s-verb form and the non-
s verb form for subjects in the third person. (Don't bring in I, You as subjects yet to avoid confusion. That
 will be another lesson on subject- verb agreement). Based on the sentences, you ask the students to state
the rule on the use of s-verb and non-s verb form.
d. For the lesson on pollination, you show them a video clip of the process of pollination. Make your students
view the process of pollination, then ask them to state in a sentence what the process of pollination is.
To enable the students to derive the rule, state the formula or give the definition, be sure you gave enough
examples, illustrations and details for them to be able to see a pattern and come up with a generalization or rule
or definition.
After describing these methods, we can see that direct and deductive teaching go together while indirect
and inductive teaching also go together.
Here is a more detailed example of a lesson taught directly and deductively then taught inductively and
indirectly.
The topic is imagery. This is direct instruction, deductive teaching.
1. The teacher begins by presenting students with a definition for imagery.
2. The teacher gives an example of it.
3. Then he/she instructs students to read a short story and underline sentences and passages where the author
used imagery.
The same topic is taught using indirect instruction and inductive method.
1. The teacher dramatically reads aloud a short story, asking students that whenever they can picture
something or see an image in their minds to put a star by those words.
2. Then, students partner up and draw a picture to go with each star they have in common. After this, pairs
of students team up (in groups of four) and share what they've drawn. The teacher asks them to also discuss
in their groups how seeing these pictures in their minds made the story more interesting.
3. The teacher finally reveals that this is called imagery, and rather than provide a definition, asks each group
to write a definition for imagery together. Each group then shares the definition with the whole class.
The contrast of deductive and direct instruction and inductive and indirect instruction is summarized
below:
Deductive and Direct Instruction
Begins with the abstract, rule, definition, generalization, unknown and ends with experience, examples,
details, known
Abstract, rule, definition, generalization, unknown Experience, examples, details, known
Inductive and Indirect Instruction
It begins with the concrete, experience, examples, details, known and ends with rule, definition,
generalization or conclusion.
Experience, examples, details, known Abstract, rule, definition, generalization, unknown
Interactive approach and the direct-deductive, indirect-inductive method. Between two groups of
teaching methods which is more interactive? Stated in another way, which engages students to talk, think and do
more?
Obviously, the inductive and indirect method give more opportunities for students to participate in the
learning process. In the inductive-indirect method, the students are made to study details, examples or concrete
experiences, make sense of these details and state in their own words relationships that they see. The teacher does
not tell the pattern in the details nor does he/she state the generalization and rule but leads the students to the
generalization or rule with her/his questioning skills. In the deductive and direct method, the teacher tells directly
the rule and the generalization and follows it up with concrete examples and illustrations. The students are
engaged in the drills — mental or physical — that come after the teacher has told them what they need to know
or demonstrated that Which they should be able to do.

CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING (CLIL)

