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Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts

Jon Woronoff, Series Editor

1. Science Fiction Literature, by Brian Stableford, 2004.


2. Hong Kong Cinema, by Lisa Odham Stokes, 2007.
3. American Radio Soap Operas, by Jim Cox, 2005.
4. Japanese Traditional Theatre, by Samuel L. Leiter, 2006.
5. Fantasy Literature, by Brian Stableford, 2005.
6. Australian and New Zealand Cinema, by Albert Moran and Errol
Vieth, 2006.
7. African-American Television, by Kathleen Fearn-Banks, 2006.
8. Lesbian Literature, by Meredith Miller, 2006.
9. Scandinavian Literature and Theater, by Jan Sjåvik, 2006.
10. British Radio, by Seán Street, 2006.
11. German Theater, by William Grange, 2006.
12. African American Cinema, by S. Torriano Berry and Venise Berry,
2006.
13. Sacred Music, by Joseph P. Swain, 2006.
14. Russian Theater, by Laurence Senelick, 2007.
15. French Cinema, by Dayna Oscherwitz and MaryEllen Higgins,
2007.
16. Postmodernist Literature and Theater, by Fran Mason, 2007.
17. Irish Cinema, by Roderick Flynn and Pat Brereton, 2007.
18. Australian Radio and Television, by Albert Moran and Chris Keat-
ing, 2007.
19. Polish Cinema, by Marek Haltof, 2007.
20. Old Time Radio, by Robert C. Reinehr and Jon D. Swartz, 2008.
21. Renaissance Art, by Lilian H. Zirpolo, 2008.
22. Broadway Musical, by William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird, 2008.
23. American Theater: Modernism, by James Fisher and Felicia Hardi-
son Londré, 2008.
24. German Cinema, by Robert C. Reimer and Carol J. Reimer, 2008.
25. Horror Cinema, by Peter Hutchings, 2008.
26. Westerns in Cinema, by Paul Varner, 2008.
27. Chinese Theater, by Tan Ye, 2008.
28. Italian Cinema, by Gino Moliterno, 2008.
29. Architecture, by Allison Lee Palmer, 2008.
30. Russian and Soviet Cinema, by Peter Rollberg, 2008.

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31. African American Theater, by Anthony D. Hill, 2009.
32. Postwar German Literature, by William Grange, 2009.
33. Modern Japanese Literature and Theater, by J. Scott Miller, 2009.
34. Animation and Cartoons, by Nichola Dobson, 2009.
35. Modern Chinese Literature, by Li-hua Ying, 2010.
36. Middle Eastern Cinema, by Terri Ginsberg and Chris Lippard,
2010.
37. Spanish Cinema, by Alberto Mira, 2010.
38. Film Noir, by Andrew Spicer, 2010.
39. French Theater, by Edward Forman, 2010.
40. Choral Music, by Melvin P. Unger, 2010.
41. Westerns in Literature, by Paul Varner, 2010.
42. Baroque Art and Architecture, by Lilian H. Zirpolo, 2010.
43. Surrealism, by Keith Aspley, 2010.
44. Science Fiction Cinema, by M. Keith Booker, 2010.
45. Latin American Literature and Theater, by Richard Young and
Odile Cisneros, 2011.
46. Children’s Literature, by Emer O’Sullivan, 2010.

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Historical Dictionary
of Latin American
Literature and Theater

Richard Young
Odile Cisneros

Historical Dictionaries of
Literature and the Arts, No. 45

The Scarecrow Press, Inc.


Lanham • Toronto • Plymouth, UK
2011

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Published by Scarecrow Press, Inc.
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
http://www.scarecrowpress.com

Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2011 by Richard Young and Odile Cisneros

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval
systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who
may quote passages in a review.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Young, Richard A., Ph. D.


Historical dictionary of Latin American literature and theater / Richard Young,
Odile Cisneros.
p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of literature and the arts ; no. 45)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-8108-5099-6 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-7498-5
(ebook)
1. Latin American literature—Dictionaries. 2. Latin American literature—
Bio-bibliography—Dictionaries. 3. Authors, Latin American—Biography—
Dictionaries. 4. Theater—Latin America—Dictionaries. I. Cisneros, Odile. II.
Title.
PQ7081.Y68 2011
860.9'0003—dc22
2010020531

⬁ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of


American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper
for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Printed in the United States of America

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Contents

Editor’s Foreword Jon Woronoff vii


Acknowledgments ix
Reader’s Note xi
Chronology xiii
Introduction 1
THE DICTIONARY 21
Bibliography 523
About the Authors 719

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Editor’s Foreword

Latin America was discovered by Europeans five centuries ago, but


alas, its literature was only “discovered” a few decades ago, and ini-
tially only from a few authors and a few remarkable novels. But what a
treasure it has turned out to be! There are literally thousands of authors,
working in every possible genre—poetry, novels, short stories, other
fictional forms, and theater. And they have been writing very intrigu-
ing, and sometimes breathtaking, works that are of interest not only
to their fellow nationals or Latin Americans in general but also to the
global reading public. We have seen this with Mario Vargas Llosa,
Gabriel García Márquez, and Isabel Allende most recently, but they are
following in the footsteps of countless others whose names are becom-
ing more familiar. Of course, Latin America once looked like a literary
backwater, and maybe it was, latching on to every trend in Europe and
then the United States and making noble efforts. But this is no longer
the case, because it has generated some of its own styles, perhaps most
significantly magic realism, but also specific Latin American genres
like indianismo, indigenismo, gaucho literature, and concrete poetry.
Meanwhile, Latin American authors have been producing best sellers
and winning the top literary prizes.
It is therefore fortunate to have a guide to this still largely unknown
but plentiful source of world literature. The Historical Dictionary of
Latin American Literature and Theater is a big book, and it has to be
merely to chart its impressive dimensions. The chronology, going back
to the 16th century and stretching on into the 21st, shows just how long
the tradition actually is. The introduction reminds us that Latin America
is not only an impressively vast but an amazingly varied continent, with
numerous countries (and these having different regions); several lan-
guages in addition to Spanish and Portuguese; and different historical,
political, and social contexts. But it takes the dictionary section to sort

vii

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viii • EDITOR’S FOREWORD

much of this out, with about a thousand entries on specific authors as


well as a broad entry on each country and the main literary trends and
genres. Admittedly, even then this can only be a starting point, so the
bibliography points toward further reading on each of the countries and
major authors. This further reading, by the way, may take the reader
back to the historical dictionary to better understand the overall situa-
tion or find leads to yet other books and authors.
This volume was written by Richard Young and Odile Cisneros.
Dr. Young, who received his PhD from the University of Alberta in
Canada, taught in what is now its Department of Modern Languages
and Cultural Studies for about four decades. This has given him ample
experience in enlightening students about the wealth of Latin American
literature and more generally society and culture. And he has also turned
toward his fellow academics and the broader public with a number of
books, articles, and translations, in English and Spanish. Dr. Cisneros
has joined more recently, with a doctorate from New York University
and specializations in Mexican and Brazilian literatures, more specifi-
cally modern and contemporary poetry, among other things. She has
published articles and reviews on these topics and is also a very active
literary translator. Between them, they have left very few stones un-
turned, and what they have found will benefit students, professors, and
especially readers who were not aware just how rich this vein is.

Jon Woronoff
Series Editor

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Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the help of three graduate students


from the Department of Modern Languages and Cultural Studies and
the Program in Comparative Literature at the University of Alberta for
their invaluable assistance in this project. Thanks to Volha Isakava and
Pablo Markin for their work in the preliminary compilation of Brazilian
entries, and to Sabujkoli Bandopadhyay for her help with the Spanish
American chronologies.

ix

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Reader’s Note

The entries in the dictionary refer to the literature and theater of the
Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries of continental Latin Amer-
ica and do not include countries in the Caribbean. In each author entry
the name is followed by the country of birth and the principal literary
activities of the author. Further information on the country can be found
in its respective entry.
Dictionary entries are in alphabetical order and follow current
practices in library cataloging. Last names in Spanish and Portuguese
customarily have more than one part and include the last names of both
parents. Some authors, whether in Spanish or Portuguese, such as Pablo
Neruda, Elena Poniatowska, and Jorge Amado, are known by a single
first and last name, and are listed in this way in the dictionary (i.e.,
“Neruda, Pablo,” “Poniatowska, Elena,” or “Amado, Jorge”). Many
others use more than one last name. In Spanish, the last name inherited
from the father appears first and is used for alphabetical listing. Thus,
the entries for Gabriel García Márquez and Mario Vargas Llosa are
located under “García Márquez, Gabriel” and “Vargas Llosa, Mario”
respectively. In Portuguese, the most common modern practice for al-
phabetizing names is also to list by the name inherited from the father,
which is the format preferred in this dictionary. However, in contrast
to Spanish, the father’s name in Portuguese customarily appears at the
end. Thus, the entries for Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis and João
Guimarães Rosa are listed under “Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de”
and “Rosa, João Guimarães” respectively. A few names do not follow
this format because common usage has determined otherwise and pro-
duced different practices for some names, which are adopted in both
our dictionary and modern library catalogs. For further clarification of
the different forms used to catalog names in Portuguese, readers should
consult the entries for individual authors in the online catalog of a major

xi

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xii • READER’S NOTE

North American library, such as the New York Public Library (www
.nypl.org) or the Library of Congress (www.loc.gov).
The titles of works of literature and theater are given first in Spanish
or Portuguese. These are followed by parentheses that include the date
of publication and the title in English. English titles in italics refer to
published translations. Those without italics are our translations of the
titles.
To facilitate the rapid and efficient location of information and make
the dictionary as useful a reference tool as possible, extensive cross-
references have been provided. Within individual dictionary entries,
terms that have their own entries are in boldface the first time they ap-
pear. Further cross-referencing is indicated by See and See also.

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Chronology

1492 Latin America: Christopher Columbus arrives in the New


World. The diary of his voyage and encounter with the land and its
people marks the beginning of Latin American literature.
1500 Brazil: Pedro Álvares Cabral reaches the coast of Bahia
on 23 April. His secretary, Pero Vaz de Caminha, writes Carta do
Descobrimento do Brasil to the king of Portugal.
1521 Mexico: Fall of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, to Hernán
Cortés.
1538 Bolivia: Incorporation of the territory into the Viceroyalty of
Peru as “Upper Peru.”
1541 Chile: The city of Santiago is founded by Pedro de Valdivia.
1556 Brazil: Manuel da Nóbrega pens his Diálogo Sobre a Conversão
do Gentio.
1563 Brazil: José de Anchieta writes his 4,000-verse Latin poem De
Beata Virgine Dei Matre Maria on the beach of Iperoig.
1569 Chile: Publication in Spain of the first part of La Araucana,
Alonso de Ercilla’s epic poem of conquest and resistance. Mexico:
Bernardino de Sahagún completes his Historia general de las cosas de
Nueva España.
1570 Brazil: Pero de Magalhães Gândavo writes Tratado da Terra
do Brasil and publishes his História da Província de Santa Cruz a que
Vulgarmente Chamamos Brasil in 1576.
1587 Brazil: Gabriel Soares de Sousa pens his Tratado Descritivo do
Brasil em 1587.

xiii

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xiv • CHRONOLOGY

1589 Colombia: Juan de Castellanos publishes Elegías de varones


ilustres de Indias.
1604 Mexico: Publication of Grandeza mexicana, Bernardo de
Balbuena’s lyric evocation of Mexico City.
1609 Peru: Publication of the first part of Comentarios reales de los
Incas, the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega’s account of pre-Columbian and
postconquest Peru.
1611 Mexico: Diego de Hojeda publishes La Christiada, Spanish
America’s first religious epic.
1628 Mexico: Publication in Spain of the first volume of plays by
the dramatist Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. A second volume appears in 1634.
1632 Mexico: Publication of Bernal Díaz del Castillo’s Historia
verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España, written over 50 years
earlier.
1636 Colombia: Juan Rodríguez Freyle begins work on El carnero,
his chronicle of the history of Colombia and life in Bogotá in the early
colonial period, eventually published in 1859.
1654 Brazil: Antônio Vieira preaches his sermon Santo Antônio aos
peixes; the first volume of his Sermões appears in 1679.
1690 Mexico: Publication of Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora’s
Infortunios de Alonso Ramírez.
1691 Mexico: Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz writes her Respuesta a Sor
Filotea de la Cruz.
1695 Brazil: Zumbi dos Palmares, leader of the runaway slave
community of Palmares and later a national hero, is captured and killed.
1700 Brazil: Portuguese language and culture are imposed; efforts to
replace Indian languages are stepped up in 1750.
1703 Guatemala: By about this date Francisco Ximénez had begun
his transcription of the Popol Vuh.
1732 Peru: Pedro de Peralta y Barnuevo publishes Lima fundada,
o conquista del Perú, his epic poem on Peru and the founding of its
capital.

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CHRONOLOGY • xv

1750 Brazil: The Treaty of Madrid recognizes Portuguese claims to


all areas effectively occupied.

1768 Brazil: Aracadian poet Cláudio Manuel da Costa publishes his


Obras in Lisbon.

1769 Brazil: Publication of Basílio da Gama’s epic poem O Uraguai.

1775 Spain: Alonso Carrió de la Vandera, a visiting colonial official,


writes El lazarillo de ciegos caminantes, an account of a journey from
Buenos Aires to Lima.

1779 Brazil: José de Santa Rita Durão publishes his epic poem
Caramuru.

1788–1789 Brazil: First serious anti-Portuguese plot, known as the


Inconfidência Mineira, appears in Minas Gerais.

1792 Brazil: Tomás Antônio Gonzaga publishes Marília de Dirceu


and is deported to Mozambique.

1807 Brazil: The court of the Portuguese Prince Dom João VI sails
from Lisbon and settles in Rio de Janeiro after Napoleon’s invasion of
the Iberian Peninsula.

1810 Argentina, Mexico: Declaration of Independence (25 May in


Argentina, 16 September in Mexico).

1815 Brazil: The Portuguese prince regent raises the Estado do Brasil
to the status of Portugal’s equal partner in a newly created “United
Kingdom.” Venezuela: Simón Bolívar completes his celebrated
reflections on American independence in his Carta de Jamaica.

1816 Mexico: Publication of El periquillo sarniento by José Joaquín


Fernández de Lizardi, considered the first truly Spanish American
novel.

1818 Chile: Independence is proclaimed (12 February).

1820 Uruguay: Cielitos, a collection of verses by Bartolomé Hidalgo,


is published and establishes an interest in the literary potential of the life
and customs of the gaucho.

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xvi • CHRONOLOGY

1822 Brazil: Independence is proclaimed (7 September), followed


by the coronation of the Emperor Pedro I and an invitation to José
Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva to form the first ministry (1 December).
1823 Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua:
Formation of the United Provinces of Central America, which lasted
until 1840, by which time the five nations involved had declared their
sovereignty. Venezuela: Andrés Bello publishes Alocución a la poesía,
his call for consideration of the poetic quality of the Americas.
1824 Peru: Independence from Spain is won.
1825 Bolivia: Becomes an independent country with Simón Bolívar
as its first president. Brazil: War with Buenos Aires over the attempt
of Cisalpine Province (modern Uruguay) to secede and join Argentina.
Portugal recognizes Brazilian independence. Ecuador: José Joaquín
Olmedo publishes his celebrated poem, La victoria de Junín, canto a
Bolívar, in honor of independence and the liberator Simón Bolívar.
1826 Mexico: Publication of Xicoténcatl, an anonymous historical
novel and the first important novel to appear after independence.
1828 Brazil, Uruguay: Modern boundaries between Brazil and
Spanish America are established when Great Britain forces recognition
of an independent Uruguay, which wins full autonomy after a process
begun in 1811.
1829 Argentina: Juan Manuel Rosas becomes governor of Buenos
Aires Province and rules with dictatorial power almost without
interruption until 1852. Chile: Andrés Bello accepts an invitation to
serve in the government and takes up permanent residence.
1830 Brazil: Coffee emerges as the major export and fuels the
economy for the next 140 years. Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela,
Panama: Breakup of Gran Colombia, formed in 1819, creates the
autonomous republics of Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela, with
Panama remaining part of Colombia until seceding in 1903 after
entering an agreement with the United States about construction and
control of the Panama Canal.
1831 Brazil: Emperor Pedro I abdicates in favor of his son, Pedro II.

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CHRONOLOGY • xvii

1832 Argentina: Esteban Echeverría publishes Elvira, o la novia del


Plata, one of Latin America’s earliest works of romanticism.
1836 Brazil: Publication of Suspiros Poéticos e Saudades by
Domingos José Gonçalves de Magalhães inaugurates the national
romantic movement.
1839 Argentina: Esteban Echeverría writes his celebrated short story
“El matadero,” an allegory of violence under the rule of Juan Manuel
Rosas.
1845 Argentina: Publication of Facundo by Domingo Faustino
Sarmiento.
1846 Brazil: The romantic poet Gonçalves Dias publishes Primeiros
Cantos.
1850 Brazil: The slave trade ends, bringing about the end of the
largest slave economy in the world, which had more slaves than free
persons.
1851 Argentina: Publication of Amalia, José Mármol’s anti-Rosas
novel, one of Latin America’s most popular works of romanticism.
1857 Brazil: José de Alencar publishes the indianist novel O Guarani.
1864 Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay: Outbreak of the six-
year War of the Triple Alliance between Paraguay and its neighbors,
with disastrous consequences for Paraguay.
1865 Brazil: José de Alencar publishes the novel Iracema.
1867 Colombia: Publication of Jorge Isaacs’s María, Latin America’s
most widely read 19th-century novel. Mexico: Execution of the
Emperor Maximillian after restoration of the republic under President
Benito Juárez following the failure of French intervention (begun in
1862).
1868 Brazil: Antônio Castro Alves publishes his abolitionist poem O
Navio Negreiro.
1870 Brazil: Antônio Castro Alves publishes Espumas Flutuantes.
1872 Argentina: Publication of the first part of Martín Fierro by
José Hernández, the most prominent work of gaucho literature. Peru:

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xviii • CHRONOLOGY

Ricardo Palma begins the publication of his first series of Tradiciones


peruanas.
1875 Brazil: Bernardo de Guimarães publishes the antislavery,
regionalist novel A Escrava Isaura.
1879 Bolivia, Chile, Peru: Outbreak of the War of the Pacific,
ending in 1884 with disastrous consequences for Bolivia and Peru.
Ecuador: Publication of Cumandá, o un drama entre salvajes by Juan
León Mera, the country’s most significant romantic and indianist novel.
1881 Brazil: Machado de Assis publishes Memórias Póstumas de
Brás Cubas. Aluísio Azevedo publishes O Mulato, the first novel to
deal with interracial same-sex relations.
1884 Argentina, Uruguay: The dramatization of Eduardo Gutiérrez’s
Juan Moreira introduces the figure of the gaucho to the stage.
1888 Brazil: Parliament approves total and immediate abolition of
slavery without compensation (13 May). Olavo Bilac publishes his
parnassian volume Poesias. Nicaragua: Rubén Darío publishes Azul,
a collection of poems often taken to mark the beginning of Spanish
American modernismo. Uruguay: Publication of Juan Zorrilla de San
Martín’s Tabaré, one of the founding texts of the national literature.
1889 Brazil: The Republic is proclaimed. Mexico: Ignacio Manuel
Altamirano completes El Zarco, his romantic historical novel set during
the French intervention. Peru: Aves sin nido, one of the first novels of
Peruvian indigenismo, is published by Clorinda Matto de Turner.
1890 Brazil: Aluísio Azevedo publishes his naturalist novel O
Cortiço.
1893 Brazil: João Cruz e Sousa publishes two volumes of symbolist
poetry, Missal and Broquéis.
1899 Brazil: Machado de Assis publishes Dom Casmurro.
1900 Uruguay: Ariel, José Enrique Rodó’s groundbreaking discussion
of Latin American culture, is published.
1902 Brazil: Euclides da Cunha publishes his naturalist account of
the Canudos War, Os Sertões. Uruguay: The staging of Canillitas

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CHRONOLOGY • xix

by Florencio Sánchez, a play about a newspaper vendor, gives the


dramatist his breakthrough in Buenos Aires.
1903 Mexico: Publication of Federico Gamboa’s Santa, a popular
naturalist novel and the source of the country’s first sound movie.
1908 Argentina: Publication of La gloria de don Ramiro by Enrique
Larreta, a significant example of Latin American prose modernismo.
1909 Argentina: Publication of Lunario sentimental, a collection
of poems by Leopoldo Lugones, one of the major works of Latin
American modernismo.
1910 Mexico: Beginning of the Mexican Revolution.
1912 Brazil: Augusto dos Anjos publishes his only but highly
successful volume of poetry, Eu.
1915 Brazil: Afonso Henriques de Lima Barreto publishes Triste
Fim de Policarpo Quaresma. Mexico: Publication of Los de abajo
by Mariano Azuela initiates the novel of the Mexican Revolution.
Ramón López Velarde, considered one of his country’s national poets,
publishes La sangre devota, his first collection of verse.
1916 Argentina: Alfonsina Storni publishes her first collection of
verse, La inquietud del rosal.
1917 Uruguay: Publication of Cuentos de amor, de locura y de
muerte, one of the best known collections of the widely influential short
story writer Horacio Quiroga.
1918 Peru: Los heraldos negros, César Vallejo’s collection of avant-
garde poetry, is published.
1919 Bolivia: Publication of Raza de bronce by Alcides Arguedas.
1922 Brazil: The “Week of Modern Art” in São Paulo inaugurates
Brazilian modernism (February). The Brazilian Communist Party is
founded. Argentina: Historia de arrabal, a novel representative of
Spanish American naturalism, is published by Manuel Gálvez.
1923 Argentina: Jorge Luis Borges returns to Buenos Aires from
Europe, the same year he publishes Fervor de Buenos Aires.

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xx • CHRONOLOGY

1925 Brazil: Oswald de Andrade publishes his avant-garde poetry


volume Pau Brasil. Mexico: Publication of La raza cósmica by José
Vasconcelos, one of the major contributions to discussions of national
identity after the revolution.
1926 Argentina: Ricardo Güiraldes publishes Don Segundo Sombra,
a classic Latin American novel of the land and exploration of the figure
of the gaucho in the national psyche. Colombia: Publication of La
vorágine, José Eustasio Rivera’s classic novel of the jungle.
1928 Brazil: Mário de Andrade publishes his rhapsodic novel
Macunaíma, O Herói sem Nenhum Caráter. Oswald de Andrade
publishes “Manifesto Antropófago” in Revista de Antropofagia.
Mexico: Introduction of the avant-garde through the formation of the
group Los Contemporáneos; publication of El águila y la serpiente by
Juan Luis Guzmán, a novel of the revolution that follows the campaigns
of Pancho Villa. Peru: Publication of José Carlos Mariátegui’s highly
influential book Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana.
1929 Argentina: Roberto Arlt publishes Los siete locos, his novel
of crime and anarchy in early 20th-century Buenos Aires. Brazil:
Plínio Salgado, Menotti del Picchia, and Cassiano Ricardo publish the
nationalist “Manifesto do Verdeamarelismo ou da Escola da Anta.”
Panama: Rogelio Sinán’s book of poetry, Onda, introduces the avant-
garde to his country. Venezuela: Rómulo Gallegos publishes Doña
Bárbara, his classic novel of the land.
1930 Argentina: The first of a series of 20th-century military
governments seizes power in a coup. Brazil: A bloodless military
coup installs Getúlio Vargas as dictator. Manuel Bandeira publishes
Libertinagem and Raquel de Queirós publishes O Quinze. Ecuador:
Members of the Grupo Gayaquil publish their signature collection of
short stories of social realism, Los que se van.
1931 Argentina: Victoria Ocampo founds the literary review Sur.
Brazil: Jorge Amado publishes his regionalist novel O País do
Carnaval. Chile: Vicente Huidobro publishes Altazor, one of Latin
America’s major works of avant-garde poetry.
1932 Bolivia, Paraguay: Outbreak of the Chaco War (ends in 1935).
El Salvador: Suppression of a peasant uprising with such brutality it

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CHRONOLOGY • xxi

was called La Matanza and became the point of reference for future
revolts.
1934 Brazil: Graciliano Ramos publishes São Bernardo. Ecuador:
Jorge Icaza publishes Huasipiungo, an indigenista novel that becomes
one of the classics of the genre.
1937 Brazil: The Estado Novo is initiated under the dictatorship of
Getúlio Vargas. Publication of several important works: Vidas Secas
by Graciliano Ramos, Olhai os Lírios do Campo by Érico Veríssimo,
and Viagem by Cecília Meireles. Mexico: Rodolofo Usigli’s most
successful early drama, El gesticulador, a satire on political corruption,
is staged.
1940 Argentina: Adolfo Bioy Casares publishes La invención de
Morel, a classic novel combining elements of science fiction and the
fantastic.
1941 Peru: Publication of El mundo es ancho y ajeno, Ciro Alegría’s
landmark novel of South American indigenismo.
1943 Brazil: José Lins do Rego publishes Fogo Morto.
1944 Argentina: Jorge Luis Borges publishes Ficciones, one of his
most widely read collections of short stories. Brazil: Clarice Lispector
publishes Perto do Coração Selvagem.
1945 Brazil: The army persuades Vargas to leave power, restoring
democracy and free elections; publication of A Rosa do Povo by Carlos
Drummond de Andrade.
1946 Argentina: Juan Domingo Perón is elected president. Chile:
Gabriela Mistral becomes Latin America’s first recipient of the Nobel
Prize for Literature.
1947 Mexico: Publication of the novel Al filo del agua by Agustín
Yáñez, marking a change in direction for the novel of the Mexican
Revolution.
1948 Argentina: Leopoldo Marechal publishes Adán Buenosayres, a
seminal Argentinean novel. Ernesto Sábato publishes his first novel, El
túnel. Colombia: Assassination of liberal presidential candidate Jorge

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xxii • CHRONOLOGY

Eliécer Gaitán sparks the bogotazo and the 17 years of conflict that
followed, known as la violencia.
1949 Guatemala: Publication of Hombres de maíz by Nobel Prize
winner Miguel Ángel Asturias, one of the major novels of Spanish
American indigenismo. Mexico: Juan José Arreola publishes Varia
invención, one of his early collections of short stories.
1950 Chile: Publication of Pablo Neruda’s major work, Canto
general, an epic collection of poems on the human and natural history
of Latin America. Mexico: Publication of El laberinto de la soledad by
Octavio Paz. Uruguay: Juan Carlos Onetti publishes La vida breve, the
novel that introduces his fictional town of Santa María.
1951 Brazil: Publication of Romanceiro da Inconfidência by Cecília
Meireles.
1952 Argentina: Death of Eva Duarte de Perón (26 July).
1954 Argentina: In En la más médula, Oliverio Girondo’s avant-
garde poetry experiments with language reach their highest point.
Brazil: Publication of Itinerário de Pasárgada by Manuel Bandeira
and Fazendeiro do Ar by Carlos Drummond de Andrade. Chile:
Nicanor Parra publishes Poemas y antipoemas, seeking a simple form
of poetic expression.
1956 Brazil: Publication of João Guimarães Rosa’s masterpiece
Grande Sertão: Veredas, João Cabral de Melo Neto’s Morte e Vida
Severina, and Fernando Sabino’s O Encontro Marcado.
1957 Mexico: Rosario Castellanos publishes Balún-canán, one of the
novels marking the emergence of neo-indigenismo in Spanish America.
Nicaragua: Pablo Antonio Cuadra’s classic play Por los caminos van
los campesinos about revolution and foreign intervention is staged.
1958 Brazil: Haroldo de Campos, Augusto de Campos, and Décio
Pignatari launch concrete poetry with “Plano Piloto Para Poesia
Concreta.” Peru: Publication of Los ríos profundios by José María
Arguedas, a novel that marked a transition in indigenista literature.
1959 Brazil: Lúcio Cardoso publishes Crônica da Casa Assassinada.

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CHRONOLOGY • xxiii

1960 Brazil: Clarice Lispector publishes her landmark short story


collection, Laços de Família.
1962 Mexico: Publication of La muerte de Artemio Cruz by Carlos
Fuentes.
1963 Colombia: Foundation of the Teatro Experimental de Cali
under the direction of Enrique Buenaventura.
1964 Brazil: With inflation in excess of 100 percent, the army seizes
power (31 March–1 April). Publication of A Paixão segundo G.H. by
Clarice Lispector. Mexico: Publication of La tumba by José Agustín,
the first novel of La Onda and the representation of contemporary youth
culture in fiction.
1966 Argentina: Publication of Julio Cortázar’s boom novel Rayuela.
Brazil: João Cabral de Melo Neto publishes Educação Pela Pedra, and
Jorge Amado publishes Dona Flor e Seus Dois Maridos. Colombia:
Foundation of La Candelaria theater collective under the direction of
Santiago García. Peru: Mario Vargas Llosa publishes La casa verde,
another celebrated boom novel.
1967 Argentina: El campo, Griselda Gambaro’s dramatization of
authoritarianism and oppression, is staged. Bolivia: Capture and death
of Ernesto “Che” Guevara (8 October) after his failure to promote
a popular revolution in South America. Brazil: Antonio Callado
publishes Quarup. Colombia: Publication of Cien años de soledad,
Gabriel García Márquez’s landmark novel of the boom and magic
realism, and Latin America’s most widely read novel of the 20th
century. Guatemala: The novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias is awarded
the Nobel Prize for Literature.
1968 Mexico: The killing of students by government forces during a
student demonstration, known as the Tlatelolco Massacre (2 October).
1969 Mexico: Publication by Elena Poniatowska of the first of her
testimonial novels, Hasta no verte, Jesús mío. Uruguay: Cristina Peri
Rossi publishes her first novel, El libro de mis primos, exposing the
malaise afflicting Uruguayan society. Venezuela: César Rengifo’s
drama Las torres y el viento is staged.

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xxiv • CHRONOLOGY

1970 Ecuador: Publication of Siete lunas y siete serpientes by


Demetrio Aguilera Malta, a major contribution to magic realism and the
indigenista novel in Spanish America. Peru: Alfredo Bryce Echenique
publishes his breakthrough novel Un mundo para Julius.
1971 Chile: The poet Pablo Neruda is awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature. Uruguay: Publication of Eduardo Galeano’s important
collection of essays on economic exploitation, Las venas abiertas de
América Latina, and of Mario Benedetti’s verse novel El cumpleaños
de Juan Ángel, about the life of a revolutionary.
1972 El Salvador: Roque Dalton publishes Miguel Mármol y los
sucesos de 1932 en El Salvador, a testimonio of a revolutionary life.
1973 Brazil: Osman Lins publishes his novel Avalovara. Chile:
Overthrow of the constitutionally elected president Salvador Allende in
a military coup headed by Augusto Pinochet.
1974 Guatemala: Hugo Carrillo stages his dramatization of Miguel
Ángel Asturias’s novel El señor presidente. Paraguay: Publication of
Augusto Roa Bastos’s Yo el supremo, one of Latin America’s major
political novels.
1975 Brazil: Inácio de Loyola Brandão publishes his novel Zero.
Nicaragua: Publication of Ernesto Cardenal’s El evangelio de
Solentiname, a key work in the author’s spiritual journey and the
movement of Liberation Theology.
1976 Argentina: A military junta, headed by General Jorge Videla,
takes over the government in a coup (24 March). Manuel Puig publishes
his best known novel, El beso de la mujer araña. Brazil: Darcy
Ribeiro publishes his novel Maíra, and Ferreira Gullar publishes his
2,000-verse Poema Sujo. Ecuador: Publication of Entre Marx y una
mujer desnuda, by Jorge Enrique Adoum, one of Latin America’s
notable examples of the new novel.
1978 Chile: Casa de campo, José Donoso’s allegorical novel of the
rise and fall of Salvador Allende, is published.
1979 Nicaragua: Fall of the government of Anastasio Somoza as the
Sandinista Liberation Army takes control.

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CHRONOLOGY • xxv

1980 Argentina: Publication of Respiración artificial, Ricardo


Piglia’s novel written during the dictatorship.

1981 Argentina: Foundation of Teatro Abierto to revitalize the


theater and challenge abuses of power.

1982 Chile: Publication of Isabel Allende’s international best seller


La casa de los espíritus, one of Latin America’s best known works
of magic realism. Colombia: The novelist Gabriel García Márquez is
awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Guatemala: Publication of the
testimonio Me llamo Rigoberta Menchú y así me nació la conciencia.
Nicaragua: Omar Cabezas publishes his memoir of the Sandinista
revolution, La montaña es algo más que una inmensa estepa verde.
Uruguay: Publication of Primavera con una esquina rota, Mario
Benendetti’s novel of imprisonment and exile.

1983 Argentina: Failure of the military junta to capture the Malvinas/


Falkland Islands from Great Britain leads to the fall of the junta and free
elections. Juan José Saer’s best known work, the new historical novel El
entenado, is published. Brazil: Rubem Fonseca publishes his novel A
Grande Arte. El Salvador: Publication of Claribel Alegría’s account of
a woman revolutionary, No me agarran viva: la mujer salvadoreña en
lucha. Nicaragua: Sergio Ramírez’s novel ¿Te dio miedo la sangre?,
set in the regime of Anastasio Somoza, is published.

1984 Brazil: Publication of João Ubaldo Ribeiro’s Viva o Povo


Brasileiro, Nélida Piñon’s A República dos Sonhos, and Haroldo de
Campos’s Galáxias.

1985 Brazil: Redemocratization with restoration of direct election of


the president. Chile: Antonio Skármeta publishes Ardiente paciencia,
the first version of what would eventually be known as Neruda’s
Postman.

1986 Colombia: La nieve del almirante, the first of the Maqroll el


Gaviero novels by Álvaro Mutis, is published.

1988 Nicaragua: Publication of Gioconda Belli’s best-selling novel


La mujer habitada.

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xxvi • CHRONOLOGY

1989 Brazil: Milton Hatoum publishes Relato de um Certo Oriente.


Mexico: Publication of Laura Esquivel’s best-selling novel Como agua
para chocolate.
1990 Chile: First performance of Ariel Dorfman’s original stage
version of Death and the Maiden, on imprisonment and torture under
dictatorship. Mexico: The poet and essayist Octavio Paz is awarded the
Nobel Prize for Literature.
1993 Brazil: Manoel de Barros publishes his poetry book O Livro
das Ignorãças.
1994 Brazil: Fernando Bonassi publishes Subúrbio.
1995 Mexico: Carlos Monsiváis publishes a collection of his
chronicles of life and culture in Mexico City in Los rituales del caos.
1997 Brazil: Paulo Lins publishes Cidade de Deus, his story of drug
dealing in a district of Rio, which became the basis of a successful film.
1998 Chile: Publication of Los detectives salvajes by Roberto
Bolaños.
2001 Argentina: Luisa Valenzuela publishes La travesía, a novel of
exile and return.
2002 Brazil: Bernardo Carvalho publishes Nove Noites. Colombia:
Gabriel García Márquez publishes Vivir para contarla, the first volume
of his memoirs.
2003 Brazil: Chico Buarque publishes Budapeste.
2004 Brazil: Nélida Piñon publishes Vozes do Deserto. Chile: Pedro
Lemebel publishes Adios, Mariquita linda, a collection of chronicles of
queer Santiago.
2005 Brazil: Milton Hatoum publishes his prize-winning novel
Cinzas do Norte. Chile: Publication of Zorro, a novel by Isabel Allende
about the legendary comic-book hero. Nicaragua: Gioconda Belli
publishes her novel El pergamino de la seducción. New poems by
Ernesto Cardenal appear in Versos del pluriverso.
2006 Chile: Publication of Inés del alma mía by Isabel Allende, a
novel based on the life of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. Mexico: Carlos
Fuentes publishes a volume of short stories, Todas las familias felices.

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CHRONOLOGY • xxvii

2007 Argentina: César Aira publishes Las curas milagrosas del


doctor Aira. Brazil: Bernardo Carvalho publishes the novel O Sol Se
Põe Em São Paulo. Chile: Publication of Jamás el fuego nunca by
Diamela Eltit. Mexico: Publication of the novel El Velázquez de París
by Carmen Boullosa.
2008 Chile: Publication of La casa de Dostoievsky, a novel by Jorge
Edwards. Colombia: Publication of William Ospina’s historical novel
El país de la canela and of Germán Castro Caycedo’s El palacio sin
máscara, an account of a 1985 guerrilla assault on the Palace of Justice
in Bogotá. Nicaragua: Sergio Ramírez publishes his crime novel El
cielo llora por mí.
2009 Brazil: Luís Fernando Veríssimo publishes his novel Os
Espiões, Chico Buarque publishes his novel Leite Derramado, and
Rubem Fonseca publishes O Seminarista.
2010 Peru: The novelist Mario Vargas Llosh is awarded the Nobel
Prize for Literature.

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10_479_01_Front.indd xxviii 11/1/10 7:09 AM
Introduction

Latin American literature is today recognized internationally for its


originality, diversity, and capacity to interpret the singularities of Latin
America to the reader. Whether in poetry, the novel and short story,
nonfiction, or theater, there is an abundance of talented writers, includ-
ing several in each genre with strong international reputations whose
works have earned them prestigious prizes and have been translated and
distributed or performed throughout the world. It was not always so,
however. With a history of more than five centuries and cultural roots
that reach into the traditions of Europe, Africa, and the Americas, con-
temporary Latin American literature and theater have a long and com-
plex pedigree. Yet for much of that period, literary expression in the
region was highly derivative, founded on genres and trends fashioned
in the Old World and brought to the New by travelers and immigrants.
Even as the colonies gained political independence at the beginning of
the 19th century, they did not immediately become free of external
cultural influences. During the 19th century and the first decades of
the 20th, Latin American literature remained a marginal phenomenon,
largely unknown beyond its borders. It was only as the new republics
matured and became more conscious of their individuality as nations,
as their societies grew and became more complex and diverse, that
literature acquired a greater presence. Indeed, literature itself played
a significant role in the process of self-awareness by representing and
interpreting Latin Americans to themselves and therefore contributing,
in due course, to images of the region conveyed to the world at large.
The role of literature in the formation of the national imagination has
its origin in some of the early chronicles of the conquest and coloniza-
tion, such as the Comentarios reales of El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega for
Peru or the epic account of the conquest of Chile by Alonso de Ercilla,
in which the stories of preconquest civilizations are narrated at the same

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2 • INTRODUCTION

time as the first European impressions of the Americas are recorded.


This process of familiarization with the new continent, begun for the
Europeans with their arrival, was re-energized during the first century
of independence under the influence of 19th-century romanticism, as
the peoples of the new nations began to take further stock of themselves
and their environment. The likes of José de Alencar in Brazil, Jorge
Isaacs in Colombia, and José Mármol in Argentina examined society
and identified its characteristics through fiction. A few decades later, in
the early 20th century, Eustasio Rivera in Colombia, Rómulo Gallegos
in Venezuela, and Ricardo Güiraldes in Argentina were among another
generation of writers, whose “novels of the land” described unique
ways of life that had taken shape in the Americas, principally in rural
areas. The works that they and some of their predecessors produced
have become classics of Latin American literature, not just because
they evoke times gone by, but also because their narratives continue
to strike a chord in the national psyches of Latin Americans and have
contributed to the formation of social identities.
Of course, in addition to showing readers to themselves, as if holding
a mirror up to their lives, literature has other functions. It often serves as
the nation’s conscience, thereby giving the writer the task of monitoring
the national moral compass, a role that has had significant implications
for Latin America. Writers in Latin America have traditionally been
held in high regard as representatives and spokespersons of their na-
tional culture. Many have aspired to or held high political office or have
held significant appointments in their countries’ diplomatic service, and
a good number have been career diplomats. Among luminaries who
belong in these groups are Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (Argentina),
Rómulo Gallegos (Venezuela), Pablo Neruda (Chile), Miguel Ángel
Asturias (Guatemala), João Guimarães Rosa (Brazil), João Cabral de
Melo Neto (Brazil), Rosario Castellanos (Mexico), and Octavio Paz
(Mexico). Thus, major writers have a prominent cultural status, and the
most prominent among them, such as Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina),
Pablo Neruda, and Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia), are thought of
as cultural icons, writers whose lives and work embody something of
the spirit of the nation.
Given the role and social status of writers in Latin America, it is
hardly surprising that their navigation through the turbulent political
waters of the continent since independence has often placed them in

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INTRODUCTION • 3

jeopardy. Some, such as the Argentinean Rodolfo Walsh, have paid for
their activism and writing with their lives. Many others, among them
the Uruguayan Juan Carlos Onetti, the Argentinean Jacobo Timerman,
and the Salvadoran Roque Dalton, have spent time in prison. Many
more have spent years abroad, unable to return to their own countries.
Indeed, Latin American literature is often characterized as a literature
of exile. For some writers, drawn to Paris, Madrid, or other cultural
capitals of the world, exile is voluntary. For a great number, however,
exile was forced upon them, and in some cases, they were fortunate to
escape with their lives. This condition, common enough already in the
19th century, was especially prevalent in the 20th. The list of writers
of recent generations who, for any number of reasons, have lived for
extended periods outside their own countries includes some of the most
recognizable names: the Mexican Carlos Fuentes, the Uruguayan Mario
Benedetti, the Argentineans Julio Cortázar and Luisa Valenzuela, the
Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa, the Brazilian Murilo Mendes, and the
Chilean José Donoso. At the same time, of course, those who remained
at home in conflicted times had to find creative ways to defeat censor-
ship and, faced with the difficulties of publication or performance,
genres such as theater found their very existence threatened.
In view of the political and social history of Latin America and the
extent to which they are reflected in the literature of the region, percep-
tions of the past are often shaped by literary representations, especially
when these have coalesced in a literary genre or subgenre. The theme
of revolution, for example, enters many works and is especially strong
in the literature of countries that have endured protracted periods of
revolutionary conflict and civil war. Such conflicts are represented in
the early part of the 20th century in the novel of the Mexican Revolu-
tion, which was initiated by Mariano Azuela in 1915 and has resonated
across the century even in the work of later Mexican writers such as
Elena Poniatowska, Ángeles Mastretta, and Laura Esquivel, who not
only narrate historical events, but analyze the consequences of the
revolution in the decades that followed it. In a similar vein, the civil
strife that afflicted the countries of Central America in the second half
of the 20th century is expressed through the prose, poetry, and theater
of the region, such as in the work of the Salvadorans Manlio Argueta
and Claribel Alegría and the Nicaraguans Gioconda Belli, Ernesto Car-
denal, and Pablo Antonio Cuadra.

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4 • INTRODUCTION

Revolutions in Latin America, as exemplified by those in Mexico


and Central America, originated in resistance to dictatorial regimes and
the desire to replace them with a more humane social order. Indeed,
the tyrannical regimes and the tyrants that have punctuated the history
of most Latin American countries underlie literary phenomena such as
the dictator novel, which, from its beginings in the 19th century with
writers such as Esteban Echeverría and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento,
has served to portray both historical and contemporary political figu-
res. Its 20th-century contributors include the Paraguayan Augusto Roa
Bastos, the Chilean Enrique Lafourcade, the Guatemalan Miguel Ángel
Asturias and the Ecuadorian Demetrio Aguilera Malta. The desire for
a more egalitarian society that fuels the dictator novels also fostered
literary indigenismo, part of a broader social movement that began to
make headway in the early decades of the 20th century, especially in the
Andean countries of Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru, in favor of recognition
of the human and civil rights of indigenous peoples. Indigenismo has a
counterpart in the literary representation of Latin Americans of African
descent and advocacy in favor of the same range of political and social
rights and freedoms, a movement that has grown in importance throug-
hout Latin America and is especially significant in countries with large
minorities of neo-Africans, such as Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador.
The commitment of writers to a just society, as expressed in these
movements, continues today in Latin America. It has made writing by
and about women, gays, and lesbians a very visible element of the con-
temporary literary landscape, part of the quest for the equitable social
treatment of all citizens and their honest representation in literature. At
the same time, with a knowledge of history, it has made writers, often
at a cost to themselves, wary of the personal ambitions of their leaders
and vigilant with respect to the stability of social and political institu-
tions under pressure from both local and global forces. Yet, it should
not be concluded on this basis that Latin American literature is to be
seen exclusively for its political or social commitment and content.
Like all literatures, it is also a highly creative phenomenon in which
the social and natural worlds are represented and analyzed in terms that
aesthetically engage the reader’s imagination, a characteristic no better
represented than in the products of Spanish American modernismo,
in the various forms of avant-garde expression of the first half of the
20th century, notably Brazilian modernism, or in the capacity of magic
realism to tap the atavistic and the mythological in versions of story-

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INTRODUCTION • 5

telling that draw extensively on oral traditions of narrative. In all these


respects, Latin American literature serves the very basic role, common
to all literatures, of representing the social worlds and inner lives of its
writers and readers.

DEFINING LATIN AMERICA

Although it may be possible to characterize Latin American literature


by referring to some of the most salient characteristics that associate it
with the part of the world to which it belongs, there still remains the
question of exactly which countries it encompasses. The term “Latin
America” originated in Second Empire France under Napoleon III
(1851–1870) when, at the time of the French intervention in Mexico
and the installation of Maximilian as emperor (1864–1867), it served
politically to assert a cultural connection between the Americas and the
romance-language-speaking countries of Europe. For better or worse,
given the varied cultural and geographical connotations the term has
subsequently acquired, it has remained in use ever since. Most com-
monly it embraces the Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries of
the continental Americas, from Mexico in the North to Tierra del Fuego
in the far South and the Spanish-speaking islands of the Caribbean. For
some it may also include the French Caribbean and even the English-
and Dutch-speaking islands of the region, although the term “Latin
America and the Caribbean” is often used to designate this broader area.
More recently, the modified “Latin/o America” has emerged in critical
writing as a term used to embrace an even wider territory, not only the
regions traditionally designated, but also the Latin American diaspora
in North America. In this Historical Dictionary of Latin American Lit-
erature and Theater, the definition of Latin America is more restricted,
and the territory covered is limited to Brazil and the 16 Spanish-
speaking republics of the continental mainland: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
As a designator of culture, “Latin America” evokes the conquest by
Spain and Portugal and the imposition, not just of their languages, but
of their culture in all its forms during a colonial regime that lasted for
more than three centuries. Such a view, however, offers an essentially
Eurocentric perspective. It excludes the cultures of Native Americans

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6 • INTRODUCTION

who even today are a majority in the populations of countries such as


Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia and overlooks the cultural hybridity that
evolved from miscegenation between the old and new inhabitants of
the continent. It does not include the millions of Africans brought to
the Americas as slaves and whose culture has spread widely throughout
the region, particularly in countries initially dependent on the plantation
economies that exploited their labor. Finally, it does not allow for the
flood of migrants of different ethnicities and nationalities, from regions
as diverse as Europe, Asia, and the Middle East, who have arrived since
the mid-19th century and have contributed significantly to population
growth and cultural diversification.
Thus, although “Latin America” remains in use, it now designates
a region of extraordinary cultural diversity within which are also con-
tained the differences created by the existence of distinct nations. Latin
America is linguistically varied, not just on account of the continued
use of native American languages and the presence of Portuguese and
Spanish, but as a result of the different registers that have evolved in the
Spanish-speaking countries and the regional particularities of language
that have emerged in every country of the continent. Moreover, as the
countries of Latin America approach the bicentennial of their national
independence, they can look back across their own history and the for-
mation of communities, social traditions, and lifestyles that differ from
those of their neighbors. Literature in Latin America represents and
expresses all this variety. Although it is possible to detect certain com-
monalities in their development from colonial times to the present, as
outlined in the following paragraphs, and therefore to speak of a Latin
American literature, each of the national literatures embraced by this re-
gional designation is also a product of the particular historical idiosyn-
crasy of the social environment in which it was formed. Latin American
literature is therefore not just one literature, but a combination of many,
whose writers collectively embody the diversity mentioned above.

LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND THEATER

The Colonial Period


The indigenous peoples of Latin America were devastated by the ar-
rival of the Europeans. Their populations were decimated, not just by

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INTRODUCTION • 7

the trauma of conquest but also by contact with diseases against which
they had no immunity. Although indigenous cultures were by no means
eradicated or assimilated, their social evolution and the development
of their forms of expression were constrained and subordinated to the
colonial regime. Much has remained through oral transmission, and
a material legacy of the myths and history of the past is preserved in
documents such as the Mexican codices and archaeological sites across
the continent. The superiority of the conquerors, however, was not only
in their weaponry and technology. These speakers of Spanish and Por-
tuguese, already in possession of a sophisticated literary system, also
had more potent languages through which to lay claim to the newly
found lands they had subdued.
Latin American literature has its beginning in the writings of Eu-
ropeans produced in the immediate glow of their encounter with the
new continent and its inhabitants. Among the earliest were the diary of
Christopher Colombus’s first voyage, addressed to the Catholic Kings
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain in 1492, and Pero Vaz de Caminha’s
description of the newly found territory of Brazil in a letter written to
Manuel I of Portugal in 1500. A plethora of diaries, letters, memoirs,
narratives, histories, and treatises followed, a body of documents be-
longing mainly to the 16th century, that would come to be known col-
lectively as the chronicles of the conquest and colonization of America.
Some, like the letters to the Spanish crown from Hernán Cortés in
Mexico (1520–1526) and from Pedro de Valdivia in Chile (1552),
were written by the commanders of military campaigns. Others, such
as Bernal Díaz del Castillo’s memoir of the conquest of Mexico, pen-
ned (1555?–1584) long after the events he experienced, were the work
of former soldiers. Many, including the multivolume histories of the
Spanish Indies by Bartolomé de Las Casas and Gonzalo Fernández de
Oviedo, are invaluable documents of the period, and much of what was
written, such as Pedro de Cieza de León’s account of the colonization
and history of early Peru, carries the stamp of officialdom, whether be-
cause it was written under royal commission or addressed to the crown.
The chronicles were not just narratives of events that told the story
of the military campaigns. Many examined the moral and ethical con-
sequences of the discovery and conquest of a new world and the co-
lonization of its people. A significant number of the chroniclers, men
like the Franciscans Toribio de Benavente (also known as Motolinía)

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8 • INTRODUCTION

and Diego de Landa, were members of religious orders whose accounts


documented the Christianization of the Americas. The Portuguese-
born Pero de Magalhães Gândavo and his compatriot Gabriel Soares
de Sousa, like many of their contemporaries in Brazil and elsewhere
in colonial America, were interested in the natural history of the terri-
tories and in promoting immigration to the new lands. The interests
of the chroniclers also encompassed the history and culture of indi-
genous peoples, although there were those who wrote about it mainly
to condemn it as idolatry as well as those who strove to describe and
understand it. Among the latter were Bernardino de Sahagún, whose
celebrated Florentine Codex is one of the richest sources of informa-
tion about life in Aztec Mexico.
In this veritable flood of documents that represented the European
view of the conquest and the newly acquired territories, the indigenous
perspective was not entirely overwhelmed. The transcription of texts
such as Nahuatl poetry in Mexico and the Quiché creation myths told
in the Popol Vuh from Guatemala would eventually permit some pre-
Columbian voices to be heard. At the same time, acquisition of the
language of their masters by native and mestizo populations ensured,
through the likes of Huaman Poma de Ayala and El Inca Garcilaso de
la Vega in Peru, and Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc in Mexico, that
the view from the other side of the conquest also circulated in the new
linguistic environment. But the chronicles of the conquest and coloni-
zation were predominantly Eurocentric, a record of the incorporation of
the Americas into the European worldview. As such, they were also a
body of foundational texts, providing a basis for thought and percep-
tion that would endure during the colonial period and against which the
independent countries of Latin America would eventually write their
own histories.
With cultural life in the colonies centered on the viceregal courts,
literature evolved under the influence of Spain and Portugal and
followed the fashions of Europe. From the very beginnings, however,
the New World realities sowed tensions among Old World practices.
The Americas introduced a new content to literature, new languages
and mythologies, and in the process put established literary genres to
new uses. Historians of the conquest left traces of the popular 16th-cen-
tury novel of chivalry in their writings, while epic poets found new sub-
jects to extol worthy of their genre. The first part of Alonso de Ercilla’s

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INTRODUCTION • 9

heroic account of the conquest of Chile appeared in 1569. It inspired


continuations and imitators and was one of Latin America’s earliest
epic poems in a tradition that includes poems by Bernardo de Balbuena
and Diego de Hojeda in the 17th century and Basílio da Gama and José
de Santa Rita Durão in the 18th. The 17th-century baroque produced
the Mexican Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, the foremost lyric poet of her
time, and the satirists Juan del Valle y Caviedes and Gregório de Matos
e Guerra, who took aim at the foibles of colonial society in Peru and
Brazil, respectively. By contrast, the Arcadian poets of the Minas Ge-
rais school, influenced by elements of the 18th-century Enlightenment
and neoclassicism, sought to reflect the clear rationalism of their age.
When the theater came to Latin America from Europe, it found a role
in two of the main spheres of activity of the colonial world. Religious
theater, in the form of biblical tales, miracle plays, and allegories, was
adopted by the missionary priests and friars in the campaign to Chris-
tianize local populations and was well established by the 16th century,
with repertoires that included plays written for local audiences. At
the same time, a secular theater began to establish roots, especially in
association with the viceregal courts, where a dramatic performance
often marked an important civic occasion or served simply to entertain.
Although there were some local dramatists, such as Fernán González de
Eslava in Mexico and Pedro de Peralta y Barnuevo in Peru, secular the-
ater in the colonial period mainly imitated its European sources or was
characterized by plays written by European dramatists. An independent
public theater would not emerge for many years.
Writing in prose began, of course, with the chronicles of the conquest
and colonization, but spread to other domains as more towns and cities
were established and grew and as social institutions acquired roots and
stability. Local history, religion, morality, and medicine figure promi-
nently among the subjects of books written in the colonial period. Prose
fiction, as an established genre, still belonged to the future where Latin
America was concerned, but there were some significant stirrings in the
colonial period. Juan Rodríguez Freyle’s chronicle of New Granada,
written between 1636 and 1638, acquires the character of narratives of
everyday life. Francisco Núñez de Pineda y Bascuñán’s 1673 account
of his capitivity among the Mapuche in Chile foreshadows 19th-century
captive narratives. Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora’s 1690 story of the
life of Alonso Ramírez, sometimes considered Latin America’s first

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10 • INTRODUCTION

novel, has many of the elements of an adventure novel, and Alonso


Carrió de la Vandera’s travelogue, of 1775 or 1776, of a journey be-
tween Buenos Aires and Lima not only has a direct connection with
the Spanish picaresque tradition, but frequently appears to engage in
narrative for its own sake.

