12

11 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Practical Research 2
Quarter 4 – Module 4:
The Methods in Quantitative Research
Practical Research 2 for Grade 11
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 4 – Module 4: The Methods in Quantitative Research
First Edition, 2020

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGES

WHAT I KNOW ------------------------------------------------------------------ 1

WHAT’S IN ------------------------------------------------------------------ 2
WHAT’S NEW ------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
WHAT IS IT ------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
WHAT’S MORE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED ---------------------------------------------------------- 15
WHAT I CAN DO ------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
ASSESSMENT -------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
ANSWER KEYS -------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
GLOSSARY -------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
REFERENCES -------------------------------------------------------------------- 20

ii
 What I Know

Activity 1. Let us check your prior knowledge…

Directions: Carefully read the statements/questions below and write your
answers in your notebook/activity sheets.

1. It is called as study group of the researcher__________.

a. co-researcher b. teachers
c. participants d. crowd
2. What research tool is use in survey?
a. guide questions b. interview guide
c. pre-Test d. questionnaire
3. In quantitative research, what will quantify to get the result?
a. Number of studies b. hypothesis
c. variables d. methods
4. Realizing the appropriate ______________of your research is an initial act
of your study.
a. subjects b. time frame
c. design d. sampling
5. The following are forms of quantitative research survey, except:
a. sampling questionnaire b. Questionnaire design
c. sampling technique d. questionnaire administration
6. What type of research where the researcher investigates a problem by
studying the variables in survey?
a. Survey b. experimental
c. Causal-Comparative d. correlational
7. What stage of sampling where the researcher clearly defines target
population?
a. stage 1 b. stage 2
c. stage 4 d. stage 3
8. The process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes is
______________.
a. data collecting b. methodology
c. research intervention d. research procedures
9. What kind of research where the researcher predicts certain outcomes in
one variable from another variable that serves as the predictor?
a. Ex Post Facto b. correlational
c. survey d. experiment
10. The following are in research methodology, except:

1
 a. Research locale b. respondents
c. sampling technique d. findings

What’s In

Activity 2

Directions: Read the description below and choose your answer from the box.
Write your answers in your activity notebook or activity sheets provided by
your teacher.

Methodology sampling technique research instrument

Research intervention data collection ethical norms

1. It is an action for the problem tackled by the researcher/s.

2. The researcher investigates the treatment of an intervention into the
study group and then measures the outcomes of the treatment.
3. Survey is used for collecting data from a predefined group of
respondents to gain information and insights into various topics of
interest.
4. The entire population is involved but for your research study, you need
to select only apart from the whole because it is doubtful that
researcher should be able to collect data from all cases.
5. Developing questionnaire proposed by the researcher to obtain valid
information coming from different sources is one of the critical
activities.
6. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do
not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.
7. Capturing the quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis
and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to
questions that have been posed.
8. Choose the study design either questionnaire study or a laboratory
experiment? What kind of design do you choose (descriptive, cross-
sectional, case-control)?
9. Response rate is the number of cases agreeing to take part in the study.
10. Researchers must be equipped with competence in providing and
selecting evidence on the components or construct of research to be
used in his/her study.

2
 What is It

Research Methodology

Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of any given

topic of research. More specifically, it is about how a researcher systematically
designs a study to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research
aims and objectives.

For example, how did the researcher go about deciding:

What data to collect (and what data to ignore)

Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)
How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)
How to analyze it (this is called “data analysis methods”)
What are the Methods of Quantitative Research?

The methods and techniques used in writing research paper gauge to

answer the research questions and in collecting data. Realizing the
appropriate design of your research is an initial act of your study.

Survey
According to Sukamolson, (2007), Survey research includes the use of
scientific sampling method with a designed questionnaire to quantify a given
population's characteristics using statistical methods.

More concisely Sukamolson, (2007) further describes survey as a form

of quantitative research that is concerned with ‘sampling questionnaire,
questionnaire design, questionnaire administration’ for the sake of gathering
information from the group/population under study, and then make analysis
to better understand their behavior and characteristics. In addition, Kraemer
(1991) outline three basic beliefs in survey research, such as survey which is
used to describe quantitatively a sectional aspect of a given populations that
involves studying the relationship, in survey research method, data are
obtained from people , and lastly, survey sample a part of population which
is later used to generalize the whole population, i.e a section of a population
is sampled to represent the whole population characteristics, viewpoint as
well as opinion as the case maybe.