Classroom Principles:
• Language is used to learn as well as to communicate.
• It is the subject matter which determines the language needed to learn.
Subject – In simple, easily comprehensible ways, using diagrams, illustrations, graphs, practice and highlighting
terms.
Language – Subject based vocabulary, texts and discussions.
Why?
• The ability to use a language is much more than knowing its words and grammar, and speaking in perfectly
formed sentences.
• Language learning is surrounded by myths.
• We could usefully re-consider some of these beliefs and views.
Main Aims:
• Acquire knowledge using target language.
• Acquire necessary skills in the target language.
• Acquire necessary skills in the mother tongue.
• Understand and value both cultures.
• Develop cognitive and social skills.
A successful CLIL lesson should combine elements of the following:
Content – Progression in knowledge, skills and understanding related to specific elements of a defined
curriculum.
Communication – Using language to learn whilst learning to use language.
Cognition – Developing thinking skills which link concept formation (abstract and concrete), understanding and
language.
Culture – Exposure to alternative perspectives and shared understandings, which deepen awareness of otherness
and self.
Can do:
• In CLIL, we provide a situation in which the attention of the child is on a form of learning activity which
is not the language itself.
• It can be very successful in enhancing the learning of languages and subjects, and developing in the
youngsters a positive ‘can do’ attitude towards themselves as language learners.
Outcome:
• The language classroom is essential for the learner to understand the ‘nuts and bolts’ of language – the
architectural plans.
• Learners need time to build things with the ‘nuts and bolts’ – to build the house which they see in theory
on paper.
Methods:
• Can learn to play football or the piano without kicking a ball or touching the keys?
• Kids learn mother tongue using the resources surrounding them (deaf children in Nicaragua, reading the
lips, sign language).
• Changing the perspective (Robin William, Dead Poets’ Society).
• Talk and discuss, write and express, explore and share.
• Support – mind maps, word clouds, graphs.
Obstacles:
• New concepts always difficult to accept.
• Lack of qualified teachers.
• Heavy load and shortage of materials.
• Lack of support.
Best Practices:
• Subject or language teacher?
• Groups or whole class?
• Materials?
• Benefits and prospects for the future.
 NB! The learning of language and subjects is mixed: there are two main aims, one related to the subject,
topic, or theme, and one linked to the language.
Model:

Belonging
(Interests, Partners, Local/Global)

Thinking
Subject
(Outcomes, Analysis,
(Integration, Implementation, Skills and Culture)
Assessment)

Communication
(Involvement, Support Mat, Discussions)

