Alcohol Withdrawal - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Alcohol Withdrawal - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Alcohol Withdrawal - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.
Alcohol Withdrawal
Richard K. Newman; Megan A. Stobart Gallagher; Anna E. Gomez.
Author Information
Last Update: November 13, 2021.
Objectives:
Outline strategies for decreasing alcohol dependency in patients with alcohol withdrawal.
Introduction
Alcohol withdrawal symptoms occur when patients stop drinking or significantly decrease their
alcohol intake after long-term dependence. Withdrawal has a broad range of symptoms from
mild tremors to a condition called delirium tremens, which results in seizures and could progress
to death if not recognized and treated promptly.[1][2] The reported mortality rate for patients
who experience delirium tremens is anywhere from 1 to 5%.
Etiology
Ethanol is the primary alcohol ingested by chronic users. It is a central nervous system (CNS)
depressant that the body becomes reliant on with extended exposure to ethanol. It does this by
inhibiting the excitatory portion (glutamate receptors) of the CNS and enhancing the inhibitory
portions (GABA receptors) of the CNS. When the depressant is stopped, the central nervous
system becomes overexcited as the inhibition is taken away. Thus, the body gets an excitatory
overload, which results in the symptoms of withdrawal.[3]
Epidemiology
Alcohol use disorder (AUD) per the DSM-IV is common, especially in the emergency
department, where about 40% of patients have AUD.[4] In patients coming into the ED with
trauma and a Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol, revised (CIWA-Ar)
score nearly 83% were of Male gender, and 43% were older than 55 years old. Of these patients
with trauma, nearly 52% of those showing AWS symptoms had a CIWA-Ar score >20, 24%
progressed to delirium tremens (DT).[5] Delirium tremens is fatal in nearly 15% of cases without
treatment and 1% in those who do receive treatment.
Pathophysiology
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Mild symptoms can be elevated blood pressure, insomnia, tremulousness, hyperreflexia, anxiety,
gastrointestinal upset, headache, palpitations.
Moderate symptoms include hallucinations and alcohol withdrawal seizures (rum fits) that can
occur 12 to 24 hours after cessation of alcohol and are typically generalized in nature. There is a
3% incidence of status epilepticus in these patients. About 50% of patients who have had a
withdrawal seizure will progress to delirium tremens.
Delirium tremens is the most severe form of alcohol withdrawal, and its hallmark is that of an
altered sensorium with significant autonomic dysfunction and vital sign abnormalities. It
includes visual hallucinations, tachycardia, hypertension, hyperthermia, agitation, and
diaphoresis. Symptoms of delirium tremens can last up to seven days after alcohol cessation and
may last even longer.
These symptoms mimic those of withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine or barbiturate use,
so important historical features to note when a patient presents with autonomic dysfunction
suspicious for a withdrawal syndrome should always include a medication list and social history.
Also, consider these risk factors for any patient presenting with seizures of unknown etiology.
Evaluation
The diagnosis of alcohol withdrawal can be made by taking an excellent history and performing
a thorough physical examination. It is a clinical diagnosis based on mild, moderate, or severe
symptoms. Patients with suspicion for alcohol withdrawal should be evaluated for other
underlying disease processes such as dehydration, infection, cardiac issues, electrolyte
abnormalities, gastrointestinal bleeding, and traumatic injury. Laboratory studies (electrolytes,
blood counts) may be drawn but will likely be nondiagnostic. Many chronic alcoholics will have
baseline ketoacidosis due to their poor nutritional status, and labs may show acidemia with
ketone production similar to a diabetic but with euglycemia or hypoglycemia due to lack of
glycogen stores in their liver.[8][9][10]
Assessment
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The Clinical Institute for Withdrawal Assessment for alcohol revised scale (CIWA-Ar) is a tool
used to assess the severity of alcohol withdrawal symptoms. The tool allows clinicians to
monitor for the signs and symptoms of withdrawal and determine who needs medical therapy.
The features that are used for the CIWA-Ar scale include the presence of:
Headache
Auditory disturbances
Agitation
Paroxysmal sweating
Visual disturbances
Tremor
Clouding of sensorium
Orientation
Anxiety
Some literature recommends checking an alcohol level at the time of onset of symptoms as
symptomatic patients while still having a positive alcohol level with symptoms of autonomic
dysfunction/withdrawal will have a higher morbidity/mortality, and their short-term prognosis
can be poor.