The 19th Century


The change from colony to nation was completed in Latin America
before the end of the first quarter of the 19th century. With the excep-
tion of Brazil, which declared itself an independent monarchy in 1822
and became a republic in 1889, the transition was not a quiet one. There
have also been many tempestuous periods since then in a history punc-
tuated by internal civil strife, revolutions, invasions, and wars between
nations. For the most part, whether in exile or at home, and in spite of
periods of suppression and censorship, literature has grown and thrived.
In the 19th century it already benefited from greater overall freedom of
expression, wider access to influences from Europe and North America,
and the spread of printing, which was still very restricted even in the
late colonial period.
The spirit of criticism of late colonial society is well reflected in
the journalism and fiction of the Mexican José Joaquín Fernández de
Lizardi. The triumph of the revolution was captured in neoclassical
verses by the Ecuadorian José Joaquín de Olmedo, and aspirations for
the future of the continent were voiced by the Venezuelan-born Andrés
Bello. His optimism must have seemed short lived, however, as the
newly liberated nations struggled to preserve their freedoms against
authoritarianism and the reinstatement, albeit in different guises, of the
old regime. The struggles that ensued in Argentina, for example, are
amply described in Domingo Faustino Sarmiento’s Facundo (1845)
against the motif of a conflict between civilization and barbarism, a
theme that would reverberate in various countries of Latin America for
a number of decades to come.
In the midst of all the changes, the dominant literary movement of
the 19th century was romanticism. It entailed a literary revolution,
which, for Latin American writers, came about through their encounter
with European authors, especially from France, beyond the hitherto
customary Spanish and Portuguese canon. It also heralded a wave of

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INTRODUCTION • 11

liberalism that would have a profound impact on social and political


life in Latin America at the same time that it caused conflict with more
conservative-minded sectors of society that resisted change. Romanticism
developed in the climate of revolution in late 18th-century Europe, but
arrived late in Latin America, its passage hindered by the Napoleonic
Wars in Europe and the Wars of Independence in the Americas. Elvira, o
la novia de la Plata (1832; Elvira, or The Bride of the River Plate), by the
Argentinean Esteban Echeverría, was one of its earliest manifestations in
Spanish America; the work of the noted Brazilian romantic poets Domin-
gos José Gonçalves de Magalhães and Antônio Gonçalves Dias did not
begin to appear until the 1830s and 1840s, respectively.
In contrast to the ordered control of the 18th century, romanticism
fostered a spirit of rebellion in both the content and form of literature.
It emphasized individualism, a sympathy with nature, an interest in the
past, and above all, the supremacy of love and the emotions. With re-
spect to the past, the pre-Columbian era and the conquest and colonial
periods provided subjects for two genres: the historical novel, following
the model launched by Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832), and the tradición,
initiated by the Peruvian Ricardo Palma. Both retained their popu-
larity throughout the 19th century and beyond. Sentimental novels, by
authors such as José de Alencar, Ignacio Altamirano, Jorge Isaacs, José
Mármol, and Juan León Mera, invoked many of romanticism’s most
hallowed devices. Their stories of star-crossed lovers, however, were
more than mere indulgence in some of the literary commonplaces of
the age. Like historical fiction, they were also vehicles used to examine
some of the pressing issues emerging in the newly formed nations,
problems in existing social and political structures, racial separation
and mixing, urban life, and relations with the natural environment.
Among such foundational texts should also be included several narra-
tive poems. José Hernández’s Martín Fierro (1872) and Juan Zorilla de
San Martín’s Tabaré (1888), for example, both belong in this category.
Hernández’s work, in particular, is one of the core pieces of Argen-
tinean gaucho literature around which formulations of national identity
would take shape well into the 20th century. There are, then, strong
connections among romanticism, nationalism, and the emergence of
models of identity, some of them drawing on how coexistence with
indigenous people and African slaves was perceived by populations that
originated in Europe.

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12 • INTRODUCTION

Long after the force of romanticism as a literary movement had decli-


ned, romantic sensibility persisted, and it would regain much of its vi-
gor in the popular music and film melodramas of the 1930s and 1940s.
In the 19th century, however, as the pendulum of literary taste swung
away from romanticism, it moved toward a greater preoccupation
with everyday life and social reality. This trend, represented in fiction
through the tendencies of costumbrismo, realism, and naturalism, gave
rise to work by some remarkable writers: the costumbristas Jotabeche
(José Joaquín Vallejo) from Chile and Fray Mocho (José Álvarez) from
Argentina; the realists Alberto Blest Gana (Chile) and Emilio Rabasa
(Mexico); and the naturalists Aluísio Azevedo (Brazil), Eugenio Cam-
baceres (Argentina), and Federico Gamboa (Mexico). Standing above
them all, both combining and surpassing these trends, was the Brazilian
Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, whose work already pointed in the
direction that the novel would take in the 20th century.
The move away from romanticism in poetry came about through
the influence of French parnassianism and symbolism. In Brazil, it
led to two movements under the same names and the poetry of Olavo
Bilac, Alberto de Oliveira, João de Cruz e Sousa, and Alphonsus de
Guimaraens, among others. In Spanish America, the same influences
gave rise to modernismo, a term not to be confused with Brazilian
modernism, which refers to a 20th-century avant-garde movement,
or with the English term “modernism,” used to refer to styles in art
and culture in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that reflected the
new technologies and growing industrialization of the age. Spanish
American modernismo was an aesthetic movement that had its greatest
impact on poetry, but was also felt in prose writing. With its cultivation
of elegance and exoticism, the ideal, and the themes of mortality and
melancholy, it shared some of the characteristics of the belle epoque
and end-of-century decadence. It is associated above all with the Nica-
raguan Rubén Darío and was at its peak during his lifetime, but it spread
to all countries of Spanish America and influenced writers as diverse as
the Peruvian Ricardo Jaimes Freyre, the Argentinean Enrique Larreta,
the Mexican Amado Nervo, and the Colombian Guillermo Valencia. As
Latin America’s first homegrown literary movement, emerging as the
19th century ended, it also demonstrated a certain cultural maturity, a
capacity to surpass the status of culturally dependent colony and pro-
duce a movement grown from within.

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INTRODUCTION • 13

In contrast to 19th-century poetry and prose, which soon responded


to the new social and political reality of Latin America’s first post-
colonial century, even while remaining under the influence of European
literary trends, the theater reacted more slowly. The building of theaters
since the late 18th century contributed to the development of the genre
as a public institution, but foreign plays or plays written in imitation
of foreign models dominated the stage for much of the 19th century.
Notable 19th-century dramatists included the Mexican Manuel Eduardo
de Gorostiza and the Peruvians Felipe Pardo y Aliaga and Manuel
Ascensio Segura, and the Brazilians José Joaquim França Jr. and Luís
Carlos Martins Pena, whose satires and comedies of manners reflected
the European heritage of neoclassicism, romanticism, costumbrismo,
and realism. The emergence of a theater more attuned to social crises
and movements in national politics would not take place until the end
of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th.

The 20th and 21st Centuries


Latin America’s second century of independence has, in its way,
been as tumultuous as the first. Populations have grown enormously, the
result of both massive immigration and a surging birthrate. Traditional
lifestyles have waned in the wake of widespread urbanization and the
massification of culture. Economies have endured the roller coaster of
repeating cycles of boom and bust, affected by movements in economic
nationalism as well as by trends in world markets and neocolonial in-
tervention and control. Political stability, challenged by periods of mili-
tarism, populism, socialism, and other forces, has often seemed fragile.
Amid such times, while benefiting from prosperity and contending with
the reversals of upheaval, literature in Latin America has developed
extraordinarily. In the world at large, it has lost its marginal status as
a lesser known regional literature and has become widely known, with
some of its authors recognized as icons of international culture.

Poetry
Although modernismo in Spanish America had passed its peak by
1920, its influence continued to be felt during the first decades of the
20th century and was manifested in the work of several notable poets,

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14 • INTRODUCTION

including, for example, Alfonsina Storni, Juana de Ibarbourou, Delmira


Agustini, and Leopoldo Lugones. The first half of the 20th century was
also the time of Gabriela Mistral, Latin America’s first Nobel laureate,
but a major shift began in the 1920s with the rise of the avant-garde
through the influence in art and literature of cubism, surrealism, Da-
daism, futurism, and other movements. In Latin America the literary
avant-garde flourished in national groups of writers clustered around
journals and other periodicals that served as vehicles for the publica-
tion of their work and the dissemination of their ideas. Among the more
prominent trends were estridentismo in Mexico, ultraísmo in Argentina,
and creacionismo in Chile. Modernismo in Brazil, celebrated in 1922
during the Week of Modern Art in São Paulo, signaled the demise of
parnassianism and symbolism in favor of a modern aesthetic more
attuned to contemporary life at the same time that it heralded an exami-
nation of Brazilian identity.
The avant-garde gave rise to poets of the stature of Carlos Drum-
mond de Andrade, César Vallejo, and Vicente Huidobro. Others, among
them Pablo Neruda and João Cabral de Melo Neto, although nurtured
by the avant-garde, eventually followed paths dictated by their own
inclinations and are celebrated for the richness and diversity of their
oeuvre rather than for their attachment to a particular trend. In due
course, particular avant-garde movements lost their capacity to serve as
focal points, but the impact and freedom they brought to language and
poetic structures remained. The post-avant-garde period has produced
a number of oustanding poets, of whom Octavio Paz has achieved the
highest recognition. Others include Claribel Alegría, Germán Belli,
Gioconda Belli, Ernesto Cardenal, Antonio Cisneros, Nicanor Parra,
Alejandra Pizarnik, and Vinícius de Moraes.

The Novel
The realist trend that had already begun to set the course of the Latin
American novel during the last decades of the 19th century remained
strong for much of the first half of the 20th. The novel of the land, re-
gionalism, and mundonovismo have been variously used to describe
novels of this period, which document and typify the events, the life,
and the geography of Latin America at a time when social and political
change brought a heightened sense of cultural and national identity. In

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INTRODUCTION • 15

Mexico such tendencies were represented in narratives of the revolu-


tion; in Venezuela, Colombia, and Argentina they appeared in novels
by Rómulo Gallegos, Eustasio Rivera, and Ricardo Güiraldes, which
portrayed the relation between life and the land; in Brazil, Euclides da
Cunha’s 1902 account of the backlands of the Northeast heralded fur-
ther 20th-century explorations of the region; and in the indigenismo of
countries of the Andean region writers sought to offer a more realistic
view of native peoples than was to be found in 19th-century indianismo
and would culminate in due course in the work of the Peruvians José
María Arguedas and Manuel Scorza.
Yet Latin American fiction in the first half of the 20th century was
more diverse than the various forms of realism. It also included explo-
rations of inner landscapes and urban environments, as in novels by
Roberto Arlt, Eduardo Barrios, Eduardo Mallea, Leopoldo Marechal,
and Juan Carlos Onetti. The experimentalism of the avant-garde that
had left its mark so clearly on poetry was equally felt in fiction. The
Brazilians Mário de Andrade and Oswald de Andrade would both be
included in a representative group, as would the Chilean María Luisa
Bombal and the Venezuelan Teresa de la Parra, both of whom also an-
ticipated the surge in writing by women and the representation of fe-
male subjectivity that would occur before the end of the century. In
effect, the late 1940s, the 1950s, and the 1960s were a period of ferment
in fiction that saw the publication of important works by Miguel Án-
gel Asturias, Elena Garro, João Guimarães Rosa, Juan Rulfo, Agustín
Yáñez, and others. They were all innovative writers and heralded the
breakthrough in international recognition of the Latin American novel
that came with the boom.
As much as it was a product of the creativity of a group of writers, the
boom was also a creation of the publishing industry and its capacity to
successfully market authors internationally. As a literary phenomenon,
the boom belongs above all to the 1960s. Its principal authors were Ju-
lio Cortázar, Carlos Fuentes, Mario Vargas Llosa, and Gabriel García
Márquez, whose Cien años de soledad (1967; One Hundred Years of
Solitude), now a classic of universal literature, is identified with magic
realism, a style that also came to be identified with Latin America itself.
The success of these writers is owed in part to the attention and interest
sparked by Latin America immediately after the triumph of the Cuban
Revolution in 1959 and their ability to create a vision of the region that

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16 • INTRODUCTION

seemed to give an international readership a vision of the uniqueness of


its histories, mythologies, and quintessential identity. At the same time,
they incorporated the influences of Anglo-American modernism and
the French new novel fully into their work and furthered the renovation
of fiction in Latin America that the previous generation had initiated.
Long after the euphoria of their first triumphs declined, the boom
writers have continued to publish successfully during a phase often
referred to as the post-boom. Throughout both periods, boom and
post-boom, they have been accompanied by numerous other writers, in-
cluding Jorge Amado, Roberto Bolaño, Diamela Eltit, Clarice Lis-
pector, Manuel Puig, Cristina Peri Rossi, Antonio Skármeta, Lygia
Fagundes Telles, and Luisa Valenzuela. The later period has also been
marked by considerable successes, including some international best
sellers, such as Isabel Allende’s La casa de los espíritus (1982; The
House of the Spirits) and Laura Esquivel’s Como agua para chocolate
(1989; Like Water for Chocolate), both hailed for their magic realism
and Latin Americanness. At the same time, the post-boom novel has
morphed into the postmodern novel, which has seen the full emergence
of the self-conscious narrative (i.e., one that refers to itself and the
process of its composition); an emphasis on mass popular cultures,
especially music and film; and the representation of hitherto margi-
nalized points of view, including those of youth, gays, lesbians, and
women. The scope of all these changes is no better illustrated than in
the Latin American new historical novel, which not only incorporates
the stylistic changes fostered by postmodernism but, in the wake of the
collapse of the authoritarian regimes of the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s,
also offers a far more inclusive view of society and versions of history
that challenge those of officialdom. The contemporary novel in Latin
America has thus become a more open genre. Like its counterparts in
Europe and North America, it responds to local issues and conditions,
but its direction is also set by the twists and turns of taste and fashion,
sometimes determined by the influence of the media and sometimes by
the publishing industry and the marketability of authors and their work.

The Short Story


Although not without some antecedents, the short story in Latin
America is often considered as having begun in the 19th century with

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INTRODUCTION • 17

Esteban Echeverría’s “El matadero” (1838; “The Slaughter House”),


an allegory of life in Argentina under Juan Manuel Rosas. Echeverría,
of course, is equally well known as a romantic poet, one of many wri-
ters who have won recognition in more than one genre. Indeed, given
that most of the authors who figure in the history of the novel in Latin
America also wrote shorter fiction, the history of the short story para-
llels that of longer fiction in terms of both the themes developed and
the modes of writing. Among the major novelists who have also publis-
hed significant and influential collections of short stories, José María
Arguedas, Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, Julio Cortázar, Rubem
Fonseca, Clarice Lispector, Gabriel García Márquez, and Juan Rulfo
stand out in particular.
Although the short story was a way for writers to hone their craft as
novelists, many authors have devoted themselves to it almost to the
exclusion of other genres and are recognized for the high level of their
accomplishments. One of the first was the Uruguayan Horacio Quiroga,
whose tales of the supernatural and the jungle established the influence
of Edgar Allan Poe in Spanish America and made the short story a
genre to be recognized in the 20th century. Others who have followed
him include the Mexican Juan José Arreola, the Brazilian Dalton Trev-
isan, the Uruguayan Felisberto Herández, the Peruvian Julio Ramón
Riberyo, and the Guatemalan Augusto Monterroso, but no comments
on the short story would be complete without mentioning Jorge Luis
Borges. Not only was he one of Latin America’s major literary figures
of the 20th century, but his short fictions, many of them microtales and
some of them fictive essays, revolutionized the short story and the liter-
ary representation of reality.

Nonfiction Prose
Having had some of its origins in the narratives of the personal expe-
riences and observations of the conquistadors and colonists, nonfiction
prose had already found a place in Latin American literature long before
the rise of the testimonio (eyewitness account or testimonial novel) and
the urban chronicle in the 20th century. The testimonio not only features
life-writing, and in this sense overlaps with autobiography, but is also a
vehicle for the voiceless and the marginalized. Thus, Rigoberta Menchú
speaks for indigenous people, Domitila Barrios de Chungara for mine

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18 • INTRODUCTION

workers and their families, Jacobo Timerman for political prisoners,


Paulo Lins for the urban poor, and Elena Poniatowska for women.
Testimonios customarily benefit from the anthropological or journal-
istic research into their subjects undertaken by their authors, whose
representations of the subaltern also played into the postmodern trend
in literature toward greater social inclusivity. In this respect, the con-
temporary urban chronicle, with its emphasis on mass culture and city
life, is also an eminently postmodern genre, especially as exemplified
by authors such as the Mexican Carlos Monsiváis, the Brazilian Rubem
Braga, and the Chilean Pedro Lemebel. The chronicle has a much lon-
ger history, however. It may be associated with the 19th-century interest
in local or regional customs, and its growth may be connected to the rise
of mass-circulation newspapers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
a period that corresponds in Latin America to one of the first periods of
rapid urbanization. Indeed, the most common form of the publication
of chronicles as books is as anthologies of columns first written for the
daily press.
In contrast to the testimonio and the chronicle, both of which, but
especially the former, are characterized by their narrative structures and
in this sense have a clearly literary constitution, the essay adopts a more
direct and argumentative approach to description and analysis. It may
be equated with the treatises on philosophy, medicine, law, or natural
science published in the colonial period. During the revolutionary wars
and in the two centuries since independence, however, the essays that
have resonated most are those more concerned with political institu-
tions in Latin America, the interpretation of national histories, and the
character of national identities. From the early 19th century, the name
of the Great Liberator Simón Bolívar stands above others. In the last
years of the same century, José Enrique Rodó’s spiritual conceptual-
ization of Latin American culture not only initiated a lingering debate,
but established him as a founding figure of the modern Latin American
essay. Among those who followed and whose work has had influence
beyond the borders of their own countries, José Vasconcelos, José
Carlos Mariátegui, Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Gilberto Freyre, and
Octavio Paz had considerable impact in the first half of the 20th cen-
tury, whereas the likes of Ángel Rama, Silviano Santiago, and Beatriz
Sarlo, who published in the second half, have been widely read as both
cultural commentators and literary critics.

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INTRODUCTION • 19

Theater
The evolution of the theater in Latin America between the late 19th
century and the first half of the 20th century took place in the context
of significant changes undergone by Latin American society during the
same period and the transformation of theater as a cultural institution
in the world at large. By this time, however, Latin American writers
in all genres were learning to respond more creatively and critically
to influences from outside and to look at the world around them from
perspectives more attuned to their own realities and experiences.
Though following the trends from abroad, writers for the stage were
far less slavish in their adoption of new models. Thus, plays written for
the popular theaters in Buenos Aires by dramatists such as Florencio
Sánchez in the early 1900s embodied the points of view of the urban
populations for which they were written. The experimental plays of the
Argentinean Roberto Arlt and the Mexican Xavier Villaurrutia of the
1930s incorporated local perceptions and avant-garde practices. Above
all, theater came to be used to explore pressing questions of national-
ism and identity, whether among Mexican playwrights such as Rodolfo
Usigli, Celestino Gorostiza, and Vicente Leñero, or among their Brazil-
ian counterparts, such as Nelson Rodrigues or Ariano Vilar Suassuna.
Since the second half of the 20th century, dramatists and directors in
each of the countries of Latin America have explored ways to use the-
ater as a vehicle for representing and critiquing their own histories and
contemporary life.
The recent history of theater in Latin America has become the history
of a multitude of theatrical projects, some quite ephemeral, others more
durable, through which professionals associated with the stage have
endeavored to pursue their craft. At the same time, for all the progress
it has made, the theater in Latin America remains more vulnerable than
either poetry or prose. As an institution that depends on public perfor-
mance, it is highly susceptible to censorship during periods of conflict,
and it has had to compete, more so than other genres, with other forms
of entertaining and engaging the public, such as cinema, television, and
video. Nevertheless, the theater is a thriving and creative force in many
of Latin America’s major urban centers, and the work of its more prom-
inent authors is increasingly translated and performed internationally.

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10_479_02_Introduction.indd 20 11/4/10 7:28 AM
The Dictionary

– A –

ABREU, CAIO FERNANDO (Brazil, 1948–1996). Novelist, short


story writer, journalist, and dramatist. Considered a spokesperson
of his generation, Abreu’s narrative, often direct and confessional,
portrays contemporary anxieties and fears surrounding loneliness
and sexuality. A homosexual who died from AIDS-related compli-
cations, he was persecuted by the government and sought refuge
in the Campinas home of writer Hilda Hilst. His early short story
collections include Inventário do Irremediável (1970; Inventory of
Irretrievables) and Pedras de Calcutá (1977; Stones of Calcutta). His
novel Morangos Mofados (1982; Musty Strawberries) earned him
considerable success and Triângulo das Águas (1983; Triangle of the
Waters) the Jabuti Prize. The topic of AIDS is touched upon with
traces of black humor in his unpublished plays Zona Contaminada
(Contaminated Zone) and O Homem e a Mancha (The Man and the
Stain). See also GAY AND LESBIAN WRITERS AND WRITING;
THEATER.

ABREU, CAPISTRANO DE (Brazil, 1853–1927). Historian and


critic. He was the author of important studies of the Brazilian colo-
nial era, including Capítulos de História Colonial (1907; Chapters
of Colonial History) and the posthumous volumes O Descobrimento
do Brasil (1929; The Discovery of Brazil) and Caminhos Antigos e
Povoamento do Brasil (1930; Old Roads and Settlement of Brazil).

ABREU, CASIMIRO JOSÉ MARQUES DE (Brazil, 1839–1860).


Poet. Author of fewer than 100 poems, Marques de Abreu led a bo-
hemian life in Rio after a brief sojourn in Portugal. Despite an early
death from tuberculosis, he became an icon of romanticism, thanks
21

10_479_03_Dictionary1.indd 21 11/4/10 7:29 AM


22 • ACADEMIAS

to the successful volume Primaveras (1859; Springs), on the themes


of longing, love, and pessimism. See also ASSIS, JOAQUIM MA-
RIA MACHADO DE.

ACADEMIAS. Societies created in colonial Brazil for the study of


language, literature, history, and science. Famous ones include Aca-
demia Brasílica dos Esquecidos (Bahia, 1724; Brazilian Academy
of the Forgotten), Academia dos Felizes (Rio, 1736; Academy of
the Felicitous), Academia dos Seletos (Rio, 1752; Academy of the
Select), and Academia Brasileira dos Renascidos (Bahia, 1759; Bra-
zilian Academy of the Reborn). The Academia Brasileira de Letras
(Rio, 1896; Brazilian Academy of Letters) is a modern heir to this
tradition. Among its cofounders are the writers Joaquim Maria
Machado de Assis, Afonso Celso, Henrique Maximiano Coelho
Neto, and Alberto de Oliveira, and the critics Sílvio Romero
and José Veríssimo Dias de Matos. In 1977, Raquel de Queirós
became the first female member, and in 1996, Nélida Piñon was
elected its first female president. Membership has sometimes been
controversial, as in the cases of João Guimarães Rosa, perhaps the
most respected icon of 20th-century Brazilian literature, who was
admitted only three days before his death, and Paulo Coelho, a writer
of what some deem to be low-brow best sellers, who was elected to
the academy in 2002.

ACEVEDO DÍAZ, EDUARDO (Uruguay, 1851–1921). Novelist.


After an initial, somewhat unsuccessful, foray into romanticism in
his first literary undertakings, he turned to the historical novel in the
style of realism, influenced by Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832) and
the Episodios nacionales (Episodes from National History) of the
Spanish novelist Benito Pérez Galdós (1843–1920), and produced a
tetralogy concerned with the period of Uruguay’s emergence as a na-
tion. The most successful of the four works is the first Ismael (1888;
Ismael), covering the war with Spain (1808–1811). Nativa (1890;
Native) and Grito de Gloria (1893; Cry of Glory) address the period
from 1823 to 1825, which includes part of the occupation of Uruguay
by Brazil and its liberation by a group of exiles known as the “thirty-
three Orientales.” The last novel, Lanza y sable (1914; Lance and

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ACOSTA DE SAMPER, SOLEDAD • 23

Saber), is about the years 1834–1838 and internal struggles for power
after independence. See also RODRÍGUEZ MONEGAL, EMIR.

ACOSTA, DELFINA (Paraguay, 1956– ). Poet and short story writer.


She has published three collections of poetry—Todas las voces, mu-
jer. . . (1986; All the Voices, Woman . . . ); La cruz del colibrí (1993;
The Hummingbird’s Cross); and Romancero de mi pueblo (1998;
Ballads of My People)—as well as El viaje (1995; The Journey), a
volume of short stories.

ACOSTA, JOSÉ DE (Spain, 1540–1600). Chronicler. A member of


the Jesuit Order, he was sent to Lima in 1569 and remained in the
Americas until 1587. He traveled extensively and became familiar
with parts of the territories now known as Mexico, Peru, Bolivia,
and Chile. In addition to religious writings, he also wrote the
chronicle Historia natural y moral de las Indias (1590; The Natural
and Moral History of the Indies), which incorporated an earlier work
written in Latin, De natura Novi Orbis (1588; On the Nature of the
New World). The Historia natural y moral was widely read in its day
and was translated into several languages. It is recognized today as
one of the earliest attempts to undertake a systematic understanding
of natural phenomena in the Americas.

ACOSTA DE SAMPER, SOLEDAD (Colombia, 1833–1913). No-


velist and journalist. Among 19th-century Latin American women
writers, she was one of the most significant. She founded newspa-
pers and magazines and published a number of books in a variety of
genres. Her narratives, written in the style of 19th-century realism,
tell stories of the everyday lives of ordinary women. Novelas y cua-
dros de la vida sur-americana (1869; Novels and Sketches of South
American Life) is a collection of short pieces that also includes two
texts originally published separately: Dolores: cuadros de la vida
de una mujer (1867; Dolores: Scenes from a Woman’s Life), about
a woman who encounters her long-lost father only to learn that he
has leprosy and that she too has contracted the disease, and Teresa
la limeña: páginas de la vida de una peruana (1869; Teresa from
Lima: Pages in the Life of a Peruvian Woman), about the limitations

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24 • ACUÑA DE FIGUEROA, FRANCISCO

of marriage and other choices in life for a woman who discovers self-
fulfillment in writing. El corazón de la mujer (1869; The Heart of a
Woman) belongs to the same period in Acosta’s life and shows the
emotional transformations undergone by women from youth to old
age. A later work, Una holandesa en América (1888; A Dutch Woman
in America), documents the return of a woman to Colombia after being
raised in Holland. Its uniqueness as a travel narrative lies in the pre-
sentation of a journey by a woman through the worlds of women, and
its costumbrismo reflects a characteristic of Acosta’s other writings.

ACUÑA DE FIGUEROA, FRANCISCO (Uruguay, 1791–1862).


Poet. Considered one of the originators of Uruguayan literature, he
wrote an impressive amount of satirical and burlesque verse and is
also known for his celebratory poems, which include the lyrics for
the national anthems of Uruguay and Paraguay. Among his works
are Malambrunada (ca. 1829), a comic piece of epic poetry narra-
ting a battle between young and old women as representatives, res-
pectively, of romanticism and classicism; the licentious miscellany
Nomenclatura y apología del carajo (n.d.; Name and Apology for
the Prick); and Mosaico poético (1857; Poetic Mosaic), a collection
of his shorter verse.

ADÁN, MARTÍN (Peru, 1907–1985). Poet. Adán Martín was the


pseudonym of Rafael de la Fuente y Benavides. The influence of the
Spanish avant-garde and ultraísmo is to be found in the striking
images and wordplay of his early poetry and in a short novel, La casa
de cartón (1928; The Cardboard House), which describes a young
man’s awakening to life and is considered in Peruvian literature as
one of the best novels of his generation. At the same time, Adán was
drawn to the traditional. La rosa de la espinela (1939; The Rose of
the Espinela) is a collection of décimas or espinelas (stanzas of 10
lines of octosyllabic verses), and one of his best-known collections,
Travesía de extramares (1950; Voyage Beyond the Seas), is a book
of sonnets written in strict form while also exploring the limits of
the genre. In Escrito a ciegas (1961; Blindly Written), he ventured
into free verse for the first time, and in La mano desasida (Canto a
Macchu Picchu) (1964; The Relinquished Hand: A Song to Macchu
Picchu) and La piedra absoluta (1966; The Absolute Stone), he pro-

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AGUILERA MALTA, DEMETRIO • 25

duced much longer poems than he had been accustomed to write. In


Mi Darío (1967; My Darío) and Diario de poeta (1975; Diary of a
Poet), he returned to the sonnet. Much of Adán’s verse is profoundly
metaphysical, an exploration of the inner self and of the role of poetry
as an expression of the poet’s form of being.

ADOUM, JORGE ENRIQUE (Ecuador, 1926–2009). Poet, drama-


tist, and novelist. In whatever genre he chose, he was an experimental,
avant-garde writer. He was also ardently Marxist and an advocate
of the social origin and role of literature. The central theme of much
of his work is the invasion and colonization of the Americas, which
he denounces defiantly and combattively. It is the theme of his first
collection of poetry, Ecuador amargo (1949; Bitter Ecuador), and his
four-part epic Los cuadernos de la tierra (1952–1961; Notebooks of
the Land), a history of violence in the region of contemporary Ecua-
dor from pre-Hispanic times to the 18th century. Later collections of
poetry, such as Yo me fui con tu nombre por la tierra (1964; I Left
with Your Name Across the Land) and Prepoemas en postespañol
(1979; Pre-poems in Post-Spanish), are less didactic and place more
emphasis on the exploration of language.
Adoum’s political stance is equally strong in his theater, such
as El sol bajo las patas de los caballos (1972; The Sun Trampled
Beneath the Horses’ Hooves) and La subida a los infiernos (1976;
Ascent to Hell), which are, respectively, an attack against conquests
of all kinds in all places and an attack against bourgeois suppression
of religious and human rights. Aside from his poetry and theater,
however, the work by Adoum that has brought him most celebrity
is his novel Entre Marx y una mujer desnuda (1976; Between Marx
and a Naked Woman). It is a complex novel, constructed in concen-
tric circles, featuring an author writing a book about another author
contemplating writing a book about yet another author. The novel
embodies the customary thematics of Adoum’s work and is consid-
ered one of the most remarkable examples of the new novel in Latin
America.

AGUILERA MALTA, DEMETRIO (Ecuador, 1909–1981). Nov-


elist. He is considered one of Ecuador’s most important 20th-century
writers. His early work, including Don Goyo (1933; Don Goyo)

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26 • AGUIRRE, ISIDORA

and Canal zone (1935; Canal Zone), was produced during his as-
sociation with the Grupo de Guayaquil. The realist style of those
works also characterized his historical novels, among them Una cruz
en la Sierra Maestra (1960; A Cross in the Sierra Maestra), on the
Cuban Revolution; La caballeresa del sol (1964; The Lady of the
Sun), on Simón Bolívar’s lover Manuela Sáenz; El Quijote de El
Dorado (1964; The Quixote of El Dorado), on Francisco de Ore-
llana (1500–ca. 1549), the first European to navigate the Amazon;
and Un nuevo mar para el rey (1965; A New Ocean for the King),
on Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475–1519), the European discoverer
of the Pacific Ocean. In contrast to these works, the novel for which
Aguilera Malta is best known, Siete lunas y siete serpientes (1970;
Seven Serpents and Seven Moons), departs considerably from the so-
cial realism of his earler style. It is set in a jungle town and pits good
against evil and tradition against modernity in the style of magic re-
alism. A later novel, El secuestro del general (1973; Kidnapping the
General), belongs to the Spanish American dictator novel, but did
not achieve the same success. Aguilera Malta also wrote four pieces
for the theater.

AGUIRRE, ISIDORA (Chile, 1919– ). Dramatist. Much of her work


is socially committed and written in the manner of Brechtian the-
ater, but she has also written in many other styles. La pérgola de
las flores (1960; The Flowering Pergola) is a muscial comedy. Los
papeleros (1963; The Paper Pickers) dramatizes the plight of those
who survive by scavenging for paper. Los que van quedando en el ca-
mino (1969; Those Left by the Wayside) also deals with the socially
marginalized and earned her a Casa de las Américas prize. Lautaro:
epopeya del pueblo mapuche (1982; Lautaro: Epic of the Mapuche)
is a historical play that dramatizes resistance to the Spanish conquest
of Chile. Aguirre has also written two novels and is both a writer and
illustrator of children’s literature. See also THEATER; WOMEN.

AGUSTÍN, JOSÉ (Mexico, 1944– ). Novelist. He was the prime force


in the literary movement of the 1960s known in Mexico as la onda,
or new wave, which professed an affiliation for pop culture and a
rebellious attitude toward conventions. His first novel, La tumba
(1964; The Tomb), written in that vein, expresses the disaffection of

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AIRA, CÉSAR • 27

youth with the establishment through the theme of the lack of com-
munication between parents and children. Its language was thought
to be indecent by some readers and was the source of considerable
controversy. His second novel, De perfil (1966; In Profile), uses the
same kind of uninhibited, and very humorous, language in a fast-
-paced, coming-of-age novel covering three days in the life of its
protagonist. In a later novel, Ciudades desiertas (1982; Deserted
Cities), Agustín also reacted to the status quo by giving a voice to a
new generation of women. In Dos horas de sol (1994; Two Hours
of Sun), he used the format of a journalistic report to denounce dis-
crimination against minorities and the negative consequences of the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) signed by Canada,
the United States, and Mexico. Other novels by Agustín include Se
está haciendo tarde (1973; It’s Getting Late), El rock de la cárcel
(1985; Jailhouse Rock), and La miel derramada (1992; Spilt Honey).

AGUSTINI, DELMIRA (Uruguay, 1886–1914). Poet. She wrote in


the style of modernismo, although her relative isolation in Uruguay
set her apart from the major figures of the time. Three collections of
poetry were published during her lifetime: El libro blanco (Frágil)
(1907; The White Book: Fragile), Cantos de la mañana (1910; Songs
of the Morning), and Los cálices vacíos (1913; Empty Chalices).
Two more appeared posthumously: Los astros del abismo (1924; The
Stars of the Abyss) and El Rosario de Eros (1924; Eros’s Rosary).
She wrote personal, intimate verses. Her erotic themes, developed in
part in relation to the writings of Spanish 16th-century mystics, often
attracted more attention to her than to her work and resulted in a su-
perficial criticism of her writing, both in her lifetime and after, which
her death, at the age of 28 and at the hands of her estranged husband,
did little to dispel. See also MARTÍNEZ MORENO, CARLOS; VAZ
FERREIRA, MARÍA EUGENIA; WOMEN.

AIRA, CÉSAR (Argentina, 1949– ). Novelist, short story writer, es-


sayist. Although he has had limited public recognition, especially
outside Argentina, he is considered one of his country’s most impor-
tant contemporary writers. He is the author of more than 50 books.
Most are works of fiction, but he has also published essays, notably
Copi (1991; Copi), on the Franco-Argentinean author Raúl Damonte

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28 • AIRES RAMOS DA SILVA DE EÇA, MATIAS

Botana (1939–1987), and Alejandra Pizarnik (1998; Alejandra


Pizarnik), a study of the Argentinean poet. He is also the author of
Diccionario de autores latinoamericanos (2001; Dictionary of Latin
American Authors).
The content of Aira’s fiction is varied. He has written on histori-
cal themes in Ema, la cautiva (1981; Emma the Captive), a spoof of
19th-century captive literature, such as Esteban Echeverría’s La
cautiva, La liebre (1991; The Hare), and Un episodio en la vida de un
pintor viajero (2000; An Episode in the Life of a Landscape Painter).
His hometown, Coronel Pringles in Buenos Aires province, figures
in works like Como me hice monja (1993; How I Became a Nun) and
Las curas milagrosas del doctor Aira (2007; The Miraculous Cures
of Dr. Aira). Other novels, El sueño (1998; The Dream) and La villa
(The Slum), are set in the district of Flores in Buenos Aires.
Many of Aira’s novels are short. Humor plays an important role
in his fiction, much of it not easily classified because he frequently
crosses boundaries between genres. His plots often begin simply but
become extraordinarily complicated and may remain open-ended or
have very extravagant endings, which gives his writing the quality
of a particular kind of magic realism. See also LAMBORGHINI,
OSVALDO.

AIRES RAMOS DA SILVA DE EÇA, MATIAS (Brazil, 1705–


1763). Essayist and moral philosopher. He was born in Brazil but
emigrated young to Portugal, where he was educated. Dedicated
to the king of Portugal, his didactic Reflexões sobre a Vaidade
dos Homens (1752; Reflections on the Vanity of Men) allies him
with French moralists such as Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592),
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), and François de la Rochefoucauld
(1613–1680). Other works include Lettres bohèmiennes (1759; Bo-
hemian Letters) and Problema de Arquitetura Civil (1770; Problem
of Civil Architecture).

AJZENBERG, BERNARDO (Brazil, 1959– ). Journalist and nov-


elist. His urban fiction portrays uprooted characters entangled in
intimate dramas, such as Variações Goldman (1998; The Goldman
Variations), set in the overwhelming environment of São Paulo,
and A Gaiola de Faraday (2001; Faraday’s Cage), the story of

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ALEGRÍA, CIRO • 29

an unemployed civil engineer who abandons his family in a self-


imposed exile.

ALBERDI, JUAN BAUTISTA (Argentina, 1810–1884). Essayist. He


was a prominent 19th-century intellectual and is remembered mainly
for political rather than literary writings. His Bases y puntos de par-
tida para la organización de la República Argentina (1852; Founda-
tions and Beginnings for Organizing the Argentinean Republic) was
highly influential in Argentina and elsewhere in Latin America.

ALEGRÍA, ALONSO (Peru, 1940– ). Dramatist. He was the director


of the Teatro Nacional Popular in Lima from its founding in 1971
until 1978. Alegría’s first play was Remigio el huaquero (1965; The
Buried Palace), the story of a man who makes his living finding and
selling artefacts mainly from pre-Hispanic graves. His best-known
work, however, is El cruce sobre el Niágara (1974; Crossing Ni-
agara), about the Frenchman known as Charles Blondin (1824–
1897), who was celebrated for his crossings over Niagara Falls on
a tightrope. Other plays by Alegría include El color de Chambalén
(1981; The Color of Chamberlain) and Daniela Frank (1982; Daniela
Frank). See also THEATER.

ALEGRÍA, CIRO (Peru, 1909–1967). Novelist. His involvement


in Peru in the Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (APRA;
American Popular Revolutionary Alliance) resulted in periods of
imprisonment and exile. He wrote three novels, which show the in-
fluence of his politics and the teachings of two prominent Peruvians,
José Carlos Mariátegui and Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre. La
serpiente de oro (1933; The Golden Serpent), the first of the novels,
is an episodic work constructed from scenes in the lives of com-
munities living on the banks of the Marañón River. In Los perros
hambrientos (1935; The Hungry Dogs), his second novel, Alegría
focused on the poverty and violence of rural life using the metaphor
of a pack of sheep dogs. Although both novels were successful, the
author’s fame rests above all on his third novel, El mundo es ancho
y ajeno (1941; Broad and Alien Is the World), a narrative about the
trials of an Indian community in the Peruvian highlands. It explores
the community’s history, culture, and connections to the land and the

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30 • ALEGRÍA, CLARIBEL

sufferings caused by persecution and encroachment from outsiders.


The novel is one of the main works of Peruvian indigenismo and
received a prize sponsored by the U.S. publisher Farrar & Rinehart.
Aside from a collection of short stories Duelo de caballeros (1963;
A Duel of Gentlemen), Alegría published no other books during
his lifetime, but three books appeared posthumously: a portrait of
Gabriela Mistral, a memoir of the Cuban Revolution (1973), and
an unfinished novel, Lázaro (1973; Lazarus). See also LÓPEZ AL-
BÚJAR, ENRIQUE.

ALEGRÍA, CLARIBEL (El Salvador, 1924– ). Poet, novelist, short


story writer. She was born Clara Isabel Alegría Vides in Nicaragua,
but grew up in El Salvador, where she is a citizen. Much of her writ-
ing emerges from her social and political commitment to Nicaragua.
Some of it was written in collaboration with her husband, Darwin
Flakoll, who has also been her translator. Her prose writings include
Cenizas de Izalco (1966; Ashes of Izalco), a story of the genocide of
the Izalco Indians; Album familiar (1982; Family Album: Three No-
vellas); No me agarran viva: la mujer salvadoreña en lucha (1983;
They Won’t Take Me Alive: Salvadoran Women in Struggle for Na-
tional Liberation), a testimonio based on the life of a guerrillera;
Para romper el silencio (1984; To Break the Silence), also a testimo-
nio, based on interviews with Salvadoran prisoners; and Despierta,
mi bien, despierta (1986; Awake, My Love, Awake). Luisa en el país
de la realidad (1987; Luisa in Realityland) is an autobiographical
work that combines verse and prose.
Alegría has also written children’s literature and has published
more than 15 books of poetry since 1948. Her earlier collections,
Anillo de silencio (1948; Ring of Silence), Vigilias (1953; Vigils), Anu-
ario (1955; Yearbook), and Huésped de mi tiempo (1961; Guest of My
Time), are lyrical, introverted, and sensuous. Some of her later collec-
tions show more of her political commitment. These include Sobrevivo
(1978; I Survive), which won a Casa de las Américas prize; La mujer
del río Sumpul (1987; Women of the River); Fuga de canto grande
(1992; Fugues); and Umbrales (1996; Thresholds). See also WOMEN.

ALEGRÍA, FERNANDO (Chile, 1918–2005). Poet, novelist, and


critic. He lived much of his life in the United States and was the

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ALENCAR, JOSÉ DE • 31

author of over two dozen books, including several significant works


of criticism. Among his novels, his first, Recabarren (1938; Re-
cabarren), is based on the life of the Chilean politician Luis Emilio
Recabarren. Caballo de copas (1957; My Horse González) is a hu-
morous narrative about a Chilean jockey who emigrates to the United
States. Coral de guerra (1979; War Chorale) and El paso de gansos
(1980; Goose Step) are both critiques of the military regime in Chile.
His last work of fiction was La rebelión de los placeres (1990; The
Revolt of the Pleasures).

ALENCAR, JOSÉ DE (Brazil, 1829–1877). Novelist, journalist,


dramatist, essayist, and poet. A prominent figure of Brazilian ro-
manticism, Alencar was born and raised in Ceará, Northeastern
Brazil, where his father participated in revolutionary struggles. He
studied law at São Paulo and Recife before settling in Rio to work as
a journalist for major dailies and publishing his early Cartas sobre
“A Confederação dos Tamoios” (1856; Letters on “The Tamoio
Confederation”), critical articles on a poem by Domingos José Gon-
çalves de Magalhães that launched a debate on the poet and the role
of indigenous people in Brazilian culture. Alencar’s seminal works
inspired by indianismo include the novels O Guarani (1857; The
Guaraní), Iracema (1865; Iracema), and Ubirajara (1874, Ubira-
jara), and his epic poem Os Filhos de Tupã (written 1863; published
1910–1911; The Sons of Tupã).
His vast narrative oeuvre included the serial novels Cinco Minutos
(1856; Five Minutes) and A Viuvinha (1860; The Little Widow);
urban novels dealing with social issues, Senhora (1875; Senhora:
Profile of a Woman) and Encarnação (1893; Encarnação); the
regional novels O Gaúcho (1870; The Gaucho), O Tronco do Ipê
(1871; The Trunk of the Catalpa), Til (1872; Tide), and O Sertanejo
(1875; The Backlander); and the historical novels As Minas de
Prata (1862/1865–1866; The Silver Mines), Alfarrábios: Crônicas
dos Tempos Coloniais (1873; Old Books: Chronicles of Colonial
Times), and A Guerra dos Mascates (1873–1874; The War of the
Street Peddlers). His writing for the theater includes one historical
play, O Jesuíta (1875; The Jesuit), and several comedies and dramas
that were staged in Rio de Janeiro: O Demônio Familiar (1857; The
Familiar Demon), O Rio de Janeiro: Verso e Reverso (1857; Rio de

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32 • ALLENDE, ISABEL

Janeiro: Back and Front), As Asas de um Anjo (1860; The Wings of


an Angel), and Mãe (1862; Mother).
Alongside his literary career, Alencar had an active political life as
regional representative for Ceará and minister of justice. A staunch
opponent of Emperor Pedro II (1840–1889), his critiques include
Ao Imperador: Cartas Políticas de Erasmo (1865; To the Emperor:
Political Letters by Erasmus) and Ao Emperador: Novas Cartas
Políticas de Erasmo (1866; To the Emperor: New Political Letters by
Erasmus). Suffering from tuberculosis, Alencar traveled to Europe in
1877 to attempt a cure, but died that same year. His autobiography
is entitled Como e Porque Sou Romancista (1893; How and Why I
Became a Novelist). Alencar’s wide-ranging oeuvre produced the
most complete portrait of Brazil available at the time and laid the
literary groundwork for the creation of Brazil’s cultural identity. See
also ALVES, ANTÔNIO FREDERICO DE CASTRO.

ALLENDE, ISABEL (Chile, 1942– ). Novelist. She is a widely trans-


lated author of best sellers, noted for her storytelling, romanticism,
and rich language. She has lived outside her native Chile since 1975,
mainly in the United States. Her literary popularity began with La
casa de los espíritus (1982; The House of the Spirits), a work with
elements of magic realism telling the history of Chile through a line
of female characters, drawing on her own life and the political and
cultural figures of her country. It has been compared with Cien años
de soledad (One Hundred Years of Solitude) by Gabriel García
Márquez, not always very favorably. Her second novel, De amor y
de sombras (1984; Of Love and Shadows), deals with Chile after the
overthrow of Salvador Allende’s government in 1973.
Since then, she has published over a dozen books. Eva Luna (1987)
and Cuentos de Eva Luna (1989; The Stories of Eva Luna) are both set
in the tropics. Paula (1994; Paula), Afrodita: cuentos, recetas y otros
afrodisíacos (1997; Aphrodite: A Memoir of the Senses), and La suma
de los días (2007; The Sum of Our Days) are all memoirs, the first
about her life in Santiago written as a letter to her daughter, who was
dying of porphyria. Allende has also set novels in California, where
she now lives, including El plan infinito (1991; The Infinite Plan), Hija
de la fortuna (1999; Daughter of Fortune), and Retrato en sepia (2000;
Portrait in Sepia), the last about links between California and Chile in

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ALMEIDA, JÚLIA LOPES DE • 33

the 19th and early 20th centuries. Among her more recent novels are
Zorro (2005; Zorro), about the legendary comic-book and Hollywood
film hero, and Inés del alma mía (2006; Inés of My Soul), based on the
life of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz.
Allende’s literary output also includes books such as El reino
del dragón de oro (2004; Kingdom of the Golden Dragon) and El
bosque de los pigmeos (2005; Forest of the Pygmies), both works of
children’s literature, a genre she had already cultivated in Santiago.
See also WOMEN.

ALMEIDA, GUILHERME DE (Brazil, 1890–1969). Journalist, es-


sayist, poet, and translator. Almeida received his law degree in 1912
in São Paulo, where he wrote for major daily newspapers such as O
Estado de São Paulo. He participated in the Week of Modern Art
in 1922 alongside Mário de Andrade, who praised his early poetry,
such as Nós (1917; Us), Messidor (1919; Messidor), A Dança das
Horas (1919; The Dance of the Hours), and Livro de Horas de Sóror
Dolorosa (1920; The Book of Hours of Sister Dolorous). A Frauta
que Eu Perdi (1924; The Flute I Lost) and A Flor que Foi um Homem:
Narciso (1925; The Flower That Was a Man: Narcissus) followed the
models of parnassianism and symbolism, privileging the sonnet and
sensual images or images based on Greek themes. They gave way to
Meu (1925; Mine) and Raça (1925; Race), modernist works inspired
by nationalism. But Almeida’s affiliation with Brazilian modernism
was temporary. His later poetry, Você (1931; You) and Acaso (1939;
Chance), displays his gift for versification and traditional forms and
themes. Acalanto de Bartira (1954; Bartira’s Lullaby) was written in
praise of the city of São Paulo, and Camoniana (1956; Camoniana) is
a eulogy of the Portuguese renaissance poet Luís de Camões (1524–
1580). He also wrote haikus and translated Sophocles, Rabindranath
Tagore (1861–1941), and Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867).

ALMEIDA, JÚLIA LOPES DE (Brazil, 1862–1934). Dramatist,


journalist, novelist, and short story writer. Married to the Portuguese
writer Felinto de Almeida, Lopes de Almeida had three children who
were also writers and devoted 40 years of her life to a literary career,
writing extensively for newspapers in São Paulo and Rio, occasion-
ally on women’s issues. Her major novels in the style of realism,

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34 • ALMEIDA, MANUEL ANTÔNIO DE

A Família Medeiros (1892; The Medeiros Family) and A Falência


(1901; The Bankruptcy), and the book of short stories, Ânsia Eterna
(1903; Eternal Longing), depict the mores of the period and her sup-
port for abolitionism. She also wrote plays and didactic works. See
also WOMEN.

ALMEIDA, MANUEL ANTÔNIO DE (Brazil, 1831–1861). Journal-


ist and novelist. Orphaned at age 10, Almeida grew up in a family of
modest means. Early training in drawing was followed by an interest
in medicine. While still a student, he began to collaborate with Rio’s
daily newspaper Correio Mercantil, where he published his serial
novel, Memórias de um Sargento de Milícias (1853–1855; Memoirs
of a Militia Sergeant), under the pseudonym “Um Brasileiro” (“A
Brazilian”). Despite his lack of literary pretensions, this memoir-like
social novel of customs in the style of realism became a landmark
document of life in Rio de Janeiro in the early days of the 19th cen-
tury through its depiction of types and its use of a personal narrative
voice in the manner of the picaresque novel. This literary line would
be followed by Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, who was Al-
meida’s apprentice typographer at the National Press. Almeida had a
brief stint in politics, but died young during a pre-electoral trip when
his ship capsized off the coast of Rio de Janeiro. See also REBELO,
MARQUES.

ALTAMIRANO, IGNACIO MANUEL (Mexico, 1834–1893).


Novelist. He was of indigenous heritage and a prominent national
figure in literature, education, and journalism during the period fol-
lowing the French occupation of Mexico (1864–1867). His work
belongs to a variety of genres: journalism, poetry, costumbrismo
sketches, and short narratives, of which La navidad en las montañas
(1871; Christmas in the Mountains) is the most popular. Altami-
rano’s two best-known novels are Clemencia (1869; Clemencia), a
sentimental narrative set in the time of the French occupation, and
the historical novel El Zarco (completed 1889, published 1901; El
Zarco the Blue-eyed Bandit). Both are didactic novels, conforming
to the characteristics of romanticism, and served to promote ethi-
cal conduct and a sense of Mexican nationalism. See also VALLE,
RAFAEL HELIODORO.

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ÁLVAREZ GARDEAZÁBAL, GUSTAVO • 35

ALVARADO TEZOZOMOC, HERNANDO (Mexico, active 1598–


early 17th century). Chronicler. His chronicle Crónica mexicana
(first published in 1878; Mexican Chronicle) tells the story of the
Aztec nobility from its mythic origins to the Spanish conquest from
an indigenous perspective.

ALVARENGA, MANUEL INÁCIO DA SILVA (Brazil, 1749–


1814). Journalist and poet. Son of a mulatto and an unknown mother,
Silva Alvarenga studied in Rio and Coimbra (Portugal), where he
received a degree in canon law. His satiric poem O Desertor (1774;
The Deserter) justified university reforms introduced by the Portu-
guese minister at the time, the Marquis of Pombal (1750–1777). Back
in Brazil, he worked as a lawyer and professor of poetics and rheto-
ric and was jailed between 1795 and 1797 for his sympathies with
French revolutionary ideas. Glaura: Poemas Eróticos (1799; Glaura:
Erotic Poems) explores bucolic themes in rondo and madrigal poetic
forms using names of Brazilian trees, which, according to Ronald
de Carvalho, makes Silva Alvarenga “the link between Arcadians
and Romantics.”