Main Aspects:
1. Multiple Focus – integration of subject and language teaching, blending subjects and topics, out-of-class
projects, analysis.
2. Learning Environment – Typical tasks, lots of aids, overcoming fear, authentic materials
3. Authenticity – Student is the speaker, topics related to their needs, everyday life and interest; contacts
with target language users; use of authentic materials.
4. Active Learning – Students talk more, help to rephrase the outcomes, assess progress, co-operate, discuss.
Teacher is a guide and provider.
5. Support Structure – Learning is based on prior knowledge, skills, attitudes, interests and experience;
information is provided in student-friendly forms paying attention to different learning styles; critical and
creative thinking is supported; new challenging tasks.
6. Co-operation – Courses / classes / topics are planned in co-operation with subject and language teachers;
parents are informed and invited to support students; learning reaches outside the common classroom.
How – A Dozen Ways:
1. Language Camps 4. Language Practice 6. Language Showers
2. Student Exchange Abroad 7. One or Several Subjects
3. Project Work 5. Immersion 8. CLIL Modules
In a CLIL lesson, all language skills should be combined and seen as:
• Listening is a normal input activity, vital for language learning.
• Reading using meaningful material, is the major source of input.
• Speaking focuses on fluency. Accuracy is seen as subordinate.
• Writing is a series of lexical activities through which grammar is recycled.
CLIL lessons exhibit the following characteristics:
• Integrate language and skills, and receptive and productive skills.
• Lessons are often based on reading or listening texts/passages.
• The language focus in a lesson does not consider structural grading.
• Language is functional and dictated by the context of the subject.
• Language is approached lexically rather than grammatically.
• Learner styles are taken into account in task types.
How to Begin:
• Lesson framework.
• A CLIL lesson looks at content and language in equal measure, and often follows a four-stage framework.
Processing the Text:
• The best texts are those accompanied by illustrations.
• When working in a foreign language, learners need structural markers in texts to help them find their way
through the content.
• Once a 'core knowledge' has been identified, the organization of the text can be analyzed.
Identification and Organization of Knowledge:
• Texts are often represented diagrammatically.
• Diagram types include tree diagrams for classification, groups, hierarchies, flow diagrams and timelines
for sequenced thinking such as instructions and historical information, tabular diagrams describing people
and places, and combinations of these.
Language Identification:
• Learners are expected to be able to reproduce the core of the text in their own words.
• There is no grading of language.
• Highlight useful language in the text and categorize it according to function.
• Pay attention to collocations, semi-fixed expressions, set phrases and subject-specific and academic
vocabulary.
Tasks For Students:
• There is little difference in task-type between a CLIL lesson and a skills-based ELT lesson. A variety of
tasks should be provided, taking into account the learning purpose and learner styles and preferences.
• Tasks designed for production need to be subject-orientated, so that both content and language are
recycled.
Typical Listening Activities Include:
• Listen and label a diagram / picture / map / graph / chart.
• Listen and fill in a table.
• Listen and make notes on specific information (dates, figures, times).
• Listen and reorder information.
• Listen and identify location / speakers.
• Listen and label the stages of a process / instructions / sequences.
• Listen and fill in the gaps in a text.
Typical Speaking Activities Include:
Question Loops – Questions and answers, terms and definitions, halves of sentences.
Information gap activities with a question sheet to support.
Trivia Search – 'Things you know' and 'things you want to know'.
Typical Speaking Activities Include:
• Word guessing games.
• Class surveys using questionnaires.
• 20 Questions – provide language support frame for questions.
• Students present information from a visual using a language support handout.
Planning CLIL Lessons:
• Teaching a subject in the first language of your learners there are at least two things which you can count
on: basic language ability and academic language proficiency.
• Learners in CLIL programs are learning basic language skills, academic language skills and new subject
concepts all at the same time.
• To overcome the language barrier, CLIL teachers need to plan their lessons to include language support
as well as content teaching.
Difficulties:
Learners have to be able to:
• Listen to and understand teachers talking about subjects – can they do that?
• Talk about subjects themselves – to each other in groups and to the teacher in the plenary classroom – can
they do that?
• Read subject textbooks, and write about subjects – can they do that?
Language Problems:
• The language is likely to be an issue at either the word or text level (grammar is less of an obstacle to
listening or reading).
Support Strategies for Listening:
 • To help learners listen, subject teachers highlight or explicitly teach vocabulary. At the text level they help
learners to follow them by using visuals and by adjusting their talking style: they enumerate points, give
examples, explain, summarize, more than they would in L1.
Support Strategies for Speaking:
• To help students talk in the plenary classroom, teachers adjust their questions (asking, perhaps, some
cognitively demanding but short answer questions); they prompt (for example they start learners’
responses for them); they provide vocabulary, they may allow some L1 responses.
• To help them talk in groups, they provide support at the word level by listing key words to use; to help
with making sentences they can offer supportive task types such as talking frames, sentence starters or
substitution tables; or they ask students to use their L1 when discussing but their L2 when reporting.
Support Strategies for Reading:
• To help students with reading teachers may check that students understand key vocabulary before they
read; they may provide them with pre-reading questions to reduce the reading demands of the text; or they
may offer help at the text level by giving reading support tasks, such as a chart to fill in, a diagram to
label, etc.
Support Strategies for Writing:
• To students with writing, teachers can offer support at all three levels by providing a vocabulary list,
sentence starters, or a writing frame. They can also ensure that the learners talk through their writing at
the word, sentence and text level, with each other, probably in L1, before they write.
Conclusion
• From a language point of view the CLIL 'approach' contains nothing new to the EL teacher.
• CLIL aims to guide language processing and 'support language production in the same way as ELT by
teaching strategies for reading and listening and structures and lexis for spoken or written language.
• What is different is that the language teacher is also the subject teacher, or that the subject teacher is also
able to exploit opportunities for developing language skills.
• This is the essence of the CLIL teacher training issue.