Patients with prolonged altered sensorium or significant renal abnormalities should receive an
evaluation for the potential ingestion of another toxic alcohol. Patients who become financially
strapped due to alcoholism could ingest other alcohols to become intoxicated. These can include
isopropyl alcohol, commonly known as rubbing alcohol, which can lead to acidemia without
ketosis as well as hemorrhagic gastritis. Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) ingestion can lead to an
altered sensorium, seizures, and severe renal dysfunction with acidemia that may require the
initiation of hemodialysis. Methanol is rarely ingested as an ethanol substitute but can result in
multisystem organ failure, blindness, and seizures.
Other common household substances can also contain a significant amount of alcohol if ingested
in large quantities, including mouthwash and cough syrup. Some of these items may also contain
a high content of salicylates or acetaminophen, so consider checking aspirin and acetaminophen
levels in patients presenting with alcohol withdrawal.
Treatment / Management
Patients should be kept calm in a controlled environment to try to reduce the risks of progression
from mild symptoms to hallucinations. With mild to moderate symptoms, patients should receive
supportive therapy in the form of intravenous rehydration, correction of electrolyte
abnormalities, and have comorbid conditions as listed above ruled out. Due to the risk of a
comorbid condition called Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, patients can also receive a “banana
bag” or cocktail of folate, thiamine, dextrose containing fluids, and a multivitamin.[11][12][13]
While patients with mild symptoms can be managed as outpatients, the following patients should
be admitted:
Suicidal ideations
Withdrawal seizures can typically be managed with benzodiazepines but may require adjunct
therapy with phenytoin, barbiturates, and may even require intubation and sedation with
propofol, ketamine, or in the most severe cases, dexmedetomidine.
Oral chlordiazepoxide and oxazepam are very commonly used for the prevention of withdrawal
symptoms. Other drugs often used to manage symptoms include neuroleptics, anticonvulsants
like carbamazepine, and valproic acid.
Propofol is used to manage refractory cases of delirium tremens, and baclofen can be used to
treat muscle spasms.
Differential Diagnosis
Thyrotoxicosis
Status epilepticus
CNS infection
Essential tremors
Prognosis
The prognosis often depends on the severity of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Clinical
outcomes such as length of hospital length of stay, length of time in the ICU, and alcohol
withdrawal syndrome complications often show significant differences based on alcohol
withdrawal syndrome severity and are worse with more severe manifestations of alcohol
withdrawal syndrome. Mortality is also greater in patients who progress to delirium tremens.
Complications
Complications that can accompany alcohol withdrawal syndrome include[14]:
Delirium tremens
Seizures
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Anxiety
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Depression
Sleep disturbances
Hallucinations
Cardiovascular complications
Alcohol withdrawal can be managed both as an inpatient or outpatient. In each case, close
monitoring is essential as the symptoms can suddenly become severe.
In most cases, mild symptoms may start to develop within hours after the last drink, and if left
untreated, can progress and become more severe. Because chronic alcohol use is widespread in
society, all healthcare workers, including the nurse and pharmacist, should be familiar with the
symptoms of alcohol withdrawal and its management. Nurses monitoring alcoholic patients
should be familiar with signs and symptoms of alcohol withdrawal and communicate to the
interprofessional team if there are any deviations from normal. In most cases, the symptoms are
autonomic. For those who develop delirium tremens, monitoring in a quiet room is
recommended.
Today, pharmacotherapy is often used to manage the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. However,
if the symptoms are severe and pharmacological treatment is required, the patient should be
referred to an internist or an alcohol treatment specialist. Prompt referral and treatment can help
lower the morbidity of alcohol withdrawal symptoms and may even be lifesaving.[16][17]
After treatment, the patient should be referred to AA and urged to abstain from alcohol. For
patients without support, a social worker should be involved to help facilitate addiction
rehabilitation.
Outcomes
Today the outcomes for most patients with alcohol withdrawal are good, but for those who
develop delirium tremens, the findings are less optimal. Despite optimal treatment, the condition
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Review Questions
References
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