ÁLVAREZ, JOSÉ (Argentina, 1858–1903). Essayist and journalist.


A tireless contributor to the magazines and newspapers of his day,
he was more popularly known as Fray Mocho, the pseudonym with
which he signed his essays on Buenos Aires written in the style of
costumbrismo. He also wrote Vida de los ladrones célebres de Bue-
nos Aires y sus maneras de robar (1887; Lives of Celebrated Thieves
of Buenos Aires and How They Stole); Memorias de un vigilante
(1897; Memoirs of a Constable), derived from his experiences as an
administrator working for the police service; and an imaginary ac-
count of a journey on a whaler, En el mar austral: croquis fueguinos
(1898; In the Southern Sea: Fuegian Sketches). He was the first edi-
tor of the magazine Caras y caretas, founded in 1898, one of Argen-
tina’s significant news magazines of the first half of the 20th century.
An anthology of his writings, Cuentos de Fray Mocho (1906; Tales
by Fray Mocho), has been reprinted many times.

ÁLVAREZ GARDEAZÁBAL, GUSTAVO (Colombia, 1945– ).


Novelist. His most celebrated novel, Cóndores no entierran todos los

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36 • ALVES, ANTÔNIO FREDERICO DE CASTRO

días (1971; Condors Are Not Buried Every Day), is about la violen-
cia and was the basis for a 1984 film. Other novels include La tara
del papa (1971; The Pope’s Phobia), El bazar de los idiotas (1947;
Bazar of Idiots), Los míos (1981; My People), El último gamonal
(1987; The Last Chief), Los sordos ya no hablan (1991; The Deaf No
Longer Speak), and La resurrección de los malditos (2007; Resurrec-
tion of the Accursed). In addition to Colombia’s history of violence,
he criticizes society, religion, and corruption. He is also a newspaper
and radio commentator and has held political office, as mayor of Tu-
luá and as governor for Valle del Cauca. He was imprisoned in 1999
for involvement with drug traffickers in a case that many believe was
politically motivated.

ALVES, ANTÔNIO FREDERICO DE CASTRO (Brazil, 1847–


1871). Dramatist and poet. The son of a doctor, Castro Alves studied
law in Recife, where he came in contact with liberal abolitionists
and fell in love with the actress Eugênia Câmara, who performed in
the play he wrote for her, Gonzaga ou a Revolução de Minas (1875;
Gonzaga or The Minas Revolution). He moved to São Paulo, where
he met important young academics like Joaquim Nabuco and Rui
Barbosa, and during a visit to Rio his poetic talent impressed Joa-
quim Maria Machado de Assis and José de Alencar. After his
breakup with Câmara, Castro Alves took up hunting and accidentally
shot himself in the foot, which had to be amputated, aggravating his
childhood tuberculosis. Retiring to convalesce in the interior of Ba-
hia, he devoted his energies to the publication of Espumas Flutuantes
(1870; Floating Foams), a poetry volume influenced by Alphonse de
Lamartine (1790–1869) and Victor Hugo (1802–1885). He is also
known as a member of the literary school of condoreirismo, which
emphasized a poetry of egalitarianism and social concerns. He died
before he could publish several important volumes of antislavery
poetry—Vozes d’África: Navio Negreiro (1880; Voices from Africa:
The Slave Ship), Os Escravos (1883; The Slaves), and A Cachoeira
de Paulo Afonso (1876; The Paulo Afonso Falls)—which, signifi-
cantly, appeared before the abolition of slavery in Brazil in 1888. For
decades, much of his reputation was due to word of mouth, as many
of his works only saw the light of day 50 years after his death. See
also ROMERO, SÍLVIO; THEATER.

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AMADO, JORGE • 37

ALVIM, FRANCISCO (Brazil, 1938– ). Poet. A career diplomat, Al-


vim has lived in Paris, Barcelona, Rotterdam, and Costa Rica. Asso-
ciated with post-avant-garde poetry and later with poesia marginal,
Alvim’s early works, Sol dos Cegos (1968; Sun of the Blind), Pas-
satempo (1974; Pastime), and Lago, Montanha (1981; Lake, Moun-
tain), alternate inner meditation with external observation. Elefante
(2000; Elephant) uses a ready-made aesthetic, collecting snippets of
everyday speech. He earned the Jabuti Prize twice, in 1981 and in
1988, for his Poesias Reunidas, 1968/1988 (1988; Collected Poems).

AMADO, JORGE (Brazil, 1912–2001). Biographer, dramatist, novel-


ist, journalist, and poet. One of Brazil’s most translated and interna-
tionally known writers, Amado was born on a farm in the interior
of Bahia. He studied in Rio and Salvador, before settling there as a
journalist in the 1920s and becoming acquainted with the bohemian
modernist intelligentsia. After an early novel, O País do Carnaval
(1931; The Country of Carnival), Amado traveled extensively in the
countryside of Bahia and Sergipe, the setting of his rural and urban
proletarian works, Cacau (1933; Cacao), Suor (1934; Sweat), Jubi-
abá (1935; Jubiabá), Mar Morto (1936; Sea of Death), and Capitães
da Areia (1937; Captains of the Sands), the latter three lyrical por-
trayals of quarrelling sailors and love.
In the 1930s, Amado toured Latin America and became a po-
litically committed writer, collaborating with José Lins do Rego
Cavalcanti, Graciliano Ramos, Aníbal Machado, and Raquel
de Queirós on Brandão entre o Mar e o Amor (1942; Brandão Be-
tween the Sea and Love). Opposed to the Estado Novo authoritar-
ian regime (1937–1945) of President Getúlio Vargas, he was jailed
briefly in 1942, and in 1945 joined the Communist Party. During
World War II, Amado wrote propaganda novels such as Terras do
Sem Fim (1943; The Violent Lands), São Jorge dos Ilhéus (1944;
São Jorge of Ilhéus), and Seara Vermelha (1946; Red Harvest),
and biographies such as ABC de Castro Alves (1941; ABC of
Castro Alves) and Vida de Luís Carlos Prestes, O Cavaleiro da
Esperança (1942; Life of Luis Carlos Prestes, Knight of Hope).
After the war, a long sojourn in Europe and Asia (1948–1952)
inspired his travel memoir Os Subterrâneos da Liberdade (1954;
The Freedom Underground).

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38 • AMADO, JORGE

Amado’s later novels chronicle life in the provinces, particularly


through the invention of free-spirited, sexually active women char-
acters who emblematize the Brazilian people: Gabriela, Cravo e
Canela (1958; Gabriela, Clove and Cinnamon), Dona Flor e Seus
Dois Maridos (1966; Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands), Tenda
dos Milagres (1969; Tent of Miracles), Tereza Batista, Cansada
de Guerra (1969; Tereza Batista: Home from the Wars), and Tieta
do Agreste, Pastora de Cabras (1977; Tieta, the Goat Girl). Ga-
briela, Dona Flor, and Tieta do Agreste have all been adapted for
the screen. Some of these novels became best sellers and earned
him considerable success—prizes and countless translations and
reprints—as well as some notoriety; because of threats due to the
alleged morally offensive content of his novels, he was unable to
visit Ilhéus for years.
Os Velhos Marinheiros (1961; Home Is the Sailor)—a volume
that contains two novellas, A Morte e a Morte de Quincas Berro
D’Água (The Two Deaths of Quincas Wateryell) and A Completa
Verdade sobre as Discutidas Aventuras do Comandante Vasco
Moscoso de Aragão, Capitão de Longo Curso (The Whole Truth
Concerning the Redoubtful Adventures of Captain Vasco Moscoso
de Aragão, Master Mariner)—and Os Pastores da Noite (1964;
Shepherds of the Night) are somewhat different, shorter narratives
with interconnected characters. Subsequent novels, Farda, Fardão,
Camisola de Dormir (1979; Pen, Sword, Camisole) and Tocaia
Grande: A Face Obscura (1984; Showdown), also had great com-
mercial success.
The author’s last books include O Sumiço da Santa (1988; The
War of the Saints), A Descoberta da América pelos Turcos (1994;
How the Turks Discovered America), the memoir Navegação de
Cabotagem (1992; Coastal Navigation), and O Compadre de Ogum
(1995; Companion of the God Ogum). He also wrote the travel guide
Bahia de Todos os Santos (1945; Bahia de Todos os Santos). A writer
of great popular appeal, Amado also received numerous homages
from samba schools and Afro-Brazilian religious communities as
well as academic honors. A foundation was established in 1987 to
promote his literature and Bahian culture in general. Although he was
often a Nobel Prize hopeful, he died without receiving it. See also
RIBEIRO, JOÃO UBALDO.

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AMORIM, ENRIQUE • 39

AMÂNCIO, MOACIR (Brazil, 1949– ). Journalist, essayist, and poet.


For many years the head of the culture section of the newspaper O
Estado de São Paulo, Amâncio’s early fiction includes Chame o
Ladrão (1978; Call the Thief) and O Riso do Dragão (1981; The
Dragon’s Laughter). Better known as a poet, he has published Do
Objeto Útil (1993; The Useful Object), Figuras na Sala (Figures in
the Room, 1995), O Olho do Canário (1998; The Canary’s Eye),
Colores Siguientes (1999; Following Colors), Contar a Romã (2001;
Counting the Pomegranate), Óbvio (2004; Obvious), and Ata (2007;
Ata), his collected poems. Amâncio employs a synthetic and elliptic
style and has also written poems in Spanish, English, and Hebrew.

AMBROGI, ARTURO (El Salvador, 1875–1936). Short story writer


and chronicler. Although at first drawn to modernismo, he turned
more to the realism of costumbrismo and naturalism as he ma-
tured and published many of his sketches of Salvadoran life in El
libro del trópico (1907; Book of the Tropics) and El segundo libro
del trópico (1916; Second Book of the Tropics). Other books, some
of which also reflect his travels in Asia, include Cuentos y fanta-
sías (1895; Tales and Fantasies), Máscaras, manchas y sensaciones
(1901; Masks, Blots, and impressions), Sensaciones del Japón y de
la China (1915; Impressions of Japan and China), and El jetón (1936;
Thick-lips).

AMORIM, ENRIQUE (Uruguay, 1900–1960). Novelist, short story


writer, and poet. Although he published 10 books of poetry, his lit-
erary reputation rests primarily on his fiction, which consists of 15
novels and 14 collections of short stories. His fiction belongs mainly
in the tradition of realism, but he often gives a new twist to estab-
lished tradition. In an early collection of short stories, Horizontes y
bocacalles (1926; Horizons and Street Entrances), he introduced the
urban and rural worlds that would occupy most of his fiction. In La
carreta (1932; The Wagon), he brought sexuality into the rural real-
ist novel through a story about traveling prostitutes. In El paisano
Aguilar (1934; The Compatriot Aguilar), his contribution to gaucho
literature, he attempted a new description of the gaucho, and he
wrote about the conflicts between landowners and immigrants in El
caballo y su sombra (1941; The Horse and His Shadow). Amorim

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40 • ANCHIETA, JOSÉ DE

wrote two works of crime fiction, El asesino desvelado (1945; The


Murderer Unveiled) and Feria de farsantes (1952; Fair of Frauds),
both published in a series edited by Jorge Luis Borges and Adolfo
Bioy Casares. His last novels include Corral abierto (1956; Open
Corral), about youth in the collar of shantytowns surrounding Mon-
tevideo and cities of the interior; Los montaraces (1957; The Wild
Men), on rural themes; and La desembocadura (1958; The Culmina-
tion), a retrospective on the first half of the 20th century.

ANCHIETA, JOSÉ DE (Brazil, 1534–1597). Chronicler, dramatist,


and poet. Often deemed Brazil’s first writer, Anchieta was born in
the Canary Islands but arrived as a Jesuit novice in Brazil, where he
founded schools and taught Latin. Captured by the Tamoyo Indians,
in 1563 he composed the Latin poem De Beata Virgine Dei Matre
Maria (1663; Of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God). He cat-
echized and served as conflict negotiator for various native peoples,
whose languages he learned. He authored chronicles, prayers, and
religious plays, or autos, in Portuguese, Tupi, and Spanish, featuring
Indian myths and rituals. Other works include Arte de Gramática
da Língua Mais Usada na Costa do Brasil (1595; Grammar of the
Most Used Language on the Coast of Brazil); Cartas, Informações,
Fragmentos Históricos e Sermões (1933; Letters, Reports, Historical
Fragments, and Sermons); and the epic poem De Rebus Gestis Mendi
de Saa (1958; History of Mem de Sá), on the Portuguese conquest of
Brazil. See also THEATER.

ANCONA, ELIGIO (Mexico, 1836–1893). Novelist. He was a


prominent politician of the Yucatán whose literary reputation de-
rives from a half dozen historical novels set mainly in the colonial
period. Among them are Los mártires de Anáhuac (1870; Martyrs
of Anahuac), concerned with the period of the Spanish conquest
(1519–1521); El filibustero (1866; The Buccaneer), dealing with
political events in the Yucatán in the late 17th and early 18th centu-
ries, notwithstanding its apparently nautical title; and Memorias de
un alférez (1904; Memoirs of an Army Lieutenant), a novel of love
and intrigue set principally in the 1820s, the early years of Mexican
independence. Ancona also wrote Historia de Yucatán (4 vols.,
1878–1880; History of the Yucatan).

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ANDRADE, CARLOS DRUMMOND DE • 41

ANDERSON IMBERT, ENRIQUE (Argentina, 1910–2000). Novel-


ist, short story writer, and critic. He emigrated to the United States
in 1946, where he became a prominent university professor and
critic of Spanish American literature. He wrote a large number of
critical studies, including books on Roberto Jorge Payró, Domingo
Faustino Sarmiento, and Rubén Darío. One of his most successful
publications was Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana (2 vols.,
1954–1961; Spanish-American Literature: A History), which became
a standard reference work and was published in several editions. His
literary work consists of three novels and seven collections of short
stories. Many of the latter are written in the mode of fantastic lit-
erature, and some of the best examples of his writing are contained
in the collection La locura juega al ajedrez (1971; Madness Plays
Chess).

ANDRADE, CARLOS DRUMMOND DE (Brazil, 1902–1987).


Journalist, poet, and short story writer. Considered one of Brazil’s
greatest poets, Drummond grew up on a farm. He received a degree
in pharmacy and taught geography for a while in Belo Horizonte,
where he founded the journal A Revista in 1925, the main organ of
Brazilian modernism in Minas Gerais. In 1924 he met the move-
ment’s leading exponents, Mário de Andrade, Tarsila do Amaral,
and Oswald de Andrade, who published Drummond’s famous poem
“No Meio do Caminho” (“In the Middle of the Road”) in Revista de
Antropofagia (Cannibal Review) in 1928. His first book of poetry,
Alguma Poesia (1930; Some Poetry), attempted to record everyday
experience in a pure way, at times in a tone of ironic self-deprecation.
Drummond moved to Rio in 1933, where he wrote for dailies and
served in the Ministry of Public Education and Health, and later as
director of the National Historical and Artistic Heritage Service of
Brazil. Brejo das Almas (1934; Morass of Souls), his second book
of poetry, emphasized humor and turned away from the observation
of the outside world to more pessimistic meditations on the lack of
meaning and the poet’s powerlessness. The devastation of World
War II inspired Sentimento do Mundo (1940; Feeling of the World),
which portrays life’s pain and a sense of solidarity with others, feel-
ings that would be accentuated in José (1942; Joseph) and the politi-
cally committed A Rosa do Povo (1945; The Rose of the People),

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42 • ANDRADE, CARLOS DRUMMOND DE

albeit with more hope in a better world. At this time, Drummond


briefly wrote for the Communist paper Tribuna Popular. His work
before 1942 was little known, until Poesias (1942; Poems) reached
a wider audience.
A departure from strictly political poetry is seen in Novos Po-
emas (1948; New Poems) and Claro Enigma (1951; Clear Enigma),
which focus more on a poetic search for the real, and, notably, in “A
Máquina do Mundo” (“World Machine”), an ambitious metaphysical
poem on the search for knowledge that references the renaissance
epic The Lusiads (1572) by Luis de Camões (1524–1580). An edition
of selected poems also appeared in Spanish in 1951, and since then
he has been published in English, French, Italian, German, Swedish,
Czech, and other languages. Drummond translated works by Fran-
çois Mauriac (1885–1970), Pierre Choderlos de Laclos (1741–1803),
Marcel Proust (1871–1922), Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850), and
Federico García Lorca (1898–1936), among others.
A Vida Passada a Limpo (1959; Clean Draft of Life) and Lição de
Coisas (1962; Lesson of Things) display Drummond’s forays into the
object-poem and other formal and semantic experimentation. His col-
lected poems in Fazendeiro do Ar e Poesia até Agora (1954; Farmer
of the Clouds and Poetry Until Now) sealed his reputation as one of
Brazil’s foremost modernist poets. In addition, he reprinted his works
in three volumes: Reunião (1969; Collected Poems), Nova Reunião
(1983; New Collected Poems), and Obra Completa (1967; Complete
Works). Later poetry books, some inspired by childhood reminis-
cences and others by meditations on poetry, include Boitempo (1968;
Oxtime), As Impurezas do Branco (1973; The Impurities of White),
Menino Antigo (1973; Oldtime Boy), Discurso de Primavera (1977;
Springtime Address), Esquecer para Lembrar (1979; To Remember
in Order to Forget), A Paixão Medida (1980; A Passion for Measure),
Corpo (1984; Body), and Amar se Aprende Amando (1985; Love Is
Learned by Loving).
As a prose writer, Drummond published brief literary essays and
short stories: Confissões de Minas (1944; Minas Confessions), Con-
tos de Aprendiz (1951; Tales from an Apprentice), Passeios na Ilha
(1952; Island Promenades), Fala, Amendoeira (1957; Speak, Peanut
Tree), Contos Plausíveis (1981; Plausible Stories), Boca de Luar
(1984; Moonlight Mouth), and O Observador no Escritório (1985;

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ANDRADE, JOSÉ OSWALD DE SOUSA • 43

The Observer in His Study). A collection of his erotic poetry, O Amor


Natural (1992; Love au Naturel), was published posthumously. See
also ANTROPOFAGIA; AZEVEDO, CARLITO; GUIMARÃES,
JÚLIO CASTAÑON; MACHADO, ANÍBAL; PRADO, ADÉLIA;
SABINO, FERNANDO.

ANDRADE, JOSÉ OSWALD DE SOUSA (Brazil, 1890–1954). Dra-


matist, essayist, novelist, and poet. Perhaps the most revolutionary
figure of Brazilian modernism, Andrade was born into a well-to-do,
land-owning family from São Paulo. In 1912 he traveled to Europe
for the first time, where he came into contact with European avant-
garde trends. He graduated with a law degree in 1917, the same year
he met Mário de Andrade, another seminal figure of the modernist
movement, with whom he participated in the 1922 Week of Modern
Art. That year he published the first novel in A Trilogia do Exílio
(1922; Trilogy of Exile), Os Condenados (1922; The Damned), later
completed by A Estrela de Absinto (1927; The Absinthe Star) and A
Escada Vermelha (1934; The Red Staircase).
During this period, he wrote for the dailies Jornal do Comércio
and Correio Paulistano and began publishing in literary magazines
such as O Pirralho, A Cigarra, Papel e Tinta, and Klaxon. For a year,
in 1923, Andrade settled with the painter Tarsila do Amaral in Paris,
where he also wrote and published his first literary works in French
and met major European avant-garde figures, including the Swiss
poet Blaise Cendrars (1887–1961), who visited the couple in Brazil.
In 1926–1929, he traveled to the Middle East and several times to
Europe. He married Tarsila do Amaral in 1926; the couple separated
in 1930.
Andrade’s “Manifesto da Poesia Pau-Brasil” (1924; “Brazilwood
Poetry Manifesto”) preceded his book of poetry Pau Brasil (1925;
Brazilwood), published in Paris during his next sojourn there. Pau
Brasil was a radical departure from former poetic models, introduc-
ing an unprecedented synthetic collage aesthetic that made humor-
ous use of the objet trouvé (found object) and advocated a truly
Brazilian “poetry for export.” Similar experimental methods were
employed in his two important novels, Memórias Sentimentais de
João Miramar (1924; Sentimental Memoirs of John Seaborne) and
Serafim Ponte Grande (1933; Seraphim Grosse Pointe), and in Pri-

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44 • ANDRADE, MÁRIO RAUL DE MORAIS

meiro Caderno de Poesia do Aluno Oswald de Andrade (1927; First


Poetry Notebook of the Student Oswald de Andrade). His important
“Manifesto Antropófago” (1928; “Cannibal Manifesto”) began an
avant-garde trend of nationalist aesthetics that became known as
antropofagia, the leitmotif of Revista de Antropofagia (1928–29;
Cannibal Review), which he founded with Raul Bopp and António
de Alcântara Machado.
The fall of the stock exchange in 1929 and a reversal of his fam-
ily fortune steered Andrade toward more radical political ideas and
writing, such as the experimental plays O Homem e o Cavalo (1934;
The Man and the Horse), A Morta (1937; The Dead Woman), and O
Rei da Vela (1937; The King of the Candle). In the 1930s, he had a
relationship with the radical writer and activist Patrícia Galvão and
joined the Communist Party and the PEN club of Brazil. In his last
years he produced mainly essays, many of which were published post-
humously: Ponta de Lança (1944; Spearhead); A Crise da Filosofia
Messiânica (1950; The Crisis of Messianic Philosophy); Marco Zero
(Zero Milestone), series I—A Revolução Melancólica (1943; The
Melancholy Revolution) and series II—Chão (1945; Ground); Um
Homem sem Profissão (1954; A Man without a Profession); and A
Marcha das Utopias (1953; The Course of Utopias). Largely ignored
at that point, Andrade died in São Paulo in 1954. His poetry was not
given serious attention until Haroldo de Campos and Augusto de
Campos published an anthology of his work in 1966, recovering
his legacy. His poetry is collected in Poesias Reunidas (1945, 1966;
Collected Poetry), and the publishing house Globo began the defini-
tive edition of his works in 2000. See also ANDRADE, CARLOS
DRUMMOND DE; GULLAR, FERREIRA; PICCHIA, PAULO
MENOTTI DEL; TELLES, LYGIA FAGUNDES; THEATER.

ANDRADE, MÁRIO RAUL DE MORAIS (Brazil, 1893–1945). Es-


sayist, novelist, and poet. A pivotal figure of Brazilian modernism,
Mário de Andrade was born in São Paulo, where he received a degree
in music. In a radical departure from his first conventional book of
poems, Há uma Gota de Sangue em Cada Poema (1917; There Is a
Drop of Blood in Every Poem), Paulicéia Desvairada (1922; Hal-
lucinated City) inaugurated modern poetry in Brazil through a new
aesthetic based on syntactic experimentation and a focus on local

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ANDRADE, MÁRIO RAUL DE MORAIS • 45

themes, namely the modern city of São Paulo. The preface-manifesto


in this book, later expanded into the essay on aesthetics, A Escrava
que não é Isaura (1925; The Slave Who Is Not Isaura), explored and
ridiculed the founding of new avant-garde “isms” and searched for
an authentic Brazilian modern expression.
Andrade further pursued the use of native themes and vocabulary
in subsequent collections of poems that combined everyday chroni-
cles with the modernist poema-piada (“joke poem”): Losango Cáqui
(1926; Khaki Rhombus); Clã do Jabuti (1927; The Turtle’s Clan),
which includes “Carnaval Carioca” (“Rio Carnival”); and Remate de
Males (1930; Culmination of Evils). With Oswald de Andrade and
others he participated actively in the Week of Modern Art in 1922,
and he became a chief animator of this movement, often serving as
critic and mentor to others.
From 1934 to 1937, Andrade served at the Department of Culture
of São Paulo, where he instituted important policies regarding art
education, the creation of libraries, and preservation of folklore. He
moved to Rio in 1938, holding appointments at local universities and
collaborating with the Ministry of Education and Culture. As part of
this mandate, he actively promoted the study and dissemination of
Brazilian folklore, music, dance, and literature, in particular.
Many aspects of the folklore he had begun collecting in the early
1920s were used in his seminal avant-garde novel Macunaíma (1928;
Macunaíma), a narrative centered on Macunaíma, the “hero without a
character,” which combines native mythology with humor and satire
and is widely considered a modernist landmark. Other, less experi-
mental fiction includes the Freudian novel Amar, Verbo Intransitivo
(1927; Fräulein) and the books of short stories Primeiro Andar
(1926; First Floor), Belazarte (1934; Belazarte), and Contos Novos
(1947; New Stories), lyrical narratives with loose plots.
Andrade wrote extensive essays on Brazilian literature, folklore,
and music, including O Movimento Modernista (1942; The Mod-
ernist Movement) and Aspectos da Literatura Brasileira (Aspects
of Brazilian Literature, 1943). In 1940, he returned to São Paulo,
where he died in February 1945. His last book of poetry, Lira Pau-
listana (1946; São Paulo Lyre), once more praises the city where
he spent most of his life. Besides his formal writings, Andrade was
a prodigious correspondent, leaving behind thousands of letters,

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46 • ÁNGEL, ALBALUCÍA

including correspondence with important figures such as Manuel


Bandeira. His complete works span some 20 volumes. See also AL-
MEIDA, GUILHERME DE; ANDRADE, CARLOS DRUMMOND
DE; PICCHIA, PAULO MENOTTI DEL; RICARDO LEITE,
CASSIANO; RODRÍGUEZ MONEGAL, EMIR; SABINO, FER-
NANDO; TELLES, LYGIA FAGUNDES.

ÁNGEL, ALBALUCÍA (Colombia, 1939– ). Novelist. She is one of


Colombia’s prominent women writers, although her first three novels
were written while living in Europe. The first of these, Los girasoles
en invierno (1970; Sunflowers in Winter), written as a reaction to the
rural novel of Colombia, is set in France and Italy and conveys the
random thoughts and conversations of characters, with little plot or
psychological insight. Dos veces Alicia (1972; Two Times Alice) is
set in London and uses the tradition of crime fiction to describe the
breakup of a family. Like these two novels, Ángel’s third, Estaba la
pájara pinta sentada en el verde limón (1982; The Piebald Bird Sat
in the Green Lemon Tree), is also a disjointed work, consisting of a
memoir of its principal character that includes both private and public
history in Colombia.
Among the author’s more recent writings are Misiá señora (1983;
Madam Lady) and Las andariegas (1984; The Wandering Women),
both self-consciously feminist and radical experiments in fiction in
which conventional narrative is abandoned. The former presents the
struggle of the protagonist Mariana to be herself, in contrast to the
conventional expectations placed on her as a woman in a traditional
society; the latter is a collection of episodes describing the journeys
of women at different times and through different spaces.

ANJOS, AUGUSTO DOS (Brazil, 1884–1914). Poet. Dos Anjos was


born on a sugar plantation in the Northeast of Brazil during a period
of utter decline. In addition to financial ills, the dos Anjos family
was plagued by mental and physical disease: his mother was clini-
cally insane and his father died of general paralysis. Despite these
misfortunes, dos Anjos excelled in school, received a law degree with
distinction in Recife in 1907, and later moved to Paraíba to become
a teacher. During his time in Recife, dos Anjos came under the spell
of positivism and the ideas of Auguste Comte (1798–1857), Charles

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ANTROPOFAGIA • 47

Darwin (1809–1882), Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), and Ernest


Haeckel (1834–1919), among others, introduced by the philosopher
Tobias Barreto de Meneses. Anjos’s work, gathered in a single
volume eccentrically entitled Eu (1912; I), can be read not just as
the product of a belated poète maudit (accursed poet) after the influ-
ences of French symbolism and parnassianism, but also as a pow-
erful attack on a deceitfully blithe view of modernity. Appropriating
scientific vocabulary and images popular in his day, his poetry deals
obsessively with disease, processes of physical and moral decay,
and the metaphysical angst produced by the impotence of positivist
science vis-à-vis these realities. Dos Anjos died at age 30 from pneu-
monia. His posthumous collected poems, Eu e Outras Poesias (1920;
I and Other Poems), have seen countless reprints.

ANNALS OF THE CAKCHIQUEL. One of the most significant ac-


counts of the history and traditions of the highland Maya of Gua-
temala, covering the period from the preconquest foundation of the
Cakchiquel people to 1601.

ANTIPOETRY. The term, antipoesía in Spanish, is associated above


all with the poet Nicanor Parra (Chile), who used it to refer to the
ordinariness of the experience of the poet and to a poetic language
that eschewed a high-flying rhetoric. He is thought to have applied
it to his own iconoclastic verse to differentiate it from the avant-
garde style of Pablo Neruda. Parra’s compatriot Enrique Lihn
also adopted the concept, and other poets, such as Adalberto Ortiz
(Ecuador), have also invoked it, sometimes to separate their work
from traditions that preceded the avant-garde.

ANTROPOFAGIA. Designating an aesthetic notion of Brazilian


modernism, this term was coined in Brazil by Oswald de Andrade
in his “Manifesto Antropófago” (1928; “Cannibalist Manifesto”),
published in the journal Revista de Antropofagia (1928–1929; Can-
nibal Review). Based on the myths and documented cases of canni-
balism of Europeans by native Brazilians, Andrade proposed a meta-
phorical “law of the cannibal,” whereby Brazil (and by extension
the New World) would “cannibalize” European cultural products as
a way both to enrich itself and acquire its energies, simultaneously

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48 • ANTUNES, ARNALDO

paying homage to its ancestry and overcoming dependency. This


powerful metaphor was taken up again by Brazilian avant-garde
movements in the late 1960s and early 1970s and remains a reference
in Brazilian culture to this day. Among the most important early writ-
ers in this trend are Oswald de Andrade and António de Alcântara
Machado. The most representative literary work is Raúl Bopp’s
Cobra Norato. See also ANDRADE, CARLOS DRUMMOND DE;
CAMPOS, AUGUSTO DE; CAMPOS, HAROLDO DE; GALVÃO,
PATRÍCIA; INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS; MENDES, MURILO.

ANTUNES, ARNALDO (Brazil, 1960– ). Lyricist and poet. Antunes


began his career as a rock musician. His early work explored the
material aspects of language under the influence of concrete poetry.
In later avant-garde works he employs minimalist and pop culture
aesthetics as well as multimedia experimentation. His major poetry
books are Psia (1986; Psia), Tudos (1990; All of Them), As Coisas
(1992; Things), 2 ou + Corpos no Mesmo Espaço (1997; 2 or More
Bodies in the Same Space), and ET EU TU (2003; ET I YOU).

AQUINO, MARÇAL (Brazil, 1958– ). Journalist, novelist, and short


story writer. Aquino is known for narratives that focus on criminality
in the periphery of large cities, including O Amor e outros Obje-
tos Pontiagudos (1999; Love and Other Sharp Objects), Faroestes
(2001; Far Wests), and Famílias Terrivelmente Felizes (2003; Ter-
ribly Happy Families). He has also adapted some of his novels, such
as O Invasor (2002; The Invader), for the screen and written original
screenplays. He won the Jabuti Prize in 2000.

ARANHA, JOSÉ PEREIRA DA GRAÇA (Brazil, 1868–1931). Es-


sayist and novelist. A native of Maranhão, Graça Aranha practiced
law before joining Brazil’s foreign service, residing in Europe for 20
years. Back in Brazil in 1920, he endorsed the 1922 Week of Mod-
ern Art and wrote Estética da Vida (1921; Aesthetics of Life) and
Espírito Moderno (1924; Modern Spririt). His premodernist narra-
tive Canaã (1902; Canaan), perhaps Brazil’s first ideological novel,
portrayed the nature/culture conflict and the theme of civilization
and barbarism through the story of German immigrants in Espírito
Santo.

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ARÉVALO MARTÍNEZ, RAFAEL • 49

ARCADIANISM. As a reaction to the so-called excesses of baroque


literature, arcadianism in Brazil was a literary idealization of pastoral
values and life that also sought simplicity of expression. The Brazil-
ian Arcadia followed the Portuguese model, in which poets assumed
shepherd names and behaved accordingly in the eclogues they wrote.
Arcadianism did not imitate nature directly, but rather the famous
imitators of nature such as Virgil, Ovid, and Camões. Among the
Brazilian arcadians are Manuel Inácio da Silva Alvarenga, Cláu-
dio Manuel da Costa, José de Santa Rita Durão, José Basílio da
Gama, Tomás Antônio Gonzaga, and Inácio José de Alvarenga
Peixoto. See also BRAZIL; INDIANISMO.

ARCINIEGAS, GERMÁN (Colombia, 1900–1999). Essayist. He


was a historian, diplomat, and prominent Latin American intellectual
of the 20th century who authored more than 50 books on a wide
range of topics concerning Latin American cultural and literary his-
tory. They include Los alemanes en la conquista de América (1941;
Germans in the Conquest of America), Biografía del Caribe (1945;
Caribbean: Sea of the New World), Cosas del pueblo: crónica de
la historia vulgar (1962; Latin America: A Cultural History), and
América en Europa (1975; America in Europe). He also edited The
Green Continent: A Comprehensive View of Latin America by Its
Leading Writers (1944), an anthology for English readers that had
wide circulation in its day.

ARÉVALO MARTÍNEZ, RAFAEL (Guatemala, 1884–1975). Nov-


elist, short story writer, and poet. He wrote poetry in the style of
modernismo, but is remembered most for his fiction. Among his
pieces that have had most impact is a short story, “El hombre que
parecía un caballo” (1914; “The Man Who Looked Like a Horse”),
which is thought to have prefigured the boom writers and magic re-
alism. The same title also appeared as the title to his later collections
of short stories. Two of his early novels, Una vida (1914; A Life)
and Manuel Aldano (1922; Manuel Aldano), are both autobiographi-
cal. El mundo de los maharachías (1938; The World of the Maha-
rachías) and its sequel Viaje a Ipanda (1939; Journey to Ipanda) are
works of science fiction fantasy. Other novels have political themes.
La oficina de la paz en Orolandia (1925; The Office of Peace in

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50 • ARGENTINA

Orolandia) concerns corruption in Central America and the cynicism


of the United States; ¡Ecce Pericles! (1945; Behold Pericles) is about
the Guatemalan dictator Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1898–1920) and
anticipates later Latin American dictator novels.

ARGENTINA. The diversity and productivity of modern Argentin-


ean literature places it on a par with other major literatures in Latin
America, such as those of Brazil or Mexico. Yet, unlike both those
countries and several other Latin American nations, Argentina lacks
a strong literary tradition going back to colonial times. There were
no great campaigns of conquest against Native American empires to
inspire a legacy of historical narrative as the foundation of a national
story. Moreover, Buenos Aires was principally a center for colonial
trade, not one of the centers of American culture, even after its el-
evation as the capital of the Viceroyalty of La Plata in 1776. Hence,
although some texts from colonial Argentina survive, Argentinean
literature essentially begins in the 19th century. When searching for
the context in which the national story, as expressed through its liter-
ature, began to take shape, modern writers are more inclined to look
to the War of Independence and the years of civil war that followed,
when Federalists and Unitarians fought each other during the dicta-
torship of Juan Manuel Rosas, rather than to the colonial period.
Among local cultural practices formed in pre-Independence Ar-
gentina, the oral traditions of the interior northern provinces, repre-
sented in the rural narratives and songs of the payador (troubador),
formed the basis of a tradition in gaucho literature that contributed
to the formation of a national literary identity and maintained its cur-
rency well into the 20th century, long after the lifestyle it represented
had disappeared. The work of the Uruguayan-born Bartolomé Hi-
dalgo, one of the earliest literary manifestations of this tradition, was
followed by that of the Argentineans Hilario Ascasubi and Estan-
islao del Campo, and culminated in the 19th century in the two parts
of José Hernández’s classic work Martín Fierro (1872 and 1878).
In the 20th century, the figure of the gaucho was sustained in fiction
through Eduardo Gutiérrez, Alberto Gerchunoff, and Ricardo
Güiraldes, and became a staple in the popular theater of Buenos Ai-
res as well as a constant source of reference in more recent literature.

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ARGENTINA • 51

Rural themes, or more notably, the conflict between the city and
the country, represented in the opposition between civilization and
barbarism, are also prominent features of 19th-century Argentinean
romanticism. Esteban Echeverría’s La cautiva (1837; The Cap-
tive), a tale of captivity among Indians, is a fine example, although
his satire of Buenos Aires under Rosas in El matadero (1839; The
Slaughter House) is an equally eloquent statement about the barba-
rism of the city. The work that most embodies the spirit and politics
of the first half of the 19th century, however, is Facundo (1845) by
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, who, with other public intellectuals
such as Juan Bautista Alberdi and Juan María Gutiérrez, con-
tributed to the foundations of a national ideology. The novel added
to this legacy, especially through José Mármol’s Amalia (1855),
considered Argentina’s first major novel. Other prominent novelists
of the time were Juana Manuela Gorriti and Vicente Fidel López.
By 1880, the internal conflicts that had afflicted the country since
independence were over, and the interior provinces were becoming
more settled. Lucio V. Mansilla offered a late, humanistic view of
indigenous life in 1870, but its time was already drawing to a close.
Stimulated by agricultural wealth and waves of immigration, Buenos
Aires asserted its economic and cultural dominance as the nation’s
federal capital. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the modes
of costumbrismo, realism, and naturalism in the prose of the likes
of José Álvarez, Roberto Arlt, Eugenio Cambaceres, Manuel
Gálvez, Benito Lynch, Roberto J. Payró, Manuel T. Podestá, and
Hugo Wast stood out as ways of representing the forms of social
life taking shape, especially in the new urban environment. The aes-
theticism of modernismo made some impression in replacing those
trends, notably through the work of Leopoldo Lugones and Enrique
Larreta, but a greater impact was felt by the arrival of the avant-
garde following the return of Jorge Luis Borges from Spain in 1923
and the introduction of ultraísmo to Buenos Aires.
Members of the avant-garde became known as the Grupo de Flo-
rida, identified with the upper-class district of the city, in contrast
to the realists, who were known as the Grupo de Boedo and were
identified with the more working-class areas. Both groups produced
their own literary journals, among which the avant-garde Proa and

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52 • ARGENTINA

Martín Fierro figured prominently as the voices of ultraísmo. In


addition to Borges, among the main avant-garde or post-modernismo
poets were Oliverio Girondo, Eduardo González Lanuza, Norah
Lange, Raúl González Tuñón, Ricardo Molinari, Aldo Pellegrini,
and Alfonsina Storni.
Since about 1930, the year of the first of the 20th-century military
coups in Argentina, literary activity has been more splintered, less
organized according to groups or schools. In 1931 the journal Sur,
founded by Victoria Ocampo, represented this change by becoming
a focal point for literary culture in general and publishing contribu-
tions from writers of every kind. Since the avant-garde, Argentina
has produced a distinguished number of poets of varying trends,
including Sara Gallardo, Juan Gelman, Alberto Girri, Roberto
Juárroz, Osvaldo Lamborghini, Francisco Madariaga, Olga
Orozco, Juan L. Ortiz, Néstor Perlongher, and Alejandra Pizar-
nik. At the same time, writers in prose, essayists and literary critics,
and historians, including José Ingenieros, Arturo Jauretche, Eze-
quiel Martínez Estrada, Héctor A. Murena, and Ricardo Rojas,
following in the footsteps of their 19th-century counterparts, have
maintained the tradition of the essay as a vehicle for analyzing the
state of the nation and its cultural institutions. In more recent times,
the description of historical events and the analysis of social change
have been complemented by other genres characterized by a more
documentary style of writing, such as the testimonios of Rodolfo
Walsh and Jacobo Timerman and the urban chronicles of Beatriz
Sarlo.
Although the avant-garde had its greatest effect on poetry, Juan
Filloy and Macedonio Fernández are among avant-garde prose
writers whose work stands out for its idiosyncrasy. Borges is one of
several writers to have acknowledged the influence of Macedonio
Fernandez, and Borges himself had an undeniable impact on several
trends in prose writing. His short narratives, microtales, and fictive
essays enhanced the popularity of the short story. His interest in the
fantastic was shared by his contemporaries Adolfo Bioy Casares
and Silvina Ocampo and would lead in due course to Enrique An-
derson Imbert and, above all, to the short stories of Julio Cortázar,
published between the 1950s and 1980s. Crime fiction also figured
in Borges’s oeuvre and contributed to the popularity of a genre taken

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ARGENTINA • 53

up by other writers such as Manuel Peyrou and Marco Denevi. The


focus that Borges and his contemporaries brought to bear on Argen-
tinean society was sustained by novelists in the middle decades of
the century, such as Bernardo Kordon, Eduardo Mallea, Leopoldo
Marechal, Manuel Mujica Láinez, Ernesto Sábato, Bernardo
Verbitsky, and Julio Cortázar, each of whom looked at society from
his own particular aesthetic and angle. Cortázar’s novel Rayuela
(1966; Hopscotch) achieved particular international celebrity and
associated him with the new novel and the boom in Latin American
writing.
Since the 1970s, the Argentinean novel has become a very diverse
genre and has been affected considerably by the waves of political
turmoil and social change that have befallen the country. The imme-
diate post-boom period saw an engagement in fiction with different
forms of popular culture, such as cinema, crime fiction, popular mu-
sic, and sport, in the work of Mempo Giardinelli, Manuel Puig, and
Osvaldo Soriano. Mario Szichman, writing during the same period,
focused on Argentinean Jews. The 1976–1983 dictatorship was a
watershed in at least two ways. It separated the work of those who
remained in the country, such as Luis Gusmán and Ricardo Piglia,
from those who wrote from exile, such as Daniel Moyano, Héctor
Tizón, David Viñas, and Juan José Saer. Above all, it confronted
writers with the need to face the events of the dictatorship and their
implications. In some cases, this has meant an examination of both
the recent and more distant past, as in new historical novels by Syl-
via Iparraguirre, Tomás Eloy Martínez, Abel Posse, and Andrés
Rivera, which have described history in a new light. In other cases,
as in fiction by César Aira, Jorge Asís, Rodolfo Enrique Fogwill,
Rodrigo Fresán, or José Pablo Feinmann, it has resulted in works
that highlight the characteristics of postdictatorship society and the
challenges posed by the recent history of violence, technological
changes, and a globalized culture and economy. Trends in fiction
since the dictatorship are also marked by an increase in the number of
publications by women. This development had already begun much
earlier, as evidenced by writers such as Slvina Bullrich, Beatriz
Guido, and Marta Lynch. However, the work of the more recent
generation, including Luisa Futoransky, Angélica Gorodischer,
Martha Mercader, Tununa Mercado, Reina Roffé, Marta Traba,

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54 • ARGENTINA

and Luisa Valenzuela, is marked not just by the violence of the re-
cent regime, but also by a militant feminism and a coming to terms
with the consequences of exile and return experienced by the authors
themselves. Among this group of contemporary women, other
writers such as María Elena Walsh and Syria Poletti have also
made important contributions to children’s literature.
Theater in Argentina did not become a thriving institution until the
late 19th century. Before that time, although there were buildings that
served as permanent theaters, popular plays were often performed at
improvised locations, and the genre was slow to become fully es-
tablished. The development of theater was affected by adverse po-
litical conditions and by the dominance of foreign productions and
opera. To some extent, its history, even during much of the 20th cen-
tury, is one of repeating cycles of renovation, boom, and decline due
to periods of instability created by fluctuating economic and political
conditions.
As in other literary genres, the figure of the gaucho contributed
to the birth of the modern theater in Argentina. The dramatization
of Eduardo Gutiérrez’s Juan Moreira in 1884 by the actor José
J. Podestá initiated a cycle of gaucho plays, many performed in
association with circuses. At about the same time, the sainete began
a sustained period of popularity that would last from about 1880 to
1930. This form of one-act farce, often incorporating musical perfor-
mances, grew up in conjunction with the tango in Buenos Aires and
was one of the favored sources of entertainment among the thousands
of immigrants who flooded into the city. Nemesio Trejo was one of
the most popular writers, although the sainete eventually came to be
represented through several subgenres: comedy in the plays by Ro-
berto Payró, drama in the work of the Uruguayan-born Florencio
Sánchez, and musical plays by Alberto Vacarezza.
When the golden age of Argentinean theater ended in 1930, it en-
tered a period of fluctuating stability and was characterized by a series
of movements in which groups of dramatists sought to give it new
life and new directions. The first of these consisted of Roberto Arlt,
Francisco Defilippis Novoa, Samuel Eichelbaum, and Armando
Discépolo. This group, influenced by trends in European theater
represented by Luigi Pirandello, gave rise to the grotesco criollo.
During the late 1940s and early 1950s, Conrado Nalé Roxlo and

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ARGUEDAS, ALCIDES • 55

Carlos Gorostiza used an imaginative theater to keep it alive during


the difficult times of the presidency of Juan Domingo Perón. This
was followed by a greater trend toward realism by Osvaldo Dragún
and especially by Roberto Cossa in the 1960s. One notable piece of
theater was El avión negro (1971; The Black Plane), a collaborative
work by Roberto Cossa, Ricardo Talesnik, Carlos Somigliana, and
Germán Rozenmacher, which finally brought Peronism openly
onto the stage.
The formation of a movement toward the avant-garde in theater
was fostered by the foundation of the Instituto Torcuato Di Tella in
1958. Among the most significant dramatists to emerge from this
context were Griselda Gambaro and Eduardo Pavlovsky. Along
with writers such as Diana Raznovich, they wrote against authori-
tarianism and oppression at a time when to do so invited reprisals and
the closure of theaters. The themes they wrote about were also among
those taken up by the Teatro Abierto beginning in 1981, which
sought to question abuses committed by those in positions of power.
In the period immediately following the return to democracy in
1983, the atrocities committed during the dictatorship were common
subjects for the theater. As time has passed, however, the theater has
become more open in its themes and styles. The traditional forms
remain, but there are new themes, especially those related to gender
(machismo, feminism, gay and lesbian topics), and there is greater
experimentation in phenomena such as dance theater, rock theater,
and new media. See also BEST SELLER; BOAL, AUGUSTO;
BOLIVIA; CASA DE LAS AMÉRICAS; CRIOLLISMO; DA-
RÍO, RUBÉN; DÍAZ DE GUZMÁN, RUY; DORFMAN, ARIEL;
GÓMEZ CARRILLO, ENRIQUE; HIDALGO, ALBERTO; HIS-
TORICAL NOVEL; INDIANISMO; JAIMES FREYRE, RICARDO;
MAGIC REALISM; MIGUEL DE CERVANTES PRIZE; MOOCK,
ARMANDO; NEO-BAROQUE; NOVEL OF THE LAND; PARA-
GUAY; PICARESQUE NOVEL; PLA, JOSEFINA; POSITIVISM;
QUIROGA, HORACIO; REYES, ALFONSO; TABOADA TERÁN,
NÉSTOR; THEATER OF CRUELTY; THEATER OF THE AB-
SURD; URUGUAY.

ARGUEDAS, ALCIDES (Bolivia, 1879–1946). Novelist and his-


torian. His social essay Pueblo enfermo (1909; Infirm People) and

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56 • ARGUEDAS, JOSÉ MARÍA

his novel Raza de bronce (1919; Bronze Race), for which he is best
known, established him as one of the early proponents of indigen-
ismo. Other works of fiction include Wata-Wara (1904; Wata-Wara)
and Vida criolla, la novela de la ciudad (1905; Creole Life: Novel of
the City). Yet, although interested in the life and customs of indig-
enous peoples of the Andean highlands, he wrote about them from
the deterministic perspectives of race and environment, influenced
by naturalism, and thought their salvation lay in Europeanization at
the expense of their own culture. As a historian, he also undertook
a monumental Historia de Bolivia (History of Bolivia), several vol-
umes of which were published between 1922 and 1929, a work that
lacks historical objectivity and reveals the beliefs and prejudices of
its author. See also TAMAYO, FRANZ.

ARGUEDAS, JOSÉ MARÍA (Peru, 1911–1969). Novelist, short


story writer, and ethnographer. He is considered one of the major
figures of 20th-century Peruvian literature, whose writing had a
profound impact on indigenismo and ushered in neo-indigenismo.
Much of his writing has autobiographical roots and derived from the
familiarity with Quechua, indigenous culture, and the marginalized
state of native peoples in Peru he obtained during his childhood.
These characteristics are already evident in his first collections of
short stories, Agua (1935; Water) and Diamantes y pedernales (1954;
Diamonds and Flints), and in his first novel, Yawar fiesta (1940;
Yawar fiesta).
The novel that firmly established Arguedas’s reputation was Los
ríos profundos (1958; Deep Rivers). Here, as in some of his earlier
work, he adopted the perspective of a child; explores the interactions
of Quechua and Spanish; and focused on the internal, psychological
dimensions of indigenous culture in ways that shed new light on the
conflicts between indigenous and European ways of life. In his next
novel, Todas las sangres (1964; All the Bloods), he examined the so-
cial, economic, and racial divisions of Peruvian society, a theme that
figured significantly in his own preoccupations about his country. In
his last novel, El zorro de arriba y el zorro de abajo (1971; The Fox
from Up Above and the Fox from Down Below), Arguedas intended
to describe the life of indigenous workers in the port of Chimbote.
The novel remained unfinished, however, when the author took his

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ARIDJIS, HOMERO • 57

own life in 1969. His state of mind and his decision to kill himself,
not the first time Arguedas attempted suicide, are part of the prob-
lematic of the novel.

ARGUETA, MANLIO (El Salvador, 1936– ). Novelist and poet.


The novels for which Argueta is best known are characterized by
changing points of view, flashbacks, first person narratives, and
interior discourse. El valle de las hamacas (1970; Valley of the
Hammocks), a title that refers to the city of San Salvador, is a
fragmented story about a guerrillero in search of a cache of arms.
Similarly, Caperucita en la zona roja (1977; Little Red Riding
Hood in the Red Zone) is an opaque, experimental novel set in an
urban milieu and based on the life of Roque Dalton. It received a
Casa de las Américas prize. Un día en la vida (1980; One Day of
Life) compresses the history of El Salvador into one day in the life
of its protagonist, Lupe Fuentes. It has some of the character of a
testimonio, as does Cuzcatlán: donde bate la mar del sur (1986;
Where the Southern Sea Breaks), which also contains elements of
magic realism and is based on the testimonies of four generations
traveling together on the same bus. Cuzcatlán is an Indian name
for El Salvador.

ARIDJIS, HOMERO (Mexico, 1940– ). Poet and novelist. Aridjis


has served as president of International PEN and founded the Grupo
de los Cien (Group of 100), an association of artists and intellectuals
working for environmental protection. His poetry often draws from
the natural world. Mirándola dormir (1964; Seeing Her Sleep), Per-
séfone (1967; Persephone), and Espacios azules (1968; Blue Spaces)
are representative early collections; Ojos de otro mirar (2002; Eyes
to See Otherwise) is an anthology of his verse from 1960 to 2000.
He has also written for the theater and, as a novelist, has established
a reputation as the author of new historical novels. These include
Memorias del Nuevo Mundo (1988; Memories of the New World)
and 1492: vida y tiempos de Juan Cabezón de Castilla (1985; 1492:
The Life and Times of Juan Cabezón de Castilla), which evokes a
century of persecution in Spain before the expulsion of the Jews from
the country in 1492, a date that also marks the beginning of Spain’s
imperial ventures in the New World.

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58 • ARIELISMO

ARIELISMO. The term refers to the aesthetic and political positions


developed by the Uruguayan José Enrique Rodó in his 1900 es-
say Ariel, which was widely read and had considerable influence on
early 20th-century debates about Latin American identity. The title of
Rodó’s essay derives from Ariel, Shakespeare’s spirit character in The
Tempest, which is intended to symbolize the spiritual nature of Latin
America in contrast to the pragmatism of positivism and the growing
economic influence of North America. Arielism had a number of fol-
lowers in Mexico, headed by Alfonso Reyes, and also influenced writ-
ers in other parts of Latin America, including Mariano Picón Salas in
Venezuela, Pedro Prado in Ecuador, Luis Alberto Sánchez in Peru,
and Alberto Zum Felde in Uruguay. See also DÍAZ RODRÍGUEZ,
MANUEL; ZORILLA Y SAN MARTÍN, JUAN.

ARLT, ROBERTO (Argentina, 1900–1942). Novelist, short stort


writer, dramatist, and journalist. Although his importance was not
acknowledged during his lifetime, his impact on other writers, no-
tably Julio Cortázar and Juan Carlos Onetti, was considerable,
and he has come to be recognized as one of the formative figures of
20th-century Argentinean literature. His language is a rich mixture of
the vocabulary and different registers of everyday speech in Buenos
Aires, and his writing is populated by immigrants and other socially
marginalized characters. Poverty, violence, and urban alienation are
consistent features of his work, making him one of the most promi-
nent writers of social realism of his generation. His first novel, El
juguete rabioso (1926; Mad Toy), is a semiautobiographical account
of survival in an urban world, later explored on a larger scale in Los
siete locos (1929; The Seven Madmen) and its sequel, Los lanzal-
lamas (1931; The Flamethrowers). El amor brujo (1932; Love the
Magician), his last novel, traces the antisocial behavior and growing
psychoses of its protagonist. A number of short stories are collected
in El jorobadito (1933; The Little Hunchback) and El criador de
gorilas (1951; The Gorilla Breeder), and his chronicles of everyday
life, written mainly for the Buenos Aires newspaper El Nacional,
have been anthologised under various titles. The earliest collection
was called Aguafuertes porteñas (1933; Buenos Aires Etchings).
Arlt’s writing for the theater shows a similar brand of social realism,
presented through liminal characters and situations. He contributed

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ARREOLA, JUAN JOSÉ • 59

to the renovation of Argentine theater of the early 20th century, and


works such as Trescientos millones (1932; Three Hundred Million) and
Saverio el cruel (1933; Saverio the Cruel) associate him with the avant-
garde and are thought to show the influence of the Italian dramatist
Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936). See also GUIDO, BEATRIZ.