SOME BASIC CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES

Here are a few simple which are not difficult to remember, but which few teachers manage to observe. all
the time.
1. Look at all the students in the class. When you are teaching, switch your gaze evenly from one side to
another. You will have the ad- vantage of knowing what is going on in the class the whole time so that
you are aware of who is paying attention and who isn't and you can adapt your teaching accordingly.
2. Vary your techniques for asking questions. Questions are a way of compelling the attention of your
students, If someone is yawning at the back row, ask him a question. However, don't start with the of the
student you are addressing. Do not say, "Mario, what was the name of Nan's husband?" Immediately when
you say "Mario," the rest of the class switches off apart from their faint interest in what Mario is going to
say. Instead say; "Who was Ana's husband?" Then pause and look around. Thinking they will be asked;
all the students will then work out the answer.
3. Don't go round the class. it's better not to ask questions when you. are going around the class. Otherwise,
those farthest, away from the questioning will know they can relax for some time before their tum comes
while those who have already answered can sit back and dream, knowing that they will probably not be
asked again. Dart hither and thither and go back to someone you've just questioned so that everyone
realizes he may be asked at any time.
4. Include everyone. Make sure that everyone is called on equally. Unless you make a conscious effort it's
very easy to forget a few students, particularly those who sit at the back or in the "wings" of the class.
5. Make sure the class is seated in the best possible way. It may be impossible to avoid having your students
sitting in rows facing you. However, ensure that empty seats are only at the back and that everyone is
grouped as near the. front as possible Ideally, everyone should be able to see everyone else so that they
can all participate in what is being said. Probably the best arrangement is to have everyone seated around
the room in a circle. You then get a large spacious area in the middle which can be urged for acting out
and there is a greater sense of community.
6. Limit teacher talking time. The more a teacher talks, the less will his students be given the opportunity of
expressing themselves. A teacher should, ideally, be a stimulator who gets his students to talk. Of course,
when training a class to listen and understand, you have to speak more, but try to strike a balance.
 7. Write clearly. Clear blackboard work is essential. If you've got a lot to put on the board, try to arrange it
in an orderly and logical fashion, so that the whole pattern is clear.
8. Encourage your students: There is nothing so discouraging as to discover that you can talk no better in an
English class than a child if seven, especially if you're an adult student. As a teacher, there- fore, encourage
your pupils as much as possible. Say "Good, but as often as you honestly can.
9. Be careful with the use of grammatical terms.
10. Encourage your students to practice English outside the classroom. Often, a teacher makes less progress
with his students, although he is competent in class, simply because he does not get his students to do
homework and to read classroom. The room should in fact act as a generator to an sorts. of English studies
outside it. M.ke your students feel appreciated when they hand in their homework. Try to get your students
to read English books for enjoyment rather than for new vocabulary. Using English outside the classroom
proves they can use the language in real life and therefore makes your lessons more appreciated.
11. Take account of different levels within the class. There are a number of ways of dealing with the problem:
ask the brighter students difficult questions and then ask the same questions later to those who lag behind.
Instruct the students to teach each other and talk about what they know to those who don't. Seat a advanced
student next to a less advanced one so that he can help. Do group work where you mix brighter students
with those who know less. Try and get those who are behind to do more homework and more English
outside the classroom. Encourage the less advanced student as much as possible and find out if there are
areas where he is good so that you can call on him to show what he knows. At advanced levels, it is
sometimes worth getting students to teach a point which they have prepared. The class will probably be
more interested in listening to one of themselves than to you, and one of the best ways of learning a
language, paradoxically, is to teach it of learning a language, paradoxically, IS
12. Deal with individual problems. It is often best to deal with individual problems after the class. The student
concerned will feel that you really care about his progress if you spend additional time on him, and it is
obviously much easier to get go the root of any problem in a tete-a-tete fashion than in a large class.
13. Correct your students systematically. Even in the middle of a discussion in English, state the correct phrase
or word gently, without interrupting the student. It is also helpful to note down mistakes and then to go
over them at
14. Use their names correctly. Make sure you pronounce your students' names correctly.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN DETERMINING AND FORMULATING GOALS/OBJECTIVES

