Review Handout in Police Photography

Police Photography is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of
photography, the preparation of photographic evidences and its application to police work.

History of photography

The first permanent photograph was an image produced in 1826 [1] by the French
inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. The word photography derives from the Greek words phōs
(genitive: phōtós) light, and gráphein, to write. The word was coined by Sir John Frederick
William Herschel in 1839.

A camera obscura box used for drawing images

Photography is the result of combining several different technical discoveries. Long

before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Ti and Greek mathematicians
Aristotle and Euclid described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. In the 6th
century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his
experiments.

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera,
Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–80) discovered silver nitrate, and Georges Fabricius (1516–71)
discovered silver chloride. Daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568. Wilhelm Homberg
described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694. The novel
Giphantie (by the French Tiphaigne de la Roche, 1729–74) described what can be interpreted as
photography.

"Boulevard du Temple", taken by Louis Daguerre in late 1838 or early 1839, was the
first-ever photograph of people. It is an image of a busy street, but because exposure time was
over ten minutes, the city traffic was moving too much to appear. The exceptions are the two
people in the bottom left corner, one who stood still getting his boots polished by the other long
enough to show up in the picture.

Before the recent discovery of the Cornelius photo, this was the oldest known
photograph portrait, made by Dr. Joseph Draper of New York in 1839 or 1840. The subject is his
sister, Anna Katherine Draper.

The first permanent photograph (later accidentally destroyed) was an image produced
in 1826 by the French inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. His photographs were produced on a
polished pewter plate covered with a petroleum derivative called bitumen of Judea, which he
then dissolved in white petroleum. Bitumen hardens with exposure to light. The unhardened
material may then be washed away and the metal plate polished, rendering a positive image
with light regions of hardened bitumen and dark regions of bare pewter. Niépce then began
experimenting with silver compounds based on a Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1727 that
silver nitrate (AgNO3) darkens when exposed to light.
 In partnership, Niépce (in Chalon-sur-Saône) and Louis Daguerre (in Paris) refined the
existing silver process. In 1833 Niépce died of a stroke, leaving his notes to Daguerre. While he
had no scientific background, Daguerre made two pivotal contributions to the process. He
discovered that exposing the silver first to iodine vapour before exposure to light, and then to
mercury fumes after the photograph was taken, could form a latent image. Bathing the plate in
a salt bath then fixes the image. On January 7, 1839 Daguerre announced that he had invented a
process using silver on a copper plate called the daguerreotype, and displayed the first plate.
The French government bought the patent and almost immediately (on August 19 of that year)
made it public domain.

In 1832, French-Brazilian painter and inventor Hercules Florence had already created a
very similar process, naming it Photographie.

After reading about Daguerre's invention, Fox Talbot worked on perfecting his own
process; in 1839 he acquired a key improvement, an effective fixer, from John Herschel, the
astronomer, who had previously showed that hyposulfite of soda (also known as hypo, or now
sodium thiosulfate) would dissolve silver salts. Later that year, Herschel made the first glass
negative.

A calotype print showing the American photographer Frederick Langenheim (circa

1849). Note, the caption on the photo calls the process Talbotype

By 1840, Talbot had invented the calotype process. He coated paper sheets with silver
chloride to create an intermediate negative image. Unlike a daguerreotype, a calotype negative
could be used to reproduce positive prints, like most chemical films do today. The calotype had
yet another distinction compared to other photographic processes of the day, in that the
finished product lacked fine clarity due to its translucent paper negative. This was seen as a
positive attribute for portraits because it softened the appearance of the human face. Talbot
patented this process, which greatly limited its adoption. He spent the rest of his life in lawsuits
defending the patent until he gave up on photography. Later George Eastman refined Talbot's
process, which is the basic technology used by chemical film cameras today. Hippolyte Bayard
had also developed a method of photography but delayed announcing it, and so was not
recognized as its inventor.

In 1839, John Herschel made the first glass negative, but his process was difficult to
reproduce. Slovene Janez Puhar invented a process for making photographs on glass in 1841; it
was recognized on June 17, 1852 in Paris by the Académie Nationale Agricole, Manufacturière et
Commerciale. In 1847, Nicephore Niépce's cousin, the chemist Niépce St. Victor published his
invention of a process for making glass plates with an albumen emulsion; the Langenheim
brothers of Philadelphia and John Whipple of Boston also invented workable negative-on-glass
processes in the mid 1840s.

In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process. Photographer and
children's author Lewis Carroll used this process.

Roger Fenton's assistant seated on Fenton's photographic van, Crimea, 1855.

 Herbert Bowyer Berkeley experimented with his own version of collodian emulsions
after Samman introduced the idea of adding dithionite to the pyrogallol developer. Berkeley
discovered that with his own addition of sulfite, to absorb the sulfur dioxide given off by the
chemical dithionite in the developer, that dithionite was not required in the developing process.
In 1881 he published his discovery. Berkeley's formula contained pyrogallol, sulfite and citric
acid. Ammonia was added just before use to make the formula alkaline. The new formula was
sold by the Platinotype Company in London as Sulpho-Pyrogallol Developer.

Nineteenth-century experimentation with photographic processes frequently became

proprietary. The German-born, New Orleans photographer Theodore Lilienthal successfully
sought legal redress in an 1881 infringement case involving his "Lambert Process" in the Eastern

District of Louisiana.