ARRÁIZ LUCCA, RAFAEL (Venezuela, 1957– ). Poet and essayist.


One of Venezuela’s prominent contemporary poets, he has published
a number of collections, including Terrenos (1985; Plots of Land),
Almacén (1988; Store), Litoral (1991; Shoreline), Pesadumbre en
Bridgetown (1992; Sorrow in Bridgetown), Batallas (1995; Battles),
Poemas ingleses (1997; English Poems), and Plexo solar (2002;
Solar plexus). As an essayist, he has published books on Venezuela,
poetry, and topics of contemporary interest, including Venezuela
en cuatro asaltos (1993; Venezuela in Four Tries), Trece lecturas
venezolanas (1997; Thirteen Readings of Venezuela), El coro de las
voces solitarias, una historia de la poesía venezolana (2002; The
Chorus of Solitary Voices: A History of Venezuelan Poetry), and
¿Qué es la globalizacion? (2002; What Is Globalization?).

ARREOLA, JUAN JOSÉ (Mexico, 1918–2001). Short story writer.


His short stories show elements of fantastic literature used to ex-
plore life as an unpredictable and sometimes absurd condition. His
existentialism is sometimes confusing, but humorous, and often
compared to that of Franz Kafka (1883–1924) and Alberta Camus
(1913–1960). Collections of stories appeared under the titles Varia
invención (1949; Various Inventions) and Confabulario (1952; Con-
fabulation and Other Inventions), both published again with other
stories and new material in Confabulario total (1962; Complete
Confabulation). “El guardagujas” (“The Switchman”), using the
metaphor of a train journey to describe the absurdity of existence,
is one of his most widely read pieces. Although best known as the
author of short stories, Arreola also wrote a novel, La feria (1980;
The Fair), and two plays, La hora de todos (1955; Moment of Truth)
and Tercera llamada ¡tercera! o empezamos sin usted (1971; Last
Call, Last Call! Or We Start Without You). The second of these is an
innovative piece that brings together elements of the religious auto
and the theater of the absurd. See also THEATER.

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60 • ASCASUBI, HILARIO

ASCASUBI, HILARIO (Argentina, 1807–1875). Poet. His involve-


ment in the political and military turmoil of postindependence Ar-
gentina is represented in the periods of military service and exile that
punctuated his life. Through his writing, the history of those times
is reflected in poetry that drew on rural traditions and the figure of
the gaucho. His most celebrated achievement was Santos Vega, o
Los mellizos de la Flor (1872; Santos Vega, or The Twins from La
Flor), which, along with José Hernández’s Martín Fierro, ignited
the trend in gaucho literature of the late 19th century and beyond.
See also MUJICA LÁINEZ, MANUEL.

ASCHER, NELSON RONNY (Brazil, 1958– ). Journalist, poet, and


translator. Trained in administration and semiotics, Ascher has writ-
ten on culture and politics for Folha de São Paulo since the 1980s.
He founded the journal Revista USP in 1988–1989, serving as main
editor until 1994. His books of poems include Ponta da Língua
(1983; Tip of the Tongue), Sonho da Razão (1993; Dream of Rea-
son), Algo de Sol (1996; Some Sun), and Parte Alguma (2005; Some/
No Part). A prolific translator, particularly from Eastern European
languages, he collaborated with Boris Schnaidermann on the transla-
tion of Queen of Spades (1834) by Alexander Pushkin (1799–1837).
O Lado Obscuro (1996; The Dark Side) and Poesia Alheia (1998;
Another’s Poetry) gather his translations, and Pomos da Discórdia
(1993; Apples of Discord) gathers his essays.

ASÍS, JORGE (Argentina, 1946– ). Novelist. He is a diplomat, was


a candidate for the vice presidency of Argentina in 2007, and has
written several successful novels. These include Don Abdel Zalim,
el burlador de Dominico (1972; Don Abdel Zalim, Dominico’s De-
ceiver), Sandra, la trapera (1996; Sandra, Vendor of Secondhand
Clothes), and Flores robadas en los jardines de Quilmes (1980;
Flowers Stolen from Gardens in Quilmes), a novel about youth in
Buenos Aires, which was a best seller in Argentina and the source
of a successful film.

ASSIS, JOAQUIM MARIA MACHADO DE (Brazil, 1839–1908).


Dramatist, essayist, journalist, novelist, and short story writer. Per-
haps Brazil’s most celebrated writer, Machado de Assis came from

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ASSIS, JOAQUIM MARIA MACHADO DE • 61

very humble origins, the son of a mulatto painter and a Portuguese


washerwoman. Orphaned in childhood, he was mostly self-taught,
acquiring a vast literary culture through reading Jonathan Swift
(1667–1745), Laurence Sterne (1713–1768), and Giacomo Leopardi
(1798–1837). He became fluent in French and English, and translated
Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) and Shakespeare, whom he quoted
extensively in his work.
Employed as a typographer, he began publishing his first works in
the literary magazine A Marmota and met writers such as Casimiro
de Abreu and Manuel Antônio de Almeida, whom he befriended.
He worked briefly for Rio dailies but later secured government
jobs that allowed him to devote himself to writing. In the 1860s,
he married a Portuguese woman; gained fame for Crisálidas (1864;
Chrysalis), a book of poetry in the manner of romanticism; and com-
posed comedies that are only valued by critics as exercises for his
subsequent narratives, the short story collections Contos Fluminenses
(1870; Rio Stories) and Histórias da Meia-Noite (1873; Midnight
Stories) and the novels Ressureição (1872; Resurrection), A Mão e a
Luva (1874; The Hand and the Glove), Helena (1876; Helena), and
Iaiá Garcia (1878; Iaiá Garcia).
All these works, however, are still in the early, more conven-
tional romantic style that he broke with in his next important novel,
Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas (1881; Posthumous Memoirs of
Brás Cubas; also translated as Epitaph of a Small Winner), turning
instead to the narrative mode of realism, although not without some
irony and pessimism about this new style. Other important works in
which Machado de Assis displayed his gift for a new, fragmented
narrative style, psychological analysis, and a tragicomic view of hu-
man nature are the novels Dom Casmurro (1899; Dom Casmurro),
Esaú e Jacó (1904; Esau and Jacob, a Novel), and Memorial de Aires
(1908; The Wager: Aires’ Journal), and the short story collections
Várias Histórias (1896; Several Stories), Páginas Recolhidas (1899;
Collected Pages), and Relíquias de Casa Velha (1906; Relics from
the Old House).
Machado de Assis theorized his views on national art and literature
in two essays, “Instinto de Nacionalidade” (1873; “Nationality In-
stinct”) and “A Nova Geração” (1879; “The New Generation”), both
published in the New York Portuguese-language newspaper O Novo

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62 • ASTURIAS, MIGUEL ÁNGEL

Mundo. Machado de Assis founded the Brazilian Academy of Letters


in 1896 (see ACADEMIAS) and was its first president when he died
from a cancerous ulcer. See also ALVES, ANTÔNIO FREDERICO
DE CASTRO; FONSECA, RUBEM; ROMERO, SÍLVIO.

ASTURIAS, MIGUEL ÁNGEL (Guatemala, 1899–1974). Novel-


ist. A decade in Paris (1923–1933) brought him into contact with
the French literary scene, surrealism, and the Sorbonne lectures of
Georges Raynaud on Mayan religions, elements that, in combination
with Jungian psychoanalysis, informed much of his writing. Leyen-
das de Guatemala (1930; Legends of Guatemala) was his first major
literary work, and by 1933 he had completed El señor presidente
(1946; The President), a dictator novel on political corruption, al-
though it was not published for over a decade, until a regime change
in Guatemala.
Hombres de maíz (1949; Men of Maize), incorporating the mythic
origins and legends of the Mayan people and their modern po-
litical and social travails, consolidated the place of Asturias in neo-
indigenismo. It also established the role of myth creation as a device
for approaching the narrative of Latin American history, which would
figure prominently in the work of members of the boom generation.
Other novels followed, including his “banana trilogy”: Viento fuerte
(1950; Stong Wind), El papa verde (1954; The Green Pope), and Los
ojos de los enterrados (1960; The Eyes of the Interred), on the United
Fruit Company’s exploitation of Guatemala; El alhajadito (1961;
The Bejeweled Boy); Mulata de tal (1963; Mulata and Mister Fly);
and Viernes de dolores (1972; Good Friday).
Asturias also wrote five experimental plays, whose meanings are
often elusive: Soluna (1955; Sunmoon) about old myths and modern
life and the need for cultural continuity with the past; La audiencia
de los límites (1957; Frontier Tribunal), on the courts in colonial
times and the maltreatment of Indians in history; Cuculcán (1948;
Cuculcan), a balletic representation of aspects of the sun taken from
pre-Columbian sources; Chantaje (1964; Blackmail), a drama of the
absurd; and Dique seco (1964; Dry Dock), a farse set in Italy. Astur-
ias received the Lenin Peace Prize in 1966 and the Nobel Prize for
Literature in 1967. See also THEATER.

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AUTO • 63

ATAÍDE, TRISTÃO DE, pseudonym of ALCEU AMOROSO


LIMA (Brazil, 1893–1983). Essayist and critic. Considered one of
Brazil’s most important critics of the 20th century, Ataíde (whose
name is also spelled Tristão de Athayde) first assumed an aesthetic
position vis-à-vis criticism. His conversion to Catholicism produced
a shift toward more doctrinaire and moralistic views, although he
was still respected as a perceptive critic, especially in the study of
Brazilian modernism. In later years, he wrote essays on philosophi-
cal, moral, religious, political, and pedagogical topics. An extremely
prolific writer, his works on literature include Estudos (1927–1933;
Studies), O Espírito e o Mundo (1936; The Spirit and the World),
Contribuição à História do Modernismo 1: O Premodernismo (1939;
Contribution to the History of Modernism 1: Premodernism), Poesia
Brasileira Contemporânea (1941; Contemporary Brazilian Poetry),
Três Ensaios sobre Machado de Assis (1941; Three Essays on
Machado de Assis), O Crítico Literário (1945; The Literary Critic),
A estética literária e o crítico (1945; Literary Aesthetics and the
Critic), Primeiros Estudos: Contribuição à História do Modernismo
Literário (1948; First Studies: Contribution to the History of Literary
Modernism), Introdução à Literatura Brasileira (1956; Introduction
to Brazilian Literature), Quadro Sintético da Literatura Brasileira
(1956; Survey of Brazilian Literature), and A Crítica Literária no
Brasil (1959; Literary Criticism in Brazil). His collected literary and
critical writings appeared as Tristão de Athayde: Teoria, Crítica e
História Literária (1980; Tristão de Athayde: Literary Theory, Criti-
cism, and History).

AUTO. When used in the context of the theater, auto commonly refers
to a short religious play, usually of one act. Autos originated in Spain
and Portugal and were performed to commemorate religious occa-
sions and feast days such as Christmas or Corpus Christi, although
they might also be staged to mark secular events. Their content was
often allegorical, and when they had a religious purpose, they were
used to convey a moral or to explain a particular aspect of Christian-
ity. In the Americas, they were widely used in the Christianization
of local populations, frequently through performances in local lan-
guages. Among autos from the colonial period that have survived

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64 • AVANT-GARDE

are several by notable authors, including José de Anchieta (Bra-


zil), Juan de Espinosa Medrano (Peru), and Fernán González
de Eslava and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (Mexico). Dramatists
in modern times, such as Juan José Arreola and Sergio Magaña
(Mexico), Luis Albert Heiremans (Chile), and Ariano Vilar Suas-
suna (Brazil), have also used the form and its traditions to frame their
own work. See also THEATER IN QUECHUA.

AVANT-GARDE. Although used in general to refer to artists and their


work in the forefront, or vanguard, of change in relation to established
traditions of expression, the term also has a particular historical con-
notation and refers to changes in the representation of reality and the
human experience that took place in the early 20th century. These
changes were part of what was happening in the world at large, such
as shifts in politics with the rise of Marxism and related philosophies,
growing industrialization and technological innovation, cultural mas-
sification, and even new perceptions of the physical universe.
In literature the historical avant-garde entailed an aesthetic revo-
lution that introduced a greater emphasis on the literary work itself
rather than on how the world was mimetically represented. Literature
became a place for experimentation with new forms and structures
and the exploration of new ways to use language. Established genres
were transformed with the abandonment of traditional rhetorics,
metrical structures, and even typographical layout in poetry, and the
introduction of different ways to structure and present narratives in
fiction and theater. Above all, the avant-garde made full use of de-
velopments in the understanding of subjectivism and the individual
psyche, such that the literary work placed more emphasis on the ir-
rational, interior vision of the subject than on the objective external
world.
These changes began to be felt in Spanish America in the 1920s,
largely as a consequence of the influence of developments in Eu-
rope. Surrealism, in its varying manifestations, was the most widely
felt phenomenon. However, although influences from Europe were
strongly felt, Latin America also experienced the avant-garde in its
own fashion and responded to it in its own ways. The novelty of the
avant-garde was perceived in relation to the aesthetics of criollismo
and modernismo, and it was expressed through particular local man-

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AVANT-GARDE • 65

ifestations. Estridentismo and Los Contemporáneos in Mexico are


associated with José Gorostiza, Germán List Arzubide, Manuel
Maples Arce, Salvador Novo, Jaime Torres Bodet, Carlos Pelli-
cer, and Xavier Villaurrutia. In Chile, creacionismo is associated
above all with Vicente Huidobro. In Argentina, the most significant
movement was ultraísmo, whose members are often conventionally
aligned in two contrasting groups, the Grupo de Florida, and the
Grupo de Boedo. Its contributors included Jorge Luis Borges,
Oliverio Girondo, Alberto Hidalgo, Norah Lange, Ricardo E.
Molinari, and Leopoldo Lugones.
The avant-garde influenced all genres and affected writers who
were not necessarily affiliated with a particular movement. Among
prominent avant-garde poets were José Juan Tablada (Mexico);
José Coronel Urtecho, Pablo Antonio Cuadra, and Joaquín Pasos
(Nicaragua); Eunice Odio (Costa Rica); Rogelio Sinán (Panama);
Martín Adán, Carlos Oquendo de Amat, and César Vallejo
(Peru); Pablo Neruda and Pablo de Rokha (Chile); and Aldo
Pellegrini (Argentina). Prominent prose writers included Jorge En-
rique Adoum (Ecuador), Julio Cortázar, Macedonio Fernández,
and Leopoldo Marechal (Argentina); and Felisberto Hernández
(Uruguay). Roberto Arlt and Eduardo Pavlosvsky (Argentina) and
Isaac Chocrón (Venezuela) were some of the notable dramatists.
The term “avant-garde” is less commonly used in relation to
literature in Brazil, where the trends to which it refers are collec-
tively covered by Brazilian modernism, a broad movement whose
beginning is conventionally dated from the Week of Modern Art
celebrated in 1922. Antropofagia and concrete poetry are two
of the trends included under the umbrella of this term, and among
the most significant authors who contributed to Brazilian modern-
ism and the avant-garde are Carlos Drummond de Andrade,
Oswald de Andrade, Mário de Andrade, Manuel Bandeira,
Raul Bopp, Augusto de Campos, Haroldo de Campos, Paulo
Leminski, João Cabral de Melo Neto, Paulo Menotti del Pic-
chia, Décio Pignatari, Cassiano Ricardo Leite, Plínio Salgado,
and Pedro Xisto. See also ALVIM, FRANCISCO; ANTIPOETRY;
ANTUNES, ARNALDO; BONVINCINO, RÉGIS; CAMPOS CER-
VERA, HERIB; CHAMIE, MÁRIO; COLOMBIA; CORREA,
JULIO; D’HALMAR, AUGUSTO; EGURÉN, JOSÉ MARÍA;

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66 • AVELLÁN FERRÉS, ENRIQUE

FILHO, ARMANDO FREITAS; GARMENDÍA, JULIO; GIRRI,


ALBERTO; GRUPO DE GUAYAQUIL; GUATEMALA; HOL-
ANDA, SÉRGIO BUARQUE DE; LAMBORGHINI, OSVALDO;
LÓPEZ, LUIS CARLOS; LÓPEZ VELARDE, RAMÓN; MUJICA
LÁINEZ, MANUEL; NEO-INDIGENISMO; NUEVO GRUPO;
ROMANTICISM; SELVA, SALOMÓN DE LA; USLAR PIETRI,
ARTURO; WOMEN.

AVELLÁN FERRÉS, ENRIQUE (Ecuador, 1908– ). Novelist and


dramatist. Although he wrote several novels, the first titled La
enorme pasión (The Great Passion), his theater won him more at-
tention. Manos de criminal (1939; Criminal Hands) is a dark psycho-
logical drama that consolidated the presence of social realism on the
Ecuadorian stage. Other plays by Avellán Ferrés include Como los
árboles (1927; Like the Trees) and El mismo caso (1938; The Same
Case). In a different vein, he also wrote theater for children, including
Clarita la negra (1966; Clarita the Black Woman) and La rebelión
del museo (1969; Rebellion in the Museum), a musical fantasy.

ÁVILA, AFFONSO (Brazil, 1928– ). Poet. Ávila published his first


poetry collection, O Açude e Sonetos da Descoberta (1953; The
Dam and Sonnets of the Discovery), before meeting the São Paulo
poets Haroldo de Campos and Augusto de Campos and joining the
concrete poetry movement. Among his poetry collections are Carta
do Solo (1961; Letter from the Ground) and Frases Feitas (1963;
Standard Expressions), which exhibit linguistic experimentation and
erotic and ideological themes. Associated mostly with the concrete
poetry movement, he won the 1991 Jabuti Prize for O Visto e o
Imaginado (1990; The Seen and the Imagined) and again in 2007
for Cantigas do Falso Alfonso el Sabio (2006; Songs of the False
Alfonso the Wise).

AZEVEDO, ALUÍSIO (Brazil, 1857–1913). Dramatist, novelist,


short story writer. The son of the Portuguese viceconsul in Maranhão,
Azevedo had a comfortable childhood, displaying an early artistic
inclination when designing sets for the plays his brother, Artur, wrote
in his youth. He followed his brother to Rio, where he established
himself as a journalist for O Mequetrefe, Fígaro, and Zig-Zag, but

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AZEVEDO, ARTUR NABANTINO GONÇALVES • 67

when his father died, he had to return to Maranhão. There he wrote


articles for the press and published his first conventionally romantic
novel, Uma Lágrima de Mulher (1879; A Woman’s Tear), neither of
which would earn him his current reputation. Azevedo combined his
close observation of racial prejudice in Maranhão and his knowledge
of European naturalism in his next novel, O Mulato (1881; Mulatto),
a tale involving explicit sexuality, which earned him financial and
literary success, but socially alienated him in his home state. He
therefore moved to Rio, where he made a living as a writer from 1882
to 1895, producing two other important naturalist novels determin-
istically portraying urban poverty: Casa de Pensão (1884; Boarding
House) and O Cortiço (1890; A Brazilian Tenement).
Azevedo also wrote the serial novels Mistérios da Tijuca (1883;
Tijuca Mysteries), subsequently known as Girândola de Amores
(1900; Pinwheel of Love), and A Mortalha de Alzira (1894; Alzira’s
Shroud), in the style of romanticism, as well as many plays and
revues in collaboration with his brother and others. Despite his suc-
cess, Azevedo resented the stress of a literary life and sought instead
diplomatic posts in Vigo, Naples, Tokyo, and Buenos Aires, where
he died. After joining the Foreign Service, he lost his interest in
literature and never published another book. See also AZEVEDO,
ARTUR NABANTINO GONÇALVES; THEATER.

AZEVEDO, ARTUR NABANTINO GONÇALVES (Brazil 1855–


1908). Chronicler, dramatist, and short story writer. Brother of the
novelist Aluísio Azevedo, Artur Azevedo moved from Maranhão to
Rio, where he became a journalist and comic playwright. Azevedo
is seen as the continuator of Luís Carlos Martins Pena’s satirical
dramas, particularly aimed at chastising contemporary Rio society.
He excelled in the teatro de revista or teatro ligeiro, genres that
combined elements of vaudeville and the musical, parodies of foreign
dramas, and satirical sketches on the important events of the previ-
ous year, focusing on the capital, Rio de Janeiro. Among his most
important works are the comedies Amor por Anexins (1872; The
Love of Proverbs), A Jóia (1879; The Jewel), O Badejo (1898; The
Stockfish), and A Capital Federal (1897; The Federal Capital). Be-
sides plays, Azevedo also wrote theater chronicles and the humor-
ous short story collections Contos Possíveis (1889; Possible Stories),

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68 • AZEVEDO, CARLITO

Contos Fora da Moda (1893; Passé Stories), Contos Efêmeros (1897;


Ephemeral Stories), and Contos em Verso (1909; Stories in Verse).

AZEVEDO, CARLITO (Brazil, 1961– ). Critic, editor, translator,


and poet. Although Azevedo’s poetic sources can be traced to poesia
marginal, concrete poetry, and João Cabral de Melo Neto, he
quickly attempted to establish his own style. His first book, Collap-
sus Linguae (1991; Collapsus Linguae), earned him the Jabuti Prize.
As Banhistas (1993; The Bathers) presents a reflection on his own
poetics influenced by Carlos Drummond de Andrade and the urban
flâneur of Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867). Other works include Sob
a Noite Física (1996; Under the Physical Night) and Versos de Cir-
cunstância (2001; Occasional Poems). He has published an anthol-
ogy of his work, Sublunar (2001; Sublunar). In 1997, he founded the
well-known poetry review Inimigo Rumor, which he coedits to this
day. He has also translated poetry from the French.

AZEVEDO, MANUEL ANTÔNIO ALVARES DE (Brazil, 1831–


1852). Poet, dramatist, and short story writer. Alvares de Azevedo
studied law in Rio and Niterói and participated actively in the intel-
lectual and literary circles of his day. He was the most gifted poet
of his generation, writing poems under the influence of the pes-
simistic romanticism of Lord Byron (1788–1824). Other themes
include virginal love, ennui and mal du siècle, and misunderstood
genius. He died from tuberculosis at age 21 before he could publish
Lira dos Vinte Anos (1853; The Lyre at Age Twenty). Other works
include the fantastic narrative A Noite na Taverna (1855; Night in
the Tavern), journalistic prose in Livro de Fra Gondicairo (1962;
Fra Gondicario’s Book), and the narrative/dialogue piece Macário
(Macario) in his Obras Completas (1944; Complete Works). See also
GUIMARÃES, BERNARDO JOAQUIM DA SILVA.

AZUELA, MARIANO (Mexico, 1875–1952). Novelist. He is con-


sidered to have founded the novel of the Mexican Revolution with
Los de abajo (1915; The Underdogs), a work developed from the
author’s experience of the conflict as a field doctor attached to Fran-
cisco Villa’s campaign. Although it passed almost unnoticed when it
first appeared, Los de abajo has since become an established classic,

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BALBUENA, BERNARDO DE • 69

noted for its style, realism, and the ambiguity of its representation
of the revolutionary movement. Azuela had already written other
novels before Los de abajo, notably María Luisa (1907; María Luisa)
and Mala yerba (1909; Marcela: A Mexican Love Story), and would
eventually publish 25 novels. Those related to the revolution include
Los caciques (1917; The Bosses) and Las moscas (1918; The Flies),
and he also wrote about postrevolutionary society, as in Las tribu-
laciones de una familia decente (1918; The Trials of a Respectable
Family). He viewed the revolution as an uncontrollable force caused
by oppression. He sympathized with the “underdogs,” and his works
show some of the characteristics of indigenismo, but he maintains
an essentially middle-class perspective, not entirely able to identify
with his literary characters. In La malhora (1923; Evil Hour), El
desquite (1925; Recovery), and La luciérnaga (1932; The Firefly),
he attempted a more “contemporary” style, but his reputation rests on
the realist mode of naturalism pursued in his earliest works, includ-
ing Los de abajo.

– B –

BACCINO PONCE DE LEÓN, NAPOLEÓN (Uruguay, 1947– ).


Novelist. He is the author of Maluco: novela de los descubridores
(1989; Five Black Ships: A Novel of Magellan), a new historical
novel in which the story of the first circumnavigation of the globe
is told in a letter to Charles V of Spain written by a court jester who
claims to have been a member of the expedition. Baccino Ponce de
León has also published Un amor en Bangkok (1994; Love in Bang-
kok) and Arte de perder (1995; The Art of Losing).

BALBUENA, BERNARDO DE (Mexico, ca. 1562–1672). Poet. Al-


though born in Spain, he was raised in Mexico, and his religious ca-
reer took him to several parts of the New World, where he served as
bishop in Jamaica and Puerto Rico. His work belongs to the baroque
and includes Grandeza mexicana (1604; The Grandeur of Mexico), a
lyric poem on Mexico City; a pastoral romance, Siglo de Oro en las
selvas de Irílife (1608; Golden Age in the Woodlands of Irilife), writ-
ten in verse and prose; and El Bernardo o victoria de Roncesvalles

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70 • BANDEIRA, MANUEL

(1624; Bernardo or Victory at Roncesvalles), an epic poem of the


time of Charlemagne. See also NOVO, SALVADOR.

BANDEIRA, MANUEL (Brazil, 1886–1968). Journalist, essayist,


poet, and translator. A major figure of Brazilian modernism and one
of Brazil’s most cherished poets, Bandeira was born in Recife but as
a boy moved to Rio, where he completed his secondary education.
He relocated later to São Paulo for a career in architecture, which was
interrupted by tuberculosis. He sought a cure in a Swiss sanatorium
in 1913, where he became acquainted with French post-symbolist
poetry and met the French poet Paul Éluard (1895–1952). Around
this time he attempted to publish Poemetos Melancólicos (Melan-
choly Little Poems) in Portugal, but the manuscript was lost in the
sanatorium. Returning to Brazil in 1917, he began to write for news-
papers and published his first poetry collections, A Cinza das Horas
(1917; Ash of Hours) and Carnaval (1919; Carnival), which already
demonstrated a modern poetic sensibility and caught the attention of
critics and modernist artists in Rio and São Paulo. Although he did
not attend the Week of Modern Art in 1922, his satirical poem “Os
Sapos” (“The Toads”) was famously read by Ronald de Carvalho
during one of the events.
In 1924, Bandeira reprinted his two previous books in the volume
Poesias (1924; Poems), along with a new one, O Ritmo Dissoluto
(1924; Scattered Rhythm), in which the use of free verse was ubiq-
uitous. His professional journalistic activity intensified, as he began
to write cultural criticism for journals such as O Mês Modernista, A
Noite, A Idéia ilustrada, and Ariel, and traveled extensively through-
out Brazil. Libertinagem (1930; Debauchery) is perhaps Bandeira’s
most modernist work, exhibiting a self-ironic diction. On this 50th
birthday, Bandeira was feted with the critical volume Homenagem
a Manuel Bandeira (1936; Homage to Manuel Bandeira). The same
year, he also published another poetry collection, Estrela da Manhã
(1936; Morning Star), and, shortly after, the book of chronicles
Crônicas da Província do Brasil (1937; Chronicles of the Province
of Brazil).
His poetry collections from later years include Lira dos Cinqüent’
Anos (1940; Lyre at Age Fifty) in his Poesias Completas (Complete
Poems), Belo Belo (1948; Lovely, Lovely), Mafuá do Malungo

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BAREIRO SAGUIER, RUBÉN • 71

(1948; Carnival of the Malungo), Opus 10 (1952: Opus 10), and


Estrela da Tarde (1960; Evening Star). In the 1940s and through the
1960s, Bandeira taught Spanish American literature at the University
of Rio and wrote several important works of literary criticism, among
which were Noções de História das Literaturas (1940; Concepts
on the History of Literatures), Aprensentação da Poesia Brasileira
(1946; Introduction to Brazilian Poetry), Literatura Hispano-
Americana (1949; Spanish American Literature), Gonçalves Dias:
Esboço Biográfico (1952; Gonçalves Dias: Biographical Sketch), and
De Poetas e de Poesia (1954; Of Poets and Poetry).
Other writings include chronicles and memoirs, such as Itinerário
de Parsárgada (1954; Itinerary of Pasárgada), Guia de Ouro Preto
(1938; Guide to Ouro Preto), Flauta de Papel (1957; Paper Flute),
Andorinha, Andorinha (1966; Little Swallow), Os Reis Vagabundos
e Mais 50 Crônicas (1966; The Vagabond Kings and 50 More Chron-
icles), and Colóquio Unilateralmente Sentimental (1968; Unilaterally
Sentimental Colloquy). Many of his chronicles were broadcast on na-
tional radio. A prolific translator, Bandeira also published a volume
of translations, Poemas Traduzidos (1958; Translated Poems). On his
80th birthday, he was honored with the publication of another poetry
collection, Estrela da Vida Inteira (1966; Star of His Entire Life), and
he received several distinctions, among them The National Order of
Merit. See also ANDRADE, MÁRIO RAUL DE MORAIS; FER-
RAZ, HEITOR; FREYRE, GILBERTO DE MELO; GUIMARÃES,
BERNARDO JOAQUIM DA SILVA; PRADO, ADÉLIA.

BARBOSA, FREDERICO (Brazil, 1961– ). Poet. A contemporary


poet who emerged from the lessons of the concrete poetry move-
ment, Barbosa has established himself as a major dissenting voice in
contemporary poetry. His principal works include Rarefato (1990;
Rarefact), Nada Feito Nada (1993; Nothing Made Nothing), Con-
tracorrente (2000; Countercurrent), and Louco ou Oco Sem Bei-
ras: Anatomia da Depressão (2001; Crazy or Hole without Edges:
Anatomy of Depression).

BAREIRO SAGUIER, RUBÉN (Paraguay, 1930– ). Poet and short


story writer. Most of his writing was produced in exile in France,
where he lived after a year in prison in Paraguay for his involvement

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72 • BAROQUE

in opposition to the government. His poetry includes A la víbora de


la mar (1977; London Bridge Is Falling Down) and Estancias/erran-
cias/querencias (1982; Visits/Wanderings/Longings), as well as Bio-
grafía de ausente (1964; Biography of a Missing Person), published
in Paraguay before he went into exile. His collections of short stories,
Ojo por diente (1972; An Eye for a Tooth) and El séptimo pétalo del
viento (1984; The Seventh Petal of the Wind), contributed to the de-
velopment of a more socially critical tone in Paraguayan fiction. Ojo
por diente received a Casa de las Américas prize.

BAROQUE. Derived from Europe, the baroque was the dominant style
of the colonial period and was especially prevalent in the 17th and
18th centuries. It affected all forms of expression, including archi-
tecture, painting, music, literature, and theater. In literature, the ba-
roque is often characterized by complex language and highly imagi-
native metaphors, sharp contrasts, and the conflict between a secular
and a religious view of the world. Among its prominent exponents in
Spanish America were Bernardo de Balbuena, Sor Juana Inés de
la Cruz, Eusebio Vela, and Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora from
Mexico, and from Peru, Juan de Espinosa Medrano and Juan del
Valle y Caviedes. In Brazil it includes the satirical poetry and drama
of Gregório de Mattos e Guerra, the comedies and secular love
poetry of Manuel Botelho de Oliveira, and the sermons of Antônio
Vieira. See also ARCADIANISM; COLOMBIA; COSTA, CLÁU-
DIO MANUEL DA; LEMINSKI, PAULO; LINS, OSMAN; MA-
DARIAGA, FRANCISCO; SALOMÃO, WALY; VENEZUELA.

BARRETO DE MENESES, TOBIAS (Brazil, 1839–1889). Essayist


and philosopher. Of modest and mixed-race origin, Barreto learned
Latin in his native Sergipe and became a teacher at age 15. He then
studied law in Recife and began writing poetry in the style of Victor
Hugo (1773–1828), engaging in a polemic with Antônio Frederico
de Castro Alves. A declared enemy of traditional philosophy and
law, Barreto attempted to stir Brazil’s outdated monarchical society
through an appropriation of Darwinism and French positivism, as in
his Estudos de Filosofia e Crítica (1875; Studies in Philosophy and
Criticism) and Questões Vigentes de Filosofia e de Direito (1888;
Current Issues in Philosophy and Law). The intellectual movement

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BARROS, MANOEL DE • 73

of renovation Barreto spearheaded became known as the School of


Recife, and one of his disciples was the literary critic Sílvio Romero.
Barreto also taught himself German in order to read Ernst Haeckel
(1834–1919) and other philosophers in the original, and he published
some works on German subjects, including Estudos Alemães (1881;
German Studies) and some articles written in German. His posthu-
mous works include the poetry of Dias e Noites (1893; Days and
Nights) and the essays of Vários Escritos (1900; Selected Writings)
and Obras Completas (1926; Complete Works). See also ANJOS,
AUGUSTO DOS; ROMERO, SÍLVIO.

BARRIOS, EDUARDO (Chile, 1884–1963). Novelist. He wrote in-


trospective, psychological novels of the abnormal, of which the most
enduring is El niño que enloqueció de amor (1915; The Child Who
Went Crazy with Love), about an adolescent’s feelings for an older
woman. Other prominent novels are Un perdido (1918; A Lost Soul);
El hermano asno (1922; Brother Ass), concerning the spiritual and
sexual conflicts of two monks; and Gran señor y rajadiablos (1948;
Great Lord and Hellraiser), a saga of life in rural Chile spanning the
late 19th and early 20th centuries, having some of the characteristics
of criollismo.

BARRIOS DE CHUNGARA, DOMITILA (Bolivia, 1937– ). Her


life and the struggles of Bolivian tin miners and their families figure
in the testimonio Si me permiten hablar: testimonio de Domitila,
una mujer de las minas de Bolivia (1978; Let Me Speak! Testimony
of Domitila, a Woman of the Bolivian Mines), written with Moema
Viezzer. See also WOMEN.

BARROS, MANOEL DE (Brazil, 1916– ). Poet. Although Barros


began publishing early with his first book, Poemas Concebidos Sem
Pecado (1937; Poems Conceived Without Sin), he only gained rec-
ognition in the 1980s. Born and raised in the rural area of Pantanal in
southwestern Brazil, Barros writes a poetry of the quotidian, mainly
inspired by his homeland and nature, the observation of which leads
to more profound existential reflections. His poetry attempts to recu-
perate the notion of a primordial Edenic language, such as Gramática
Expositiva do Chão (1966; Expository Grammar of the Ground) and

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74 • BARROS, PÍA

O Livro das Ignorãças (1993; The Book of IgnoRa(n)ces). Other


books include Arranjos para Assobio (1980; Arrangements for a
Whistle), O Guardador de Águas (1989; The Keeper of Waters),
Livro Sobre Nada (1996; Book on Nothing), Ensaios Fotográficos
(2000; Photographic Essays), Tratado Central das Grandezas do
Ínfimo (2001; Central Treaty on the Greatness of the Negligible),
and Memórias Inventadas: A Infância (2003; Invented Memories:
Childhood).

BARROS, PÍA (Chile, 1956– ). Short story writer. Focusing on the


themes of identity, the erotic, and the culture and politics of Chile,
Barros has published several collections of stories. These include
Miedos transitorios (1986; Transitory Fears), A horcajadas (1995;
Astride), Signos bajo la piel (1995; Signs Beneath the Skin), Los que
sobran (2002; Those Left Over), and Llamadas perdidas (2008; Lost
Calls), a collection of microtales. She has also written a novel, El
tono menor del deseo (1991; The Undertone of Desire).

BARROS GREZ, DANIEL (Chile, 1834–1904). Novelist and drama-


tist. He introduced the serial novel to Chile and wrote a number of
historical novels that have become a mine of information about the
customs and folklore of Chile. His best-known novel is Pipiolos y
pelucones (1876; Liberals and Conservatives), a historical novel set
in the first half of the 19th century. Later works include El huérfano
(1881; The Orphan), a mammoth picaresque tale in six volumes
based in part on the author’s own life; La academia político-literaria
(1890), a miscellany of narratives and poetry; and Primeras aventu-
ras maravillosas del perro Cuatro Remos en Santiago (1898; The
First Marvelous Adventures of the Dog Four Oars in Santiago), a tale
built around a dog belonging to a group of Santiago firemen. As a
dramatist, he is best known for plays written in the style of costum-
brismo, poking fun at the middle class, several of which have been
revived for 20th-century performances. His first play was La beata
(1859; The Devout Woman), a satire of religious excess. El ensayo
de la comedia (1889; The Rehearsal) uses the strategy of the “play
within the play,” and one of his best-known works is Como en San-
tiago (1875; As in Santiago), a comedy of manners about the imita-
tion of the ways of the capital in the provinces. See also THEATER.

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BAYLY, JAIME • 75

BASURTO, LUIS G. (Mexico, 1921–1990). Dramatist. Although he


qualified as a lawyer, Basurto went to Hollywood in 1942 to study
cinematography and devoted much of his life to writing and direct-
ing for the stage and cinema. He often worked in collaboration
with Xavier Villaurrutia and became one of the most successful
dramatists of the second half of the 20th century, appreciated for
his humorous works of social criticism. Cada quien su vida (1955;
Each to His Own Life) is one of the most frequently performed plays
in the history of Mexican theater. Other plays include Los diálogos
de Suzette (1940; Suzette’s Dialogues), Voz como sangre (1942;
Voice Like Blood), La que se fue (1946; The Woman Who Left),
Frente a la muerte (1952; Facing Death), Toda una dama (1954; The
Complete Lady), Miércoles de ceniza (1956; Ash Wednesday), La
locura de los ángeles (1957; The Madness of the Angels), Los reyes
del mundo (1959; Kings of the World), El escándalo de la verdad
(1960; The Truth Scandal), Bodas de plata (1960; Silver Wedding),
La gobernadora (1963; The Lady Governor), Y todos terminaron
ladrando (1964; And They All Ended Up Barking), Cadena perpetua
(1965; Life Sentence), and Con la frente en el polvo (1967; Head in
the Dust).

BATRES MONTÚFAR, JOSÉ (Guatemala, 1809–1844). Poet. One


of his country’s most important 19th-century poets. His Poemas
(1845; Poems) were published posthumously with an introduction by
José Milla y Vidaure. He wrote lyric verse, but is best remembered
for verse narratives that have retained their popularity for over a
century and a half. Taken from colonial times and with some of the
characteristics of romanticism and the style of Spanish authors such
as José Zorilla (1817–1893), his narratives also anticipate the tradi-
ciones of Ricardo Palma.

BAYLY, JAIME (Peru, 1965– ). Novelist. His novels on contemporary


society deal with themes of desire and sexual repression. His works
include No se lo digas a nadie (1994; Don’t Tell Anyone); Fue ayer
y no me acuerdo (It WasYesterday and I Don’t Remember), which
includes episodes of bisexuality and homosexuality; Los últimos días
de La Prensa (1996; The Last Days of La Prensa), a novel about the
banning of a major Peruvian newspaper; Yo amo a mi mamá (1999;

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76 • BELLI, CARLOS GERMÁN

I Love My Mummy); La mujer de mi hermano (2002; My Brother’s


Wife); El huracán lleva tu nombre (2004; The Hurricane Bears Your
Name); and Y de repente, un ángel (2005; And Suddenly an Angel).
Bayly is a televsion personality, and his first and most recent novels
have served as the basis for movies. See also GAY AND LESBIAN
WRITERS AND WRITING.

BELLI, CARLOS GERMÁN (Peru, 1927– ). Poet. In contrast to


others of his generation, whose work tends to be simpler, Belli’s
poetry is more hermetic. It develops its own system of symbols and
often refers to writers of the Spanish Renaissance and baroque. At
the same time, Belli evokes the horror of life in contemporary Lima
while longing for a brighter future for himself and his country. His
major works include ¡Oh, Hada Cibernética! (1961; Oh, Cybernetic
Muse!), El pie sobre el cuello (1964; With a Foot on the Neck), Por
el monte abajo: poemas (1966; Down the Mountain: Poems), En
alabanza del bolo alimenticio (1979; In Praise of the Bolus), Más que
señora humana (1986; More Than Human Lady), and En el restante
tiempo terrenal (1988; In the Remaining Time on Earth).

BELLI, GIOCONDA (Nicaragua, 1948– ). Novelist and poet. Her


affiliation with the Sandinista Revolution (1970–1979) in Nicaragua
colors much of her writing, especially her autobiographical work El
país bajo mi piel: memorias de amor y guerra (2001; The Country
Under My Skin: A Memoir of Love and War), although her support
for the revolutionary party in Nicaragua has since declined. Her first
novel, La mujer habitada (1988; The Inhabited Woman), became
an international best seller and gave the author a prominent place
among contemporary Latin American women writers. It was one
of the first novels to raise the question of gender in narratives of
the Sandinista Revolution. Her second novel, Sofía de los presagios
(1990; Sofía and Her Premonitions), sustains a focus on women in
society and female liberation. Her later novels include El pergamino
de la seducción (2005; The Scroll of Seduction). Women and the rev-
olution have also figured as prominent themes in her poetry, of which
she has several collections, including Sobre la grama (1974; On the
Grass); Línea de fuego (1978; Line of Fire), which received a Casa
de las Américas prize; De la costilla de Eva (1987; From Eve’s Rib);
and Apogeo (1997; Apogee). Truenos y arco iris (1982; Thunder

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BENEDETTI, MARIO • 77

and Rainbow) concerns the period of reconstruction in Nicaragua.


An anthology of her poetry has been collected in El ojo de la mujer
(1991; The Woman’s Eye). See also CORONEL URTECHO, JOSÉ.

BELLO, ANDRÉS (Venezuela/Chile, 1781–1865). Poet, grammar-


ian, historian, and journalist. He was one of Latin America’s most
significant 19th-century intellectuals and a prominent figure in the
cultural and political life of Venezuela, where he was born, and
Chile, where he lived the latter half of his life. In addition to his
poetry, he authored books on law, geography, the Spanish language,
and history. His poetry includes his Alocución a la poesía (1823;
Invocation to Poetry) and Silva a la agricultura de la zona tórrida
(1826; Silva to Agriculture in the Torrid Zone), his most frequently
cited literary works. Both were written in the style of neo-classicism
while living in London (1810–1829), and praise the natural world of
the Americas as a fit subject for poetry. His Gramática de la lengua
castellana destinada al uso de los americanos (1847; Grammar of
the Spanish Language Intended for the Use of Americans) and other
writings on language reflect the importance he attached to education
for the newly independent countries of Spanish America and his be-
lief that language could serve to unify them. See also LASTARRIA,
JOSÉ VICTORINO; RODRÍGUEZ MONEGAL, EMIR.

BENAVENTE, TORIBIO DE (MOTOLINÍA) (Mexico, ca. 1500–


1568). Chronicler. A Franciscan friar, he was among the first group
of missionaries sent to Mexico to undertake the conversion of the
native population. Of the writings he left, the most substantial is his
chronicle Historia de los indios de la Nueva España (History of the
Indians of New Spain), which he began in 1536, although it was not
published until 1858. It has sections on Aztec religion, the conversion
to Christianity, and the New World in general, and is an important
historical resource concerning the early years of colonization. Mo-
tolinía, the Nahuatl name adopted by Fray Toribio, means “poor.”

BENEDETTI, MARIO (Uruguay, 1920– 2009). Novelist, short story


writer, poet, and essayist. Fiction and poetry predominate in his
work, but he is a prolific writer in all the genres he cultivates. His
first collection of short stories, Esta mañana (1949; This Morning),

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78 • BENEDETTI, MARIO

shows the influence of wide reading in modern fiction, including


the work of Juan Carlos Onetti, and the presence of themes he
continued to develop in his subsequent publications. In the novel
Quién de nosotros (1953; Who Among Us), the verse in Poemas de
la oficina (1956; Office Poems), and the short stories in Montevide-
anos (1959; Montevideans), Benedetti began to examine the growing
social crisis in Uruguay in the 1950s and to focus on everyday life
and the urban middle class. These concerns continue in La tregua
(1960; The Truce), the author’s most enduring novel, about an older
man experiencing a brief moment of happiness, and in Gracias por
el fuego (1965; Thanks for the Light), his third novel, based on his
experiences in the United States.
Benedetti’s involvement in the political opposition in Uruguay
during the 1970s was expressed in writing as well as in actions. His
political speeches and articles were collected in Crónicas del 71
(1972; Chronicles from 71), and in El cumpleaños de Juan Ángel
(1971; Juan Angel’s Birthday), he wrote a novel in verse that tells
how the life of its protagonist led him to become a revolutionary.
Forced into exile, Benedetti continued to write. He renewed his in-
terest in theater. He had already had some success with Ida y vuelta
(written 1955, published 1963; Round Trip) before his play Pedro y
el capitán (1979; Peter and the Captain), dealing with the military
regime, was first performed by a theater company in exile.
His experience of exile is expressed in the novel Primavera con
un esquina rota (1982; Spring with a Broken Corner), in which
Benedetti uses different narrative lines to convey a range of cir-
cumstances, including imprisonment and repression; in Geografías
(1984; Geographies), a collection of short stories that includes both
poetry and prose; and in the novel Recuerdos olvidados (1988; For-
gotten Memories). Benedetti’s essays of that time, such as Letras de
emergencia (1981; Urgent Writings) and Crítica cómplice (1981;
Committed Criticism), on political, literary, and social themes, are
in a direct, straightforward style and convey his political engage-
ment. His collected poetry has appeared in a volume titled Inventario
(1963; Inventory), which has had numerous expanded editions to
include more recent work. His fiction and poetry have also served
as a basis for numerous films, and many of his poems have been set

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BEST SELLER • 79

to music and recorded, notably by the Catalan singer Joan Manuel


Serrat.

BERMAN, SABINA (Mexico, 1953– ). Dramatist. Berman is one


of Mexico’s most successful contemporary playwrights. She often
focuses on the enigmas of life centered on questions of identity
and power relationships, in plays that are open-ended or highly
ambiguous. Her major works for the stage include El suplicio del
placer (1978; The Agony of Ecstasy); Yanqui (1979; Yankee), about
the shifting identity of an American and his influence; Rompecabe-
zas (1982; Puzzle), on the assassination of Leon Trotsky in Mexico
in 1942; Herejía (1983; Heresy), about a family of conversos (Jews
converted to Christianity) in colonial times; and Krisis (1996; Krisis),
a play attacking the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institu-
tional Revolutionary Party), which governed Mexico from 1929 until
2000. See also THEATER; WOMEN.

BEST SELLER. The term began to be used in the 1960s, especially in


association with the major writers of the boom in Spanish American
fiction such as Julio Cortázar, Carlos Fuentes, Gabriel García
Márquez, and Mario Vargas Llosa, whose works were among the
first to be aggressively marketed and to have high international sales.
After their early successes, their later novels were often published
simultaneously in multiple languages. Once the popularity of Latin
American writing had been established, other writers also obtained
wide international sales. Isabel Allende (Chile) and Laura Esquivel
(Mexico) are among women writers whose books have achieved
notable success and were promoted further by film versions. Other
internationally successful authors include Gioconda Belli (Nicara-
gua) and Tomás Eloy Martínez and Manuel Puig (Argentina). On
a different scale, as in the case of novels by authors such as María
Elena Walsh and Jorge Asís (Argentina), Enrique Lafourcade
(Chile), or Ángeles Mastretta (Mexico), the term “best seller” is also
used to refer to books that have won recognition through their sales
in national markets.
Brazil had best-selling authors even before the 1960s boom,
which is often considered mainly a Spanish American phenomenon.
Authors such as Dinah Silveira de Queirós and Érico Veríssimo in

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80 • BILAC, OLAVO BRÁS MARTINS DOS GUIMARÃES

the 1930s and 1940s anticipated the success of Jorge Amado, who
began writing before the boom and became known internationally
later thanks to translations of his works and film adaptations. More
recently, Rubem Fonseca, Luis Fernando Veríssimo, and João
Ubaldo Ribeiro have also achieved best-selling status. Yet none of
them matches Paulo Coelho, Brazil’s all-time best-selling author,
who has 100 million copies to his credit and in 2003 was the most
sold author worldwide.

BILAC, OLAVO BRÁS MARTINS DOS GUIMARÃES (Brazil,


1865–1918). Essayist and poet. Brazil’s parnassian poet par excel-
lence, Bilac attained greater prestige and popular esteem while alive
than any other poet. He was also a journalist and civic activist at the
time when the monarchy and slavery were abolished and the republic
proclaimed. Bilac traveled extensively in Brazil and abroad, charged
with public missions, and was elected the first “Prince of Poets” of
Brazil. A consummate wordsmith, his poetry sought the perfection of
form and the understatement of feeling promoted by parnassianism.
Besides several poetry collections, including Poesias (1888; Poems),
a volume gathering Panóplias (Panoplies), Via Láctea (Milky Way),
and Sarças de Fogo (Fire Brambles), with a second edition in 1902
that added Alma Inquieta (Restless Soul), As Viagens (Travels),
and O Caçador de Esmeraldas (The Emerald Hunter), Bilac also
authored a rhyming dictionary and a treatise on versification. See
also CORREIA, RAIMUNDO; MEIRELES, CECÍLIA; POMPÉIA,
RAUL D’ÁVILA.

BIOY CASARES, ADOLFO (Argentina, 1914–1999). Novelist and


short story writer. He often explores the nature of reality and human
existence by combining elements of the fantastic, terror, and sci-
ence fiction in the manner of fantastic literature. His first novel,
La invención de Morel (1940; The Invention of Morel), a classic of
Latin American literature, is the story of a fugitive on an island who
discovers the world around him to be a projection. Plan de evasión
(1945; A Plan for Escape), his second novel, also set on an island,
describes the unsuccessful attempts by a prison governor to control
inmates’ lives using similar kinds of projections. In El sueño de los
héroes (1954; The Dream of Heroes), set in Buenos Aires, the pro-

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BLANCO FOMBONA, RUFINO • 81

tagonist tries to learn whether part of his life is a repetition of what


he has already lived.
The author turned to different issues in Diario de la guerra del
cerdo (1969; Diary of the War of the Pig) and Dormir al sol (1973;
Asleep in the Sun), which deal, respectively, with generational
conflict and personality manipulation, but he returns to the relation
between images and reality in his last novel, La aventura de un fotó-
grafo en La Plata (1985; A Photographer’s Adventure in La Plata).
His short stories explore the same kinds of themes and styles as his
novels. He published nine collections in total, including La trama
celeste (1948; The Celestial Plot), Guirnalda con amores (1959;
Bouquet with Love), Historias de amor (1972; Tales of Love), and
Historias fantásticas (1972; Tales of the Fantastic).
Bioy Casares also wrote in collaboration with his wife, Silvina
Ocampo, and Jorge Luis Borges. Among his collaborations with the
latter is a collection of crime stories, Seis problemas para don Isidro
Parodi (1942; Six Problems for Don Isidro Parodi), and the two writ-
ers also edited a crime fiction series called Séptimo Círculo (Seventh
Circle). Bioy Casares received the Miguel de Cervantes Prize for
Literature in 1990. See also AMORIM, ENRIQUE.

BIVAR, ANTÔNIO (Brazil, 1940– ). Dramatist and nonfiction writer.


Best known for his political plays set in an authoritarian society,
Bivar participated in the counterculture movements of the 1960s,
1970s, and 1980s. He received prizes for his play Cordélia Brasil
(1967; Cordelia Brazil) and his autobiographical narrative Verdes
vales do fim do mundo (1984; Green Valleys at the End of the
World). See also THEATER.

BLANCO FOMBONA, RUFINO (Venezuela, 1874–1944). Poet,


novelist, and essayist. He was a prolific writer, and much of what he
wrote responded to his unfailing interest in Spanish America or his
antagonism toward the dictatorial regimes of his native country. He
published five collections of poetry. Of these, Cantos de la prisión
y del destierro (1911; Songs of Prison and Exile) was written in
defiance of the dictator General Juan Vicente Gómez (1908–1935)
at the beginning of a long period of exile the author spent in Europe
(1910–1936). He also wrote five biographical novels that tell the

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82 • BLEST GANA, ALBERTO

lives of strong, driven personalities. In both El hombre de hierro


(1907; The Man of Iron) and El hombre de oro (1915; The Man of
Gold), for example, his protagonists are Darwinian characters, whose
actions yield success in the first novel and failure in the second.
Blanco Fombona is perhaps best remembered, however, for his es-
says. He wrote several books on Simón Bolívar (1783–1830), whose
speeches and letters he also edited. Among his historical writings are
La evolución política y social de Hispanoamérica (1911; The Politi-
cal and Social Evolution of Spanish America) and El conquistador
español del siglo XVI (1921; The Spanish Conqueror of the Sixteenth
Century). His literary criticism includes Grandes escritores de
América (1917; Great Writers of America) and El modernismo y los
poetas modernistas (1929; Modernism and the Modernist Poets), in
which he established the critical foundations of modernismo.