• “Begin with an end mind, “says Covey, the author of “Seven Habits of Effective People”. In the context
of teaching, this means that we must begin our lesson with a clearly defined lesson objective.
• Share lesson objectives with students. Like a seminar that begins with a statement or purpose, our lesson
ought to begin with a statement and clarification of our lesson objective.
• Lesson objectives must be in two or three domains – knowledge (cognitive) skill (psychomotor) and
values (affective). Our lesson maybe dominantly cognitive, psychomotor or affective. Dominantly
cognitive if it is meant primarily for knowledge acquisition and dominantly psychomotor if it is intended
for the acquisition and honing of skills. Lesson objectives in the affective domain are mainly focused on
attitude and value formation. A cognitive or a skill must always include the affective dimension for holistic
learning.
• Work on a significant and relevant lesson objective. With our lesson objective becoming our students’
lesson objective, too, our students will be self-propelled as we teach. The level of their self-motivation all
the more increases when our lesson objective is relevant to their daily life, hence significant.
• Lesson objectives must be aligned with the aims of education as embodied in the Philippine Constitution
and other laws and on the vision-mission statements of the educational institution of which you are a part.
• Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking. This is said more than done. We need not go into
laborious research to be convinced that the development of critical and creative thinking is wanting in
classrooms. Most questions asked whether oral or written are convergent, low-level questions.
• For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be SMART, (Specific, measurable, attainable,
result-oriented, relevant, time-bounded and terminal.
Smart objectives increase our accountability for the learning of our students.
With SMART lesson objectives there is greater match between instruction and assessment. There is
curriculum alignment.
Taxonomy of Objectives
With educational taxonomy, learning is classified into three domains namely; (1) cognitive, (2) affective
(3) psychomotor.
Benjamin Blooms (1956) led his group in coming up with the list of instructional objectives in the
cognitive domain. Arrange from lowest to the highest level.
 Knowledge or Recall
Knowledge of terminology and conventions, trends, and sequences, classifications and categories criteria
and methodologies, principles, theories and structures, e.g.to identify the capital of the Philippines.
• Comprehension – Relate to translation, interpretation and extrapolation; e.g., to interpret a table showing
the population density of the world.
• Application – Use of abstractions in particular situations; e.g., to predict the probable effect of a change
in temperature on chemical.
• Analysis – Objectives relate to breaking a whole into parts; e.g., to deduce facts from hypothesis.
• Synthesis – Putting parts together in a new form such as a unique communication, a plan of operation,
and a set of abstract relations; e.g., to produce an original piece of art.
• Evaluation – Judging in term so internal evidence or logical consistency and external evidence or
consistency with facts developed elsewhere, e.g., to recognize fallacies in an argument.
David Krathwohl (1964) and associates likewise came up with instructional objectives related to
interests, attitudes and feelings-affective domain. These include from the lowest to the highest level:
• Receiving – Awareness, willingness to receive, selective attention; e.g., to listen attentively during the
group presentation.
• Responding – Acquiescence, willing response, feelings of satisfaction; e.g.to contribute to group
discussion by asking questions.
• Valuing – Acceptance, preference, commitment; e.g.to argue over an issue involving health care.
• Organization – Conceptualization of values, organization of a value system; e.g.to organize a meeting
concerning a neighborhood’s housing integration plan.
• Characterization – Generalized set of values, characterization or philosophy of life; e.g.to join a rally in
behalf of a noble cause.
Anita Harlow (1972) did something parallel to what Bloom Krathwohl did for the learning objectives in
the psychomotor domain. Below is her list of objectives in the psychomotor domain:
• Reflex Movements – Relate to reflexes; e.g., to contract a muscle
• Fundamental Movements – Relate to walking, running, jumping, pulling, manipulating; e.g., to run a
100-yard dash.
• Perceptual Abilities – Objectives relate to kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile, and coordination abilities;
e.g.to distinguish distant and close sounds.
• Physical Abilities – Relate to endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, reaction-response time dexterity;
e.g.to do five sit ups.
• Skilled Movements – Objectives relate to games, sports, dances, and the arts; e.g.to dance the basic steps
of the waltz.
• Nondiscursive Communication – Expressive movements through posture, gestures, facial expressions,
creative movements; e.g.to act a part in a play. (Harlow (1972)
More divides learning in the psychomotor domain into three levels:
1. Imitation – At the entry level, imitation, a student can carry out the rudiments of the skills with
instructional support from the teacher. Most typically, this level follows modeling by the teacher and
involve student’s first attempts to perform the skill. The skill is not performed smoothly, nor is the
coordination and timing refined. Examples of students performing at the imitation level include a student
is able to perform the skill independently without the aid of the instructor.
2. Manipulation
3. Precision – At the level of the precision-the highest level of psychomotor taxonomy-students can perform
a skill accurately, and effortlessly
Automacity
The ability to perform a skill with unconscious effort he’s developed which then frees the students to
concentrate on other elements of the activity or game. Examples of precision level skills include; different notes
with different levels of volume and pitch, WITHOUT consciously looking at her fingers.