3
Correlational

A quantitative methodology used to determine whether, and to what

degree, a relationship exists between two or more variables within a
population (or a sample). The degree of relationships is expressed by
correlation coefficients. Coefficients range from +1.00 to -1.00. Higher
correlations (coefficients closer to +1.00 or -1.00) indicate stronger
relationships. Positive correlations indicate that as the values associated with
one variable go up, so do the values associated with the other. Negative
correlations indicate that as the values associated with one variable go up,
the values associated with the other go down. But tracing on this, Leedy &
Ormrod (2010) remark that correlation method of research deals with the
creating relationship amid two or more variables in the same population. “The
first type of correlational design, explanatory design, is conducted when
researchers want to explore the extents to which two or more variables co-
vary, that is, where changes in one variable are reflected in changes in the
other (Creswell, 2008, p. 358). The second type of correlational design,
prediction design, is used by researchers when the purpose of the study is to
predict certain outcomes in one variable from another variable that serves as
the predictor.

Experimental
In the experimental research, the researcher investigates the treatment
of an intervention into the study group and then measures the outcomes of
the treatment.
There are three types of exploratory approaches:
a. pre-experimental
b. true experimental
c. quasi-experimental

According to Leedy & Ormrod, (2001). The pre-experimental design

involves an independent variable that does not vary or a control group that is
not randomly selected. Campbell and Stanley (1963) endorsed the true
experimental design, which provides a higher degree of control in the
experiment and produces a higher degree of validity. The true experimental
designs result in a systemic approach to quantitative data collection involving
mathematical models in the analyses. Whereas the quasi-experimental design
involves nonrandom selection of study participants. Therefore, control is
limited, and true experimentation is not possible. Since the variable cannot
be controlled, validity may be sacrificed. The factorial design focuses on two
or more categories with the independent variables as compared to the
dependent variable (Vogt, 1999). Key, (1997) describes experimental research
as a form of research whereby a researcher takes control and maintains the

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basic elements that might affect the result of an experiment, by so doing; the
researcher predicts the outcome of an experiment. While experimental design
is the synopsis that guides a researcher while testing his hypothesis inorder
to reach a tangible conclusion on the relationship concerning an independent
variable and a dependent variable.
Experiment deals with the process of supporting, rejecting, or validating
a hypothesis to get insight into the cause and effect of something when certain
factors are being manipulated. For example, someone may carry out a basic
experiment to understand the existence of gravity while others basically
scientists carry out experiment for years depending on the subject matter to
be experimented.

Causal-Comparative or Ex Post Facto

According to Gay (1976), Ex post facto implies "from after the fact” which
means ex-post facto research, where the researcher investigates a problem by
studying the variables in survey. It is research in which the dependent
variable is immediately observable and now the main concern is to find out
the backgrounds that gave rise to this consequence. – In addition, a causal-
comparative study is a form of study that tries to identify and determine the
cause and effect of the relationship between two or more groups where the
researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for pre-existing
differences in groups of individuals.

Here are the differences and similarities between causal-comparative

and correlational studies:

• The causal-comparative study looks at differences between groups whiles

correlational study looks for relationships of variables within a single
group.
• Causal-comparative and correlational studies are similar in that both used
to examine relationships among variables.
• Causal comparative includes categorical independent and or dependent
variable but the correlational study only includes quantitative
variables.
• Causal-comparative research provides better evidence of cause and effect
relationships than correlational research.
• Like correlational research, causal-comparative research is sometimes
treated as a type of descriptive research since it too describes conditions
that already exist.

5
 SAMPLING METHODS

Sampling means selecting from a huge number of respondents or

participants to answer your research questions. The entire population is
involved but for your research study, you need to select only apart from the
whole because it is doubtful that researcher should be able to collect data
from all cases. Thus, there is a need to select a sample. The entire set of cases
from which researcher sample is drawn in called the population. Since,
researchers neither have time nor the resources to analysis the entire
population so they apply sampling technique to reduce the number of cases.
(Taherdoost, Hamed. 2016)
Figure 1 illustrates the stages that are likely to go through when
conducting sampling in your research.