BLEST GANA, ALBERTO (Chile, 1830–1920). Novelist. One of the


first novelists in Spanish America to adopt European realism, he ap-
plied what he read in the works of French author Honoré de Balzac
(1799–1850) to a description of the emerging middle class in Chile
and the power of money as the force underlying 19th-century soci-
ety. His novels reflect his capacity for social observation, but have
been criticized for their adherence to romantic plot conventions, as in
Martín Rivas (1862; Martin Rivas), his best-known work and one of
the classics of 19th-century Latin American literature, in which the
drama of the hero’s political gesture is a consequence of his frustra-
tion in love. Other works include La aritmética en el amor (1860;
The Arithmetic of Love), El ideal de un calavera (1863; A Rake’s
Ideal), and a historical novel, Durante la conquista (1897; During
the Conquest). See also GREZ, VICENTE; ORREGO LUCO, LUIS.

BOAL, AUGUSTO (Brazil, 1931–2009). Dramatist, essayist, and


theater director. An internationally recognized innovative director
and cultural activist, Boal came into conflict with the military gov-
ernment after the staging of his nationalist plays Arena Conta Zumbi
(1965; Arena Retells Zumbi) and Arena Conta Tiradentes (1967;
Arena Retells Tiradentes), both coauthored with Gianfrancesco
Guarnieri and based on controversial historical figures. Boal was
exiled in Argentina, where he published his influential reflections

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BOLAÑO, ROBERTO • 83

on theater technique, Teatro del oprimido y otras poéticas políticas


(1974; Theater of the Oppressed and Other Political Poetics), in-
spired by Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968) by Paulo Freire (1921–
1997), and Técnicas latinoamericanas de teatro popular (1975; Latin
American Popular Theater Techniques). In the former, following the
concepts of Brechtian theater, Boal critiqued Aristotelian poetics as
oppressive. His influential Jeux pour acteurs et non-acteurs (1978;
Games for Actors and Non-Actors), published while he lived in Paris,
contains practical exercises for drama performance. Boal developed
a “Joker system,” in which all actors play all roles and the action is
narrated by the “Joker,” an analytical observer. More recently, Boal
had an active career in local politics in Brazil.

BOLAÑO, ROBERTO (Chile, 1953–2003). Novelist and short story


writer. Bolaño is considered by many to be one of the greatest prose
writers of his generation. He lived outside Chile after 1973 and even-
tually settled in Spain, where some of his fiction is set. His two major
novels are both epic in scope. Los detectives salvajes (1998; The Sav-
age Detectives), which won the 1999 Rómulo Gallegos Prize, is a
meandering narrative with multiple voices and testimonies structured
around the wanderings of its two main characters and the intricacies
of a movement called “Visceral Realism.” 2666 (2004; 2666) focuses
on serial murders committed in the fictive Mexican town of Santa
Teresa, first introduced in Los detectives salvajes. It has over 1,000
pages and offers an apocalyptic view of the 20th century. Bolaño’s
other novels include La pista de hielo (1993; The Ice Trail), a story
of crime on the Spanish Mediterranean that includes his own lite-
rary persona, Arturo Belano, and anticipates the multiple narratives
characteristic of later work; Literatura nazi en América (1996; Nazi
Literature in the Americas), an encyclopedia of fictional authors;
Estrella distante (1996; Distant Star) and Amuleto (1999; Amulet),
both developed from earlier novels; and Nocturno de Chile (2000; By
Night in Chile), about a priest and a literary critic connected to the
regime of Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990) in Chile. Bolaño’s short
stories have appeared in Llamadas telefónicas (1997; Telephone
Calls), Putas asesinas (2001; Killer Whores), and El gaucho insufri-
ble (2003; The Intolerable Gaucho). A selection from the first two of
these was published in English translation in Last Evenings on Earth

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84 • BOLÍVAR, SIMÓN

(2006). Bolaño also wrote poetry and journalism, but his reputation
is founded on his fiction.

BOLÍVAR, SIMÓN (Venezuela, 1783–1830). Although celebrated


most for his military and political activities at the time of the Wars
of Independence and after, some of his writings are among the most
important foundational texts of Spanish America. They include his
call to arms in El Manifiesto de Cartagena (1812; The Cartagena
Manifesto) and his reflections on the War in Carta de Jamaica (1815;
Letter from Jamaica). See also GARCÍA MÁRQUEZ, GABRIEL;
OLMEDO, JOSÉ JOAQUÍN; VARGAS TEJADA, LUIS.

BOLIVIA. In comparison with that of its neighbors Argentina, Brazil,


and Chile, the literary output of Bolivia is relatively small. Some
have seen this as the result of a history of isolation, separated from
the cultural centers of South America during the colonial period and
subsequently landlocked following the loss of an outlet to the sea
after the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). With Quechua and
Aymara-speaking Amerindians constituting over 50 percent of the
population, Bolivia is also thought of as less disposed to enter the
main literary systems of Latin America. Moreover, the country has
endured political and economic instability for much of its history
since independence, including the loss of over half of its national ter-
ritory through wars and secession.
Notwithstanding these conditions, Bolivia has chronicled its social
and political life in literature and produced a body of important writ-
ers who are part of the Latin American canon. In poetry, Ricardo
Jaimes Freyre was a significant representative of modernismo,
as was Franz Tamayo, albeit a late, aestheticized practitioner of
the style. By contrast, Jaime Saénz, a younger poet than either of
these two modernists, wrote successfully in a hermetic style akin to
surrealism. In prose writing, one of the first Bolivians to be widely
read outside his country was the novelist and historian Alcides Ar-
guedas, whose negative indigenismo found an equally extreme but
opposite counterpart in the essays of the poet Franz Tamayo. A more
sympathetic view of indigenous life and culture was in due course
found in the work of Jesús Lara. As a country whose economy has
been dominated by resource extraction—first silver, then tin—both

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BOMBAL, MARÍA LUISA • 85

before and after independence, Bolivia also has a tradition of prose


writing related to mining, within which the testimonio by Domitila
Barrios de Chungara is an important example. Mining also figures
in the historical novels of Néstor Taboada Terán, Bolivia’s most
important contemporary novelist, who has written on the theme of
the Chaco War (1932–1935) between Bolivia and Paraguay, which
had disastrous consequences for Bolivia and also gave rise to a body
of literary writing.
With respect to theater, there was a tradition of theatrical per-
formance in Quechua and Aymara, which was used by the Spanish
missionaries as a strategy for teaching Christianity. As early as the
16th century, there was a secular theater in the mining city of Potosí.
The development of a Bolivian theater did not progress significantly,
however, until the 19th century, with the writing and staging of
plays on historical themes, although not necessarily from Bolivian
history. Ricardo Jaimes Freyre was among the contributors to this
trend. The Chaco War also served later as a source of inspiration for
dramatists. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were some notable writ-
ers for the stage, such as Guillermo Francovich and Raúl Botelho
Gonsálvez, but they did not transcend their enviroment. The same
might be said of subsequent decades. Original plays draw on histori-
cal sources and deal with politics and social injustice, but often in
rather didactic terms at the expense of artistic merit. In effect, the
theater in contemporary Bolivia does not have a strong presence, its
impact is local, and there is also some tendency to favor the staging
of foreign plays. See also ACOSTA, JOSÉ DE; GORRITI, JUANA
MANUELA; MARÍN CAÑAS, JOSÉ; PARAGUAY; ROA BAS-
TOS, AUGUSTO; WOMEN.

BOMBAL, MARÍA LUISA (Chile, 1910–1980). Novelist. She is


known principally for her two novels, La última niebla (1935; The
Final Mist) and La amortajada (1938; The Shrouded Woman). Both
are highly introspective works that explore inner fantasies in the
manner of surrealism and break with the predominantly realistic
style of the times. They also place the author in the vanguard of
20th-century women writers whose fiction served to explore female
subjectivity.

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86 • BONASSI, FERNANDO

BONASSI, FERNANDO (Brazil, 1962– ). Dramatist, novelist, and


short story writer. Born in the working-class district of Mooca in São
Paulo, Bonassi studied cinema and wrote his first play in 1989, but
then turned to narrative. He became famous with his novel Subúrbio
(1994; Suburb), a tale of people suffering solitude, failure, degrada-
tion, and violence in an urban industrial neighborhood. Subúrbio
shocked the reading public and inaugurated a new trend in Brazilian
fiction. His realistic and candid portrayal of underclass social types
links him to his predecessor in the genre of crime fiction, Rubem
Fonseca. Other works in this style, which also re-create popular
urban speech, include Um Céu de Estrelas (1991; A Sky of Stars),
Crimes Conjugais (1994; Conjugal Crimes), and the very short narra-
tives of 100 Histórias Colhidas na Rua (1996; 100 Stories Gathered
on the Streets). In Passaporte (2001; Passport), Bonassi compared
European genocides to everyday crimes in Brazil. His play Apocal-
ipse 1,11 (2002; Revelation 1:11), partly based on St. John’s Revela-
tion, was adapted as the screenplay for the blockbuster Carandiru.
See also THEATER.

BONVINCINO, RÉGIS (Brazil, 1955– ). Poet and translator. Emerg-


ing from the concrete poetry movement in the mid-1970s, Bonvin-
cino’s career soon took a different route through early experimen-
tation with pop music, humor, comic strips, and the vernacular in
Régis Hotel (1978; Hotel Régis) and Más Companhias (1987; Bad
Company). Still retaining a youthful diction, 33 Poemas (1990; 33
Poems) gave way to Outros Poemas (1993; Other Poems), Ossos
de Borboleta (1996; Butterfly Bones), and Céu-Eclipse (1999; Sky-
Eclipse), which display a more mature voice and a sober, linguisti-
cally minimal observation of reality. A restless innovator, Bonvicino
has often sought inspiration in non-Brazilian models, particularly
American avant-garde poets such as Charles Bernstein (1950– )
and Robert Creeley (1926–2005), whose work he he translated. His
Remorso do Cosmos (de Ter Vindo ao Sol) (2003; Remorse of the
Cosmos [for Having Arrived at the Sun]) and Página Órfã (2007;
Orphan Page) are collections in which postmodern images from the
media collide with the harsh reality of life in the megalopolis of São
Paulo. Bonvicino also directs the poetry review Sibila (Sybil).

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BOPP, RAUL • 87

BOOKS OF CHILAM BALAM. A collection of documents relevant


for a consideration of indigenous traditions. They are hybrid texts
from Guatemala that integrate Maya and Christian concepts. Among
the most significant are the Books of Chilam Balam of Chumayel.

BOOM. This term, coined by Emir Rodríguez Monegal, refers to the


rise in international popularity of the Latin American novel that be-
gan in the 1960s. The boom was marked by the emergence of a group
of especially talented writers, but was also the product of successful
marketing that gave them increased visibility and turned some of
their books into best sellers. It did not constitute a formal movement,
although some of the novels shared certain characteristics in that
they experimented with narrative conventions; told epic tales that at-
tempted to capture the history, geography, and culture of the country
to which they referred; and were thought of as having a particularly
Latin American style often associated with magic realism. In Span-
ish America, the principal authors were Julio Cortázar (Argentina),
Carlos Fuentes (Mexico), Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia),
and Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru), with others such as José Donoso
(Chile), Alfredo Bryce Echenique and Manuel Scorza (Peru), and
Manuel Puig (Argentina) also associated with the phenomenon. In
Brazil, Jorge Amado, João Guimarães Rosa, and Clarice Lispec-
tor are often seen as part of the boom, but the attribution is contro-
versial because of the different characteristics of their work and their
own sense of autonomy. Moroever, the boom is often considered a
Spanish American phenomenon. See also ARÉVALO MARTÍNEZ,
RAFAEL; ASTURIAS, MIGUEL ÁNGEL; POST-BOOM.

BOPP, RAUL (Brazil, 1898–1984). Poet. One of the main exponents of


antropofagia, Bopp traveled and worked at odd jobs before coming
into contact with figures of Brazilian modernism. Initially attracted
by the nationalist conservative vanguard led by Plínio Salgado, he
coauthored the Manifesto do Verdeamarelismo ou da Escola da Anta
(1929; Manifesto of the Green-Yellow Movement or The School of
the Tapir). He later joined the opposing group led by Oswald de An-
drade and his Revista de antropofagia. Bopp is best known for his
Amazonian epic-magic poem, Cobra Norato (1931; Cobra Norato),

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88 • BORGES, JORGE LUIS

one of the most representative works of the mixture of nationalism


and primitivism characteristic of antropofagia. It features a snake
named Cobra Norato and magical beings who inhabit the rain for-
est and was inspired by native Brazilian legends from the Amazon.
Another of Bopp’s poems, Urucungo (1933; Urucungo), drew from
elements of Afro-Brazilian culture. See also GALVÃO, PATRÍCIA;
RICARDO LEITE, CASSIANO; VERDEAMARELISMO.

BORGES, JORGE LUIS (Argentina, 1899–1986). Poet, short story


writer, and essayist. Borges is one of Latin America’s foremost and
most internationally recognized literary figures of the 20th century.
His wide reading in European and American literature and in Eastern
and Western philosophy and religions is reflected in his work, but
unlike many of his contemporaries, he was not overtly political in
his writing. In carefully crafted short pieces (stories, microtales,
fictive-essays), he was drawn more to the universal dimensions of
life and its character as a riddle represented by metaphors such as
the labyrinth, mirror images, or the circularity of time, often in the
manner of fantastic literature. Returning to Argentina in 1923 after
seven years in Europe, he wrote for the avant-garde review Martín
Fierro, was cofounder of the journal Proa in 1924, and contributed
to Sur, Argentina’s most important literary journal. His first collec-
tion of verse, Fervor de Buenos Aires (1923; The Fervor of Buenos
Aires), an exploration of existence through a sensitive evocation
of the city, followed the precepts of ultraísmo adopted by Borges
while in Spain. Later volumes, Poemas 1922–1943 (1944; Poems
1922–1943), Poemas 1923–1953 (1954), Poemas 1923–1958 (1958),
and Obra poética 1923–1977 (1983; Poetic Work 1923–1977), suc-
cessively added to and revised earlier collections. The last of his col-
lections of verse, Los conjurados (1985; The Conspirators), appeared
the year before he died.
Borges’s early prose works were essays, published in Inquisi-
ciones (1925; Inquisitions), Discusión (1932; Discussion), Historia
universal de la infamia (1935; A Universal History of Infamy), and
Historia de la eternidad (1936; History of Eternity), in which he
often presented arguments based on false logic or a hoax. His first
collection of stories was El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan (1941;
The Garden of Forking Paths), followed by Ficciones (1944; Fic-

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BOTELHO GONSÁLVEZ, RAÚL • 89

tions) and El Aleph (1949; The Aleph and Other Stories). These col-
lections were remarkable. In stories such as “Pierre Menard, autor del
Quijote” (“Pierre Menard, Author of Don Quixote”), “Las ruinas cir-
culares” (“The Circular Ruins”), “El jardín de senderos que se bifur-
can” (“The Garden of Forking Paths”), and “El sur” (“The South”),
he showed the multidimensional nature of reality. He focused on
the circular or cyclical nature of events, the interconnectedness of
phenomena, and the labyrinthine quality of life. The complexity of
his work was original and introduced innovative ways of looking at
literature and how it represented the world.
Although Borges’s progressive blindness would eventually affect
his writing, he remained productive. His later prose works included
further collections, El hacedor (1960; The Doer), Elogio de la som-
bra (1969; In Praise of Darkness), El informe de Brodie (1970; Dr.
Brodie’s Report), and El libro de arena (1975; The Book of Sand).
Earlier in his career he also wrote in collaboration with several other
writers, notably Adolfo Bioy Casares, with whom he published Seis
problemas para don Isidro Parodi (1942; Six Problems for Don
Isidro Parodi) and Crónicas de Bustos Domecq (1967; Chronicles
of Bustos Domecq) and edited an extensive, and very popular, crime
fiction series called Séptimo Círculo (Seventh Circle). With Bioy
Casares and Silvina Ocampo, he also edited the celebrated Antología
de la literatura fantástica (1940; The Book of Fantasy). Although he
had a profound impact on literature both in Argentina and beyond, he
was not a recipient of the Nobel Prize. He shared the Miguel de Cer-
vantes Prize for Literature with the Spanish poet Gerardo Diego
in 1979. See also AMORIM, ENRIQUE; COBO BORDA, JUAN
GUSTAVO; FERNÁNDEZ, MACEDONIO; GIRONDO, OLIVE-
RIO; GONZÁLEZ LANUZA, EDUARDO; GROUSSAC, PAUL;
LANGE, NORAH; MONTERROSO, AUGUSTO; OCAMPO, VIC-
TORIA; PACHECO, JOSÉ EMILIO; PIGLIA, RICARDO; RAMOS
SUCRE, JOSÉ ANTONIO; RODRÍGUEZ MONEGAL, EMIR;
SAER, JUAN JOSÉ; SOCA, SUSANA; TEITELBOIM, VOLODIA.

BOTELHO GONSÁLVEZ, RAÚL (Bolivia, 1917–1967). Novelist


and dramatist. In his fiction he wrote mainly about social injustice,
partly in the manner of costumbrismo, with ample reference to
the Bolivian landscape. His titles include Borrachera verde (1938;

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90 • BOULLOSA, CARMEN

Green Binge), Coca (1941; Coca), Altiplano (1945; Uplands), Vale


un Potosí (1949; It’s Worth Potosí), Tierra chúcara (1957; Hostile
Ground), Los toros salvajes y otros cuentos (1965; Wild Bulls and
Other Stories), and El tata Limachi (1967; Grandpa Limachi). He
also wrote essays on Bolivian history and politics, and an essay on
José Enrique Rodó, Reflexiones sobre el cincuentenario de “Ariel”
de José Enrique Rodó (1950; Reflections on the 50th Anniversary
of José Enrique Rodó’s “Ariel”). As a dramatist, he is known for his
historical play La lanza capitana (1961; The Leading Lance), about
the last Indian rebellion against the Spanish, led by the Aymara Tupai
Katari. See also THEATER.

BOULLOSA, CARMEN (Mexico, 1954– ). Novelist, poet, and


dramatist. She is a prolific writer and a significant figure among
contemporary women writers in Mexico. The content of her work is
eclectic, although she often writes on issues of gender and feminism.
She experiments with language in all the genres she pursues and is
known for the highly imaginative content of her writing. Her first
success in fiction was Son vacas, somos puercos (1991; They’re Pigs,
We’re Cows), a novel in which an old man looks back at the past and
recounts his life as a pirate in a way that highlights social difference.
Several of her novels are similarly set in historical contexts. La mila-
grosa (1993; The Miracle Worker) tells the story of a young woman
who falls for the man sent to discredit her ability to perform miracles.
Treinta años (1999; Leaving Tabasco) is a coming-of-age story of
Delmira Ulloa, who was raised in Tabasco in an all-female house-
hold. De un salto descabalga la reina (2002; Cleopatra Dismounts)
presents alternative versions of the life of the Egyptian queen. Other
novels include Duerme (1995; Sleep), Antes (2001; Before), La otra
mano de Lepanto (2005; The Other Hand at Lepanto), and El Ve-
lázquez de París (2007; The Parisian Velazquez).
Boullosa’s work for the theater is related in part to her own ac-
tivities as an actor and owner of a popular theater locale in Mexico
City. Among her successes are Cocinar hombres (1983; Cook Men),
about two girls turned into witches so that they can fly over the earth
at night in order to tempt, but not satisfy, men; Aura y las once mil
vírgenes (1986; Aura and the Eleven Thousand Virgins), the story of
a man commanded by God to seduce 11,000 virgins, who turns his

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BRAÑAS, CÉSAR • 91

adventures into a source of television commercials; and Propusieron


a María (1987; They Proposed to Mary), in which Mary and Joseph
talk about the impending birth of Jesus. Other plays include Trece se-
ñoritas (1983; Thirteen Young Ladies) and Mi versión de los hechos
(1987; My Version of Events).
Boullosa has also published more than 10 books of poetry, of
which some of the most recent are Niebla (1997; Mist), Los delirios
(1998; Deliriums), Agua (2000; Water), and La bebida (2002; The
Draught).

BRAGA, RUBEM (Brazil, 1913–1990). Chronicler. Born in Espírito


Santo, Braga is the only Brazilian author to have become famous
solely for the chronicle. He studied law in Belo Horizonte, but soon
left his studies to become a journalist, and published his first book
of chronicles, the autobiographical O Conde e o Passarinho (The
Count and the Little Bird) in 1936. During World War II, Braga trav-
eled to Italy with the Brazilian Expeditionary Force, an experience
that inspired his book Com a FEB na Itália (1945; With the BEF in
Italy). His success as a chronicler is due to his poetic and even lyri-
cal reflections on people, objects, events, and places, all marked by
a simplicity of language. Braga is said to have renewed the chronicle
as a genre in Brazil and to have contributed to its rehabilitation. Other
works include O Morro do Isolamento (1944; The Hill of Isolation),
Um Pé de Milho (1948; A Cornstalk), O Homem Rouco (1949; The
Hoarse Man), Cinqüenta Crônicas Escolhidas (1951; Fifty Selected
Chronicles), A Borboleta Amarela (1956; The Yellow Butterfly), A
Cidade e a Roça (1957; The City and the Countryside), Cem Crôni-
cas Escolhidas (1958; One Hundred Selected Chronicles), Ai de Ti,
Copacabana! (1960; Woe Is You, Copacabana!), A Traição das Ele-
gantes (1967; The Betrayal of the Elegant), 200 Crônicas Escolhidas
(1977; 200 Selected Chronicles), As Boas Coisas da Vida (1988; The
Good Things in Life), and O Verão e as Mulheres (1990; The Sum-
mer and Women). See also SABINO, FERNANDO.

BRAÑAS, CÉSAR (Guatemala, 1900–1976). Novelist and poet. His


fiction is affiliated mainly with costumbrismo and includes the nov-
els Alba emérita (1920; Emeritus Dawn), Tú no sirves (1926; You’re
No Use), and La vida enferma (1926; Sick Life). Other writings in

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92 • BRAZIL

prose include a number of essays on cultural, historical, and literary


subjects and a series of diaries, all similarly titled in the manner of
Diario de un apréndiz de cínico (1945; Diary of an Apprentice as
Cynic) and Diario de un apréndiz de viejo (1962; Diary of an Ap-
prentice as an Old Man). As a poet, Brañas published more than a
dozen collections of his verse. Notable among them are Viento negro
(1938; Black Wind), a widely read elegy on the death of his father,
and Lecho de Procrusto (1945; Procrustean Bed), a collection of
sonnets.

BRAZIL. With a population almost five times that of Argentina and


twice that of Mexico, Brazil is South America’s largest country and
boasts a diverse, 500-year literary history that nevertheless is far less
known abroad than the literature of those other countries. Part of the
reason for this may be the relative linguistic isolation of Brazil, the
only Portuguese-speaking country on the continent, which has also
led to the strong sense of national identity pervading many of its
literary endeavors. Still, the literature of Brazil has many parallels
with that of Spanish America, as well as its own idiosyncrasies and
regional differences created by a large territory and settlement over
different periods of history.
Economics have often shifted the centers of both commercial
and cultural exchange within Brazil. In the early 1500s and 1600s,
Europeans settled along the northeastern coast, setting up profitable
sugar plantations, which fostered commerce and the slave trade. In
the 18th century, diamonds and precious metals were discovered in
Minas Gerais, making that region prosperous and sophisticated. The
19th century saw the growth of cities like Rio, when the Portuguese
court settled there, and in the late 19th century the rubber trade
brought economic activity to the heart of the Amazon. In the early
20th century, the coffee industry made the state of São Paulo and its
capital city the largest metropolitan region of South America, a status
they retain to this day.
The earliest writings in Brazilian literature, as in Spanish America,
were texts or chronicles, informing about the discovery and explora-
tion of the territory by European (primarily Portuguese) colonizers,
such as Pero Vaz de Caminha’s letter written to King Dom Manuel
in 1500 upon the arrival of Pedro Alvares Cabral’s expedition. Other

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BRAZIL • 93

important chroniclers, who not only charted the territories but also
described local populations and customs, include Pero de Mag-
alhães Gândavo, Frei Vicente do Salvador, Gabriel Soares de
Sousa, Fernão Cardim, and Manuel da Nóbrega.
The influence of the Counter-Reformation was felt in the lit-
erature of the 17th century, when the first properly “literary” texts
saw the light. A contrast of opposites characteristic of European
baroque authors such as Luis de Góngora (1561–1827), Francisco
de Quevedo (1580–1645), and Luís de Camões (1524–1580), and
the establishment of a colonial society in which religious and secular
views clashed informs the satirical poetry and drama of the Bahian
Gregório de Mattos e Guerra, the poetry of the first Brazilian to
publish his work, Manuel Botelho de Oliveira, and the fiery ser-
mons of the Portuguese-born Jesuit Antônio Vieira.
As a reaction to the excesses of the baroque, neo-classicism in Bra-
zil revived models from Greek and Roman mythology and reflected
the rationalist values of the Enlightenment, thereby countering the
religious views of the Counter-Reformation. A landmark of the pe-
riod is the volume of collected poems by Cláudio Manuel da Costa,
who wrote in the bucolic style of arcadianism. José de Santa Rita
Durão, Basílio da Gama, Tomás Antônio Gonzaga, Inácio José
de Alvarenga Peixoto, and Manuel Inácio da Silva Alvarenga are
also associated with this trend, and some of them politically with the
Minas Gerais Conspiracy, which sought independence from Portugal
for this rich mining region of Brazil. Gonzaga was equally noted for
his love poetry and his satirical prose fiction. Da Gama and Santa
Rita Durão also wrote epic poetry. Born in Brazil, but living most
of his life in Portugal, Matias Aires Ramos da Silva de Eça wrote
tracts on moral philosophy. Likewise, in this period literary associa-
tions called academias were founded by writers and intellectuals to
reflect on problems of identity in the Portuguese colonies.
The issue of national identity came to the forefront as neo-classical
models were depleted and the winds of romanticism swept Brazil.
Officially, romanticism was launched by Domingos José Gonçalves
de Magalhães with his first volume of poetry in 1836. In this search
for national expression, writers focused on the figure of the Indian
in a highly idealized way, giving rise to indianismo. The main ex-
ponents of this tendency were Antônio Gonçalves Dias in poetry

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94 • BRAZIL

and José de Alencar in narrative. Romantic lyric poetry influenced


by Lord Byron (1788–1824) also flourished in this period, with
Casimiro de Abreu and Manuel Antônio Alvares de Azevedo as
representative voices. Socially concerned poets such as Antônio de
Castro Alves wrote antislavery poetry in a hyperbolic style. The late
romantic Joaquim de Sousândrade wrote an epic in a style that was
ahead of his time, and he was later revived as an avant-garde poete
avant-la-lettre. Alencar was one of the initiators of the tradition of
regionalism, with novels that reflected the way of life of various re-
gions of Brazil. Other writers in this style include Joaquim Manuel
de Macedo, Bernardo Joaquim da Silva Guimarães, and Alfredo
d’Escragnolle, Visconde de Taunay. Alencar’s urban and his-
torical novels served as models for subsequent generations; another
important project in this period, coinciding with the regency of the
Portuguese prince Pedro (1831–1841), was the historical research
carried out in defining Brazil’s national character, by Francisco
Adolfo de Varnhagen.
Following the idealizing excesses of romanticism, a new focus on
science and an objective view of reality took hold of intellectual and
literary currents. In prose this produced the trends of realism and
naturalism, and in poetry it spawned parnassianism and symbol-
ism. An early precursor of realism, Manuel Antônio de Almeida’s
fiction portrayed the life and customs of early 19th-century Rio, in-
fluencing Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, the greatest Brazilian
writer of this period, who distinguished himself for his early romantic
novels and his mature, more psychologically introspective fiction.
Aluísio Azevedo is considered the initiator of naturalism in Brazil,
with novels that frankly portray racial, sexual, and social issues,
whereas Adolfo Caminha’s narrative depicted homosexuality for the
first time and is recognized as the purest of the naturalists. In poetry,
parnassianism emphasized formal perfection, particularly the use of
fixed forms such as the sonnet, a revival of Greek and Latin motifs,
and the ideal of “art for art’s sake.” The main exponents of this trend
were Alberto de Oliveira, Raimundo Correia, and Olavo Bilac.
In 1893, João da Cruz e Sousa officially launched symbolism, a
style that includes the voices of Augusto dos Anjos, who experi-
mented with scientific vocabulary, and Alphonsus de Guimaraens
and Pedro Kilkerry, who wrote, respectively, and insistently, about

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BRAZIL • 95

death and about dreams and mysticism. Free verse in symbolism was
introduced by Adalberto Guerra Duval.
In the period of transition to Brazilian modernism often called
premodernism, realism and naturalism still continued to influence
major works such as Euclides da Cunha’s monumental account of
the Canudos War, also noted for its Darwinism. Henrique Maximi-
ano Coelho Neto, Raul d’Ávila Pompéia, and Afonso Henriques
de Lima Barreto are important fiction writers who depicted the
urban and suburban life of Rio de Janeiro. In this period too, Tobias
Barreto founded the School of Recife, which introduced positiv-
ism in Brazil, influencing the work of literary critics such as Sílvio
Romero and José Veríssimo. Historian Capistrano de Abreu con-
tributed work on colonial Brazil.
Regionalism was taken up again in this period of transition to
modernism by José Bento Monteiro Lobato, in novels that portray
rural characters and in his children’s literature. Other authors in
this period include Afonso Celso, author of an essay praising Brazil’s
beauty; Catulo da Paixão Cearense, a popular poet, lyricist, and
musician; João do Rio, chronicler and dramatist of Rio par excel-
lence; the essayist, diplomat, and biographer Joaquim Nabuco; and
Júlia Lopes de Almeida and Gilka Machado, whose work focuses
on women.
The Week of Modern Art, presided over by José Pereira da
Graça Aranha, gathered artists and writers to launch Brazilian
modernism officially in São Paulo in 1922. Modernism introduced
European avant-garde trends into Brazil and sought to construct
models for a national literature. Literature was profoundly altered by
the avant-garde poetry and prose written by some of the participants
in the week, such as Mário de Andrade and Oswald de Andrade.
Oswald de Andrade later founded antropofagia, to which he and
Raul Bopp and António de Alcântara Machado contributed. Other
modernist poets include Guilherme de Almeida, Manuel Bandeira,
Ronald de Carvalho, and Rui Ribeiro Couto. Paulo Menotti del
Picchia, Cassiano Ricardo Leite, and Plínio Salgado also founded
a nationalist vanguard called verdeamarelismo. Radical political
activist and writer Patrícia Galvão, who was married to Oswald
de Andrade for several years, published proletarian fiction. In this

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96 • BRAZIL

period also a number of fine essayists emerged, among them Sér-


gio Milliet da Costa e Silva, Paulo Prado, and in the Northeast,
Gilberto Freyre, who began a tradition of reflection on the Brazil-
ian national character, continued in the next generation by Sérgio
Buarque de Holanda.
Critics and writers who opposed the modernism of São Paulo in-
clude Afrânio Peixoto and Graciliano Ramos, who devised another
model for literature based not on the urban but on the rural landscape
of Northeastern Brazil. This movement was spearheaded by Freyre,
whose important work on the contribution of slaves to Brazilian
culture instigated a brilliant generation of novelists in this region,
including José Lins do Rego Cavalcanti, Raquel de Queirós, and
Jorge Amado. Their work depicts periodic droughts, poverty, and
social issues afflicting the Northeast. Other heirs of this tradition
include the novelists Adonias Filho, Aníbal Machado, Dionélio
Machado, José Geraldo Vieira, and Marques Rebelo.
In the late 1930s and early 1940s, under the dictatorial regime of
Getúlio Vargas, the urban novels and poetry of Érico Veríssimo
represented a return to classical forms and religious concerns, as
in romanticism and symbolism. Perhaps the most important poet of
Brazil in the 20th century, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, pub-
lished some of his main works during that period. Other important
late modernist poets and novelists include Otávio de Faria, Jorge
de Lima, Murilo Mendes, Cecília Meireles, Vinícius de Moraes,
Augusto Frederico Schmidt, Mário Quintana, Augusto Meyer,
Henriqueta Lisboa, and Tristão de Ataíde.
A formalist poetic trend known as the Generation of ’45 included
Geir Campos, Ledo Ivo, and João Cabral de Melo Neto, a major
poet who later introduced social themes into a work characterized
by its formal rigor and emotional restraint. In prose, a new linguistic
experimentalism is evident in the next generation, especially in the
work of João Guimarães Rosa, whose fiction renders the Brazilian
backland at once regional and universal. Clarice Lispector wrote
existential novels and short stories of deep psychological explora-
tion, a vein also mined by the novelists Lúcio Cardoso, Fernando
Sabino, and Dinah Silveira de Queirós. Rubem Braga excelled in
the chronicle.

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BRAZIL • 97

The 1950s was a period of modernization in Brazil under the gov-


ernment of Juscelino Kubitschek, with the construction of the new
capital, Brasília. All this inspired concrete poetry, founded by Har-
oldo de Campos, Augusto de Campos, and Décio Pignatari, which
revived the modernism of 1922 and countered the Generation of ’45,
gaining followers such as Affonso Ávila and Pedro Xisto, and op-
position from Mário Chamie. A predecessor of concrete poetry who
died young was the poet and critic Mário Faustino. The literary
criticism of Afrânio Coutinho and Antonio Candido emerged in
the 1950s and 1960s, and the Jabuti Prize, Brazil’s most prestigious
literary award, was established. Other writers in this period include
Murilo Rubião and Millôr Fernandes, who excelled in the genres
of fantastic literature and humorous fiction, respectively.
After Kubitschek’s brief era of optimism, the economy took a
downturn in the 1960s and 1970s, precipitating takeover by a military
regime through a bloodless coup in 1964. Censorship and political
repression ensued. In this period some novelists, such as Antônio
Callado and Ignácio de Loyola Brandão, focused on this new
social reality, while other writers, such as Raduan Nassar, Lygia
Fagundes Telles, Autran Dourado, and Osman Lins, turned to
stories and novels of psychological introspection and narrative ex-
perimentalism. Darcy Ribeiro focused on indigenous subjects in
fiction and nonfiction, and Dalton Trevisan, a master of the short
story, mixed the quotidian with grim satire. Another concrete poetry
dissident, Ferreira Gullar, gained new impetus with his engagé
poetry. In the late 1970s, the counterculture movement Tropicália,
headed by popular musicians such as Caetano Veloso, had an impact
on a political and popular poesia marginal, represented by Glauco
Mattoso, Ana Cristina César, Paulo Leminski, Francisco Alvim,
and Waly Salomão. Another popular musician, Chico Buarque,
also authored satirical novels.
In the 1980s, following the dismantling of the military regime and
the return to democracy, a number of voices emerged expressing
contrasting views and positions. The militant political attitude of the
1970s disappeared and was replaced by experimentation in narrative
and poetic techniques and a focus on the urban setting. Along such
lines, Rubem Fonseca wrote crime fiction that also explored the so-
cial and psychological effects of violence in big cities. In both fiction

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98 • BRAZIL

and poetry, female writers such as Hilda Hilst, Nélida Piñon, Sônia
Coutinho, and Adélia Prado focused on the feminine from various
perspectives, from the sexual to family histories of immigration and
the everyday life of women. Caio Fernando Abreu also wrote urban
fiction exploring homosexuality, and João Ubaldo Ribeiro revisited
the theme of Brazilian identity from a postmodern perspective.
In the 1990s, several authors who had begun writing much earlier
came to the fore: Milton Hatoum wrote on Lebanese immigrants in
Northeastern Brazil, Manoel de Barros linked his elemental poetry
to the Pantanal region, Bruno Tolentino wrote conservative poetry,
Moacyr Scliar explored Jewish identity and fantastic literature,
Silviano Santiago wrote criticism and gay fiction, Luís Fernando
Veríssimo produced humorous best sellers, and Sebastião Uchoa
Leite wrote eclectic poetry. Notably, Paulo Coelho, writer of spiri-
tualist fiction best sellers, became Brazil’s most widely read author.
In the late 1990s and early 21st century, a new generation of
poets emerged, seeking either the complete rejection of concrete
poetry or a more gradual evolution away from it. This generation
includes poets as varied as Moacir Amâncio, Nelson Ascher, Car-
lito Azevedo, Frederico Barbosa, Paulo Henriques Britto, Régis
Bonvicino, Age de Carvalho, Horácio Costa, Antônio Cícero,
Fernando Paixão, Duda Machado, Júlio Castañon Guimarães,
and Armando Freitas Filho. Among poets born after 1960, Heitor
Ferraz and Arnaldo Antunes are of note. In contemporary prose,
Wilson Bueno, Nuno Ramos, Paulo Lins, Bernardo Carvalho,
Fernando Bonassi, Marçal Aquino, and Bernardo Ajzenberg
represent everything from a crude realism in the manner of Rubem
Fonseca, to a more experimental metaphorical prose written in a mix
of Portuguese, Guarani, and Spanish. Women writers focusing on
female psychological and social space include Joyce Cavalcante and
Helena Parente Cunha.
Brazilian theater originated in the 16th century with the autos cre-
ated by Jesuits, such as the European-born José de Anchieta, whose
works, in Portuguese, Spanish, and Tupi are the only ones that have
survived. Their purpose was didactic and religious, aiming both at
curbing the greed and cruelty of the colonizers and converting the
indigenous populations to Christianity. The 17th and 18th centuries
saw works such as the comedies in Spanish by Manuel Botelho de

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BRAZIL • 99

Oliveira and the light drama of Cláudio Manuel da Costa, neither of


whom left much of a mark on the history of Brazilian theater because
they did not address the local reality per se.
As with prose and poetry, the nationalist spirit of the romantic
movement also inspired a renovation in theater, and Domingos
Gonçalves de Magalhães is credited with writing the first Brazilian
tragedy on a national subject, but the satirical plays and comedies of
manners by Luís Carlos Martins Pena were more successful and
have better stood the test of time. Antônio Gonçalves Dias also wrote
historical dramas, but they are less known than his poetry. Although
set in Brazil, José de Alencar’s comedies in this period are much
more concerned with moralizing, and Joaquim Manuel de Macedo’s
are less a document of the period than a satire of vices in general.
In the late 19th century and in the vein of realism, Artur Azevedo
continued the tradition of the comedy of manners initiated by Martins
Pena, writing original comedies as well as parodies of dramas and
humorous sketches of recent events, combining elements of the mu-
sical and vaudeville. Joaquim José da França Jr. was a precursor
to Azevedo, with his light comedies that often satirized Rio society.
Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis also wrote comedies, which were
not however performed publicly in his time, and he is understandably
better known for his prose. Qorpo-Santo’s plays, on the contrary,
though marginalized in his time, are now recognized as precursors of
the theater of the absurd.
The popularity of the comedy of manners continued throughout
the early 20th century, focusing on Rio society. João do Rio, also
the author of chronicles, staged a successful drama in this vein. Bra-
zilian modernists such as Oswald de Andrade and Otávio de Faria
introduced innovations in theater that were not, however, adopted
by the mainstream. The real breakthrough arrived in the 1930s, with
the realist and psychological dramas of Nelson Rodrigues, Brazil’s
most prominent playwright of the 20th century. Rodrigues’s path was
followed by Gianfrancesco Guarnieri and Alfredo Dias Gomes,
who sought to portray social realities and class struggle on the
stage, the latter in collaboration with Ferreira Gullar. Both Guarnieri
and Dias Gomes eventually also had careers writing and directing
soaps for television. Ariano Suassuna is a unique dramatist who
mixed medieval and Commedia dell’Arte traditions together with

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100 • BRAZILIAN MODERNISM

innovation in his plays, but eventually turned to narrative. Osman


Lins, though mostly a novelist, wrote a well-known drama. Ab-
dias do Nascimento, Augusto Boal, Chico Buarque, and Antônio
Bivar wrote and staged plays inspired by black social movements,
Brechtian theater, and popular music. Millôr Fernandes has writ-
ten cosmopolitan comedies. Among female dramatists, Hilda Hilst
wrote dramas inspired by the urban environment of São Paulo, many
of which, though staged, were not published. Among contempo-
rary playwrights, Fernando Bonassi’s plays have been successfully
adapted for the screen. See also ACEVEDO DÍAZ, EDUARDO;
ARCADIANISM; CIVILIZATION AND BARBARISM; JOUR-
NALS; MICROTALES; PARAGUAY; PERLONGHER, NÉSTOR;
PICARESQUE NOVEL; PLA, JOSEFINA; POESIA MARGINAL.

BRAZILIAN MODERNISM. Following the Week of Modern Art


in 1922, avant-garde literary and artistic movements in Brazil
were labeled “modernismo” in Portuguese, a term best translated
as “Brazilian modernism” and not to be confused with the Spanish
American literary movement called modernismo. Spanish American
modernismo and Brazilian modernism are not contemporaneous.
The former roughly corresponds to late 19th- and early 20th-century
parnassianism and symbolism in Brazil, whereas Brazilian modern-
ism corresponds to the Spanish American avant-gardes of the 1920s
and 1930s.
In Brazilian modernism, various European avant-garde movements
such as futurism, expressionism, and cubism were fused into a move-
ment that was also seeking to represent the national character. Its
first, so-called heroic phase thrived from 1922 to 1928, its endpoints
being the Week of Modern Art and the creation of antropofagia by
Oswald de Andrade. This early combative period was character-
ized by bombastic manifestos and debates and a focus on innovative
poetry such as Paulicéia Desvairada (1922; Hallucinated City) by
Mário de Andrade and Pau Brasil (1926; Brazilwood) by Oswald
de Andrade, as well as the publication of literary journals such as
Klaxon and Revista de Antropofagia. Among other participants in the
early phase of this movement were Guilherme de Almeida, Raul
Bopp, Ronald de Carvalho, Patrícia Galvão, António de Alcân-
tara Machado, and Sérgio Milliet da Costa e Silva. After the incor-

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BRECHTIAN THEATER • 101

poration of international trends, a focus on the creation of a national


literary idiom was the concern of the two Andrades and other more
nationalist writers, such as Plínio Salgado, Menotti del Picchia,
and Cassiano Ricardo Leite. From 1928 to 1939, the focus was the
novel of the land, mainly rooted in Northeastern Brazil, with writers
such as Jorge Amado, Graciliano Ramos, and José Lins do Rego
Cavalcanti, and the urban psychological fiction of Érico Veríssimo,
Otávio de Faria, and Marques Rebelo. A third period, continuing
until 1945, is characterized by the production of literary critics such
as Alvaro Lins and Antonio Candido, heirs of other earlier modern-
ist essayists such as Gilberto Freyre and Paulo Prado.
In its renovation of language, creation of new forms, and estab-
lishment of an independent Brazilian literary expression, Brazilian
modernism paved the way for Brazil’s great universal writers of the
20th century, such as João Guimarães Rosa, Clarice Lispector,
Manuel Bandeira, and Carlos Drummond de Andrade, as well
as the postwar avant-gardes movements such as concrete poetry.
See also ADONIAS FILHO; ATAÍDE, TRISTÃO DE; BEST SEL-
LERS; CAMPOS, GEIR; CARDOSO, LÚCIO; COELHO NETO,
HENRIQUE MAXIMIANO; GENERATION OF ’45; GULLAR,
FERREIRA; HOLANDA, SÉRGIO BUARQUE DE; INDIGENOUS
TRADITIONS; LIMA, JORGE DE; LISBOA, HENRIQUETA;
MACHADO, ANÍBAL; MEIRELES, CECÍLIA; MENDES, MU-
RILO; MEYER, AUGUSTO, JR.; PEIXOTO, AFRÂNIO; QORPO-
SANTO; QUINTANA, MÁRIO; RIBEIRO, JOÃO UBALDO;
ROMANTICISM; SALOMÃO, WALY; SANTIAGO, SILVIANO;
SCHMIDT, AUGUSTO FREDERICO; TELLES, LYGIA FAGUN-
DES; VIEIRA, JOSÉ GERALDO.

BRECHTIAN THEATER. The theories of the German dramatist


Bertold Brecht (1898–1956), often referred to as “epic theater,”
have been widely practiced in Latin America. The notion of an epic
in this context not only refers to the scope of the topics dramatized,
but also to the representation of human struggles. Brechtian theater
is characteristically political, espousing Marxism and the politics of
the Left. It seeks to address the audience directly by using techniques
that break the convention of theater as an illusion of reality, making
the audience aware that it is watching a performance and inviting

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102 • BRITTO, PAULO HENRIQUES

it to reflect on what it is watching. Spanish American dramatists


who have followed Brecht’s precepts in one form or another and
have been particularly successful include Isidora Aguirre (Chile),
Enrique Buenaventura (Colombia), Pablo Antonio Cuadra (Ni-
caragua), and Osvaldo Dragún (Argentina). In Brazil, Augusto
Boal employed Brechtian poetics in developing his concept of the
Theater of the Oppressed, and the Italian-Brazilian Gianfrancesco
Guarnieri used Brechtian and Marxist techniques in work staged at
Teatro de Arena.

BRITTO, PAULO HENRIQUES (Brazil, 1951– ). Translator and


poet. A native of Rio, Henriques Britto has translated more than 80
books of poetry and prose, including works by Elizabeth Bishop
(1911–1979), John Updike (1932–2009), Don DeLillo (1936– ), and
Philip Roth (1933– ). A respected poet as well, he has also published
the poetry collections Liturgia da Matéria (1982; Liturgy of Matter),
Mínima Lírica (1989; Minima Lyrica), Trovar Claro (1997; Plain-
chant), and Macau (2003; Macau).

BRITTON, ROSA MARÍA (Panama, 1936– ). Novelist, short story


writer, and dramatist. As well as an accomplished writer, she has an
established reputation in medicine, notably in the treatment of cancer.
Her first novel, El ataúd de uso (1983; The Usual Coffin), is a histori-
cal work that traces the story of a coastal family from independence
in 1903 to the beginning of World War II. Her second novel, El señor
de las lluvias y el viento (1984; Lord of the Rains and the Wind), is
a more intimate story in which three narratives are interconnected. In
No pertenezco a este siglo (1989; I Don’t Belong to This Century),
Britton returns to the time of Panamanian independence, and in To-
das íbamos a ser reinas (1997; We Were All to Be Queens), she tells
a story of pre-Castro Cuba, drawing on her experiences as a student
in Havana. Her more recent novels include Laberintos de orgullo
(2002; Labyrinths of Pride) and Suspiros de fantasmas (2005; Sighs
from Ghosts). Her fiction also includes two collections of short sto-
ries, La muerte tienen dos caras (1988; Death Has Two Faces) and
Semana de la mujer y otras calamidades (1995; Women’s Week and
Other Calamities). Britton’s work for the theater consists of Esa
esquina del paraíso (1986; That Corner of Paradise); Banquete de

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BRYCE ECHENIQUE, ALFREDO • 103

despedida (1987; Farewell Banquet), a critique of racism in Panama


and the United States; and Miss Panamá Inc (1992; Miss Panama
Inc), a critique of beauty pageants. See also WOMEN.

BRUNET, MARTA (Chile, 1897–1967). Novelist and short story


writer. Her writing is noteworthy for her representation of women.
Having grown up in a rural environment in southern Chile, her first
works of fiction are located in the region she knew well from child-
hood. These include the novels Montaña adentro (1923; Back Coun-
try), Bestia dañina (1926; Harmful Beast), María Rosa, flor del Quil-
lén (1927; María Rosa, Flower of Quillén), and Bienvenido (1929;
Welcome), as well as the short story collections Don Florisondo
(1926; Don Florisondo) and Reloj de sol (1930; Sundial). Her account
of rural life, detailed descriptions of the landscape, and introduction
of the conflicts between modernization and tradition place her work
within the frame of criollismo and approaches to reality typical of re-
alism and naturalism. At the same time, however, her fiction already
showed some of the characteristics that were developed more strongly
in later works, including the psychological portrayal of her characters,
the tension between interior worlds and society, sexuality, and the
struggle of women against social expectations.
Such elements figure in Aguas abajo (1943; Downstream), a set of
three rural tales, and the novel Humo hacia el sur (1946; Smoke in
the South), Brunet’s most successful work, in which she locates her
story in a more urban environment and covers the social spectrum of
a booming lumber town. In her final works, which include the short
stories in Raíz del sueño (1949; Root of the Dream) and the novels La
mampara (1946; The Screen), María nadie (1957; Mary Nobody),
and Amasijo (1962; Dough), she continued to explore the predica-
ments of female characters arising from their social situations. The
last of these was also her most controversial on account of her treat-
ment of homosexuality. Marta Brunet also wrote children’s litera-
ture, including Cuentos para Mari-Sol (1934; Tales for Mari-Sol),
a popular collection of stories, and Aleluyas para los más chiquitos
(1960; Alleluyas for the Very Small), a collection of verses.

BRYCE ECHENIQUE, ALFREDO (Peru, 1939– ). Novelist and


short story writer. Much of his life has been spent outside Peru,

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104 • BRYCE ECHENIQUE, ALFREDO

mainly in France. He is customarily located on the fringes of the


boom generation. An early collection of stories, Huerto cerrado
(1968; Closed Garden), chronicled the initiation of a young man
into adulthood. It paved the way for Un mundo para Julius (1970;
A World for Julius), Bryce Echenique’s most successful novel, the
story of a young boy born into an upper-class Peruvian family. Pub-
lication of the novel coincided with the beginning of the left-leaning
presidency of General Juan Velasco Alvarado (1968–1975) and the
collapse of the oligarchy and was acclaimed as representative of
the times. It also introduced many of the characteristics that would
reappear in Bryce Echenique’s subsequent fiction: the antihero, the
orality of his narratives, a sense of humor that runs the gamut from
the hilarious to the grotesque, hyperbole, biting irony and satire, and
a highly playful use of language.
Un mundo para Julius was followed by a collection of short sto-
ries, La felicidad, ja-ja (1974; Happiness, Ha-ha), which also dealt
with the world of the oligarchy in Peru, but a number of other novels
have appeared since then. In La pasión según San Pedro Balbuena,
que fue tantas veces Pedro, y que nunca pudo negar a nadie (1977;
The Passion According to Saint Pedro Balbuena, Who Was Pedro So
Many Times and Never Could Refuse Anyone), the author abandons
the Peruvian setting for Europe to tell the story of a failed writer who
reflects on the problems of the creative process. La vida exagerada
de Martín Romaña (1981; The Exaggerated Life of Martín Romaña)
narrates the Peruvian misadventures of a writer and describes what
Paris means to him. Here, as in Bryce’s other novels, there is a strong
autobiographical dimension. El hombre que hablaba de Octavia de
Cádiz (1985; The Man Who Spoke of Octavia de Cádiz) forms a
diptych with La vida exagerada de Martín Romaña, but was writ-
ten after the author had moved from Paris to Barcelona. La última
mudanza de Felipe Carrillo (1988; Felipe Carrillo’s Last Change)
dwells on the role of memory and the reconstruction of a love af-
fair. It is also characterized by a particularly oral narrative and by
references to popular music, notably traditional Peruvian waltzes
and boleros.
In his next two novels, Bryce Echenique returned to Peruvian
settings. Dos señoras conversan (1990; Two Women Chat) consists
of two novellas referring to the 1960s and the 1970s and the rise of

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BUENAVENTURA, ENRIQUE • 105

the terror that afflicted Peruvian society during the 1980s; No me


esperen en abril (1995; Don’t Wait for Me) takes up the story of the
Peruvian oligarchy once more to describe what has become of them
in the second half of the century. Reo de nocturnidad (1997; Thief
of Nocturnity) and La amigdalitis de Tarzán (1999; Tarzan’s Ton-
sillitis) are both love stories, the former set in Montpellier, France,
where Bryce Echenique was a professor of Latin American literature
for several years; the latter is the story of a singer-songwriter’s 30-
year love affair.
Bryce Echenique returned to Peru in 1999, not long after he pub-
lished Guía triste de París (1998; A Sad Tour of Paris), stories of the
misadventures of Latin Americans in Paris. He has also published
two volumes of his autobiography: Permiso para vivir: antimemorias
I (1993; Permission to Live: Antimemoirs I) and Permiso para sen-
tir: antimemorias II (2005; Permission to Feel: Antimemoirs II). See
also DIEZ CANSECO, JOSÉ; RIBEYRO, JULIO RAMÓN.

BUARQUE, CHICO (Brazil, 1944– ). Dramatist, songwriter, and


novelist. A world-renowned singer and songwriter, Chico Buarque
belongs to a family of intellectuals and performers. His father was
the historian and modernist writer Sérgio Buarque de Holanda, and
his three sisters are singers. Buarque has been a distinct presence
in Brazilian cultural and political life since the early 1960s, when
he emerged first as a composer of romantic ballads and later of po-
litical songs. During military rule in Brazil (1964–1988), he was an
outspoken artist and activist, writing and staging several key social
and political plays that critiqued the dictatorship, including Roda
Viva (1967; Wheel of Life); Calabar: O Elogio da Traição (1973;
Calabar, Eulogy of Treason), written with Ruy Guerra; Gota d’Água:
Uma Tragédia Carioca (1975; The Last Straw, a Rio Tragedy), writ-
ten with Paulo Pontes; and Ópera do Malandro (1978; Malandro’s
Opera). He has also excelled as a novelist with Fazenda Modelo
(1974; Model Farm), Estorvo (1991; Hindrance), Benjamin (1995;
Benjamin), and Budapeste (2003; Budapest). See also THEATER.