LESSON PLANNING IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

A lesson plan is a guide for teachers in stimulating, guiding, and effective learning. It is prepared to assist
the teachers in their work. All lesson plans have the following components:
I. Objectives
 The objectives serve as the criterion against which the pupils’ achievement is measured. They are derived
from the learning competencies with the content as springboard. The objectives should be attainable, relevant,
time bound, and specific. They should be stated in terms of cognitive affective, and psychomotor domains.
II. Subject Matter
The subject matter states the content which will be developed in the teaching episode. This is derived from
the learning competencies to be developed as well as the materials available in the community.
III. Materials
The teaching resources include the reference materials, visual aids, equipment, and human and nonhuman
resources which will facilitate learning.
IV. Procedure
The procedure includes all the strategies, techniques, and steps to be undertaken by the teacher to achieve
the objectives. It is made up of varied activities such as drill, review, motivation, and presentation of the lesson
which comprises assimilation, activity, abstraction, and application. The procedure should also include the kind
of questions the teachers will ask to promote critical thinking. In each phase of the lesson, evaluation should be
an integral part.
Application, Evaluation, Follow-up
These concluding parts of the lesson plan speak to the matters of utility, effectiveness, and the place of
the lesson in the learning sequence.
V. Assignment
The teacher should always make a tie-up between home and school experiences since the EPP subject is
family-oriented. Giving assignments after learning a task will reinforce learning and will also assure a carryover
of the school to the pupils’ family members. This action will ensure mastery of the competencies acquired.
A lesson plan can be written in many ways. It can be detailed, semi-detailed or brief. A detailed lesson
plan contains practically all the activities of the teacher and the pupils during the day. A semi-detailed lesson plan
contains the outline and sample questions and activities of the teacher, and the pupils. A brief lesson plan contains
the directions to be undertaken by the teacher as the guide. Experienced teachers use brief lesson plans but just
the same, classroom preparation and visual aids are usually the same among the three kinds of lesson plans.
Lesson Plan in Language Grade 2
I. Objective
a. State the location of an object using the prepositions in, on, at, under, and over and the verb be in
grammatically correct English.
II. Subject Matter
Prepositions of Location
Language 2, Baylon, et al. Rex Book Store
III. Procedure
A. Students are first taught the prepositions by using a line and a dot which are drawn on the board by the
teacher. The teacher models or elicits the correct sentences about the picture.
B. Students are then taught more complex prepositions by using other simple figures on the board.
C. Pictures can be produced and the students can be asked to express the location of different objects or
people. Samples are given:
The boy is at the table. The bowl is on the table.
The soup is in the bowl. The spoon is in his hands.
IV. Culminating Activity
Students give each other directions on where to place an object (on the table, under the chair, or on your
right hand, in your mouth, over your hand, etc.)
V. Follow-up Activity
Students practice prepositions by giving each other directions and by following the directions in placing
objects the correct places. The directions may be written or oral.