6
 Figure 1. Sampling Process Steps
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319998246_Sampling_Methods_in_Research_M
ethodology_How_to_Choose_a_Sampling_Technique_for_Research

Stage 1: Clearly Define Target Population

The first stage in the sampling process is to clearly define target
population. Population is commonly related to the number of people living in
a particular country. In other words, this group of individuals, that the
intervention intends to conduct research in and draw conclusions from.

Stage2: Select Sampling Frame

A sampling frame is a list of the actual cases from which sample will be
drawn. The sampling frame must be representative of the population. The
'list' may be an actual listing of units, as in a phone book from which phone
numbers will be sampled, or some other description of the population, such
as a map from which areas will be sampled.

Stage 3: Choose Sampling Technique

Before examining the different types of sampling method, it is

important to note on what is meant by sampling besides with reasons why
researchers are likely to select a sample. Taking a division from chosen
sampling frame or entire population is called sampling. Sampling can be used
to make inference about a population or to make generalization in relation to
existing theory. In essence, this depends on choice of sampling technique.
Sampling techniques can be divided into two types: The Probability or
random sampling and the Non- probability or non- random sampling. This
was clearly discussed in the previous modules in the Practical Research 1 in
the First Semester.

7
 Before choosing specific type of sampling technique, it is needed to
decide broad sampling technique. Figure 2 shows the various types of
sampling techniques.

Figure 2. Shows the Sampling Techniques

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319998246_Sampling_Methods_in_Research_Met
hodology_How_to_Choose_a_Sampling_Technique_for_Research

Stage 4: Determine Sample Size

In order to simplify from a random sample and avoid sampling errors or
biases, a random sample needs to be of suitable size. What is suitable depends
on several issues which often confuse people doing surveys for the first time.
This is because what is important here is not the proportion of the research
population that gets sampled, but the absolute size of the sample selected
relative to the complexity of the population, the aims of the researcher and
the kinds of statistical manipulation that will be used in data analysis. While
the larger the sample the lesser the likelihood that findings will be biased does
hold, diminishing returns can quickly set in when samples get over a specific
size which need to be balanced against the researcher’s resources (Gill et al.,
2010). To put it bluntly, larger sample sizes reduce sampling error but at a
decreasing rate. Several statistical formulas are available for determining
sample size.

8
Stage 5: Collect Data
After having a target population, sampling frame, sampling technique
and sample size have been established, the next step is to collect data
coming from the subjects of your research study.

Stage 6: Assess Response Rate

Response rate is the number of cases agreeing to take part in the
study. These cases are taken from original sample. In reality, most
researchers never achieve a 100 percent response rate. Reasons for this might
include refusal to respond, ineligibility to respond, inability to respond, or the
respondent has been located but researchers are unable to make contact. In
sum, response rate is important because each nonresponse is liable to bias
the final sample. Clearly defining sample, employing the right sampling
technique, and generating a large sample, in some respects can help to reduce
the likelihood of sample bias.

Developing an Instrument to Measure Research Skills

The main objective in conducting research for all students is to develop

them as competent researchers and acquired the knowledge and skills of
conducting and disseminating his or her research in a particular field of
research. This has been the focus in most of the programmes by research
(Dodani & LaPorte (2008), Murtonen (2005) & Sveiby (2001).

The following are the five-phase model for development of questionnaire:

Step I

A review of literature on the development of ability to conduct research

was carried out in this step. Therefore, researchers must be equipped with
competence in providing and selecting evidence on the components or
construct of research to be used in his/her study.

The review revealed that there were many components of research skills
involved. A few of the studies do develop their own instruments to measure
the skills (Gilmore & Feldon (2010), Kardash (2000), Powers & Enright (1987)).
It is serious for this study to measure adequately the knowledge and skills to
conduct research, so open ended items may not be suitable to adapt for the
study. Similarly instruments that are to be completed by an external observer
to measure the student research abilities were also felt not appropriate. This
is because an instrument that require student themselves to evaluate or self-

9
assessed their research knowledge and skills is being required. Since none is
found suitable for the study, the researchers decided to develop one. A review
was carried out to identify the constructs of research skills that are deemed
important to conduct research. There were a range of skills necessary for
research and there were different labels being used for similar constructs.

Step II

After identifying the concept, and defining it operationally, items were

developed for each construct. Some of the items from existing instruments
which are available in the literature were adapted. The rest of the items were
developed by the researchers based on the operational definition of the
construct. A Liker-type of scale was preferred where students were asked to
tick against each item.