BUENAVENTURA, ENRIQUE (Colombia, 1925–2003). Dramatist.


He was involved in all aspects of the theater, including management
and production. One of his major achievements was the foundation

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106 • BUENO, WILSON

and direction of the Teatro Experimental de Cali (TEC; Cali Ex-


perimental Theater), which flourished for more than 30 years
(1955–1990). It had many notable productions and was a source for
the dissemination of theater from other countries. At the same time,
its members engaged in collective creation, often taking their ideas
from folktales or fiction. In his theater practice, Buenaventura imple-
mented the theories of epic from Brechtian theater. In A la diestra
deDios Padre (1958; At the Right Hand of God the Father), he wrote
a version of the Faust theme, and in Los papeles del infierno (1968;
The Papers of Hell), he dramatized the plight of individuals affected
by political violence in Colombia. His plays on historical themes
include Un requiem por el padre Las Casas (1963; A Requiem for
Father Las Casas), on the devastating effects of the Spanish conquest
and colonization, and La denuncia (1973; The Denunciation) on the
impact of strikes against foreign banana companies in Colombia. See
also GARCÍA, SANTIAGO.

BUENO, WILSON (Brazil, 1949–2010). Novelist, short story writer,


and poet. Bueno first became known for his novel Mar Paraguayo
(1992; Paraguayan Sea), an experimental text written in “Portun-
hol,” a mix of Spanish, Portuguese, and Guarani, whose characters
enact an allegory of Latin American dictatorships. Other narrative
texts, marked by their brevity, include Bolero’s Bar (1986; Bolero’s
Bar), Manual de Zoofilia (1991; Zoophilia Handbook), and Jardim
Zoológico (1999; Zoological Garden). Meu Tio Roseno, a Cavalo
(2000; My Uncle Roseno, on Horseback) is a novel that explores the
issue of landownership in Brazil, and Pequeno Tratado de Brinquedos
(1996; Small Treatise on Toys) is a collection of short poems. A Co-
pista de Kafka (2007; Kafka’s Copyist) is his most recent volume of
short stories. He died in Curitiba, where he had lived since the 1970s.

BUITRAGO, FANNY (Colombia, 1940– ). Novelist and short story


writer. Although her writing is not overtly political, the protracted
periods of civil strife in her native Colombia are symbolically repre-
sented through the dysfunctional relations represented in her fiction.
Among women writers, her writing stands out in Colombia for its
attention to patriarchy and violence against women, and the problems
of both childbearing and infertility. Her novels include El hostigante

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CABALLERO CALDERÓN, EDUARDO • 107

verano de los dioses (1963; The Irritating Summer of the Gods), a


story of the spiritual exhaustion of young people, which has been
re-edited several times; Cola de zorro (1970; Foxtail), a tale of three
generations; and Los pañamanes (1979; The Spanish Men), set on a
Caribbean island where the traditions of the past conflict with mod-
ernization. Buitrago has published five collections of short stories,
notably the love stories in Los amores de Afrodita (1983; Aphrodite’s
Loves) and ¡Líbranos de todo mal! (1989; Deliver Us from All Evil),
a more politically inclined collection. Buitrago has also written chil-
dren’s literature.

BULLRICH, SILVINA (Argentina, 1915–1990). Novelist. Although


she was one of Argentina’s most prolific female authors, was well
known in literary circles, and had some commercial successes with
some of her fiction, her work overall has never achieved great critical
acclaim. She is best known for the novel Los burgueses (1964; The
Bourgeoisie), in which the history, secrets, and drama of a middle-
class family are revealed by an unidentified first person narrator dur-
ing a celebration dinner. The novel was part of a trilogy that included
Los salvadores de la patria (1965; Saviors of the Fatherland) and Los
monstruos sagrados (1971; Sacred Monsters) and was intended to
represent contemporary Argentina. Among her other notable works
of fiction are La redoma del primer ángel (1944; The Flask of the
First Angel), Bodas de cristal (1951; Crystal Wedding Anniversary),
and Los pasajeros del jardín (1971; Passengers in the Garden). See
also WOMEN.

– C –

CABALLERO CALDERÓN, EDUARDO (Colombia, 1910–1993).


Novelist. He wrote 10 novels that focus for the most part on Colom-
bian themes: the urban/rural divide, rural life, and the condition of
the landless during Colombia’s endemic political violence between
Liberals and Conservatives, known as la violencia. Three of his best-
known novels are set in this context. El Cristo de espaldas (1952;
Christ with His Back Turned) is the story of a liberal son accused
of having killed his conservative father and the attempts of a priest,

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108 • CABELLO DE CARBONERA, MERCEDES

newly arrived in the town, to mediate the conflict. In Siervo sin tierra
(1954; Slave Without Land), the protagonist is a victim of violence
before he is able to realize his dream of owning land. Manuel Pacho
(1962; Manuel Pacho) is the tale of a humble man given the opportu-
nity to be a hero. In contrast to these novels, El buen salvaje (1965;
The Good Savage) is set in Paris and is concerned with the struggles
of a failed writer to produce a novel. Caballero Calderón’s other
novels include La penúltima hora (1955; The Penultimate Hour),
Caín (1969; Cain), and Historia de dos hermanos (1977; Story of
Two Brothers). He also published several books of short stories and
essays. Among the latter is an essay on Don Quijote by Miguel de
Cervantes that demonstrates a wide-ranging knowledge of literature
in Spanish.

CABELLO DE CARBONERA, MERCEDES (Peru, 1845–1909).


Novelist. She attended the salons of Juana Manuela Gorriti and
was a friend of Clorinda Matto de Turner and Manuel González
Prada, whose political ideas she also accepted. Cabello de Carbo-
nera was an outspoken social critic in her newspaper articles and
public presentations, in which she professed her support for positi-
vism. By contrast, her early novels, Los amores de Hortensia, bio-
grafía de una mujer superior (1886; Hortensia’s Loves: Biography
of a Superior Woman), Sacrificio y recompensa (1886; Sacrifice
and Reward), and Eleodora (1887; Eleodora), later revised and
published as Las consecuencias (1889; Consequences), all bear the
stamp of romanticism. They are sentimental stories dependent on
the conventional plot devices of the romantic novel and still owe
much to costumbrismo. In her two last novels, however, the level
of social criticism is appreciably higher. Blanca Sol (1888; Blanca
Sol) is a critique of marriage through the story of a “fallen woman”
that chronicles her rise through society and descent into prostitu-
tion. El conspirador (1892; The Conspirer) is a story told from a
male viewpoint that shows the machinations of political life as a
way to critique militarism and corruption in government. See also
WOMEN.

CABEZAS, OMAR (Nicaragua, 1950– ). Memorialist. He fought


in the guerrilla war in Nicaragua against Anastasio Somoza (1967–

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CADENAS, RAFAEL • 109

1979) and was a member of the Sandinista government after the


triumph of the revolution. La montaña es algo más que una inmensa
estepa verde (1982; Fire from the Mountain) is both a coming-of-
age narrative and a testimonio. It is both the story of the author’s
youth, how he came to recognize social injustice in his country and
joined the revolution against the Somoza dictatorship to fight it, and
an account of his life in the guerrilla army. Several years later, he
published Canción de amor para los hombres (1988; Song of Love of
Humanity), also drawing on his experiences, but it is more reflective,
without the fire of his earlier military narrative.

CABRUJAS, JOSÉ IGNACIO (Venezuela, 1937–1995). Dramatist.


A member of the Nuevo Grupo, he was one of several dramatists
who sustained the revival of Venezuelan theater in the mid-20th
century with a brand of social commentary characterized by humor
and a focus on the common people. His best-known play is El día
que me quieras (1979; The Day You’ll Love Me), about the dreams
of a committed communist living for the future. Other plays include
El extraño viaje de Simón el Malo (1960; The Strange Journey of
Simon the Bad); Los insurgentes (1960; The Insurgents); En nombre
del rey (1963; In the Name of the King); Días de poder (1964; Days
of Power), written with Román Chalbaud; Testimonio (1967; Tes-
timony); El tambor mágico (1970; The Magic Drum); La soberbia
milagrosa del general Pío Fernández (1974; The Miraculous Pride
of General Pío Fernández); and Una noche oriental (1983; An Orien-
tal Night). He also wrote a number of screenplays, including one for
El día que me quieras, and in his work for telelvision he raised the
quality of scripts for soap operas.

CADENAS, RAFAEL (Venezuela, 1930– ). Poet. His early poetry,


written as a member of a group known as Tabla Redonda, has some
of the characteristics of North American beat poetry, whereas his
later work is more reflective. Collections of his work include Cantos
iniciales (1946; First Songs), Los cuadernos del destierro (1960;
Notebooks from Exile), Falsos maniobras (1966; False Maneuvers),
Realidad y literatura (1972; Reality and Literature), Intemperie
(1977; The Elements), Memorial (1977; Memoir), and Anotaciones
(1983; Notations).

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110 • CALLADO, ANTÔNIO

CALLADO, ANTÔNIO (Brazil 1917–1997). Novelist, journalist,


and dramatist. Callado began his career at major dailies in Rio and
worked for BBC radio in Europe from 1941 until 1947. Back in
Brazil, he resumed his journalistic activities and published his first
novels, Assunção de Salviano (1954; Salviano’s Assumption) and
A Madona de Cedro (1957; The Cedar Madonna), both influenced
by religious themes. Set against the backdrop of Brazil’s military
regime, his best-known novel, Quarup (1967; Quarup), recounts the
story of a priest who becomes a left-wing revolutionary. Two more
novels, Bar Don Juan (1971; Bar Don Juan) and Reflexões do Baile
(1976; Meditations on the Dance), also critiqued the military govern-
ment that followed the 1964 coup. His play Pedro Mico (1957; Pedro
Mico) was adapted for the screen, featuring the soccer star Pelé. See
also THEATER.

CAMBACERES, EUGENIO (Argentina, 1843–1889). Novelist. He


was born into the Argentinean upper class and turned to literature
more fully after it became clear that his radical opinions ensured
he would have no success in politics. His four novels, all strongly
influenced by naturalism and the French writer Emile Zola (1840–
1902), broke many social taboos and prompted harsh criticism, but
they also portrayed some of the wretchedness and violence of soci-
ety in his time. Potpourri (1882; Hodgepodge) is a tale of adultery
that serves as a vehicle to expose the corruption of Buenos Aires
society. Música sentimental (1884; Sentimental Music) follows the
dissolute life of a wealthy Argentinean in Paris and his relationship
with a prostitute. Sin rumbo (1885; Shiftless), perhaps the most suc-
cessful of the four novels, is the story of Andrés, a wealthy but pes-
simistic city man who takes his own life after the death of both the
innocent country girl he seduced and the daughter he had with her.
En la sangre (1887; In the Blood), a novel reflecting the xenophobia
of the time toward immigrants in Argentina, is about Genaro, the son
of a poor Italian immigrant who has few scruples about how to make
his way in society.

CAMINHA, ADOLFO (Brazil, 1867–1897). Novelist. Born in the


Northeast of Brazil, Caminha moved to Rio as a young man, where
he joined the navy. Although he rose to the rank of second lieutenant,

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CAMPO, ESTANISLAO DEL • 111

he was forced to leave the navy because of his scandalous affair with
a married woman, whom he later married. Caminha is one of the main
exponents of naturalism in Brazil. His novel Bom-Crioulo (1895;
The Black Man and the Cabin Boy), a tragic love story between a
black sailor and a white teenage cabin boy, shocked audiences at the
time for its explicit treatment of homosexual love and interracial re-
lationships, but is seen today as a precursor of the open presentation
of such themes. A Normalista (1892; The School Teacher) also deals
with themes of social pessimism and social determinism.

CAMINHA, PERO VAZ DE (Brazil, 1450–1500). Chronicler. The


secretary to Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral (ca. 1467–
ca. 1520), Pero Vaz de Caminha wrote Carta do Descobrimento do
Brasil (1500; Letter on the Discovery of Brazil), first published by
Manuel Aires do Casal in Corografia Brasílica (1817; Chorography
of Brazil), a day-by-day account describing the Portuguese explora-
tion of the territory of Brazil. This 27-page document, now housed at
the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Lisbon, was addressed
to King Manuel I of Portugal (1469–1521). It is the first European
chronicle from Brazil and is considered the founding document of
both Brazilian history and literature.

CAMPO, ÁNGEL DE (Mexico, 1868–1908). Chronicler and journa-


list. He wrote two novels but is best remembered for the volumes of
collected articles, or chronicles, Ocios y apuntes (1890; Idle Wri-
tings and Notes), Cosas Vistas (1894; Things Seen), and Cartones
(1897; Cartoons), written in the manner of costumbrismo and rea-
lism, which give an image of Mexico in the late 19th century.

CAMPO, ESTANISLAO DEL (Argentina, 1834–1880). Poet. His


place in the literary history of Argentina is secured by his contribu-
tion to gaucho literature in Fausto: impresiones del gaucho Anas-
tasio el Pollo en la representación de esta ópera (1866; Fausto). His
poem is a parody of the story of Doctor Faustus, told in the manner
of a gaucho and conceived after attending a performance of the opera
Faust by Charles-François Gounod (1818–1893) in Buenos Aires.
See also MUJICA LÁINEZ, MANUEL.

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112 • CAMPOBELLO, NELLIE

CAMPOBELLO, NELLIE (Mexico, 1900–1986). Novelist. Although


first known as a dancer and choreographer, it is her reputation as a
writer that has lasted. She is the author of two novels that have made
her the only significant female writer to be recognized in the canon
of the novel of the Mexican Revolution. Both are derived from per-
sonal experiences while living with her family in the Mexican states
of Chihuahua and Durango. The first of these, Cartucho: relatos de
la lucha en el norte de México (1931; Cartucho: Tales of the Struggle
in Northern Mexico), is a collection of scenes from the revolutionary
period from the perspective of a child that portray the violence and
arbitrariness of the times. The second work, Las manos de mamá
(1937; My Mother’s Hands), is a more lyrical, autobiographical col-
lection, mainly of scenes from her childhood, and reminiscences of
her mother. Like Cartucho, it is an episodic work without a linear
plot and the conventional narrative structure of a novel. Both works
reflect support, shared by her family, for Francisco Villa, about
whom she also wrote a somewhat partisan account, Apuntes sobre la
vida militar de Francisco Villa (1940; Notes on the Military Life of
Francisco Villa). See also WOMEN.

CAMPOS, AUGUSTO DE (Brazil, 1931– ). Poet, translator, and


critic. Founder, with his brother Haroldo de Campos and fellow
poet Décio Pignatari, of the journal Noigandres and of Brazilian
concrete poetry, Augusto de Campos is one of his country’s most
innovative avant-garde figures. An early book of nonconcrete verse,
O Rei Menos o Reino (1951; The King Minus the Kingdom), was fol-
lowed by Poetamenos (1954; Minuspoet), his first book of concrete
poetry, inspired in part by the techniques in musical composition of
Anton Webern (1883–1945) known as Klangfarbenmelodie, based
on passing a melody from one instrument to another. His concrete
poems, first published in various journals, were collected in Viva
Vaia: Poesia 1949–1979 (1979; Long-live Boo: Poetry 1949–1979)
and Despoesia: 1979–1993 (1994; Unpoetry).
After working with graphic space, de Campos began experiment-
ing with new visual media such as electric billboards, videotext,
neon, hologram and laser, computer graphics, and multimedia events.
These experiments were published in Poesia é Risco (1995; Poetry
is Risk), a CD-book of music and poetry issued in collaboration with

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CAMPOS, GEIR • 113

his son, Cid Campos (1958– ). His more recent Não (2003; No) also
features a multimedia CD. As a critic, he was fundamental in theoriz-
ing concrete poetry, recovering past masters of literary experimenta-
tion in Brazil, and introducing international avant-garde figures to
the Brazilian context, in volumes of essays such as Teoria da Poesia
Concreta, (1965; Theory of Concrete Poetry), written with Haroldo
de Campos and Décio Pignatari; Revisão de Sousândrade (1964;
Revision of Sousândrade); Poesia, Antipoesia, Antropofagia (1978;
Poetry, Antipoetry, Anthropophagy); O Anticrítico (1986; The An-
ticritic); Linguaviagem (1987, Languavoyage); and À Margem da
Margem (1989; At the Edge of the Edge).
De Campos’s translations of avant-garde poets include “Mauber-
ley” and selections from the Cantos of Ezra Pound (1885–1972);
fragments of Finnegan’s Wake by James Joyce (1882–1941); and
poems by Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), e.e. cummings (1894–
1962), Vladimir Mayakovsky (1893–1930), and Velimir Khlebnikov
(1885–1922). He also translated some of the great “inventors” of the
past: Arnaut Daniel (12th century) and other medieval troubadours,
John Donne (1572–1631) and the metaphysical poets, and Stéphane
Mallarmé (1842–1898) and the French symbolists. His translations
are included in the volumes Verso Reverso Controverso (1978; Verse
Reverse Controverse), Rimbaud Livre (1992; Free Rimbaud), Hop-
kins: A Beleza Difícil (1997; Hopkins: The Difficult Beauty), Coisas e
Anjos de Rilke (2001; Things and Angels of Rilke), Poesia da Recusa
(2006; Poetry of Refusal), and Emily Dickinson: Não Sou Ninguém
(2008; Emily Dickinson: I’m Nobody). See also ANDRADE, JOSÉ
OSWALD DE SOUSA; ANTROPOFAGIA; ÁVILA, AFFONSO;
GULLAR, FERREIRA; KILKERRY, PEDRO; SOUSÂNDRADE,
JOAQUIM DE; TOLENTINO, BRUNO.

CAMPOS, GEIR (Brazil, 1924–1997). Poet, journalist, and transla-


tor. Associated with the Generation of ’45 that followed Brazilian
modernism, Geir Campos’s attention to the literary craft in his po-
etry earned him the title “artisan of the word.” Among his works are
his early Rosa dos Rumos (1950; Rose of the Winds), Arquipélago
(1952; Archipelago), and the rare Coroa de Sonetos (1953; Crown
of Sonnets). He also translated works by Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–
1926), Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

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114 • CAMPOS, HAROLDO DE

(1749–1832), William Shakespeare (1564–1616), Sophocles (496–


406 BCE), and Walt Whitman (1819–1892), and published Pequeno
Dicionário de Arte Poética (1960; Small Dictionary of Poetic Art).

CAMPOS, HAROLDO DE (Brazil, 1929–2003). Poet, translator, and


critic. One of the key avant-garde figures to emerge from Brazil in
the postwar period, Haroldo de Campos was the founder of Brazilian
concrete poetry together with his brother Augusto de Campos and
fellow poet Décio Pignatari. With them he directed the poetry jour-
nal Noigandres, in which he published Servidão de Passagem (1962;
Servitude of Passage), following his earlier Auto do Possesso (1950;
Act of the Possessed). His experimentation with graphic space and
other material properties of language led to a revolution in Brazilian
poetry, away from traditional poetic forms and toward innovative
texts, many of which are gathered in his book Xadrez de Estrelas:
Percurso Textual, 1949–1974 (1976; Chess of Stars, Textual Itiner-
ary 1949–1974).
Further work with fragmentation and spatialization of language is
evident in his Signantia Quase Coelum/Signância Quase Céu (1979;
Paradisiacal Signifiers), in contrast to a return to more traditional
writing in lines in his later volumes of poetry, such as A Educação
dos Cinco Sentidos (1985, The Education of the Five Senses), Crisan-
tempo (1998; Chrysantempus), and A Máquina do Mundo Repensada
(2000; The World’s Machine Rethought). Already in the mid-1960s,
while the concrete poetry movement in Brazil was still in full swing,
de Campos began the first fragments of what would become arguably
his most original and innovative work, Galáxias (1984; Galáxias), an
impressive poetic prose travelogue, in the style of Finnegan’s Wake
by James Joyce (1882–1941), charting de Campos’s journeys in life
and literature.
De Campos was also chiefly responsiblefor theorizing the concrete
poetry movement in volumes of essays such as Teoria da Poesia
Concreta (1965; Theory of Concrete Poetry), written with Augusto
de Campos and Décio Pignatari; A Arte No Horizonte do Provável
(1969; Art in the Horizon of the Probable); Metalinguagem (1970;
Metalanguage); and A Operação do Texto (1977; Textual Opera-
tions). Other criticism focuses on recovering the legacy of past mas-
ters and arguing against the cultural dependency of Latin America:

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CAMPOS, JULIETA • 115

Ruptura dos Gêneros na Literatura Latino-Americana (1977; Break-


ing Genres in Latin American Literature), “Da Razão Antropofágica:
a Europa sob o Signo da Devoração,” in issue 62 of Colóquio-Letras
(July 1981; “Anthropophagous Reason: Dialogue and Difference in
Brazilian Culture”), and O Sequestro do Barroco na Formação da
Literatura Brasileira: o Caso Gregório de Matos (1989; Disappear-
ance of the Baroque in Brazilian Literature: The Case of Gregório
de Matos).
A gifted translator, in collaboration with his brother Augusto
he translated the works of Ezra Pound (1885–1972), James Joyce
(1882–1941), Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), e.e. cummings (1894–
1962), Vladimir Mayakovsky (1893–1930), Velimir Khlebnikov
(1885–1922), Arnaut Daniel (12th century), and Stéphane Mallarmé
(1842–1898). De Campos theorized the translation of creative texts
as “transcreations” or translations that re-create the features of the
original as an independent creation. In this vein, he produced radical
and brilliant translations of Homer, Dante (1265–1321), Octavio Paz
(1914–1998), the Ecclesiastes, Chinese poetry, and Japanese classical
theater, among others. De Campos received numerous honors both at
home and abroad, including the Jabuti Prize and many honorary
doctorates. See also ANDRADE, JOSÉ OSWALD DE SOUSA;
ÁVILA, AFFONSO; ANTROPOFAGIA; GULLAR, FERREIRA;
SOUSÂNDRADE, JOAQUIM DE; TOLENTINO, BRUNO.

CAMPOS, JULIETA (Mexico, 1932–2007). Novelist and critic.


Although born in Cuba, Campos became a Mexican citizen and lived
in Mexico from 1955. Her literary practice is underscored by her
work as a critic and theorist of fiction, a field in which she published
several studies, notably La imagen en el espejo (1967; The Image in
the Mirror), Oficio de leer (1971; The Task of Reading), and Función
de la novela (1973; The Function of the Novel). Her first two works
of fiction, Muerte por agua (1965; Death by Water) and Celina o
los gatos (1968; Celina, or the Cats), explore the inner worlds of her
characters. The former, a novel, explores the lack of communication
among the members of a family living in a house by the sea where
it always rains. The latter is a collection of five narratives, in which
changing perceptions about cats in the course of history are used to
situate the conditions and conflicts of the characters in her stories.
Her later novels are also explorations of the nature of fiction. Tiene

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116 • CAMPOS CERVERA, HÉRIB

los cabellos rojizos y se llama Sabina (1974; She Has Reddish Hair
and Is Called Sabina), with several narrators, one of whom is writing
a novel about someone who is writing a novel, is a self-reflexive
work that examines the art of narrating. Similarly, El miedo de per-
der a Eurídice (1979; Fear of Losing Eurydice) is also about a writer
engaged in writing, one whose efforts in this instance also relate his
activity to that of other writers in history. See also WOMEN.

CAMPOS CERVERA, HÉRIB (Paraguay, 1905–1953). Poet. Like


others of his generation, much of his writing was produced in exile,
a theme strongly represented in his work. His output was small, con-
sisting of one collection of poems, Ceniza redimida (1950; Ashes
Redeemed), published in Buenos Aires during his lifetime, and Pala-
bras del hombre secreto (1955; Words of the Secret Man), published
after his death. Nevertheless, his work influenced his compatriots and
marked a turn toward surrealism and the avant-garde.

CANDIDO, ANTONIO (Brazil, 1918– ). Critic. One of Brazil’s


foremost intellectuals, Candido was an influential literary critic and
educator. Among his volumes of essays that for the first time ap-
proached literature from a sociological perspective are Formação
da Literatura Brasileira: Momentos Decisivos (1957; Formation of
Brazilian Literature: Decisive Moments), and, with José Aderaldo
Castello, Presença da Literatura Brasileira (1964; Presence of Bra-
zilian Literature).

CARBALLIDO, EMILIO (Mexico, 1925–2008). Dramatist. He was


a prolific writer, the author of more than 100 dramatic texts, includ-
ing full-length and one-act plays, librettos, and film scripts. His work
embraces the major trends in Western theater and was influenced by
religious themes. He often incorporated elements of different trends
within the same piece. At the same time, he was an active presence
in Mexican theater as a journal editor, anthologist, director, and
producer.
Carballido’s first full-length play was Rosalba y los llaveros
(1950; Rosalba and the Keyrings), about the intrusion of a city-bred
woman into the lives of her provincial relatives. Other works in a
realistic mode followed: La danza que sueña la tortuga (1955; The
Dance That the Turtle Dreams), Felicidad (1957; Happiness), and

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CARDENAL, ERNESTO • 117

Las estatuas de marfil (1960; The Ivory Statues). He also wrote in


a more fantastic vein, but with La hebra de oro (1955; The Golden
Thread), about the loneliness and dreams of two old women, began to
combine the real and the imagined, or the fantastic, in the same work.
Other examples of this style are El relojero de Córdoba (1960; The
Clockmaker from Córdoba), in which the clockmaker finds himself
caught between reality and his inventions; Un pequeño día de ira
(1962; A Small Day of Anger), an example of political realism, with
a narrator whose role is to address the audience, but who also enters
the world onstage; El día que se soltaron los leones (1963; The Day
They Let the Lions Loose); and Yo también hablo de la rosa (1965; I,
Too, Speak of the Rose), a one-act play about two young people faced
with the consequences of accidentally derailing a train, considered
one of Carballido’s best-known works in this style. His one-act plays
have appeared in D.F. (1957; D.F.), a volume published in a series
of revised and expanded editions. He also published several novel-
las and short stories in which, in scene-wise structures comparable to
theater, he narrated the themes of family relationships and undertook
the same kinds of psychological studies characteristic of his drama.
See also MAGAÑA, SERGIO.

CARDENAL, ERNESTO (Nicaragua, 1925– ). Poet. Coming from


the same family as the Nicaraguan poets Pablo Antonio Cuadra
and José Coronel Urtecho, poetry seems to run in his genes. His
work is voluminous and, in part, a response both to events in Nica-
ragua and his own political and spiritual development. Although he
wrote poetry from an early age, his first significant volume was Hora
cero (written 1954–1956, published 1960; Zero Hour), produced
after he felt the influence of poetry in English while living in New
York between 1947 and 1949, and after his participation in 1954 in
a failed revolt against the Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Samoza
García (1936–1956). Hora cero is a predominantly political work.
It contains some autobiographical elements, but focuses principa-
lly on Central America under dictatorships, the role of the United
Fruit Company in the region, and the war of Augusto César Sandino
(1895–1934) against the U.S. military presence (1926–1933).
After experiencing a crisis and spiritual transformation, Cardenal
spent two years (1957–1959) at a Trappist monastery in Kentucky,

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118 • CARDENAL, ERNESTO

where he met the influential religious writer and activist Thomas


Merton (1915–1968). From this period came Gethsemani Ky (1960;
Gethsemani Kentucky), a collection of haiku-type poems and
sketches, and Epigramas (1961; Epigrams), followed by Salmos
(1964; Psalms), a recasting of biblical texts to highlight the themes
of poverty, oppression, and social injustice that anticipated liberation
theology. In 1965, he was ordained a Catholic priest, and in 1966 he
founded the religious and art communities of Solentiname in Nica-
ragua. The activities and spiritual orientation of that endeavor would
be reflected in El evangelio de Solentiname (1975; The Gospel in
Solentiname).
Cardenal’s poetry maintained its political focus during these years.
Oración por Marilyn Monroe, y otros poemas (1965; Marilyn Mon-
roe and Other Poems), one of the works for which he is best known
outside his own country, is a critique of consumerism, advertising,
and the kind of exploitation to which Marilyn Monroe was subjected
by the movie industry. In El estrecho dudoso (1966; The Doubtful
Strait) he reinterpreted history in the same way that he had reinter-
preted biblical texts in Salmos, drawing on indigenous traditions and
the chronicles of the conquest. Homenaje a los indios americanos
(1969; Homage to the American Indians) sustains his interest in
indigenous traditions and attempts to describe the cultures of pre-
Columbian societies throughout the Americas.
His poetry contains an eclectic mix of sources in a collage of ele-
ments that takes from both high and low culture. He also maintains a
focus on events in his own country. Canto nacional (1972; National
Song), showing the influence of the Canto general by Pablo Neruda
in its title, is a lyical composition that evokes the Nicaraguan coun-
tryside, but is also concerned with the Sandinista Revolution against
the government of Anastasio Somoza (1967–1979) and his American
backers. Oráculo sobre Managua (1973; Prophesy About Managua)
is a response to the earthquake that devastated the Nicaraguan capital
on 23 December 1972 and an indictment of the government’s mis-
management and corruption during the recovery from the disaster. As
these books reveal, Cardenal had become increasingly militant. He
was a member of the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN),
but remained nonviolent, although he allowed his community at
Solentiname to be used as a base of operations, for which it was at-

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CARDOSO, LÚCIO • 119

tacked and destroyed by Somoza’s forces. With the triumph of the


Sandinista Revolution in 1979, Cardenal was named minister of cul-
ture, a position he held until 1988.
His political involvement brought criticism from his Church su-
periors in Rome and a public admonishment by Pope John Paul II
on the occasion of the latter’s visit to Nicaragua in 1983. Cardenal’s
state duties did not curtail his literary activity, however. Poetry pub-
lished while in government office included Tocar el cielo (1981;
Touch the Sky); Vuelos de victoria (1984; Flights of Victory), on the
triumph of Sandinismo; and Los ovnis de oro: poemas indios (1988;
Golden UFOs: The Indian Poems), a continuation of the project be-
gun in Homenaje a los indios americanos. The year after he left of-
fice he published Cántico cósmico (1989; Cosmic Canticle), a long,
theological poem that seeks to achieve a unified view of creation by
reconciling religion and science and by understanding the problems
of human society.
Since the electoral defeat of the Sandinistas in 1990 in Nicaragua,
Cardenal has been removed from the political spotlight. He resigned
his membership in the FSNL over disagreement with directions it had
taken, but has continued to write and publish. Recent books include
Del monasterio al mundo: correspondencia entre Ernest Cardenal
y Thomas Merton, 1959–1968 (2004; From the Monastery to the
World: Correspondence Between Ernesto Cardenal and Thomas
Merton), volumes of his memoirs (in 1999, 2001, 2002, and 2004),
and more of his poetry, Versos del pluriverso (2005; Pluriverse: New
and Selected Poems). See also ZAMORA, DAISY.

CARDIM, FERNÃO (Brazil, 1548?–1625). Chronicler. After joining


the Jesuits in Portugal, Cardim sailed for Brazil as secretary to a visit-
ing Jesuit official and traveled throughout the country. Captured by
English pirates, he was eventually liberated and became provincial
representative of the Jesuit Order in Brazil. His chronicles Narrativa
epistolar (1583; Epistolary Narrative) and Tratados da Terra e Gente
do Brasil (1925; Treatise of the Land and People of Brazil), are early
historical, geographic, and ethnographic descriptions of Brazil.

CARDOSO, LÚCIO (Brazil, 1913–1968). Novelist. Cardoso belongs


to the second generation of Brazilian modernism, adapting modern

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120 • CARDOZA Y ARAGÓN, LUIS

narrative techniques to regional themes yet related to the national po-


litical context. Set in the interior of Minas Gerais, his novel Crônica
da Casa Assassinada (1959; Chronicle of the Murdered House) is
a Faulknerian tale of passion and perversion, violence and incest,
recounting the downfall of a family.

CARDOZA Y ARAGÓN, LUIS (Guatemala, 1904–1992). Poet,


novelist, and essayist. He is acclaimed as one of Guatemala’s promi-
nent 20th-century intellectuals, although he lived much of his life
outside the country, the last 40 years of it in Mexico. His early po-
etry, Luna Park (1923; Luna Park), Maelstrom: films telescopiados
(1926; Maelstrom: Telescoped Films), Torre de Babel (1930; Tower
of Babel), and Sonámbulo (1937; Sleepwalker), shows the influ-
ence of surrealism, to which he was drawn while living in France
for several years. In his later poetry, such as Pequeña sinfonía del
Nuevo Mundo (1948; Small New World Symphony), his outlook
is much more Americanist. His fiction includes Retorno al futuro
(1948; Back to the Future), Nuevo Mundo (1960; New World), and
a long autobiographical novel, El río: novelas de caballería (1986;
The River: Novels of Chivalry). As an essayist, he wrote on a variety
of topics. He became an established authority on Mexican painting
and wrote on a number of movements and artists, including José
Guadalupe Posada (1852–1913) and Diego Rivera (1886–1957). He
touches on Guatemalan history, culture, and politics in La revolución
guatemalteca (1955; The Guatelmalan Revolution) and Guatemala:
las líneas de su mano (1955; Guatemala: The Lines on Its Hand), his
most celebrated essay, and on literature in Miguel Ángel Asturias,
casi novela (1991; Miguel Ángel Asturias, Almost a Novel). Cardoza
y Aragón was also the first to make the Rabinal Achí available in
Spanish by translating it from a version in French.

CARRASQUILLA, TOMÁS (Colombia, 1858–1940). Novelist


and short story writer. He was a regionalist whose fiction is set
mainly in the Colombian Department of Antioquía, where he was
born and from which he rarely traveled. His short stories and
novels both portray regional types and customs in the manner of
costumbrismo and realism. Autobiography is a feature of some
of his fictional world, as is the conflict of interests between the

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CARRILLO, HUGO • 121

capital and the provinces. Children and strong female characters


also figure prominently. Frutos de mi tierra (1896; Fruits of My
Land), his first novel and also one of his best known, establishes
the kinds of family dramas developed in his later writing. Many of
these familiar elements are found in Carrasquilla’s historical novel
La marquesa de Yolombó (1928; The Marchioness of Yolombó).
Set in the time of Colombian independence, it has a female prota-
gonist who struggles to overcome both the social limitations impo-
sed on her by her gender and the exploitation of mining interests
for the benefit of the mine owners rather than the local population.
In another historical work, the trilogy published under the general
title Hace tiempos: memorias de Eloy Jamboa (1935–1936; Times
Long Ago: Memoirs of Eloy Jamboa), Carrasquilla examines the
transformation of Colombia in the 19th century from a mining to
an agricultural economy.

CARRERA ANDRADE, JORGE (Ecuador, 1902–1978). Poet and


essayist. As affirmed by his writing both in verse and prose, Carrera
Andrade was an inveterate traveler. His prose works fall into three
main areas: travel, the history and culture of Ecuador, and Ecuado-
rian and Latin American poetry. His own poetry is predominantly
lyrical and focused on the world of nature, which he endeavors to
interpret through a pantheistic approach. His publications include
Boletines de mar y de tierra (1930; Bulletins from Sea and Land); La
hora de las ventanas iluminadas (1937; The Hour of the Illumninated
Windows); Microgramas (1940; Micrograms), short, haiku-like and
epigrammatic pieces; Lugar de origen (1945; Place of Origen); and
Hombre planetario (1959; Planetary Man).

CARRILLO, HUGO (Guatemala, 1928–1994). Dramatist. He was a


prominent figure during a period of relative stability in Guatemalan
theater between the 1950s and 1970s. Among his major successes
was the dramatization of El señor presidente (1974; Mr. President),
by the novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias. He also adapted a number
of classic Latin American novels for school and college students,
including another novel by Asturias, Viernes de dolores (Good
Friday). Among his other works are El corazón del espantapájaros
(1962; The Scarecrow’s Heart), La herencia de la Tula (1964; Tula’s

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122 • CARRIÓ DE LA VANDERA, ALONSO

Inheritance), and Mortaja, sueño y autopsia para un teléfono (1972;


Shroud, Dream, and Autopsy for a Telephone).

CARRIÓ DE LA VANDERA, ALONSO (Spain, 1715?–1783).


Chronicler. Also known by the pseudonym Concolorcorvo, Carrió
de la Vandera was a functionary of the Spanish crown who wrote El
lazarillo de ciegos caminantes (1775 or 1776; El lazarillo. A Guide
for Inexperienced Travelers Between Buenos Aires and Lima), which
informs travelers about local customs and conditions likely to be met
on their journey and is occasionally critical of colonial authorities.
The chronicle of his journey is an invaluable account of life in late
colonial South America and in both in its title and its content shows
the influence of the picaresque novel.

CARVALHO, AGE DE (Brazil, 1958– ). Poet. Born and raised in


Belém do Pará, in northern Brazil, de Carvalho moved to Europe
in 1986, living and working as a graphic designer in Vienna and
Munich since then. His poetry is influenced by German-language
modernist poets such as Paul Celan (1920–1970) and Georg Trakl
(1887–1914), whom he translated. His early books of poetry are gath-
ered in Ror: 1980–1990 (1990; Ror: 1980–1990). His most recent
volume is Caveira 41 (2003; Skull 41).

CARVALHO, BERNARDO (Brazil, 1960– ). Journalist and novelist.


A Paris and New York correspondent for the daily newspaper Folha
de São Paulo, Carvalho has published nine novels since 1993, among
which are Medo de Sade (2000; Fear of De Sade), a postmodern-
ist murder story inspired by the Marquis de Sade, and Nove Noites
(2002; Nine Nights), the semifictional account of an American an-
thropologist’s suicide in the Brazilian Amazon, a tale reminiscent of
Joseph Conrad (1857–1924) and Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009).

CARVALHO, RONALD DE (Brazil, 1893–1935). Poet. A career


diplomat, de Carvalho was an important link between Brazilian
modernism and cultural movements in Europe and the Americas.
After an early stint as a journalist, he studied philosophy and sociol-
ogy in Paris, where he also published: Luz Gloriosa (1913; Glorious
Light), poetry influenced by Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867) and

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CASACCIA, GABRIEL • 123

Paul Verlaine (1844–1896). Back in Brazil, he joined the Foreign


Service, which took him to Lisbon, where he met Portuguese futur-
ists gathered around the review Orpheu. After publishing Poemas e
Sonetos (1919; Poems and Sonnets) in the style of parnassianism,
he participated in the famous Week of Modern Art, where he read
Manuel Bandeira’s satirical poem “Os Sapos.” His later books,
Epigramas Irônicos e Sentimentais (1922; Ironic and Sentimental
Epigrams) and Toda a América (1926; All of America), display a
modernist idiom, and the latter a Whitmanian pan-American impulse.
His Pequena História da Literatura Brasileira (1919; Brief History
of Brazilian Literature) is a classic among literary histories in Brazil.
De Carvalho died an untimely death as a result of a car accident. See
also ALVARENGA, MANUEL INÁCIO DA SILVA.

CASA DE LAS AMÉRICAS. Founded in Havana in 1959 after the


triumph of the Cuban Revolution at the beginning of that year, this
cultural institute has awarded prizes in a wide range of genres to La-
tin America writers. Those recognized include Claribel Alegría and
Roque Dalton (El Salvador), Antonio Cisneros (Peru), Roberto
Ibáñez (Uruguay), and Jorge Zalamea (Colombia) for poetry;
Manlio Argueta (El Salvador), Gioconda Belli (Nicaragua), Ro-
berto Sosa (Honduras), Rubén Bareiro Saguier (Paraguay), Luis
Gusmán, Ricardo Piglia, and Marta Traba (Argentina), Jorge
Ibargüengoitia (Mexico), and Antonio Skármeta (Chile) for fic-
tion; José de Jesús Martínez (Panama) for biography; and Isidora
Aguirre (Chile) for theater.

CASACCIA, GABRIEL (Paraguay, 1907–1980). Novelist and short


story writer. Considered the founder of modern Paraguayan fiction,
his first book was the novel Hombres, mujeres, y fantoches (1929;
Men, Women, and Puppets), but it was a collection of stories, El
guajhú (1938; The Howl), that established his reputation. He later
published another collection of stories, El pozo (1947; The Pit),
which had a somewhat Kafkaesque atmosphere, as did much of his
later work, but he also became known for a series of novels centered
on the town of Areguá, not far from Asunción. This place first fig-
ured in the novel Mario Pareda (1940; Mario Pareda) and occupied a
more central place in La babosa (1952; The Dimwit), his best-known

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124 • CASTELLANOS, JUAN DE

work and one of the most remarkable novels produced hitherto in


Paraguay, and in La llaga (1963; The Wound), a dark, psychological
novel. Other novels include Los exiliados (1966; The Exiles), set in a
brothel in a frontier region where political exiles have sought refuge;
Los herederos (1976; The Inheritors); and Las Huertas (1981; The
Orchards). Casaccia also wrote Los bandoleros (1932; The Bandits)
for the theater.

CASTELLANOS, JUAN DE (Colombia, 16th century). Chronicler.


His Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias (1589; Elegies for the
Illustrious Men of the Indies) is based on biographies of prominent
figures from the conquest and early colonization, beginning with
Christopher Columbus, and is one of the longest verse chronicles
of the period. It is often included in the epic poetry of the colonial
period.

CASTELLANOS, ROSARIO (Mexico, 1925–1974). Essayist, poet,


novelist, and short story writer. She was one of Mexico’s most
important 20th-century women writers. Many of her essays, writ-
ten for some of Mexico’s major newspapers and magazines, have
been collected in books such as Juicios sumarios (1966; Summary
Judgements). In her essays, as well as in her poetry and fiction, she
explored and developed her ideas about Mexican culture, gender, and
the social exclusion of women and other groups. Her poetry was col-
lected in Poesía no eres tú: obra poética 1948–1971 (1972; Poetry Is
Not You: Poetic Works 1948–1971), which brought together hitherto
published and unpublished collections.
In her major works of fiction, Castellanos focused on conflicts
between Indian and Spanish populations, representing indigenous
myths and legends, native languages, and daily customs in a way
that moved beyond the social realism of the past toward neo-
indigenismo. The novel Balún canán (1957; The Nine Guardians)
is set in the state of Chiapas during a period of land reform under
the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–1940), and Oficio de tinie-
blas (1962; The Book of Lamentations), also a novel, is based on a
19th-century Indian rebellion. In two collections of short stories, Los
convidados de agosto (1964; The Guests of August) and Álbum de
familia (1971; Family Album), she wrote about middle-class women

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CASTRO CAYCEDO, GERMÁN • 125

in Chiapas and about the alienation and frustrations of urban women.


Castellanos also wrote for the theater, but without the same impact
of her essays, poetry, and fiction.

CASTILLO, ANDRÉS (Uruguay, 1920– ). Dramatist. After training


as a lawyer, he turned to the theater and wrote a number of plays on
social themes. La cauta (1957; Cautious) and La jaula (1963; The
Cage) are about wayward adolescents. La noche (1959; The Night)
and La bahía (1960; The Bay) are comments on the lack of social
justice for the poor. Cinco goles (1963; Five Goals) is concerned with
the commercialization of sport, and El negrito del pastoreo (1969;
Black Boy from the Pasture Land) has an African Uruguayan theme.

CASTILLO, MADRE (Colombia, 1671–1742). Mystic. Her works


are an example of conventual writing in colonial Latin America.
Francisca Josefa Castillo y Guevara, known by her name in religion,
Madre Castillo (Mother Castillo), left several writings. She is best
known for her spiritual exercises and autobiography, which were
written for her community but not published in her lifetime: Vida
(1817; Life) and Sentimientos espirituales (1843; Spiritual Feelings).
See also WOMEN.

CASTILLO, OTTO RENÉ (Guatemala, 1936–1967). Poet. His po-


etic output is small and consists mainly of two collections: Vámonos
patria a caminar (1965; Let’s Walk Together, My Country), the
title poem of which has become widely known, and Informe de una
injustica (1975; Report on an Injustice). However, he was the most
significant poet of his generation and one of those who most success-
fully caught the revolutionary spirit of Guatemala in simple, lyrical
verses expressing the romantic idealism of love and death. He spent
much of the last half of his life in exile, but was captured, tortured,
and killed by the army after reentering the country in 1967.

CASTRO CAYCEDO, GERMÁN (Colombia, 1940– ). Journalist.


He has written numerous nonfiction narratives, using the techniques
of a novelist to tell his stories, but anchoring himself in reality and
scrupulous documentation. The subjects he covers are varied and
are drawn from the different regions and social sectors of Colombia.

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126 • CAVALCANTE, JOYCE

Colombia amarga (1976; Bitter Colombia) is an anthology of stories


collected from throughout the country. Mi alma se la dejo al diablo
(1982; I Leave My Soul to the Devil) is about a dying man, the title
having been taken from the last line of the diary in which he recorded
his approaching death. La bruja: coca, política y demonio (1994; The
Witch: Cocaine, Politics and the Devil) tells of the mix of politics and
drug trafficking in Colombia. La muerte de Giacomo Turra (1997;
The Death of Giacomo Turra) is about a police incident set in Venice
and Cartagena. Con las manos en alto: episodios de la guerra en
Colombia (2001; Hands Up: Episodes from the War in Colombia)
is a collection of narratives about military conflicts in Colombia. El
palacio sin máscara (2008; Palace Without a Mask) is an account
of the assault by guerrillas on the Palace of Justice in Bogotá in No-
vember 1985 that took the lives of 115 people. These books may be
classified as chronicles or testimonios, and they have made Castro
Caycedo one of Latin America’s most widely read contemporary
nonfiction authors.

CAVALCANTE, JOYCE (Brazil, 1949– ). Novelist and short story


writer. Cavalcante’s fiction focuses on female issues, often explor-
ing eroticism and sexuality. Among her works are the short story
collection O Discurso da Mulher Absurda (1985; The Discourse of
the Absurd Woman) and the novel Inimigas Íntimas (1993; Intimate
Enemies), the saga of a family, set in Northeastern Brazil. See also
WOMEN.

CEARENSE, CATULO DA PAIXÃO (Brazil, 1863–1946). Poet and


lyricist. A popular musician from the Northeast of Brazil and hailed
by many as the greatest popular poet of Brazil, da Paixão Cearense
is also remembered for hundreds of popular lyrics he wrote for
modinhas, a musical form he also helped revive. Among his most
famous compositions are “Luar do Sertão” (1908; “Moonlight in the
Backlands”) and “Flor Amorosa” (n.d.; “Flower of Love”).

CELSO, AFONSO (Brazil, 1860–1938). Poet and essayist. A politi-


cian, journalist, and educator, Celso was one of the founding mem-
bers of the Brazilian Academy of Letters (see ACADEMIAS). He
also published a number of books of romantic poetry, among them

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CHALBAUD, ROMÁN • 127

Rimas de Outrora (n.d.; Rhymes from Long Ago), as well as fiction,


including Um Invejado (1895; The Envy of Some) and Giovanina
(1896; Giovanina), but he is best known for Por Que Me Ufano do
Meu País (1900; Why I Boast About My Country), an essay cel-
ebrating Brazil’s beauty and alleged superiority that gave rise to the
nationalist trend in Brazilian essay writing.

CÉSAR, ANA CRISTINA (Brazil, 1958–1983). Poet. Born into a


middle-class family, César, who signed her name as Ana C., grew
up in Rio, where she studied between travels and sojourns abroad,
particularly in London, where she pursued an M.A. in translation and
read the poetry of Sylvia Plath (1932–1963), whom she admired and
emulated. Associated with poesia marginal, César also worked as a
journalist and published A Teus Pés (1982; At Your Feet), a volume
of confessional poems that also play with irony. She committed sui-
cide by jumping out of a window of her parents’ apartment in Rio.
See also WOMEN.

CEVALLOS, PEDRO FERMÍN (Ecuador, 1812–1893). Historian.


His five-volume Resumen de la historia de Ecuador (1870; Summary
of the History of Ecuador) is a straightforward, factual account, the
first history of the country to have been written, and widely read in
its time.

CHALBAUD, ROMÁN (Venezuela, 1931– ). Dramatist. He was a


member of the Nuevo Grupo that contributed to the renaissance in
Venezuelan theater begun in the 1950s and has contributed exten-
sively as a writer and director to cinema and television. His stories
often examine urban environments. They have a strong social mes-
sage, dealing with poverty and people on the social margins. Caín
adolescente (1955; Cain as an Adolescent) is about the movement of
people from the country to the city, in which the two main characters
are a virgin and a prostitute, and is concerned with alienation and the
social decay brought on by violence. His other plays include Los
adolescentes (1951; The Adolescents); Muros horizontales (1953;
Horizontal Walls); Réquiem para un eclipse (1957; Requiem for an
Eclipse); Sagrado y obsceno (1961; Sacred and Obscene); Café y
orquídeas (1962; Coffee and Orquids); Días de poder (1964; Days of

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128 • CHAMIE, MÁRIO

Power), written with José Ignacio Cabrujas; Los ángeles terribles


(1967; Terrible Angels); La quema de Judas (1974; The Burning of
Judas); and El viejo grupo (1981; The Old Gang).

CHAMIE, MÁRIO (Brazil, 1933– ). Poet. Critical of the concrete


poetry movement, Chamie founded a new avant-garde move-
ment with the manifesto Poesia Praxis (Praxis Poetry), published
in his poetry volume, Lavra Lavra (1962; Till, Till). Influenced by
Marxism, praxis poetry rejects an aesthetic of art for art’s sake and
attempts instead to create poetry based on the practice of life. Other
books by Chamie include Now Tomorrow Man (1963; Now Tomor-
row Man); Indústria (1967; Industry), his collected works; Objeto
Selvagem (1977; Savage Object); and the more recent Natureza da
Coisa (1993; Nature of the Thing) and Caravana Contrária (1997;
Contrary Caravan). See also FILHO, ARMANDO FREITAS.

CHILDREN’S LITERATURE. The development of children’s lit-


erature as a specialized area of publishing for writers who produce
exclusively in that area is a relatively new phenomenon in Latin
America. However, a number of mainstream literary authors have
also written for children. In Spanish America these include Claribel
Alegría (El Salvador), Carmen Lyra (Costa Rica), Isabel Allende
and Marta Brunet (Chile), Fanny Buitrago (Colombia), Sara
Gallardo, Griselda Gambaro, Silvina Ocampo, Syria Poletti,
Alfonsina Storni, and María Elena Walsh (Argentina). A number
of dramatists have written plays for children, including Enrique
Avellán Ferrés (Ecuador), Jorge Díaz (Chile), Carlos Gorostiza
(Argentina), Mauricio Rosencof (Uruguay), and Sergio Magaña
(Mexico).
Many writers in Brazil have also written children’s books along-
side their adult fiction and poetry, but José Bento Monteiro Lobato
is by far the most important Brazilian author of children’s literature
in the 20th century. With 20 books to his credit, many set on the
imaginary Sítio do Picapau Amarelo (“Yellow Woodpecker Ranch”),
they have been read by generations and were adapted for television.
See also JABUTI PRIZE; LISBOA, HENRIQUETA; LISPECTOR,
CLARICE; MACHADO, DUDA; MENDOZA, MARÍA LUISA;
MISTRAL, GABRIELA; PUGA, MARÍA LUISA; QUEIRÓS,

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CHILE • 129

DINAH SILVEIRA DE; RAMOS, GRACILIANO; SINÁN, RO-


GELIO; THEATER; VERÍSSIMO, ÉRICO.

CHILE. Among the earliest documents in Spanish having to do with


Chile are the letters of the conquistador Pedro de Valdivia sent
to Spain in 1552. However, Chilean literature is often considered
as having its beginning in the epic poetry of Alonso de Ercilla y
Zúñiga and his narrative of the conquest, including the resistance to
occupation by the native population. Among those who also wrote
of the conquest in the 16th century, following in the footsteps of
Ercilla were Pedro de Oña and Alonso de Góngora Marmolejo,
the former in verse, the latter in prose. A later episode of the conflict
between the Spanish and indigenous inhabitants was recorded by
Francisco Núñez de Pineda y Bascuñán in the 17th century.
In the decades following independence from Spain, the develop-
ment of letters in Chile felt the impact of two of Latin America’s ma-
jor literary figures. The Argentinean Domingo Faustino Sarmiento
wrote and published parts of his Facundo during a period of exile in
Chile, and the Venezuelan-born Andrés Bello took up residence in the
country in 1829. Bello set the tone of neo-classicism of the first half
of the 19th century and had a profound influence on subsequent gen-
erations, notably on José Victorino Lastarria. As Chilean literature
came into its own, costumbrismo was the dominant trend in prose
writing and, in the first half of the century, had its most representative
figure in José Joaquín Vallejo. Other costumbristas included José
Zapiola and Vicente Pérez Rosales. Then, through writers such as
Daniel Barros Grez and Vicente Grez, the costumbrista sketch gave
way to the novel and realism, of which the most outstanding exponent
was Alberto Blest Gana. His novel Martín Rivas (1862) remains
Chile’s most read work of fiction. The same realist vein was also ex-
ploited by Luis Orrego Luco, but as the novel developed in the first
decades of the 20th century it became more diverse and acquired ele-
ments of modernismo, psychology, regionalism (mundonovismo or
criollismo), and naturalism. The prominent writers were Marta
Brunet, Eduardo Barrios, Joaquín Edwards Bello, Augusto
D’Halmar, and Pedro Prado. Like many novelists, these authors also
wrote short stories, unlike Baldomero Lillo, who concentrated on the
genre and wrote a number of exceptional naturalist stories.