Mid 19th century "Brady stand" photo model's armrest table, meant to keep portrait
models more still during long exposure times (studio equipment nicknamed after the famed US
photographer, Mathew Brady).

1855 cartoon satirizing problems with posing for Daguerreotypes; slight movement
during exposure resulted in blurred features

A photographer appears to be photographing himself in a 19th-century photographic

studio. Note clamp to hold the poser's head still. In 1893 satire on photographic procedures
already becoming obsolete at the time.

The daguerreotype proved popular in response to the demand for portraiture that
emerged from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution. This demand, that could not
be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, added to the push for the development of
photography.

In 1847, Count Sergei Lvovich Levitsky designed a bellows camera which significantly
improved the process of focusing. This adaptation influenced the design of cameras for decades
and is still found in use today in some professional cameras. While in Paris, Levitsky would
become the first to introduce interchangeable decorative backgrounds in his photos, as well as
the retouching of negatives to reduce or eliminate technical deficiencies. Levitsky was also the
first photographer to portray a photo of a person in different poses and even in different clothes
(for example, the subject plays the piano and listens to himself).

Roger Fenton and Philip Henry Delamotte helped popularize the new way of recording
events, the first by his Crimean war pictures, the second by his record of the disassembly and
reconstruction of The Crystal Palace in London. Other mid-nineteenth-century photographers
established the medium as a more precise means than engraving or lithography of making a
record of landscapes and architecture: for example, Robert Macpherson's broad range of
photographs of Rome, the interior of the Vatican, and the surrounding countryside became a
sophisticated tourist's visual record of his own travels.

By 1849, images captured by Levitsky on a mission to the Caucasus, were exhibited by

the famous Parisian optician Chevalier at the Paris Exposition of the Second Republic as an
advertisement of their lenses. These photos would receive the Exposition's gold medal; the first
time a prize of its kind had ever been awarded to a photograph.

That same year in 1849 in his St. Petersburg, Russia studio Levitsky would first propose
the idea to artificially light subjects in a studio setting using electric lighting along with daylight.
He would say of its use, "as far as I know this application of electric light has never been tried; it
is something new, which will be accepted by photographers because of its simplicity and
practicality".

In 1851, at an exhibition in Paris, Levitsky would win the first ever gold medal awarded
for a portrait photograph.

In America, by 1851 a broadside by daguerreotypist Augustus Washington were

advertising prices ranging from 50 cents to $10. [17] However, daguerreotypes were fragile and
difficult to copy. Photographers encouraged chemists to refine the process of making many
copies cheaply, which eventually led them back to Talbot's process.

Ultimately, the modern photographic process came about from a series of refinements
and improvements in the first 20 years. In 1884 George Eastman, of Rochester, New York,
developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the photographic plate so that a photographer no
longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around. In July 1888 Eastman's Kodak
camera went on the market with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest". Now anyone
could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to others, and photography
became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of the Kodak Brownie.

In the twentieth century, photography developed rapidly as a commercial service. End-

user supplies of photographic equipment accounted for only about 20 percent of industry
revenue. For the modern enthusiast photographer processing black and white film, little has
changed since the introduction of the 35mm film Leica camera in 1925.

The first digitally scanned photograph was produced in 1957. The digital scanning
process was invented by Russell A. Kirsch, a computer pioneer at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology. He developed the system capable of feeding a camera's images into
a computer. His first fed image was that of his son, Walden Kirsch. The photo was set at 176x176

pixels.

First color image, photograph by James Clerk Maxwell, 1861.

Although color photography was explored throughout the 19th century, initial
experiments in color resulted in projected temporary images, rather than permanent color
images. Moreover until the 1870s the emulsions available were not sensitive to red or green
light.

The first color photo, an additive projected image of a tartan ribbon, was taken in 1861
by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell. Several patentable methods for producing images
(by either additive or subtractive methods, see below) were devised from 1862 on by two
French inventors (working independently), Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros. Practical
methods to sensitize silver halide film to green and then orange light were discovered in 1873
and 1884 by Hermann W. Vogel, but full sensitivity to red light was not achieved until the early
years of the 20th century.

The first fully practical color plate, Autochrome, did not reach the market until 1907. It
was based on a screen-plate method, the screen (of filters) being made using dyed dots of
potato starch. The screen lets filtered red, green or blue light through each grain to a
photographic emulsion in contact with it. The plate is then developed to a negative, and
reversed to a positive, which when viewed through the screen restores colors approximating the
original.

Other systems of color photography included that used by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-
Gorskii, which involved three separate monochrome exposures ('separation negatives') of a still
scene through red, green, and blue filters. These required a special machine to display, but the
results are impressive even by modern standards. His collection of glass plates was purchased
from his heirs by the Library of Congress in 1948, and is now available in digital images.

The charge-coupled device (CCD) is the most important invention for digital photography. It
was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at AT&T Bell Labs. The lab was
working on the Picturephone and on the development of semiconductor bubble memory.
Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed
'Charge "Bubble" Devices'. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the
surface of a semiconductor.

 1973 - Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image forming CCD chip; 100
rows and 100 columns.
 1975 - Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color
image sensors
 1986 - Kodak scientists develop the world's first megapixel sensor.

The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first
photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house
band Les Horribles Cernettes). Today popular sites such as Flickr, Picasa and PhotoBucket are
used by millions of people to share their pictures.