Example:

Construct Sample of item for the construct

The use of Protective Equipment in TVL I am confident wearing of PPE

during laboratory time

Step III

The draft items were then reviewed by the researcher and place the items
according to the constructs it belongs based using the operational definitions
and sent to the subject teacher for validation.

Step IV

The next phase, involved item analysis, using and the output of the
analysis on inter-correlations between the items and its constructs. A few
items were deleted if it is not in line with the construct.

Step V

The reliability for each construct was again computed to see the
reliabilities of the constructs were sufficiently high, the instrument is ready
for use.

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 What is Research Intervention?

Research intervention is the heart of the study where strategies

employed to minimize the problem handled by the researcher. It is the
treatment for the problem tackled by the researcher/s. It is characterized by
both the design and development of interventions. Design involves the
specification of an intervention. This includes determining the extent to which
an intervention is defined by explicit practice principles, goals, and activities
needed for enhancement of the research conducted. Some interventions are
highly responsive to dialogue and the hermeneutics of exchange between
intervention agents and participants (Wolpe 1969).

The development of intervention is generally coming from the interest of

the researcher/s to stop or help the problem to be solved.

Data Collection & Analysis Procedure

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information

on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one
to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then
translates to rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing and
credible answer to questions that have been posed. An accurate data
collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research (Kabir 2016).

Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically

computed. It measures the uses of different scales, which can be classified as
nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Quantitative
approaches address the ‘what’ of the program. They use a systematic
standardized approach and employ methods such as surveys and ask
questions. These approaches have an advantage that they are cheaper to
implement and consistent so comparisons can be easily made, and the size of
the effect can usually be measured. However, it is limited in the capacity for
the investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences.

The Quantitative data collection methods trust on random sampling

and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into
programmed response categories. They produce results that are easy to
summarize, compare, and generalize. If the intent is to generalize from the
research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ
probability sampling to select participants.

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 Characteristic quantitative data gathering strategies include:

1. Experiments/clinical trials.

2. Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of

patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day during the
Pandemic).

3. Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.

4. Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and

telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).

5. In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured

than in Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks
a standard set of questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews have
a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with
potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation.

6. Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to many people and saves the

researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues since their responses are
anonymous.

Ethical Norms in data collection

There are several reasons why it is important to obey to ethical norms

in research.

1. Promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance

of error.
Example: Prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting
research data promote the truth and avoid error.

2. Since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and

coordination among many different people in different disciplines and
institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to
collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and
fairness.
Example: Many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship,
copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality
rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests
while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for
their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed
prematurely.

12
 3. Many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public.
4. Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research.
People more likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality
and integrity of research.
5. Many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important
moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights,
animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety. Ethical
lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects,
students, and the public.
Example: A researcher who constructs data in a clinical trial may harm or
even kill patients and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and
guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health
and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.

Guidelines in Writing Research Methodology

In this section, it is measured on how the researchers plan to tackle the

research problem. It will provide a work plan and describe the activities
necessary for the completion of the project. The methodology chapter explains
what the researcher did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate
the reliability and validity of the research. But before visiting the guidelines
in writing research methodology, let us know first the deeper meaning of the
word “methodology”.

It is the systematic and academic analysis of the methods applied to

a field of study. It includes the academic examination of the body of methods
and principles associated with a branch of knowledge. Typically, it
encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model, phases and
quantitative or qualitative techniques. (Irny and Rose, 2005) A methodology
does not set out to provide solutions but not the same thing as a method.
Instead, it offers an academic supporting for understanding which method,
set of methods or best practices which can be applied to specific case.

Research methodology is a set of systematic technique used in

research. This simply means a guide to research and how it is conducted. It
describes and analysis methods, throws more light on their limitations and
resources, clarify their pre-suppositions and consequences, relating their
potentialities to the twilight zone at the frontiers of knowledge (Igwenagu,
Chinelo2016).