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130 • CHILE

Poetry in Chile in the 19th century was inspired by romanticism


but produced no major figures. By contrast, 20th-century Chilean
poetry is notable for the number of significant contributors to the
genre. Although modernismo had some impact, and the influence of
Rubén Darío was felt, the most recognized poet of the first half of
the century was Gabriela Mistral, Latin America’s first Nobel lau-
reate, who developed a subjective, intimate style. The avant-garde
made its entry into Chilean poetry with Vicente Huidobro and crea-
cionismo and the work of Pablo de Rokha. Chile’s most important
poet of the 20th century, however, was Pablo Neruda, the country’s
most widely known author and second Nobel laureate. Neruda’s lit-
erary career began with love poetry, moved into the avant-garde, and
was eventually characterized by a more eclectic and more accessible
style. Later avant-garde generations include Nicanor Parra and
antipoetry, Gonzalo Rojas, and Enrique Lihn. The new, postdic-
tatorship generation is represented by Raúl Zurita, and the poetry
of folklore and song lyrics in the 20th century by Violeta Parra and
Patricio Manns.
The realist novel continued into the first decades of the 20th cen-
tury in the fiction of Manuel Rojas and Volodia Teitelboim. The
historical novel was represented in popular works by Benjamín
Subercaseaux and Magdalena Petit, and Fernando Alegría is an
example of the writer in exile. In the 1940s, however, the novel also
felt the impact of the avant-garde and European modernism, trends
apparent in the works of Carlos Droguett and María Luisa Bombal.
Chile’s major novelist of the 20th century and member of the Latin
American boom generation was José Donoso, whose first important
works began to appear in the 1950s and 1960s. Other members of his
generation were Jorge Edwards and Enrique Lafourcade. By the
1980s, a new generation had emerged, including Antonio Skármeta,
Roberto Bolaño, Isabel Allende, and Diamela Eltit. They were
writers in exile for the most part, forced to abandon their country
after the 1973 military coup of Augusto Pinochet, affected in some
cases by a Latin American trend in magic realism, and also by a
less militantly divisive approach to Chilean politics. Recent decades
have also seen a rise in the number of significant women writers. Pía
Barros, Ana María del Río, and Marcela Serrano are among those
who should be added to those already mentioned.

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CHILE • 131

A list of prominent essayists from Chile should include Volodia


Teitelboim, Arturo Torres-Rioseco, and Cedomil Goic, who have
written extensively on Chilean literature, and Jorge Edwards and
Ariel Dorfman, whose essays have a more political focus. In the
contemporary urban chronicle, Pedro Lemebel’s writing about San-
tiago has had significant impact.
The Chilean theater began in the 19th century. Translations of
foreign plays were popular, but there was also a demand for locally
written plays on themes particular to Chile. With works by Daniel
Barros Grez, Armando Moock, and Germán Luco Cruchaga, there
developed a repertoire that included comedies of manners (costum-
brismo) and historical dramas, which were performed well into the
20th century. In the 1940s, theater received another significant boost
through the founding of university theater programs. It led to a boom
period and the emergence of a group of dramatists, including Isidora
Aguirre, Jorge Díaz, Luis Alberto Heiremans, and Egon Wolff,
who became the backbone of Chilean theater. Their work covered a
wide spectrum in styles and content: history, folklore, psychology,
social realism, Brechtian theater, and theater of the absurd.
The boom collapsed with the rise of television and other forms of
popular entertainment, although some new writers, Ariel Dorfman
and Antonio Skármeta among them, had already begun to write for
the stage in the years immediately before the 1973 coup. The coup
itself had a devastating effect. Censorship restrained the theater at
home, and many writers, directors, and performers went into exile.
Faced with this situation, conscious efforts to rebuild were made
between the mid-1970s and mid-1980s. Established dramatists such
as Jorge Díaz and Egon Wolff contributed, but in Marco Antonio
de la Parra, Ramón Griffero, and Juan Radrigán significant new
voices also appeared. Once the dictatorship began to loosen its grip,
dramatists like Isidora Aguirre and Ariel Dorfman begfan to stage
and interpret what had transpired during the coup. Since the late
1980s and 1990s, there has been considerable experimentation with
new forms of theatrical representation using music, dance, lighting,
and recently developed audiovisual technologies. New writers have
emerged, while the older generations remain productive, giving
Chile a firm place in contemporary Latin American theater. See also
ACOSTA, JOSÉ DE; BEST SELLER; BOLIVIA; CASA DE LAS

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132 • CHOCANO, JOSÉ SANTOS

AMÉRICAS; CHILDREN’S LITERATURE; DARÍO, RUBÉN;


GÕMEZ CARRILLO, ENRIQUE; GULLAR, FERREIRA; JOUR-
NALS; LÓPEZ, VICENTE FIDEL; MONTERROSO, AUGUSTO;
MICROTALES; MIGUEL DE CERVANTES PRIZE; PERU; PI-
CARESQUE NOVEL; PICÓN SALAS, MARIANO; POSITIVISM;
RULFO, JUAN; SARMIENTO, DOMINGO FAUSTINO.

CHOCANO, JOSÉ SANTOS (Peru, 1875–1934). Poet. He led a


very adventurous life, characterized by travel; association with some
unsavory political regimes, particularly in Guatemala; and engage-
ment in money-making schemes that were not always entirely legal,
one of which would lead him to a violent death in Santiago de Chile.
Although his early work, such as Iras santas (1895; Sacred An-
gers), shows an affinity with the romanticism of the French writer
Victor Hugo (1802–1885), he was soon drawn to the aesthetic and
political tendencies associated with modernismo and represented
by the work of Rubén Darío. Written in a very boisterous style,
his poetry touches on the themes of nationalism and the history and
landscapes of America. His collections include Selva virgen (1896;
Virgin Jungle), Los cantos del Pacífico (1904; Songs of the Pacific),
and Ayacucho y los Andes (1925; Ayacucho and the Andes). The
work that established his reputation and made him highly celebrated
throughout Latin America was Alma América (1906; American
Soul), in which he wrote of both the American and Peruvian lands-
capes, evoked the past and future of the continent, and meditated on
the lives of its indigenous and mestizo populations.

CHOCRÓN, ISAAC (Venezuela, 1932– ). Dramatist. He was an im-


portant contributor to the revitalization of theater in Venezuela in the
1960s. His early work, Animales feroces (1963; Wild Animals) and
Asia y Lejano Oriente (1966; Asia and the Far East), is highly realis-
tic. In Tric-trac (1967; Tick-Tock), the play that marked the initiation
of the Nuevo Grupo, he adopted a more avant-garde style, turning
to the theater of the absurd and total theater in the manner of the
French dramatist Antonin Artaud (1896–1948).

CHRONICLE. The term refers to two different genres. The first of


these refers to accounts of the conquest and early colonization writ-

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CHRONICLE • 133

ten, in many cases, by witnesses to the events. The importance of


these documents lies in their role as foundational texts, as accounts
of the origins of the modern nations of Latin America and the earliest
descriptions in a European language of the land, its people, and the
deeds of the newly arrived conquerors. Among the more prominent
authors in Spanish America were Juan de Castellanos, Christopher
Columbus, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, Bartolomé de las Ca-
sas, and Pedro Mártir de Anglería for Spanish America in general;
Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, Toribio de Benavente (Motoli-
nía), Hernán Cortés, Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Diego de Landa,
and Bernardino de Sahagún for Mexico; Juan Rodríguez Freyle
for Colombia; José Agustín Oviedo y Baños for Venezuela; Pedro
de Cieza de León, El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Felipe Guaman
Poma de Ayala, and Agustín de Zárate for Peru; and Alonso de
Góngora de Marmolejo and Pedro de Valdivia for Chile. For
Brazil, the main authors of early chronicles are José de Anchieta,
Pero Vaz de Caminha, Fernão Cardim, Pero de Magalhães Gân-
davo, Manuel da Nóbrega, and Gabriel Soares de Sousa. See also
ACOSTA, JOSÉ DE; ALVARADO TEZOZOMOC, HERNANDO;
DÍAZ DE GUZMÁN, RUY; INDIANISMO; LASSO DE LA
VEGA, GABRIEL LOBO; LÓPEZ DE GÓMARA, FRANCISCO;
NÚÑEZ CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAR; NÚÑEZ DE PINEDA Y
BASCUÑÁN, FRANCISCO; PALMA, RICARDO; PARAGUAY;
SALVADOR, VICENTE DO; SOUSA, GABRIEL SOARES DE.
The second use of the term is to refer to short essays about con-
temporary life and culture. More often than not they are concerned
with urban life and often appear first as columns in daily newspapers
before being collected and published as a book. In Spanish America,
from 19th- and early-20th-century modernismo to more recent styles
of writing about contemporary life and the urban scene, prominent
chroniclers include Carlos Monsiváis, Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera,
Salvador Novo, and Luis G. Urbina from Mexico; Rubén Darío
and Enrique Gómez Carrillo from Guatemala; José Marín Cañas
from Costa Rica; Germán Castro Caycedo from Colombia; Enri-
que Bernardo Núñez from Venezuela; Ventura García Calderón
from Peru; Roberto Arlt from Argentina; and Joaquín Edwards
Bello and Pedro Lemebel from Chile. Brazil also has an extensive
history of social and political chronicles. In the 19th and early 20th

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134 • CHUMACERO, ALÍ

centuries, António de Alcântara Machado, Henrique Maximiano


Coelho Neto, Joaquim José da França Jr., Afonso Henriques de
Lima Barreto, and João do Rio were notable practitioners of the
genre. Many poets and prose writers in the 20th century, such as
Cecília Meireles, Vinícius de Moraes, Manuel Bandeira, Hilda
Hilst, Clarice Lispector, Dinah Silveira de Queirós, Raquel de
Queirós, and Fernando Sabino, have also written in this genre, but
Rubem Braga is the only Brazilian to have become famous solely
for his chronicles. See also AZEVEDO, ARTUR NABANTINO
GONÇALVES; CAMPO, ÁNGEL DE; CARDENAL, ERNESTO;
CARRIÓ DE LA VANDERA, ALONSO; COSTUMBRISMO;
FRANÇA, JR., JOAQUIM JOSÉ DA; LAFOURCADE, ENRIQUE;
LEÑERO, VICENTE; LÓPEZ VELARDE, RAMÓN; MENDOZA,
MARÍA LUISA; MORAES, VINÍCIUS DE; PENA, LUÍS CARLOS
MARTINS; PUGA, MARÍA LUISA; SANTIAGO, SILVIANO;
URBINA, LUIS G.; VALDELOMAR, ABRAHAM.

CHUMACERO, ALÍ (Mexico, 1918– ). Poet. His first book of poetry,


Páramo de sueños (1944; Desert of Dreams), shows the influence of
Xavier Villaurrutia in the representation of dream as the foundation
of existence. In Imágenes desterrados (1947; Exiled Images), his
verses reflect a more nihilistic attitude toward life. However, his most
recognized collection, Palabras en reposo (1956; Words at Rest), is
more realistic than his earlier work. It lacks the same degree of inte-
riorization and focuses more on social types than on the self.

CÍCERO, ANTÔNIO (Brazil, 1945– ). Poet. Cícero began writing


poetry and prose as a teenager, but did not publish any books in his
early years. His poetry circulated instead as song lyrics, sung by his
sister Marina Lima and others. Finally, he gathered a number of his
older poems and some new ones in the volume Guardar (1996; To
Keep). Although he is an admirer of the vanguards such as concrete
poetry, his own poetry is discursive and makes use of traditional
poetic forms and devices. His most recent poetry book is A Cidade e
os Livros (2002; The City and the Books).

CIEZA DE LEÓN, PEDRO DE (Spain, c. 1520–1554). Chronicler.


He was the author of one of the earliest histories of the Viceroyalty of

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CISNEROS, ANTONIO • 135

Peru. Cieza de León was named official chronicler of Peru in 1548


and devoted the next two years to research and writing. Of the four
volumes he wrote, La crónica del Perú (1553; Chronicle of Peru), a
title given to both the entire work and its first volume, only the first
volume appeared in his lifetime. The remaining three, El señorío de
los Incas (The Domain of the Incas), Descubrimiento y conquista del
Perú (The Discovery and Conquest of Peru), and Las guerras civiles
del Perú (The Peruvian Civil Wars), were not published until the
19th century, although they were known to earlier historians. Cieza
de León was an enthusiastic supporter of the Spanish mission in the
Americas, but was sympathetic to the plight of the indigenous people
and favored a process of pacification rather than conquest.

CISNEROS, ANTONIO (Peru, 1942– ). Poet. He was a significant


figure in Latin America’s 1960s generation and, like his contempo-
raries, felt the influence of the Cuban Revolution (1959) and other
revolutionary movements of the time, in Peru and elsewhere. His
writing reflects this mood and is often iconoclastic and acerbic,
showing his affiliation with the politics of the Left. His first major
work was Comentarios reales de Antonio Cisneros (1964; Antonio
Cisneros’ Royal Commentaries). The title refers to the historical
work of El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, although Cisneros offers a
view of history from the perspective of the common people rather
than a narrative of the nation’s great events and the deeds of its lea-
ders. Canto ceremonial contra un oso hormiguero (1968; Ceremonial
Song Against an Ant Eater), which received a Casa de las Américas
prize, is a response to the new cultures of contemporary Europe and
a shift in the poet’s political stance from the traditional left toward
alternatives. This change became more pronounced in El libro de
Dios y de los húngaros (1978; The Book of God and the Hunga-
rians), in which Cisneros revealed a turn to Christianity. His poetry
of the 1980s endorsed that change. Crónica de Niño Jesús de Chilca
(1981; Chronicle of Child Jesus of Chilca) is the history of a religious
community not far from Lima, which Cisneros researched through
interviews with its members, subsequently including elements of
their speech in his work. Monólogo de la casta Susana (1986; Mo-
nologue of the Chaste Susana) was inspired by the Old Testament.
More recent collections by Cisneros include Postales para Lima

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136 • CIVILIZATION AND BARBARISM

(1991; Postcards for Lima), Las inmensas preguntas celestes (1992;


Immense Celestial Questions), and Un crucero a las Islas Galápagos
(2005; A Cruise to the Galapagos Islands).

CIVILIZATION AND BARBARISM. The opposition between these


two concepts is most famously recorded in the title of Domingo
Faustino Sarmiento’s Facundo: civilización y barbarie (1845;
Facundo: Civilization and Barbarism), a biography of the gaucho
chieftain Juan Facundo Quiroga intended to be read as a denunciation
of the barbarism of the Argentinean dictator Juan Manuel Rosas.
The notion that nature in Latin America was so inherently barbaric
that it affected its inhabitants and theatened to displace the civilizing
influence of European culture was explored by some of Sarmiento’s
fellow Argentineans, including Esteban Echeverría, Lucio V.
Mansilla, José Mármol, and Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, while the
opposition between the two concepts was also taken up by writers
in other contexts such as José Pereira da Graça Aranha (Brazil),
Agustín Yáñez (Mexico), Mario Monteforte Toledo (Guatemala),
Rómulo Gallegos (Venezuela), and Tomás de Mattos (Uruguay).

COBO BORDA, JUAN GUSTAVO (Colombia, 1948– ). Poet and es-


sayist. His first book of poetry, Consejos para sobrevivir (1974; Ad-
vice for Surviving), has been followed by a dozen other collections,
including Ofrenda en el altar del bolero (1981; Offering on the Altar
of Bolero), Todos los poetas son santos e irán al cielo (1983; All Po-
ets Are Saints and Will Go to Heaven), and, more recently, La musa
inclemente (2001; The Merciless Muse). His verse is characterized
by humor, sarcasm, and a self-deprecating sense of irony. He has
read very widely, and the depth of his cultural knowledge is reflected
in both his poetry and essays. These include pieces on painting and
on literary giants such as Jorge Luis Borges and Gabriel García
Márquez, in which he shows the facility of expression and breadth
of knowledge that already appeared in his earliest prose works on
literature: La alegría de leer (1976; The Delight of Reading) and La
tradición de la pobreza (1980; The Tradition of Poverty).

COELHO, PAULO (Brazil, 1947– ). Novelist and lyricist. A writer


of best sellers and Brazil’s most widely read author in terms of cop-

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COELHO NETO, HENRIQUE MAXIMIANO • 137

ies sold, Coelho was born in Rio, where he attended school. He had
a troubled youth and was committed to a mental institution, from
which he escaped. When eventually released, he traveled across
several continents after dropping out of law school and becoming
involved in the drug culture. During Brazil’s military regime, he was
jailed and tortured. He wrote lyrics for Raul Seixas and other popu-
lar singers and worked in theater and as a journalist. His first book,
Arquivos do Inferno (1982; Hell’s Archives), was not very success-
ful. After a journey on foot to Santiago de Compostela in Spain, he
experienced a conversion, which he recounted in his novel O Diário
de um Mago (1982; The Pilgrimage), and decided to carry out his
childhood dream of becoming a writer. His next book, O Alquimista
(1986; The Alchemist), after disappointing initial sales, became the
most sold and most translated book ever, earning him a contradictory
reputation. Some criticize his fiction on spiritualist, occult, and self-
help themes for being facile and commercial, whereas others praise
him as a messenger of peace. Nevertheless, he has been admitted as
a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters (see ACADEMIAS).
Other titles by Coelho include Brida (1990; Brida); As Valkírias
(1992; The Valkyries); Na Margem do Rio Piedra Eu Sentei e Chorei
(1994; By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept), a selection of his
columns for the daily Folha de São Paulo; Maktub (1994; Maktub);
O Monte Cinco (1996; The Fifth Mountain); O Manual do Guerreiro
da Luz (1997; Warrior of the Light: A Manual); Veronika Decide
Morrer (1998; Veronika Decides to Die); O Demônio e a Srta. Prym
(2000; The Devil and Miss Prym); Onze Minutos (2003; Eleven
Minutes); O Zahir (2005; The Zahir); A Bruxa de Portobello (2006;
The Witch of Portobello); and Ser Como o Rio que Flui (2006; Like
a Flowing River).

COELHO NETO, HENRIQUE MAXIMIANO (Brazil, 1864–


1934). Novelist, journalist, and short story writer. Perhaps the most
widely read Brazilian prose writer in the beginning of the 20th cen-
tury, Coelho Neto was also a politician and journalist. His work fell
into oblivion due to attacks by members of Brazilian modernism
following the Week of Modern Art. Some of his works of fiction,
such as A Conquista (1899; The Conquest) and Fogo-Fátuo (1928;
St. Elmo’s Fire), describe the artistic and bohemian environment in

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138 • COLLAZOS, ÓSCAR

mid-19th-century Rio de Janeiro. He was a prolific writer who cul-


tivated many premodernist styles in his numerous urban chronicles
and fiction, including naturalism, impressionism, regionalism, and
realism. He also wrote the first script for a Brazilian movie, A Ci-
dade Maravilhosa (1928; The Marvelous City), and was a founding
member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters (see ACADEMIAS).

COLLAZOS, ÓSCAR (Colombia, 1942– ). Novelist and short story


writer. Political themes and questioning of the authority of the ruling
oligarchy, emerging from the history of violence in Colombia and
Latin America, figure strongly in his earlier works, such as Crónica
de un tiempo muerto (1975; Chronicle of a Dead Time), Los días
de la paciencia (1976; Days of Patience), Todo o nada (1979; All
or Nothing), and Tal como el fuego fatuo (1986; Like the Will-o’-
the-Whisp). In later works, Collazos’s themes are more varied, but
contemporary life and Colombia are still present. La ballena varada
(1997; The Beached Whale) provides a context in which to confront
the dreams of a child with the world of adults and ecological preser-
vation with short-term economic gain. La modelo asesinada (1999;
The Murdered Model) is a thriller, and Batallas en el Monte de Venus
(2003; Battles on the Mount of Venus) flirts with the traditions of the
erotic novel to focus on female preoccupation with beauty. His most
recent collection of short stories, Adiós Europa, adiós (2000; Fare-
well Europe, Farewell), deals with the passages in time and space
experienced by various protagonists.

COLOMBIA. The literary world of New Granada, as colonial Colom-


bia was called, may be represented by three texts, each with an es-
tablished place in Latin American literature. The Elegías de varones
ilustres (Elegies for the Illustrious Men of the Indies), by Juan de
Castellanos, is a notable example of a 16th-century verse chronicle
of the conquest period. By contrast, Juan Rodríguez Freyle’s 17th-
century narrative, known as El carnero, offers a picture of social life
in the early colonial period, and in the autobiographical and reflective
works of Madre Castillo, conventual life and religious writing of the
18th-century baroque are exemplified.
As Colombian literature developed after independence in the 19th
century, it did not lead immediately to a coherent view of the coun-

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COLOMBIA • 139

try. This would emerge only with the kind of national mythology
formulated in the fictions of Nobel Prize winner Gabriel García
Márquez. Like other aspects of culture in Colombia, literature was
highly regionalized and more inclined to address local worlds than
the national arena, the consequence in part of internal separations
and differences imposed by geography. Literature was also affected
by the country’s political divisions, embedded in differences between
Liberals and Conservatives that erupted periodically into periods of
prolonged conflict. In 1948, the assassination of the Liberal candidate
for the presidency, Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, prompted the bogotazo,
a violent reaction in the capital, that was the prelude to a conflict
known as la violencia, which was not ended until 1965. Since then,
Colombia has also endured guerrilla insurgency from both sides of
the political spectrum as well as the wars between and against drug
cartels.
Colombia’s most important 19th-century novel, Jorge Isaacs’s
María (1867), was also one of the most widely read works of Latin
American romanticism. Prose in the 19th century also included the
costumbrismo of Soledad Acosta de Samper, a trend continued
into the early 20th century in the work of Tomás Carrasquilla,
who wrote mainly about the region of Atioquía. Modernismo was a
characteristic of the popular novels of José María Vargas Vila. The
most significant Colombian novel of the first half of the 20th cen-
tury, however, was La vorágine (1926; The Vortex), José Eustasio
Rivera’s novel of the land set in the jungle. After the mid-century,
the theme of la violencia began to enter works of fiction and featured
in novels by Manuel Mejía Vallejo and Eduardo Caballero Cal-
derón, the former writing about Antioquía, the latter about Bogotá
and the highlands. Writing on African Colombian themes by the
brothers Juan and Manuel Zapata Olivella also belongs to this time.
The publication of Cien años de soledad by Gabriel García Márquez
in 1967, however, radically changed the literary landscape in Colom-
bia. Regionalism and a concern for Colombia’s violent history did
not disappear, but García Márquez and his contemporaries, known as
the Baranquillo Group, were influenced by North American and Eu-
ropean writers, and brought new perspectives to established themes.
Pedro Gómez Valderrama and Álvaro Mutis are both of the
same generation as García Márquez. Óscar Collazaos and Gustavo

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140 • COLOMBIA

Alvárez Gardeazábal are younger, however, as are Fernando


Vallejo and Germán Castro Caycedo. Born in the 1940s, their
writings have documented more recent social conflicts in Colom-
bia. Fanny Buitrago and Albalucía Ángel are Colombia’s most
prominent 20th-century women writers of fiction, and the essay in
Colombia is well represented through Germán Arciniegas, William
Ospina, and Juan Gustavo Cobo Borda.
Colombia has produced few poets with a stature comparable to that
of some of the country’s novelists. Rafael Núñez is a representative
of romanticism, but is not well known outside Colombia. By contrast,
José Asunción Silva has had considerable influence and is one of
Latin American literature’s recognized poets, notwithstanding his
small output. He is of the same generation as Guillermo Valencia
and bridges the movement between romanticism and modernismo.
Between modernismo and the avant-garde stands the work of Luis
Carlos López. The avant-garde movements in poetry are represented
by León de Greiff, who belonged to a group known as los nuevos
(the new ones) and was followed by the likes of Rafael Maya and
Jorge Zalamea. Contemporary poetry has a voice in Juan Gustavo
Cobo Borda and William Ospina.
In Colombia, as elsewhere in preconquest America, the perfor-
mance of rituals involving song, dance, and ceremony had a certain
theatrical character. During the colonial period and the 19th century,
Spanish and other foreign theaters dominated the stages. The best-
known Colombian play of that time was Las convulsiones, a comedy
of manners by Luis Vargas Tejada. Until the 1960s, however, the
theater lacked the commercial and institutionalized support that
would allow it to thrive. Affected by the influence of avant-garde
movements and by a desire to introduce changes that had already
become commonplace, efforts were made at that time to bring Co-
lombian theater into the mainstream. Among the measures that had
the most impact were the foundation of the Teatro Experimental de
Cali under the direction of Enrique Buenaventura in 1963 and the
subsequent formation in 1966 of the Candelaria collective in Bogotá
under Santiago García. Theater has since become established in
the universities. Groups and companies, supported by festivals and
workshops, have increased in number, and there is an active cohort
of dramatists, such as Henry Díaz Vargas, who are in tune with

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CONCRETE POETRY • 141

what is happening in the world of theater at large and are writing on


Colombian themes. See also BRECHTIAN THEATER; CASA DE
LAS AMÉRICAS; CHILDREN’S LITERATURE; HISTORICAL
NOVEL; MIGUEL DE CERVANTES PRIZE; NEW HISTORICAL
NOVEL; PANAMA; PICARESQUE NOVEL; REALISM; TRABA,
MARTA.

COLONIAL NOVEL. A term used in Mexico to refer to the historical


novel based on a narrative of events taken from colonial times, which
flourished in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Its principal practi-
tioners were Eligio Ancona, José Tomás de Cuéllar, Justo Sierra
O’Reilly, Vicente Riva Palacio, and Artemio de Valle Arizpe.

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER (Italy, 1451–1506). Navigator and


diarist. A number of documents of the life and travels of Columbus
have survived. Among the most significant are the diaries of his
voyages from Europe to the Americas in 1492, 1493, 1498, and
1502. His Diario de a bordo (Diary of Christopher Columbus’s First
Voyage to America, 1492–1493), preserved in a transcription made
by Bartolomé de las Casas, is a chronicle of his first transatlantic
journey that displays all the sense of wonder felt by the navigator on
his first encounter with the New World and the benefits he anticipa-
ted would accrue to the Spanish crown and to himself. See also GÓ-
MEZ VALDERRAMA, PEDRO; POSSE, ABEL; ROA BASTOS,
AUGUSTO

CONCRETE POETRY. An exhibit of visual poems and “concrete”


paintings and sculptures in the Museum of Modern Art in São Paulo
in 1956 officially launched the avant-garde movement in Brazil
known as concrete poetry, although the adjective “concrete” had al-
ready been used in connection with abstract painting and experimen-
tal music. In 1958, Haroldo de Campos, Augusto de Campos, and
Décio Pignatari launched the manifesto “Plano Piloto Para Poesia
Concreta” (Pilot Plan for Concrete Poetry), in which they declared
the end of the historical cycle of verse and proposed instead a “verbi-
voco-visual” poetry that focused on the material aspects of language
and incorporated the media and methods of modern advertising.

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142 • CONTI, HAROLDO

Concrete poetry fuses a number of influences, from the inter-


national avant-gardes, such as Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898)
in “Un Coup de Dés,” e.e. cummings (1894–1962), Ezra Pound
(1885–1972), Guillaume Apollinaire (1880–1918), James Joyce
(1882–1941), Vladimir Mayakovsky (1893–1930), and Sergei Eisen-
stein (1898–1948), to Brazilian premodernist and modernist writers,
such as Joaquim de Sousândrade, Oswald de Andrade, and João
Cabral de Melo Neto. The concrete poets published five issues of
the journal Noigandres starting in 1952 and established contact with
poets in Germany, Great Britain, and Japan, among others. Among
early adherents to this group were Ronaldo Azeredo, Pedro Xisto,
Wlademir Dias Pino, and Ferreira Gullar, who went on to found the
dissident neo-concrete movement. Mário Chamie, another dissident,
founded “poesia praxis.” In later stages, the concrete poets published
their work in the review Invenção. See also ANTUNES, ARNALDO;
ÁVILA, AFFONSO; AZEVEDO, CARLITO; BARBOSA, FRED-
ERICO; BONVINCINO, RÉGIS; BRAZIL; BRAZILIAN MOD-
ERNISM; CÍCERO, ANTÔNIO; FAUSTINO, MÁRIO; FILHO,
ARMANDO FREITAS; GUIMARÃES, JÚLIO CASTAÑÓN; LE-
MINSKI, PAULO; MACHADO, DUDA; MATTOSO, GLAUCO;
RICARDO LEITE, CASSIANO; TOLENTINO, BRUNO; VE-
LOSO, CAETANO; ZURITA, RAÚL.

CONTI, HAROLDO (Argentina, 1925–1976). Novelist and short


story writer. His first novels, Sudeste (1962; Southeast) and En vida
(1971; Alive), evoke the sea and river, environments that Conti
knew. They are somewhat reminiscent of tales such as Moby Dick
(1851) by Herman Melville (1819–1891) and The Old Man and the
Sea (1952) by Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) for their encounters
with marine creatures. Mascaró, el cazador americano (1975; Mas-
caró, the American Hunter), his last novel, shows aspects of magic
realism. His collections of short stories include Todos los veranos
(1964; Every Summer), Con otra gente (1967; With Other People),
and La balada del álamo carolina (1975; The Ballad of the Caroline
Poplar). Conti’s work became increasingly political, and in 1976, he
“disappeared” after being taken into custody from his home in Bue-
nos Aires by agents of the armed forces.

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CORREIA, RAIMUNDO • 143

CORONEL URTECHO, JOSÉ (Nicaragua, 1906–1994). Poet and


dramatist. He was one of Nicaragua’s most influential intellectuals
and writers. His break with the tradition of Rubén Darío brought
the avant-garde to his country and persuaded others of his genera-
tion, notably Pablo Antonio Cuadra and Joaquín Pasos, to follow
him. His influence has been felt equally by later writers, including
authors such as Gioconda Belli. One of his best-known collections is
Pól-la-d’anánta katánta paránta: imitaciones y traducciones (1970;
Pól-la-d’anánta katánta paránta: Imitations and Translations), a title
indicative of the experimentalism of its contents. He also courted the
avant-garde as a dramatist and explored the theater of the absurd in
the vein later pursued by the French writer Eugene Ionesco (1909–
1994). La chinfonía burguesa (1939; The Bourgeois Chinphony),
co-written with Joaquín Pasos, and La petenera (n.d.; Petenera) both
engage in verbal games and use nursery rhymes and popular sayings
to create an effect. See also CARDENAL, ERNESTO; THEATER.

CORREA, JULIO (Paraguay, 1890–1953). Poet and dramatist. His


one collection of poems, Cuerpo y alma (1943; Body and Soul), is
mainly on political themes and falls aesthetically between moder-
nismo and the avant-garde. By that time, however, he had already
begun to write for the theater in Guaraní on themes related to
everyday life and the Chaco War. His plays include Sandia yvyguy
(Deserter), Terejó yeby frente (Back to the Front), and Guerra ayá
(After the War). Such was their impact, they have earned him the title
of founder of the theater in Paraguay.

CORREIA, RAIMUNDO (Brazil, 1859–1911). Poet. A diplomat


and politician, Correia’s early poetry, Primeiros Sonhos (1879;
First Dreams), in the style of romanticism, soon gave way to a re-
fined parnassianism. With Olavo Bilac and Alberto de Oliveira,
he forms a “trinity” as one of the best Brazilian poets in this vein.
Correia is especially known for sonnets that manifest a nihilist disil-
lusion. His works include Sinfonias (1883; Symphonies); Versos e
Versões (1887; Verses and Versions), which includes translations;
and Aleluias (1891; Hallelujahs), all collected in his two-volume
Poesias Completas (1948; Collected Poems).

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144 • CORTÁZAR, JULIO

CORTÁZAR, JULIO (Argentina, 1914–1984). Novelist, short story


writer, and essayist. He belonged to the boom generation, was one of
the major figures of 20th-century literature, and has been very widely
translated and read. He lived much of his life in France, where he
took up residence in 1951 and flourished. Although Argentina and
Latin America remained constant points of reference and he wrote
in Spanish, he was culturally drawn to Europe, especially France.
He published five novels. El examen (written 1950, published 1986;
The Exam) evokes the tension of Buenos Aires under Juan Domingo
Perón. Los premios (1960; The Winners) is a psychological thriller
set on a cruise ship among a group of characters who have won the
cruise as a lottery prize and are subject to an unidentified threat. Cor-
tázar had already begun to experiment with the structure of the novel
in these early works, but took his experimentation much further in
the remaining three. Rayuela (1966; Hopscotch), the most celebrated
of these, concerns the experiences of Horacio Oliveira, in Paris and
in Buenos Aires, narrated after his return to Argentina. Rayuela is an
open-ended anti-novel. In addition to a linear reading, the reader is
invited to read it in a nonlinear order, following a different organiza-
tion among the chapters and incorporating supplementary or dispens-
able chapters. This kind of structure also underlies 62, modelo para
armar (1968; 62: A Model Kit), but the author turned away from it
in Libro de Manuel (1973; A Manual for Manuel), a political novel,
written to denounce torture in Latin America, which is based on fic-
tion and excerpts from real newspapers.
Cortázar is equally celebrated for his 10 volumes of short stories.
The first collection, Bestiary (1951; Bestiary), appeared shortly after
he left for Paris; the last, Deshoras (1982; Unreasonable Hours),
two years before his death. Among his other collections are Final del
juego (1956; End of the Game and Other Stories), Todos los fuegos el
fuego (1966; All Fires the Fire and Other Stories), Alguien que anda
por ahí (1977; A Change of Light and Other Stories), and Queremos
tanto a Glenda (1980; We Love Glenda So Much and Other Tales).
His short stories show the influence of surrealism, fantastic litera-
ture, Horacio Quiroga, Macedonio Fernández, and Edgar Allan
Poe (1809–1849), whose work he translated into Spanish, but his
own writing is far from imitative. Cortázar developed his own voice
and is said to have renovated fantastic literature by producing a style

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COSSA, ROBERTO • 145

sometimes referred to as neo-fantastic, in which the effect is obtained


not by the emergence of the supernatural, but by an unexpected shift
in reality.
In addition to his fiction, the author’s creative work includes books
such as Historias de cronopios y de famas (1962; Cronopios and Fa-
mas), La vuelta al día en ochenta mundos (1967; Around the Day in
Eighty Worlds), and Último round (1969; Last Round), miscellaneous
collections, or collages, of notes and stories, presented in a playful
and sometimes surreal style. He also published some poetry, and his
political essays include discussions of some of the topical issues of
the time with respect to Latin America. Nicaragua tan violentamente
dulce (1983; Nicaragua So Violently Gentle) and Argentina: años de
alambradas culturales (1984; Argentina: Years of Cultural Barbed
Wire) are notable examples. See also ARLT, ROBERTO; FILLOY,
JUAN; HERNÁNDEZ, FELISBERTO; JUÁRROZ, ROBERTO;
LINS, OSMAN; MARECHAL, LEOPOLDO; SAER, JUAN JOSÉ;
WALSH, RODOLFO.

CORTÉS, HERNÁN (Spain, 1485–1547). Conquistador and chroni-


cler. The five Cartas de relación (1520–1526; Letters from Mexico),
written by the conqueror of Mexico to Charles V of Spain, are both a
chronicle of the military campaign and an attempt by Cortés to exalt
his accomplishments and justify his conduct against any criticism or
perceptions of shortcomings. The chronicle by Cortés’s secretary,
Francisco López de Gómara, has similar purposes. See also DÍAZ
DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL; ESQUIVEL, LAURA; GOROSTIZA,
CELESTINO; VALLE, RAFAEL HELIODORO.

COSSA, ROBERTO (Argentina, 1934– ). Dramatist. He was an


active member of the Teatro Abierto in Argentina and has been
one of Argentina’s most productive contemporary dramatists. With
Germán Rozenmacher, Carlos Somigliana, and Ricardo Tale-
snik, he collaborated in the writing of El avión negro (1970; The
Black Airplane), a new approach to the representation of reality and
Peronism through the use of humor and the grotesque. During the
military dictatorship of 1976–1983 in Argentina, Cossa continued to
write a critical theater. La nona (1977; The Grandmother) and Gris
de ausencia (1981; Grey Absence), both of which had considerable

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146 • COSTA, CLÁUDIO MANUEL DA

commercial success, were two plays on immigration, the search for


success among immigrants, and the impact of cultural fragmentation
on families. His recent works include Pingüinos (2001; Penguins),
Definitivamente adiós (2003; Absolutely Farewell), and De cirujas,
putas y suicidas (2005; Rag Pickers, Whores, and Suicides).

COSTA, CLÁUDIO MANUEL DA (Brazil, 1729–1789). Poet.


Born in Minas Gerais and educated in Rio de Janeiro and Coimbra
(Portugal), da Costa is considered one of Brazil’s best poets of neo-
classicism. His early works, written while still in Portugal under
the influence of the baroque, include the heroic romance Munús-
culo Métrico (1751; Small Metric Gift), the elegy Epicédio (1753;
Epicedium), and Culto Métrico (ca. 1751–1753; Metrical Cult). In
the tradition of arcadianism, da Costa wrote bucolic poetry under
the pseudonym Glauceste Satúrnio. He published an edition of his
Obras (1768; Works) in Portugal and composed a musical drama,
O Parnaso Obsequioso (1931; Courteous Parnassus). Jailed for his
participation in the so-called Inconfidência Mineira (Minas Gerais
Conspiracy) favoring the independence of this rich mining region of
Brazil, da Costa is said to have committed suicide in his prison cell.
He also wrote the epic poem Vila Rica (1839; Vila Rica), celebrating
the founding of the city of Ouro Preto. See also PEIXOTO, INÁCIO
JOSÉ DE ALVARENGA.

COSTA, HORÁCIO (Brazil, 1954– ). Poet, essayist, and translator.


Costa is also a militant activist for gay rights. He studied architecture
as an undergraduate but obtained graduate degrees in letters from
American universities. He taught literature in Mexico from 1987
to 2001 and was instrumental in promoting literary and cultural
exchanges between Brazil and Mexico. Influenced by Brazilian con-
crete poetry, his work is, however, better placed within postmodern-
ism. Fragmentation, citation, and personal memory are some of the
elements in works such as Satori (1989; Satori), O Livro dos Fracta
(1990; The Book of the Fracta), O Menino e o Travesseiro (1994;
The Boy and the Pillow), and Quadragésimo (1999; Fortieth). He
has also published essays on literature: José Saramago: O Periodo
Formativo (1997; José Saramago: The Formative Period) and Mar
abierto: Ensayos sobre literatura brasileña, portuguesa e hispano-

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COSTA RICA • 147

americana (2001; Open Sea: Essays on Brazilian, Portuguese, and


Spanish American Literature).

COSTA RICA. As a small country, Costa Rica has not figured sig-
nificantly in Latin American cultural history. As a relatively peaceful
country, however, it has often been a place of refuge for writers from
other Central American countries. The Nicaraguans Rubén Darío,
Sergio Ramírez, and Daisy Zamora, and the Salvadoran Manlio
Argueta all lived there for periods of time. By contrast, significant
Costa Rican authors, such as Yolanda Oreamuno and Eunice Odio,
found it necessary to abandon their country to pursue their writing.
Costa Rican literature itself began to take shape in the second half
of the 19th century with a focus on the life and customs of the coun-
try through costumbrismo and authors such as Aquileo J. Echever-
ría writing in verse and Manuel González Zeledón in prose. The
evolution from the costumbrista sketch to realism, naturalism, and
the novel came through the work of Joaquín García Monge and was
sustained by other 20th-century writers such as Carmen Lyra, Car-
los Luis Fallas, and José Marín Cañas. The break with this style
came with Yolanda Oreamuno and with the short stories and novels
of Carmen Naranjo. One of the country’s first significant black
writers is Quince Duncan. Costa Rica has produced several poets
of note, but no highly recognized figures save for Eunice Odio, who
was Costa Rica’s most important 20th-century writer in this genre.
The history of commercial theater in Costa Rica begins in the
18th century. The plays most commonly performed had religious or
pro-government themes and for much of the 19th and 20th centuries
stages were dominated by foreign productions. Indeed, when plays
with local topics began to appear in the second half of the 19th cen-
tury, they were still subject to religious censorship and were written
in the manner of costumbrismo. As an institution, theater in Costa
Rica did not establish a firm basis for training and professionalism
until the foundation of the Teatro Universitario in 1950. A number of
home-grown dramatists came onto the scene during the 20th century,
including some recognizable figures such as José Marín Cañas; Car-
men Lyra, who wrote theater for children; and Carmen Naranjo. Nev-
ertheless, Costa Rica has yet to establish its own theater and to ex-
plore its identity fully on the stage. See also ALVIM, FRANCISCO;

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148 • COSTUMBRISMO

CHILDREN’S LITERATURE; CHRONICLE; CREACIONISMO;


SELVA, SALOMÓN DE LA.

COSTUMBRISMO. Rather than a literary movement, costumbrismo


was a style of representing reality in Spanish America through a de-
scription of the traditions and customs associated with places, people,
and their culture and is linked to endeavors to capture and categorize
national characteristics. In Europe, where it originated, it preceded
the great realist novels of the 19th century. In Latin America, it co-
existed with other forms of realism as one of the dominant styles of
prose writing during the second half of the 19th century, retaining
its attraction until well into the first decades of the 20th century. It
is often associated with criollismo and regionalism. The artículo
de costumbres, or costumbrista essay, a feature of the daily press
during that time, evolving in due course into the chronicle, could be
descriptive, humorous, or satirical. It might focus on either rural or
urban life, and an author’s newspaper columns were often collected
for publication as a book. Costumbrismo also occurred in fiction
through novels and short stories offering a somewhat stereotypical
view of reality.
Prominent prose costumbristas include Manuel Ignacio Altami-
rano, Ángel de Campo, José Tomás de Cuéllar, Rafael Delgado,
Luis G. Inclán, and Manuel Payno in Mexico; César Brañas and
José Milla y Vidaure in Guatemala; Arturo Ambrogi, José María
Peralta Lagos, and Salarrué in El Salvador; Manuel González
Zeledón in Costa Rica; Tomás Carrasquilla in Colombia; José Ál-
varez in Argentina; Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera and Ricardo
Palma in Peru; Raúl Botelho Gonsálvez in Bolivia; and Vicente
Pérez Rosales, José Joaquín Vallejo, and José Zapiola in Chile.
There was also a costumbrista theater that figured in the work of
dramatists such as Hernán Robledo (Nicaragua), the Argentinean
Samuel Eichelbaum, the Peruvians Felipe Pardo y Aliaga and
Manuel Ascensio Segura, and the Chileans Daniel Barros Grez
and Armando Moock. In poetry the objectives of costumbrismo are
reflected in the work of Guillermo Prieto from Mexico and Aquileo
J. Echeverría from Costa Rica. See also ACOSTA DE SAMPER,
SOLEDAD; DRAGÚN, OSVALDO; HONDURAS; INDIGEN-
ISMO; MODERNISMO; VENEZUELA.

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COUTO, RUI RIBEIRO • 149

COUTINHO, AFRÂNIO (Brazil, 1911– 2000). Critic. Coutinho stud-


ied medicine but then devoted himself instead to literature and jour-
nalism. He taught at Brazilian and U.S. universities and was notable
for his adoption of new criticism techniques and their application to
Brazilian literature, which influenced subsequent Brazilian critics.
Among his works are A Filosofia de Machado de Assis (1940; The
Philosophy of Machado de Assis), Aspectos da Literatura Barroca
(1950; Aspects of Baroque Literature), Introdução à Literatura no
Brasil (1959; Introduction to Literature in Brazil), and A Tradição
Afortunada (1968; The Fortunate Tradition).

COUTINHO, SÔNIA (Brazil, 1939– ). Novelist and short story


writer. Coutinho, who has also worked as a journalist and transla-
tor, is known for her fiction centered on women. Her collections of
short stories include Do Herói Inútil (1966; Of the Useless Hero),
Nascimento de uma Mulher (1970; Birth of a Woman), Uma Certa
Felicidade (1976; A Certain Happiness), and Os Venenos de Lucré-
cia (1978; Lucretia’s Poisons). Her novels are O Ultimo Verão de
Copacabana (1985; Last Summer in Copacabana), Atire em Sofia
(1989; Shoot Sophia), and O Caso Alice (1991; The Alice Case).

COUTO, RUI RIBEIRO (Brazil, 1898–1963). Poet and short story


writer. Ribeiro Couto worked as a journalist and civil servant
before becoming a diplomat and serving in various European
countries. His early poetry, influenced by symbolism, included
volumes such as O Jardim das Confidências (1921; The Garden
of Confessions) and Poemetos de Ternura e de Melancolia (1924;
Little Poems of Tenderness and Melancholy), in which he reflects
on everyday life. He recited poems during the Week of Modern
Art and later wrote, in free verse and influenced by Paul Verlaine
(1844–1896), poetry based on his experiences in various parts of
Brazil: Um Homem na Multidão (1926; A Man in the Crowd),
Província (1933; Province), and Noroeste e Outros Poemas do
Brasil (1933; Northeast and Other Poems of Brazil). He also em-
ployed popular lyric forms in Correspondência de Família (1933;
Family Correspondence), Cancioneiro do Dom Afonso (1939;
Songbook of Dom Afonso), and Cancioneiro do Ausente (1943;
Songbook of the Absent One). Longe (1961; Faraway) has been

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150 • CREACIONISMO

noted for some of the best sonnets in Portuguese. His fiction de-
picts the anonymous existence of humble people.

CREACIONISMO. A movement in avant-garde poetry associated


mainly with Vicente Huidobro (Chile), whose Manifiesto creacioni-
sta (Creationist Manifesto) was published in 1925. He applied its
precepts most notably in his major work Altazor, o el viaje en para-
caídas (1931; Altazor, or A Voyage in a Parachute). According to
creacionismo, each poem and its language are entirely new creations,
with no referent other than themselves. The poet is thus entirely freed
from the conventions of language and at liberty to shock, neologize,
and suggest new combinations. The movement was short-lived and
had only a few adherents, including Eunice Odio (Costa Rica) and
Carlos Oquendo de Amat (Peru). It has some similarities with ul-
traísmo, with which Huibodro was briefly associated in Spain.

CRIME FICTION. Although conventionally considered a genre of


popular literature, crime fiction has also attracted the attention of
mainstream writers. This has especially been the case in Argentina,
where Eduardo Gutiérrez was an early practitioner of the genre.
Jorge Luis Borges, Adolfo Bioy Casares, and Manuel Peyrou
were all drawn to the English cerebral tradition. More recently, José
Pablo Feinmann, Mempo Giardinelli, Luis Gusmán, Ricardo
Piglia, Andrés Rivera, Juan José Saer, Osvaldo Soriano, and
Rodolfo Walsh, all Argentineans, have taken to the North American
hard-boiled tradition and have revived the genre as a vehicle through
which to comment on contemporary society and politics. Beyond
Argentina, other notable authors of crime fiction include Paco Igna-
cio Taibo II (Mexico), Sergio Ramírez (Nicaragua), and Enrique
Amorim (Uruguay). In Brazil, the most successful crime fiction
writer is Rubem Fonseca, although others, such as Dinah Silveira
de Queirós, before him, and Fernando Bonassi, more recently, have
also written in the genre. See also ÁNGEL, ALBALUCÍA; USIGLI,
RODOLFO.

CRIOLLISMO. The term derives from criollo (Spanish for “creole”),


referring to the people and their cultures descended from the Old

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CUADRA, PABLO ANTONIO • 151

World settlers in the New World. It alludes in particular to the tra-


ditions and a sense of national identity belonging to a period before
mass immigration to the Americas in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries changed the demographic complexity of the continent. It
has many of the characteristics of costumbrismo, and the terms re-
gionalism, mundonovismo, and nativismo are sometimes used
synonymously. In fiction it is associated especially with the novel
of the land and with authors such as Carlos Wyld Ospina (Guate-
mala), Salarrué (El Salvador), Arturo Uslar Pietri (Venezuela),
Benito Lynch (Argentina), Javier de Viana (Uruguay), and
Eduardo Barrios and Marta Brunet (Chile). See also EDWARDS,
JORGE; HONDURAS; REALISM; REGIONALISM; WOMEN.

CUADRA, JOSÉ DE LA (Ecuador, 1903–1941). Novelist and short


story writer. He was an active member of the Grupo de Guaya-
quil, who wrote mainly about the montuvio, the coastal lowlands
of Ecuador. His novel Los Sangurimas (1934; The Sangurimas) is
a family saga set in this region. As a work that incorporates several
levels of reality (myth, legend, history, the symbolic), it anticipates
magic realism by several decades. It also embodies certain socio-
logical principles that the author described in El montuvio ecuato-
riano (1937; The Ecuadorian Lowlands). Moreover, his collections
of short stories—Repisas (1931; Display Cabinet), Horno (1932;
Oven), and Guasintón (1938; Guasintón)—all contribute to the de-
velopment of his fictional representation of the montuvio. A second
novel, Los monos enloquecidos (1951; The Crazed Monkeys), was
left unfinished at his death and was published posthumously.

CUADRA, PABLO ANTONIO (Nicaragua, 1912–2002). Poet and


dramatist. Influenced by José Coronel Urtecho, he was an early
exponent of avant-garde poetry that represented a reaction to mod-
ernismo and Rubén Darío. His verse reflects a preoccupation with
Nicaraguan and Latin American identity, as expressed in Poemas ni-
caragüenses (1933; Nicaraguan Poems) and in later collections, such
as El jaguar y la luna (1959; The Jaguar and the Moon) and Cantos
de Cifar (1971; Songs of Cifar and the Sweet Sea), through themes
concerned with history, myth, the landscape, the people, and politics.

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152 • CUÉLLAR, JOSÉ TOMÁS DE

Cuadra was also an essayist, critic, playwright, and graphic artist. He


was Nicaragua’s major poet before the advent of Ernesto Cardenal,
although his association with the governments of Anastasio Somoza
(1967–1972, 1974–1979) and opposition to the Sandinista Revolu-
tion distanced him both from Ernesto Cardenal and José Coronel
Urtecho. Among his contributions to the theater are Satanás entra
en escena (1948; Satan Comes on Stage), about religious and politi-
cal freedom, and the play Por los caminos van los campesinos (1957;
Along the Roads Go the Peasants), in the epic style of Brechtian
theater, which tells the story of civil war, foreign intervention, and
revolution in Nicaragua and has become one of the standards of Latin
American theater. His other plays include Pastorela (1940; Nativity
Play), El bailete del oso burgués (1942; The Dance of the Bourgeois
Bear), and El que parpadea pierde (1943; Whoever Blinks Loses).
See also CARDENAL, ERNESTO.

CUÉLLAR, JOSÉ TOMÁS DE (Mexico, 1830–1894). Novelist. He


first wrote El pecado del siglo (1869; The Sin of the Century), a
historical or colonial novel of crime and intrigue, and other early
writings include several works for the theater. He is best known,
however, for a collection of short narratives written in the manner
of costumbrismo. These were published under the title La linterna
mágica (1871; The Magic Lantern) in a collection that would eventu-
ally amount to 24 volumes. Cuéllar portrayed social types and made
fun of the foibles of the petite bourgeoisie. Among his most suc-
cessful narratives are “Ensalada de pollos” (“A Mixture of Young
Coves”) and “Historia de Chucho el Ninfo” (“The Story of Chucho
the Nymph”).

CUESTA, JORGE (Mexico, 1903–1942). Poet. He was a member of


Los Contemporáneos, the theorist of the group who compiled the
work of his fellows in Antología de la poesía mexicana moderna
(1928; Anthology of Modern Mexican Poetry). He did not publish
any books of his own work. His collected poetry appeared posthu-
mously in 1958 and has since been re-edited in Poemas y ensayos
(1964; Poems and Essays) and Obras reunidas (2003; Collected
Works). His early death was the result of suicide.

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CUNHA, HELENA PARENTE • 153

CUNHA, EUCLIDES DA (Brazil, 1866–1909). Journalist and essay-


ist. Da Cunha lost his mother at age three. His father then entrusted
his upbringing to relatives, and he was sent to various schools. Wit-
nessing the abolition of slavery and the fall of the monarchy in 1888
and 1889, respectively, fostered his abolitionist and liberal tenden-
cies. In 1888, he was expelled from a military school for organizing a
republican protest, which also landed him briefly in jail. He then took
up journalism, writing articles on social issues for newspapers in São
Paulo and Rio. After completing his military education and becom-
ing an engineer, da Cunha alternated engineering with journalism.
In 1898 he was sent to cover the final phase in the War of Canudos,
which began in 1897 in the state of Bahia. The articles he wrote
about this rebellion are the backbone of his posthumously published
masterpiece, Os Sertões (Canudos, diário de uma expedição) (1939;
Rebellion in the Backlands), a classic of Brazilian literature.
In Os Sertões, through a thorough analysis of the region in all of
its aspects, from geography, botany, and zoology, to ethnography,
sociology, and psychology, da Cunha attempted to demonstrate why
the Brazilian army could not quell the rebellion led by the charis-
matic religious leader Antonio Conselheiro. Influenced by Darwin-
ism and naturalism, Da Cunha’s extensive, fatalistic tableau of the
sertão (backlands) blames the republic for the poverty and ignorance
that had led to such fanaticism and violence. Although essentially
nonfiction, Os Sertões has also been noted for its matchless literary
expression. Other works include Peru versus Bolívia (1907; Peru
vs. Bolivia), on the border dispute between these two countries, and
the historical essays Contrastes e Confrontos (1907; Contrasts and
Comparisons) and À Margem da História (1909; On the Margins of
History). Da Cunha died from wounds received in a duel he insisted
on fighting against his wife’s lover. See also VARGAS LLOSA,
MARIO.