13
For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following
sections:

1. Study design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment?

What kind of design do you choose (descriptive, cross-sectional, case-
control)?
2. Selection of research location - (Where was the study conducted?)
3. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study? What kind
of sampling method / procedure do you use? You will need to decide on
the inclusion and exclusion criteria?
4. Sample size – you need to calculate your sample size based on the type
of study you are conducting. There are several formulas for sample size
calculation.
5. Study instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or
questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid
and reliable?
6. Data collection - How do you plan to carry out your study? What
activities are involved? How long does it take?
7. Data analysis and interpretation – this includes plans for processing
and coding data, computer software to be used (eg Statistical Package
for Social Sciences / SPSS, EPI-INFO, etc), choice of statistical methods,
confidence levels, significance levels etc. It is also convenient to provide
even not final tables for the data you plan to analyze from your study.
8. Ethical considerations – It is necessary to have a thorough review of
your work if it is in line with the ethics on research.

What’s More

Activity 4: Let us do it…

Directions. Answer each question in your notebook/activity sheets.

1. Identify the research methodology used in your research.

2. Why is research methodology important?

3. Is research intervention significant? Prove your answer.

14
 What I Have Learned

Activity 5

Directions. Write a short reflection in your Activity Notebook.

Today I have learned that

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

The lesson made me feel that

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

The lesson will be useful when

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

What I Can Do

Activity 6

Directions. Revisit your research draft and discuss the following:

A.

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

(Research Title)

B. Study design __________________________________________________________

C. Selection of research location __________________________________________

15
3. Subjects or participants ________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4. Sample size _____________________________________________________________

5. Study instruments ______________________________________________________

6. Data Collection__________________________________________________________

7. Data analysis __________________________________________________________________

Assessment

Activity 7
Directions. Carefully read the statements or questions below and write your
answers on your activity notebook.
1. It is called as study group of the researcher__________.
a. co-researcher b. teachers
c. participants d. crowd
2. What research tool is use in survey?
a. guide questions b. interview guide
c. pre-Test d. questionnaire
3. In quantitative research, what will quantify to get the result?
a. Number of studies b. hypothesis
c. variables d. methods
4. Realizing the appropriate ______________of your research is an initial act
of your study.
a. subjects b. time frame
c. design d. sampling
5. The following are forms of quantitative research survey, except:
a. sampling questionnaire b. Questionnaire design
c. sampling technique d. questionnaire administration
6. What type of research where the researcher investigates a problem by
studying the variables in survey?
a. Survey b. experimental
c. Causal-Comparative d. correlational
7. What stage of sampling where the researcher clearly defines target
population?
a. stage 1 b. stage 2

16
 c. stage 4 d. stage 3
8. The process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate
outcomes is ______________.
a. data collecting b. methodology
c. research intervention d. research procedures
9. What kind of research where the researcher predicts certain outcomes in
one variable from another variable that serves as the predictor?
a. Ex Post Facto b. correlational
c. survey d. experiment
10. The following are in research methodology, except:
a. Research locale b. respondents
c. sampling technique d. findings

17
 Answer Key
Activity 1

1. C 6. C
2. D 7. A
3. C 8. A
4. C 9. B
5. C 10. D

Activity 2
1. INTERVENTION 6. ETHICS
2. METHODOLOGY 7. DATA COLLECTION
3. METHODOLOGY 8. GUIDELINE
4. SAMPLING 9. SAMPLING
5. INSTRUMENT 10. INSTRUMENT

Activity 4: Answers may vary

Activity 5: Answers may vary

Activity 6: Answers may vary

Activity 7

1. C 6. C
2. D 7. A
3. C 8. A
4. C 9. B
5. C 10. D

18
Glossary

Research instrument - is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data

related to your research interests.
Research methodology - is the specific procedures or techniques used to
identify, select, process, and analyze information
about a topic.
Sampling methods - refer to how we select members from the population
to be in the study.

19
References

Aliaga, M., & Gunderson, B. (2000). Interactive Statistics.Saddle River, p3- 15

Apuke, Oberiri. (2017). Quantitative Research Methods: A Synopsis

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Creswell, J. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and

evaluating quantitative and qualitative research.
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Dodani, S. & LaPorte, R. (2008). Ways to strengthen research capacity in

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Fraser, Mark & Galinsky, Maeda. (2010). Steps in Intervention Research:

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GILL, J., JOHNSON, P. & CLARK, M. 2010. Research Methods for Managers,
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Igwenagu, Chinelo. (2016). Fundamentals of research methodology and data

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Leedy, P. & Ormrod, J. (2001). Practical research: Planning and design (7th
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Meeran, Subhan & Osman, Kamisah & Zakaria, Effandi & Ikhsan, Zanaton
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