CUNHA, HELENA PARENTE (Brazil, 1930– ). Novelist and short


story writer. Parente Cunha’s postmodern fiction blends autobiog-
raphy and psychoanalysis to question the traditional representation
of women, especially female artists. Among her books are the short
story collections Os Provisórios (1980; The Provisional Ones) and

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154 • DALTON, ROQUE

Cem Mentiras de Verdade (1985; One Hundred Lies About the


Truth) and the novels A Mulher no Espelho (1985; The Woman in
the Mirror), and As Doze Cores do Vermelho (1998; The Twelve
Colors of Red).

– D –

DALTON, ROQUE (El Salvador, 1935–1975). Poet and prose writer.


Along with Ernesto “Che ” Guevara (1928–1967), Roque Dalton is
an archetypal revolutionary intellectual whose endeavors embrace
both theory and practice. His political activity in revolutionary
movements in El Salvador led to periods of imprisonment, exile, and
eventually death by execution by one of the revolutionary factions.
His writing engages his revolutionary work entirely. His poetry is
humane, political, but bitingly humorous, as in Taberna y otros
lugares (1969; Tavern and Other Places), which won a Casa de las
Américas prize. Las historias prohibidas del Pulgarcito (1974; The
Forbidden Tales of Tom Thumb) is a collection of pieces in verse
and prose that convey the history of El Salvador from the conquest
to 1969. The name Tom Thumb refers to the smallness of the country
and comes from a remark by the Chilean poet Gabriela Mistral. In
¡Pobrecito poeta que era yo! (1976; The Poor Little Poet I Was),
Dalton wrote a semiautobiographical novel. Poemas clandestinos
(1980; Poemas clandestinos) are expressions of commitment and
idealism. They were written in voices different from that of the au-
thor in order to escape detection by the authorities and were collected
and published posthumously. They have been republished several
times. Selected poems in English translation appear in Small Hours
of the Night (1996). Among Dalton’s prose writings, Miguel Mármol
y los sucesos de 1932 en El Salvador (1972; Miguel Mármol: A Tes-
timony) is a celebrated testimonio of the life of a Salvadoran revolu-
tionary. It is not just the biography of an old guard political warrior;
the ideas of Miguel Mármol and Roque Dalton are fully integrated.
See also ARGUETA, MANLIO.

DARÍO, RUBÉN (Nicaragua, 1867–1916). Poet and journalist. Darío


produced a large body of cultural writing through his journalism,

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DEFILIPPIS NOVOA, FRANCISCO • 155

but his celebrity rests on his reputation as a poet. He is considered


the “father” of modernismo and was the most influential writer in
Latin America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, although he
is still not widely known outside Spain and Latin America. Darío
traveled extensively and spent productive periods of his life in
Chile, Spain, and Argentina. His poetry brought the literatures of
Europe and America together. Combining romanticism, symbol-
ism, and parnassianism, he renovated poetic language and meter
in Spanish, giving them new levels of sophistication that were
felt throughout Latin America and profoundly changed writing in
verse and prose. Success first came with the collection Azul . . .
(1888; Blue) and was consolidated and matured in a second, ex-
panded edition of the same book in 1890. Prosas profanas y otros
poemas (1896; Profane Prose and Other Poems), Cantos de vida y
esperanza (1905; Songs of Life and Hope), and El canto errante
(1907; The Wandering Song) followed, which all made his work
a watershed in poetic writing and contributed to establishing his
place as the leader of the new style at the beginning of the century.
See also ANDERSON IMBERT, ENRIQUE; CORONEL UR-
TECHO, JOSÉ; CUADRA, PABLO ANTONIO; DÍAZ MIRÓN,
SALVADOR; ECHEVERRÍA, AQUILEO J.; GAVIDIA, FRAN-
CISCO; HERRERA, DARÍO; JAIMES FREYRE, RICARDO;
LASTARRIA, JOSÉ VICTORINO; MIRÓ, RICARDO; NÚÑEZ,
RAFAEL; RAMA, ÁNGEL; RODÓ, JOSÉ ENRIQUE; TORRES-
RIOSECO, ARTURO; VILARIÑO, IDEA.

DEFILIPPIS NOVOA, FRANCISCO (Argentina, 1891–1930).


Dramatist. The first of his plays to be staged in Buenos Aires was El
diputado por mi pueblo (1918; The Representative for My Town).
During the 1920s, he was an important presence in the Argentin-
ean capital and often had more than one play running in different
theaters at the same time. He represented the dark reality of urban
life in grotescos criollos and sainetes such as Puerto Madero (1924;
Port Madero), about anarchism and a dock strike in Buenos Aires,
and María la tonta (1927; Crazy Mary), in which the Virgin Mary
is represented as a madwoman in a city of criminals, pimps, pros-
titutes, and beggars. Defilippis felt the influence of Henrik Ibsen
(1828–1906), August Strindberg (1849–1912), and Eugene O’Neil

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156 • DELGADO, RAFAEL

(1888–1953) in his later writing. He also translated the work of Luigi


Pirandello (1867–1936) and other dramatists.

DELGADO, RAFAEL (Mexico, 1853–1914). Novelist. Although


he wrote several plays in the early part of his literary career, he is
remembered most for several novels that conform to the norms of
realism. La calandria (1891; The Lark) is the drama of a woman
caught between her affections for two different men, one a stable,
moral person, the other a rogue. Angelina (1895; Angelina) is a tale
about a young man who attempts, and fails, to regain a rural idyll
after living in the city. Los parientes ricos (1902; Rich Relations) is
a satire on wealth told through the story of the poor side of a family
that seeks protection from wealthy relations. Delgado also wrote the
short novel Historia vulgar (1904; A Vulgar Tale), and in Cuentos
y notas (1902; Stories and Notes) left a collection of sketches in the
manner of costumbrismo.

DENEVI, MARCO (Argentina, 1922–1998). Novelist and short


story writer. He entered the literary world with a prize-winning first
novel, Rosaura a las diez (1955; Rosa at Ten O’Clock), a mystery
novel about a woman murdered in a seedy Buenos Aires hotel. The
novella-length Ceremonia secreta (1960; Secret Ceremony) is also
a story of crime and violence, as is a later novel, Los asesinos de
los días de fiestas (1972; The Holiday Murderers). Denevi’s novels
are marked by considerable technical virtuosity involving multiple
points of view and narrative voices, fragmented chronologies, and
embedded narratives. He was equally successful with his short stories
and microtales, which show his creativity and playfulness. The first
collection of these was Falsificaciones (1966; Falsifications), a series
of apocryphal versions of literary works and historical events. It was
followed by El emperador de China y otros cuentos (1970; The Em-
peror of China and Other Stories) and Parque de diversiones (1970;
Amusement Park). Later collections, Hierba del cielo (1973; Herb of
Heaven) and Reunión de desaparecidos (1977; A Gathering of the
Disappeared), are more serious and represent a coming to terms with
life’s disappointments and the urban environment of Buenos Aires.
During the 1980s, Denevi wrote extensively for television and
acquired a popular following through a column he contributed to the

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DIAS, ANTÔNIO GONÇALVES • 157

Argentinean daily newspaper La Nación. Several of his novels have


been turned into films or dramatized for television, and Denevi ven-
tured into the theater, but without the success of his prose fiction.
Among his last books were Araminta, o El poder (1982; Araminta,
or The Power), a miscellaneous, autobiographical collection of
sketches, essays, and stories, and a novel, Manuel de historia (1985;
Manuel of History), admonishing Argentina to put its house in order.

D’HALMAR, AUGUSTO, pseudonym of AUGUSTO GOEMINE


THOMSON (Chile, 1882–1950). Novelist and essayist. He was
a highly cultured man, and the influences of his reading are often
evident in his writing. Among the most noticeable are Leo Tolstoy
(1828–1910), Óscar Wilde (1854–1900), Alphonse Daudet (1840–
1897), and Pierre Loti (1850–1923). The impact of Tolstoy was such
that D’Halmar sought, in 1904, to found a Tolstoyan cultural commu-
nity based on the Russian writer’s philosophy. D’Halmar’s aesthetic
outlook was similarly eclectic, and from his early naturalism he
moved first to modernism and then to the avant-garde.
D’Halmar’s novel Juana Lucero, o los vicios de Chile (1902;
Juana Lucero, or the Vices of Chile), an imitation of Nana (1880)
by Emile Zola (1840–1902), about the life of a prostitute, introduced
naturalism to Chile and is one of the author’s most read works. In
La lámpara en el molino (1914; The Lamp in the Mill), however,
based on events surrounding his sister’s marriage, he abandoned
naturalistic realism in favor of a more surreal and imaginative style.
His later novels include La pasión y muerte del cura Deusto (1924;
The Passion and Death of Father Deusto). Considered his most ac-
complished work, it is a story of homosexual desire, set in Seville,
Spain, and one of the first works of fiction in Spanish to deal openly
with homoeroticism. D’Halmar’s essays include several he wrote
during a 26-year period away from his native Chile that reflect some
of his travels. Among them are Nirvana (1918; Nirvana), about the
Far East, and La Mancha de Don Quijote (1934; Don Quixote’s La
Mancha), a reflection of his experiences in Spain.

DIAS, ANTÔNIO GONÇALVES (Brazil, 1823–1864). Dramatist and


poet. The son of a Portuguese father and a Brazilian mother of black
and indigenous ancestry, Gonçalves Dias was born in Maranhão and

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158 • DÍAZ, GRÉGOR

traveled to Coimbra to study law, where he also extensively read


Portuguese and European classics and wrote his first poems. He
became associated with “medievalist” writers who published in the
journals Gazeta Literária and O Trovador, who cultivated patriotic
nostalgia, as evidenced in his historical plays, Beatriz Cenci (1844;
Beatriz Cenci), Patkull (1844; Patkull), and Leonor de Mendonça
(1847; Leonor of Mendoza), and in his Portuguese medieval ballad,
“Sextilhas de Frei Antão” (1848; Sextilles of Friar Antão). But his
main literary reputation was established with the publication of
Primeiros Cantos (1846; First Songs), inspired by patriotic feelings
and the figure of the Brazilian Indian. Gonçalves Dias’s romanticism
and indianism are also evident in the subsequent poetry collections
Segundos Cantos (1848; Second Songs) and Últimos Cantos (1851;
Last Songs), in his unfinished epic poem Os Timbiras (1857; The
Timbiras), and in his ballad I-Juca Pirama (1851; I-Juca Pirama).
Back in Brazil, Gonçalves Dias moved around, working as a
professor and journalist, and was also officially commissioned to
undertake historical, ethnographic, and linguistic research in the
north of Brazil and in Europe, material he later used to produce
Dicionário da Língua Tupi (1858; Dictionary of the Tupi Language),
published in Leipzig. The other great theme of Gonçalves Dias’s
work was romantic love, partly inspired by his real-life passion for
Ana Amélia Ferreira Vale, whom he was unable to marry because
of her family’s racial prejudice. On a return trip from Europe, where
he had gone to seek cures for his ailing health, he was killed in a
shipwreck, the only victim to die. At the time of his death, Gonçalves
Dias was considered Brazil’s greatest poet. Several stanzas of his
famous poem “Canção do Exílio” (“Song of Exile”) are included in
the Brazilian national anthem. See also THEATER.

DÍAZ, GRÉGOR (Peru, 1933– ). Dramatist. As an advocate of the


proletariat, his plays focus principally on the lives of the poorest
sectors of urban society. La huelga (1971; The Strike) established
his place in Peruvian theater and was the first work in Peru to bring
labor issues to the stage. Later works include Los cercadores (1974;
The Oppressors) and Los cercados (1974; The Oppressed), Con los
pies en el agua (1974; With the Feet in the Water), Cuento del hom-
bre que vendía globos (1978; Tale of the Man Who Sold Balloons),
and Los del 4 (1981; Those of the Fourth).

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DÍAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL • 159

DÍAZ, JORGE (Chile, 1930– ). Dramatist. He made his name with El


cepillo de dientes (1961; The Toothbrush), a play in the style of the
theater of the absurd, whose two characters, named He and She,
engage in bizarre games to alleviate the boredom of daily life. Sev-
eral other plays followed, including Requiém por un girasol (1961;
Requiem for a Sunflower) and El lugar donde mueren los mamíferos
(1963; The Place Where the Mammals Die), which also highlight the
problems of communication and the stifling conditions of bourgeois
society. In 1965, Díaz moved to Spain, where he has lived ever
since, and had a long, productive career in theater. Experimentation
in a variety of themes and styles is a feature of his drama, which is
characterized by word games, linguistic innovation, black humor,
violence, social commentary, and political satire. Among his notable
compositions are the erotic drama La orgástula (1970; The Orgastu-
lum); Mear contra en viento (1974; Pissing in the Wind), about U.S.
involvement in the overthrow of Salvador Allende’s government in
Chile in 1973; La puñeta (1977; Up the Creek), based on poems by
Nicanor Parra; and Desde la sangre y el silencio, o Fulgor y muerte
de Pablo Neruda (1984; From Blood and Silence, or Death and Glory
of Pablo Neruda), on the last days of Pablo Neruda. Díaz has also
contributed to children’s literature with plays written for young
audiences.

DÍAZ DE GUZMÁN, RUY (Paraguay, c. 1558–1629). Chronicler.


He was the author of the chronicle Historia argentina del descu-
brimiento, población y conquista de las provincias del Río de la
Plata (Argentinean History of the Discovery, Settlement, and Con-
quest of the River Plate Provinces), likely written to support his pre-
tensions for an administrative position in the colonial government but
not published until 1835. It is popularly known as La Argentina and
has been shown to suffer from partisan errors. As the title suggests,
it covers not only the early history of Argentina, but also the regions
occupied today by Uruguay and Paraguay.

DÍAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL (Mexico, 1496–1584). Chroni-


cler. A conquistador and member of the force led by Hernán Cortés
to Mexico, his chronicle Historia verdadera de la conquista de la
Nueva España (written 1555?–1584, published 1632; The Discovery
and Conquest of Mexico: 1517–1521) is an eyewitness account of

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160 • DÍAZ MIRÓN, SALVADOR

the expedition and an invaluable historical resource. He wrote his


version of the conquest long after the events, motivated in part by the
desire to represent the role played by the members of Hernán Cor-
tés’s expedition in contrast to accounts, notably that by Francisco
López de Gómara, which tended to highlight the actions of Cortés
to the detriment of his companions.

DÍAZ MIRÓN, SALVADOR (Mexico, 1853–1928). Poet. He was an


unconventional figure in his life and writings. In his younger days, he
fought duels with pistols, some with lethal results. His support for the
governments of Porfirio Díaz (1876–1880, 1884–1911) and Victo-
riano Huerta (1913–1914) led to a period of exile after the latter was
ousted during the Mexican Revolution. In his writing, Díaz Mirón
turned his attention to the form and aesthetics of poetry, notably in
the collection Lascas (1901; Stone Chips), which made him a precur-
sor of modernismo and an influence on Rubén Darío.

DÍAZ RODRÍGUEZ, MANUEL (Venezuela, 1871–1927). Novel-


ist and essayist. He wrote a critical appreciation of modernismo in
an essay published in Camino de la perfección (1908; The Way of
Perfection) and is considered one of Spanish America’s foremost
modernist prose writers. His best-known novels are Ídolos rotos
(1901; Broken Idols) and Sangre patricia (1902; Patrician Blood).
The former, considered a critique of arielismo, tells about a sculp-
tor, schooled in Europe, who struggles against conservative narrow-
mindedness in his native Venezuela.

DÍAZ SÁNCHEZ, RAMÓN (Venezuela, 1903–1968). Novelist and


essayist. In his novels Mené (1936; Mene), Cumboto (1950; Cum-
boto), Casandra (1957; Casandra), and Borburata (1960; Borburata)
he wrote about problems in the oilfields and the cocoa plantations,
with a focus on racial conflicts and the African population of Ven-
ezuela. His essays are concerned mainly with the history of Venezu-
ela and Venezuelan literature, including a book on the author Teresa
de la Parra.

DÍAZ VARGAS, HENRY (Colombia, 1948– ). Dramatist. Author


of plays about the history and contemporary life of Colombia. Más

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DIEZ-CANSECO, JOSÉ • 161

allá de la ejecución (1984; Beyond the Execution) is set in the


conquest period, and Josef Antonio Galán o de cómo se sublevó
el común (Josef Antonio Galán or How the Commune Revolted)
(1981) is a story from 1781. Las puertas (1984; The Doors); El
cumpleaños de Alicia (1985; Alice’s Birthday), about two les-
bian lovers; and La sangre más transparente (1992; The Clearest
Blood), concerned with adolescent crime and drugs in a Medellín
barrio, all portray marginalized characters in the modern city and
show the impact of Antonin Artaud (1896–1948) and the theater of
cruelty. See also THEATER.

DICTATOR NOVEL. Although the dictator novel might be traced to


Domingo Faustino Sarmiento’s 19th-century Civilización y barba-
rie: vida de Juan Facundo Quiroga, y aspecto físico, costumbres, y
hábitos de la República Argentina (1845; Facundo: Civilization and
Barbarism), it is a predominantly 20th-century literary phenomenon.
The dictators whose regimes are represented come from many dif-
ferent countries, from the near present to the more distant past, and
include both historical and fictional figures, although the latter are
commonly based on persons from history. Thus, El señor presidente
(1946; The President) by Miguel Ángel Asturias draws on the re-
gime of Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1898–1920) in Guatemala; Yo,
el supremo (1974; I, the Supreme) by Augusto Roa Bastos is an
account of the rule of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (1814–
1840) in Paraguay; and La fiesta del chivo (2000; The Feast of the
Goat) by Mario Vargas Llosa is based on the life of the Dominican
strongman Rafael Leónidas Trujillo (1930–1961). By contrast, the
protagonist of Gabriel García Márquez’s El otoño del patriarca
(1975; The Autumn of the Patriarch) is a fictional character, even if
there is much to be found in him that has a precedent in real-life Latin
American dictators. See also AGUILERA MALTA, DEMETRIO;
ARÉVALO MARTÍNEZ, RAFAEL; IBARGÜENGOITIA, JORGE;
LAFOURCADE, ENRIQUE; and ZALAMEA, JORGE.

DIEZ-CANSECO, JOSÉ (Peru, 1904–1949). Novelist and short story


writer. He is known for two works: Estampas mulatas (1930; Mulatto
Scenes), a collection of short narratives about Afro-Peruvian urban
life, and Duque (1934; Duke), a novel about the Peruvian oligarchy

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162 • DISCÉPOLO, ARMANDO

that caused quite a stir when it first appeared and has since been
compared with Un mundo para Julius by Alfredo Bryce Echenique.

DISCÉPOLO, ARMANDO (Argentina, 1887–1971). Dramatist.


He was popular between 1910 and 1934 and wrote more than 30
plays during that time. With his Mateo (1923; Matthew), he is said
to have initiated the grotesco criollo in Argentina. Other grotescos
include Stéfano (1928; Stephen), Cremona (1932; Cremona), and
Relojero (The Watchmaker). In these and in plays such as Babilonia
(1925; Babylon), he put the language of immigrants to Buenos Aires
onstage and wrote about the gulf between reality and their expecta-
tions in a combination of drama and comedy that showed the influ-
ence of Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936). See also THEATER.

DONOSO, JOSÉ (Chile, 1924–1996). Novelist and short story writer.


One of Latin America’s most significant 20th-century novelists and
a member of the boom generation, about which he wrote in Historia
personal del “boom” (1972; The Boom in Spanish American Litera-
ture). His fiction shows the depth of his cultural formation in works
that combine the themes of psychology and sexuality with an analysis
of Chilean social and political structures. His first publication was
Veraneo y otros cuentos (1955; Summer Vacation and Other Tales),
a collection of stories later included in translation in Charleston and
Other Stories. His first novel was Coronación (1958; Coronation),
a realistic representation of the upper middle class that also shaped
Este domingo (1966; This Sunday) and Lugar sin límites (1967; Hell
Hath No Limits), although these works already showed the break-
down of the realist code in Donoso’s work.
By this time, he was already living in Spain, where he enjoyed
one of the most productive periods of his life and wrote his most
ambitious work, El obsceno pájaro de la noche (1970; The Obscene
Bird of Night), a novel he had worked on for several years before it
was published. It is a complex, labyrinthine representation of Chile
that leaves behind the trends in realism present in Donoso’s earlier
fiction. With a narrator who is both a character in the story and a wit-
ness to it, the novel also confronts the nature of writing. It embodies
the myth of Oedipus and the indigenous myth of the imbunche, a
deformed figure created by closing all the openings in the body, such

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DORFMAN, ARIEL • 163

that the monstruous takes over, in a novel set in a decaying man-


sion in Santiago, inhabited by nuns and the children of upper-class
families in their charge. In Casa de campo (1978; A House in the
Country), a historical allegory reflecting Chile under the rise and fall
of Salvador Allende, Donoso also produced a long, complex work
that examines both the nature of his country and the act of writing
about it. By contrast, Donoso’s next two novels are quite short and,
in some ways, more conventional. La misteriosa desaparición de la
marquesita de Loria (1980; The Mysterious Disappearance of the
Marchioness of Loria) is an erotic farce, and El jardín de al lado
(1981; The Garden Next Door) is a story of the Latin American intel-
lectual in exile.
After returning to Chile in 1981, Donoso wrote La desesperanza
(1986; Curfew), a novel about Chile under dictatorship. Other
works from the last period of his life include Taratuta; naturaleza
muerta con cachimba (1990; Taratula; Still Life with Pipe), El mo-
cho (1992; The One-armed Man), Donde van a morir los elefantes
(1995; Where Elephants Go to Die), and a volume of memoirs,
Conjeturas sobre la memoria de mi tribu (1996; Conjectures About
the Memory of My Tribe).

DORFMAN, ARIEL (Chile, 1942– ). Novelist, dramatist, and es-


sayist. Although born in Argentina, he adopted Chilean citizenship
and as a member of Salvador Allende’s administration in Chile was
forced into exile in 1973 after the president’s overthrow. He eventu-
ally settled in the United States after a period in Europe. Dorfman’s
writing is esentially political. Among his earlier essays are Imagi-
nación y violencia en América Latina (1970; Imagination and Vio-
lence in Latin America) and Para leer al Pato Donald (1971; How
to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in the Disney Comic).
The second of these, written with Armand Mattelart, is an important
text of cultural analysis. Later essays include Hacia la liberación del
lector latinoamericano (1984; Some Write to the Future: Essays on
Contemporary Latin American Fiction) and several books in Eng-
lish: Chile from Within, 1873–1990 (1990), with Marco Antonio
de la Parra, a volume of memoirs; Looking South, Heading North:
A Bilingual Journey (1998); and Exorcising Terror: The Incredible
Unending Trial of Augusto Pinochet (2002).

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164 • DOURADO, VALDOMIRO AUTRAN

Dorfman’s novels are complex works. Moros en la costa (1973;


Hard Rain), on the theme of revolution, is constructed as a collage
and has some similarity to novels by Julio Cortázar. Viudas (1981;
Widows) deals with the 1973 coup by Augusto Pinochet in Chile and
the exile that followed for many. It was recast as a play in 1988. La
última canción de Manuel Sendero (1982; The Last Song of Manuel
Sendero) is a novel with a layered plot and multiple voices dealing
with Chile under Pinochet (1973–1990). Máscaras (1988; Mascara),
a difficult work on betrayal, deception, and alienation, has been com-
pared with works by Franz Kafka (1883–1924) and George Orwell
(1903–1950). Konfidenz (1995; Confiding) is about an anti-Nazi
conspiracy in 1939 Germany.
Among Dorfman’s works for the theater, the most celebrated
is La muerte y la doncella (1990; Death and the Maiden), about a
woman who recognizes and kidnaps the man she believes was her
torturer. The play has been widely performed internationally and was
made into a highly successful film in English.

DOURADO, VALDOMIRO AUTRAN (Brazil, 1926– ). Novelist


and short story writer. Attempting a renovation of Brazilian narrative,
despite apparently traditional themes, Dourado’s award-winning
work combines lyricism, humor, and psychological insight. In the
short stories of Nove Histórias em Grupos de Três (1957; Nine Stories
in Sets of Three), augmented and republished as Solidão Solitude
(1972; Solitude Solitude), he created an imaginary Faulknerian city
called Duas Pontes. His best-known novel is Ópera dos Mortos
(1967; Opera of the Dead). His novella Uma Vida em Segredo (1964;
A Secret Life) was adapted for the screen.

DRAGÚN, OSVALDO (Argentina, 1929–1999). Dramatist. He was


part of a generation that, in the 1950s, represented a movement in
Argentina away from the facile comedies and costumbrismo of the
past to incorporate more recent developments in European theater.
Dragún’s first successes were historical dramas, including Tupac
Amaru (1957; Tupac Amaru), the retelling of a 1780 rebellion in
colonial Peru against the Spanish. In plays that followed, under
the general title of Historias para ser contadas (1957; Stories to
Be Told), he wrote socially committed Brechtian theater that de-
veloped the aesthetic of the grotesque associated with the grotesco

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DUARTE DE PERÓN, EVA • 165

criollo. The best known of these, perhaps Dragún’s most celebrated


play, is Historia del hombre que se convirtió en perro (1957; The
Man Who Turned into a Dog), about a man who applies for a job
as a watchdog and turns into one. It has been successfully staged in
several countries and reflects a concern for people caught in desper-
ate situations. Dragún returned periodically to the formula used in
his historias, such as Historias con cárcel (1972; Jail Stories), in
which the metaphor of imprisonment is used to represent restrictions
on freedom in Argentina. He also wrote for television and films and,
in 1981, became part of Teatro Abierto, an attempt to revitalize the
stage in Argentina at a time when artistic expression of all kinds was
politically constrained.

DROGUETT, CARLOS (Chile, 1915–1996). Novelist. The author


of psychological, introspective novels, often about violence and
socially marginalized characters, written in a very fragmented style.
His first collection of narratives, Los asesinos del Seguro Obrero
(1940; Killers at the Seguro Obrero Building), became the source of
his first novel, Sesenta muertos en la escalera (1954; Sixty Dead on
the Stairway), based on the historical events of a student massacre
in 1935. His next novel, Eloy (1959; Eloy), was his most successful
work. Also derived from historical events, it describes the last hours
of a celebrated bandit who, mainly through interior monologue, re-
members events from his past as he is hunted down by the police.
Other novels by Droguett fall into two groups. Cien gotas de sangre
y doscientas de sudor (1961; One Hundred Drops of Blood and Two
Hundred of Sweat), Supay el cristiano (1967; Supay the Christian),
and El hombre que trasladaba las ciudades (1973; The Man Who
Moved Cities) deal with historical subjects. The second group is
about the lives of troubled, isolated individuals, characterized by
difference, whose dilemmas are described through interior recol-
lections. It includes Patas de perro (1965; Dog Legs), El compadre
(1967; The Godfather), El hombre que había olvidado (1968; The
Man Who Had Forgotten), and Todas esas muertes (1971; All Those
Deaths).

DUARTE DE PERÓN, EVA (1919–1952). Popularly known as Evita.


The circumstances of the rise of María Eva Duarte from poverty and
social marginality to a position of wealth and influence through her

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166 • DUNCAN, QUINCE

marriage to Argentinean president Juan Domingo Perón made her


one of the most controversial women of 20th-century Latin America.
Her impact on politics and civil society in Argentina was significant,
and her premature death from cancer at the age of 33, at the height of
her popularity, only served to enhance the controversy and the myths
surrounding her as a public figure. Her life and death continue to be
a source of reference and narrative for writers in Argentina such as
Tomás Eloy Martínez, Abel Posse, and Mario Szichman. See also
ROA BASTOS, AUGUSTO.

DUNCAN, QUINCE (Costa Rica, 1940– ). Novelist and short story


writer. Considered the first successful black Costa Rican writer in
Spanish, he focuses principally on working-class African Americans
in Puerto Limón. His most ambitious novel is La paz del pueblo
(1978; The Peace of the People), set in the context of a 1934 strike
against the United Fruit Company in Costa Rica.

DURÃO, JOSÉ DE SANTA RITA (Brazil, 1722–1784). Poet. Born


in Brazil, Santa Rita Durão studied at Coimbra, and later, fleeing
from trouble with the Church, led a scholarly existence in Italy for
a number of years. Returning to Portugal in 1777, he dictated his
Camonian epic poem Caramuru (1779; Caramuru), on the discovery
of Bahia, to the Portuguese poet José Agostinho de Macedo. Written
at a time when arcadianism was already beginning to take hold,
Santa Rita Durão’s poem was not received with enthusiasm because
of its perceived archaic form.

DUVAL, ADALBERTO GUERRA (Brazil, 1872–1947). Poet.


A career diplomat who served in several countries, Guerra is
remembered for his Portuguese- and Belgian-inspired symbolist
Palavras que o Vento Leva. . . (1900; Words Gone with the Wind),
which introduced free verse into Brazilian poetry.

– E –

ECHEVERRÍA, AQUILEO J. (Costa Rica, 1866–1909). Poet.


Known as “the poet of Costa Rica,” a title given to him by Rubén

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ECUADOR • 167

Darío, he wrote mainly popular verses, romances, or ballads, and


concherías, referring to a saying or action spoken or performed by
a concho or tico, an inhabitant of the Costa Rican coast. His verses
describe the drama and humor of everyday situations, featuring rec-
ognizable social types and colloquial language. During his lifetime,
Romances (1903; Ballads) and Concherías (1905; Costa Ricanisms)
were published. However, many collections or different compila-
tions of his work have appeared since his death and have established
his reputation as one of the primary verse exponents of Costa Rican
costumbrismo.

ECHEVERRÍA, ESTEBAN (Argentina, 1805–1851). Poet and short


story writer. He was deeply influenced by European romanticism,
although his poem Elvira, o la novia del Plata (1832; Elvira, or the
Bride of the River Plate), one of the earliest examples of romantic
writing in Latin America, was greeted with indifference when it first
appeared. Echeverría was also a significant contributor to formulations
of Argentinean nationalism after independence from Spain. His main
contributions to the literary canon in Argentina are “El matadero”
(written in about 1839; published in 1871; “The Slaughter House”)
and La cautiva (1837; The Captive), both classics of Latin American
literature and examples of the preoccupation with civilization and
barbarism. The former is a short story that represents violence under
the dictatorship of Juan Manuel Rosas (1793–1877) as an allegory of
carnage, and the latter is a narrative poem in the style of indianismo,
about a white woman captured by Indians. See also AIRA, CÉSAR.

ECUADOR. Although Ecuador produced no widely recognized liter-


ary figures during the colonial period, the writer whose verse caught
the spirit of the war of independence in Spanish America and sang
the praises of the liberator Simón Bolívar was the Ecuadorian José
Joaquín Olmedo. Three writers stand out in the 19th century for
their contributions to the formation of an image of Ecuador: Juan
Montalvo sniped at the country’s dictatorial rulers in his political
writing; José Fermín Cevallos was the country’s first historian; and
Juan León Mera, Ecuador’s principal representative of romanti-
cism, was the author of Cumandá (1879), a classic of Spanish Ameri-
can indianismo.

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168 • ECUADOR

A turn toward realism in the early 20th century figures variously


in Ecuador in the different regions of the country. The southern
coastal region is represented by the Grupo Guayaquil, which in-
cluded José de la Cuadra, Joaquín Gallegos Lara, Enrique Gil
Gilbert, Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco, and Demetrio Aguilera
Malta, the last of whom is the most widely known of the group as
one of Ecuador’s most significant novelists and an important figure
of Latin American magic realism and indigenismo. The high sierra
region and the harsh reality of indigenous life are represented by
Jorge Icaza and his novel Huasipungo (1934), although a somewhat
gentler account may be found in the fiction of Ángel Felicísimo Ro-
jas. Another marginalized group, African Ecuadorians in the north-
ern coastal regions of Esmeraldas, is described by Adalberto Ortiz
and Nelson Estupiñán Bass.
During the 1930s, avant-garde ideas and manifestos circulated
without deterring the continuation of other trends, such as the realist
narrative mentioned above, the lyric verse of Jorge Carrera An-
drade, or the very idiosyncratic prose of Pablo Palacio. Ecuador’s
principal avant-garde writer, both in verse and prose, was Jorge
Enrique Adoum, whose writing also reflected his Marxist outlook.
Since the mid-20th century, literature in Ecuador has become as di-
verse as in other countries of Latin America. The country’s authors
have focused on political events; government oppression; women’s
issues; gay and lesbian rights; and elements of life, language, and
culture that have a particularly Ecuadorian value. Among the repre-
sentatives of this trend, and one of the few writers from the country
whose reputation is also firmly established beyond the country’s
borders, is Alicia Yáñez Cossío.
The earliest records of theater in Guayaquil and Quito, Ecuador’s
two main cites, are of performances of religious autos in the 16th
century. Commercial theaters were not established there, however,
until the Teatro de Guayaquil in 1857 and the Teatro Nacional Sucre
in Quito in 1880. In the intervening centuries, the theater of Spain,
performed mainly for the ruling class, predominated. Juan Montalvo,
with his political themes, figured among dramatists of the 19th cen-
tury, but a move toward costumbrismo and the comedy of manners
was more pronounced in Francisco Aguirre Guarderas and Víctor
Manuel Rendón. Realism was also a feature of the plays of Carlos

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EDWARDS, JORGE • 169

Arturo León, whose emphasis on national life and character would


lead to a social theater to which Jorge Icaza, Enrique Avellán Fer-
rés, and Pedro Jorge Vera contributed.
The flourishing of the Teatro Íntimo between 1954 and 1956, with
which both Vera and Aguilera Malta collaborated, ushered in a pe-
riod of experimentation during the 1960s as the avant-garde took root
in Ecuadorian theater. Among the prominent dramatists of this devel-
opment were Francisco Tobar García and Jorge Enrique Adoum.
Their work would open the door to the diversity of the contemporary
stage in Ecuador, which has all the variety of most Latin American
countries, even if it has yet to make a broad impact in the region. See
also ANTIPOETRY; ARIELISMO; CHILDREN’S LITERATURE;
JOURNALS; NEO-CLASSICISM; NEW NOVEL; WOMEN.

EDWARDS, JORGE (Chile, 1931– ). Novelist, short story writer,


and essayist. His first collections of short stories, El patio (1952; The
Backyard) and Gente de la ciudad (1961; People of the City), with
their emphasis on the middle class and an urban environment, rep-
resented a break from the established trend of criollismo in Chilean
fiction. In his first novel, El peso de la noche (1965; The Burden of
the Night), a biting critique of the Chilean middle class, Edwards
developed the same group of themes as in his stories. Before return-
ing to fiction, he published a widely read memoir Persona non grata
(1973; Persona Non grata: An Envoy in Castro’s Cuba) that records
his disenchantment, as a diplomat and writer, with the Cuban Revolu-
tion. His critical stance resulted in his expulsion from Cuba (1971)
and earned him the approbium of many Latin American intellectuals.
Edwards has published several novels since this controversial
work. Los convidados de piedra (1978; The Stone Guests) and El
museo de cera (1981; The Wax Museum) are both reflections on the
condition of Chile under the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet (1973–
1990), and in La mujer imaginaria (1985; The Imaginary Woman),
the story of the liberation of a female, upper-class, middle-aged
artist anticipates the political liberation of Chile from that regime.
El anfitrión (1988; The Host) is a reworking of the Faust legend. In
El origen del mundo (1996; The Origin of the World) and El sueño
de la historia (2000; The Dream of History), Edwards turned to his-
torical themes. His two most recent novels are El inútil de la familia

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170 • EDWARDS BELLO, JOAQUÍN

(2004; The Useless One of the Family) and La casa de Dostoievsky


(2008; Dostoievsky’s House). He has also contributed to newspapers
in Latin America (notably El Mercurio in Chile) and Europe, and
many of his articles have been collected in El whisky de los poetas
(1997; The Poets’ Whiskey) and Diálogos en un tejado (2003; Con-
versations on a Rooftop). In Adiós poeta (1990; Farewell, Poet), he
presented reminiscences of Pablo Neruda, with whom he worked as
a diplomat in Paris between 1971 and 1973. Edwards received the
Miguel de Cervantes Prize for Literature in 1999.

EDWARDS BELLO, JOAQUÍN (Chile, 1887–1968). Novelist and


journalist. His first novel, El inútil (1912; The Loser), is a satire of
the upper class to which the author, a member of the influential Ed-
wards family in Chile, belonged. In a later work, El roto (1920; The
Down-and-Out), he turned to the other end of the social spectrum.
The novel, one of Edwards Bello’s most popular, belongs to the tra-
dition of naturalism and introduces Esmeraldo, a character born in a
brothel who figures in other novels by the same author. Subsequent
works of fiction appeared in fairly quick succession: El chileno en
Madrid (1928; The Chilean in Madrid), whose protagonists, like
Edwards Bello, are wealthy expatriates; Cap Polonio (1929; Cape
Polonio), about a transatlantic journey from Buenos Aires aboard a
luxury liner; Valparaíso, la ciudad del viento (1931; Valparaiso, the
Windy City), set in a time before the devastating earthquake of 1906;
Criollos en París (1933; Creoles in Paris), another novel of Chilean
expatriates, set in the gambling dens of the French capital before
World War I; and La chica del Crillón (1935; The Girl from the
Crillon), a story with lesbian themes on the downfall of a girl from a
good family. After the last of these novels, Edwards Bello published
no new works of fiction, although he revised and republished some
of his earlier ones. By the 1920s, he had also established a career as
a journalist and written many chronicles of everyday life, many of
which were gathered and published in several collections.

EGURÉN, JOSÉ MARÍA (Peru, 1874–1942). Poet. For his musical-


ity, language, and themes, he is associated with modernismo, but his
verse also anticipated the avant-garde. Although a marginal figure
during his lifetime, when he was criticized for his difficulty, he is

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EL GÜEGÜENSE • 171

now considered Peru’s principal representative of symbolism. He


published three collections of verse. Simbólicas (1911; Symbolicals)
and La canción de las figuras (1916; The Song of the Figures) are
rich in references to the exotic and the fantastic. His last collection,
Poesías (1929; Poems), is a reissue of some of his earlier verse along
with poems from collections titled Sombra (Shadow) and Rondinelas
(Rondinos), parts of which had already been published in magazines.
Eguren was also an accomplished watercolorist and photographer.
His interest in music is reflected in his verse, and late in life he began
to write short prose notes, which were collected and published post-
humously as Motivos estéticos (1959; Aesthetic Motifs).

EICHELBAUM, SAMUEL (Argentina, 1894–1967). Dramatist.


His first success, La mala sed (1920; Bad Thirst), anticipated the
psychological themes and moral issues presented in many of his
later plays, in which he stretched the conventions of naturalism and
costumbrismo of his day and contributed to modernizing the theater
in Argentina with the kinds of social and character analysis that had
already begun in Europe. In several of his works from the 1920s,
such as La hermana terca (1924; The Stubborn Sister) and Nadie
la conoció nunca (1926; No-one Ever Knew Her), he explored the
psychology of women through his female characters. As the author
of more than 20 published plays, he remained a productive and suc-
cessful writer throughout his career. In later dramas, he turned to a
dissection of realist conventions to analyze established social stereo-
types. Un guapo del 900 (1940; A Gallant for 1900) is a late example
of gaucho literature in the theater that parodies the gaucho, and in
Un tal Servando Gómez (1942; A Man Called Servando Gómez), he
dramatizes the absurdity of macho jealousy. He also published three
collections of short stories: Un monstruo en libertad (1925; A Mon-
ster at Large), Tormenta de Dios (1929; A Storm from God), and El
viajero inmóvil (1933; The Stationary Traveler).

EL GÜEGÜENSE (Nicaragua). One of the oldest theatrical tradi-


tions in Latin America, El güegüense grew out of a popular theater
in Nahuatl and Spanish in Nicaragua that thrived in the colonial
period between the mid-16th and mid-18th centuries. The name
for the central character, el güegüense, is derived from the Nahuatl

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172 • EL SALVADOR

huehue, meaning an old or wise man. He is a merchant who attempts


to deceive the colonial authorities intent on enforcing the tax law. As
such, his antics continue to be relevant in contemporary times. See
also THEATER IN QUECHUA.

EL SALVADOR. As in other Latin American countries, especially in


Central America, the direction taken by literature in El Salvador has
responded as much to the tides of conflicts within the country as to
broader aesthetic and literary movements. Although the newly inde-
pendent country had its share of minor contributors to neo-classicism
and romanticism, its national literature is considered as having been
founded by Francisco Gavidia, who introduced modernismo to the
country in both poetry and prose. The costumbrismo, realism, and
naturalism of the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries are repre-
sented by Arturo Ambrogi and José María Peralta Lagos.
Of all the civil conflicts that have afflicted the country, the peasant
uprising led in 1932 by Augustín Farabundo Martí (1893–1932) and
brutally suppressed by the dictator Maximiliano Hernández Martínez
(1931–1944) indelibly marked the 20th century and was the inspira-
tion for later uprisings. It became known as La Matanza and was also
the background against which the work of Salarrué, Claudia Lars,
the country’s first major lyric voice, and Hugo Lindo was written
and published. These events and their continuations were also the
context of the poetry and testimonio of Roque Dalton, the fiction of
Manlio Argueta, and the varied writings of Claribel Alegría. Like
them, Salvadoran writers have continued since the end of the civil
war in 1992 to document and interpret the conflicted history of their
country.
Popular theater was enjoyed in colonial El Salvador, especially
in the form of dances performed in imitation of animals. The first
decades of independence brought foreign touring companies to the
country and saw the construction of theaters. Then, with the begin-
nings of a Salvadoran national literature in the early 20th century,
more theater was written locally, notably by Francisco Gavidia and
José María Peralta Lagos. However, the theater in El Salvador has
stuttered between progress and setbacks during much of the last
century. Economic depression and dictatorship hampered its growth
in the 1930s and 1940s. Nevertheless, the opening of a theater by

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ELTIT, DIAMELA • 173

the national university preceded a more productive period during


the 1960s, when classical and modern foreign plays were staged and
a group of Salvadoran dramatists began to emerge, but this activity
was curtailed in the 1970s as the country moved once more toward
civil war. Since the ending of the last conflict in 1992, theater has
once more begun to progress and has received state support, but
El Salvador has still to achieve the same levels of productivity and
recognition it has obtained in poetry and prose. See also CASA DE
LAS AMÉRICAS; CHILDREN’S LITERATURE; CRIOLLISMO;
MAGIC REALISM; WOMEN.

ELIZONDO, SALVADOR (Mexico, 1932–2006). Novelist. His


fiction has little social context and not much in terms of plot. It is
essentially about writing and incorporates several other forms of dis-
course, such as dialogue, letters, and essays. The use of language and
treatment of time are highly experimental, having some affinity with
the new novel, and he presents a somewhat sadistic view of human
relations. Farabeuf o la crónica de un instante (1965; Farabeuf or
the Chronicle of an Instant) is about a moment of lovemaking and is
highly reminiscent of the experimentalism of the French new novel
by authors such as Alain Robbe-Grillet (1922–2008). El hipogeo se-
creto (1968; The Secret Cellar) is about a man writing a novel called
“The Secret Cellar.” Other fiction includes Narda, o el verano (1966;
Narda, or the Summer), El retrato de Zoe y otras mentiras (1969;
Portrait of Zoe and Other Falsehoods), and El grafógrafo (1972; The
Graphographer). Elizondo also wrote verse, theater, criticism, and
journalism, although the overlapping of genres in his work some-
times makes it diffcult to categorize them.

ELTIT, DIAMELA (Chile, 1949– ). Novelist. She belongs to the


post-coup (1973) generation in Chile. Her writing is challenging and
transgressive with respect to both language and content. She often
presents herself as her narrator, but linear plots are not typical of her
fiction. Ludic language; use of artistic, cinematic, and video effects;
and evocation of the body are features of her works that give them
the character of performance texts. Lumpérica (1983; E. Iluminata)
is a highly fragmented novel that offers a vision of the contemporary
urban scene from the perspective of the city’s most economically

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174 • ENTREMÉS

marginalized. In Por la patria (1986; For the Fatherland), the prota-


gonist Coya-Coca and other women are interrogated and tortured in
prison after the military invasion of a shantytown. El cuarto mundo
(1988; The Fourth World), narrated in various voices belonging to
characters of different genders, has incest between twins at its core.
El padre mío (1989; Father of Mine) is a monologue spoken by a
schizophrenic from a Santiago slum that mocks national mytholo-
gies. Vaca sagrada (1991; Sacred Cow), set in the city under repres-
sion, presents the narrator’s reflections on the oppression of women
and her own sexuality and desires. Los vigilantes (1994; Custody of
the Eyes) is also a study of life under dictatorship. More recent works
include Mano de obra (2002; Labor), Puño y letra (2005; Hand-
writing), and Jamás el fuego nunca (2007; No More Fire Ever
Again). See also ZURITA, RAÚL.

ENTREMÉS. A short, comic, or farcical play or interlude, usually


in one act, that originated in Spain in the 16th century. Entremeses
were initially intended to entertain an audience during the interval
between two acts of a longer play, although they eventually came to
be performed independently also. They were often based on practi-
cal jokes played on ordinary people and commonly included music
and dancing. Brought to the Americas by the Spanish, they became
part of the repertoire of the colonial theater, for example in the work
of Fernán González de Eslava (Mexico) and Pedro de Peralta y
Barnuevo (Peru). See also SAINETE.

EPIC POETRY. The drama of the history of the conquest and set-
tlement of the Americas provided ample scope for epic narratives
in verse, a genre that had been revived in Renaissance Europe and
enjoyed considerable popularity at the same time that Europeans
encountered the New World and were establishing the first colonies.
Juan de Castellanos (Colombia) wrote a verse history of the Indies.
Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga turned his experience with Pedro de
Valdivia’s military campaign in Chile into an epic poem and had
several imitators and continuators, of whom Pedro de Oña was
one. Gabriel Lobo Lasso de la Vega wrote two verse narratives
celebrating the deeds of Hernán Cortés in Mexico. Bernardo de
Balbuena wrote on Mexico City and Pedro de Peralta y Barnuevo

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ESPÍNOLA, FRANCISCO • 175

on the founding and history of Lima. By contrast, on different topics,


but in keeping with the traditional range of epic poetry, the narrative
of the passion and death of Christ by Diego de Hojeda (Peru) was
the New World’s first religous epic. Verse narratives also featured in
the 19th century and romanticism (see ACUÑA DE FIGUEROA,
FRANCISCO; ECHEVERRÍA, ESTEBAN; HERNÁNDEZ, JOSÉ;
ZORILLA DE SAN MARTÍN; JUAN) as well as in the 20th century
(see ADOUM, JORGE ENRIQUE).
In Brazil, The Lusiads by the Portuguese poet Luís de Camões
(1524–1580) provided the model for neo-classical epic poems of ex-
ploration, settlement, and battle by José de Anchieta, José Basílio da
Gama, Cláudio Manuel da Costa, and José de Santa Rita Durão.
Epic poetry was revived in the 19th century with the rise of national-
ism in Brazil, albeit not unpolemically, by Domingos José Gonçalves
de Magalhães, José de Alencar, and Antônio Gonçalves Dias. With
lesser ambition, 20th-century poets like Olavo Bilac, Cassiano Ri-
cardo Leite, Jorge de Lima, and even Haroldo de Campos borrowed
from this tradition. See also SOUSÂNDRADE, JOAQUIM DE.

ERCILLA Y ZÚÑIGA, ALONSO DE (Chile, 1533–1594). Poet.


He was a member of the Spanish court and part of the expedition-
ary force led by Pedro de Valdivia sent to Chile in 1557 to quell a
rebellion by Araucanian Indians. He wrote about the wars in Chile
in La Araucana (in three parts: 1569, 1578, 1589; The Araucaniad),
a narrative poem that not only is of interest to historians because of
its account of the early history of Chile, but is sympathetic to the
Araucanian Indians and was a paradigm for epic poetry in the 17th
century. See also GÓNGORA DE MARMOLEJO, ALONSO DE;
OÑA, PEDRO DE.

ESPÍNOLA, FRANCISCO (Uruguay, 1901–1973). Short story


writer. He was a drama critic who tried his hand at writing for the
theater in La fuga en el espejo (1957; Escape into the Mirror). He
also wrote Sombras sobre la tierra (1933; Shadows over the Land),
a novel, but is best known for short stories that focus on isolated in-
dividuals from suburban Buenos Aires. His collections include Raza
ciega (1926; Blind Race) and El rapto y otros cuentos (1950; The
Abduction and Other Stories).

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176 • ESPINOSA MEDRANO, JUAN DE

ESPINOSA MEDRANO, JUAN DE (“EL LUNAREJO”) (Peru,


1629?–1688). Dramatist, critic, and sermon writer. A celebrated ora-
tor and prominent figure of the baroque known for his defense of the
style of the Spanish poet Luis de Góngora (1561–1627) in Apologé-
tico en favor de Don Luis de Góngora príncipe de los poetas líricos
de España (1662; Apology in Support of Don Luis de Góngora,
Prince of Lyric Poets in Spain). His sermons were published post-
humously in a volume titled La novena maravilla (1699; The Ninth
Wonder), and he was the author of a biblical drama, Amar su propia
muerte (Love Your Own Death), as well as two autos, of unknown
date, written in Quechua: El hijo pródigo (The Prodigal Son) and El
rapto de Proserpina y sueño de Endimión (The Abduction of Perse-
phone and the Dream of Endymion). See also THEATER.

ESQUIVEL, LAURA (Mexico, 1949– ). Novelist. Her fiction often


includes several overlaying elements. She is best known for the novel
Como agua para chocolate (1989; Like Water for Chocolate), a
historical romance with elements of magic realism set partly during
the Mexican Revolution. It is framed as a cookery book and narrates
a story of unfulfilled love in which the emotions of the protagonist
are transferred to the food she prepares and are felt by those who eat
her cooking. The movie version of the novel, itself an international
best seller, became one of the largest grossing foreign films ever re-
leased in the United States. Esquivel’s second novel, La ley del amor
(1995; The Law of Love), is also a romance. It is set in Mexico in the
year 2200 and concerns a psychoanalyst whose patients’ problems
arise from events in previous lives. The novel was marketed with
a CD of romantic music. Other works by Esquivel include Íntimas
suculencias (1998; Intimate Succulence), Estrellita marinera (1999;
Little Star of the Sea), El libro de las emociones (2000; The Book
of Emotions), Tan veloz como el deseo (2001; Swift as Desire), and
Malinche (2006; Malinche). The last of these is about the interpreter
and mistress of the Spanish conqueror of Mexico, Hernán Cortés.
It explores the cultural heritage of the protagonist, and the novel
includes an Aztec codex that serves as her diary. See also WOMEN.

ESTRIDENTISMO. One of the first avant-garde movements in


Mexico (1921–1927), of which the principal literary figure was

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EXISTENTIALISM • 177

Manuel Maples Arce; its literary journals were Irradiador (1923)


and Horizonte (1926–1927). Its supporters (estridentistas) included
writers and artists who called on Mexican intellectuals to unite
against the academicism and symbolism of the past in favor of an
aesthetic reflecting the modern transformation of the world. It was
strongly influenced by Italian futurism and ultraísmo. Other mem-
bers included the poet Germán List Arzubide and the prose writers
Salvador Gallardo (1893–1981) and Arqueles Vela (1899–1977).

ESTUPIÑÁN BASS, NELSON (Ecuador, 1912–2002). Poet and


novelist. His native province of Esmeraldas is a significant source
of reference in his work. His poems, Canto negro por la luz (1956;
Black Song for the Night), Las tres carabelas (1963; The Three
Caravelles), and Las huellas digitales (1971; Finger Prints), celebrate
negritude, among other themes, and show a consciousness of the
relation between race and social class. Similar themes appear in his
fiction, often characterized by a discontinuous narrative, although the
best known, El último río (1966; Pastrana’s Last River), about the
career of a provincial governor, has a more conventional structure.
His fiction includes Cuando los guayacanes florecían (1954; When
the Guayacanas Flowered), a novel about a black worker’s revolt
against the government in 1913–1916; El paraíso (1958; Paradise);
Senderos brillantes (1974; Shining Paths); Las puertas del verano
(1978; The Gates of Summer); Toque de queda (1978; Curfew Bell);
Bajo el cielo nublado (1981; Under the Cloudy Sky), a novel of
magic realism; and the thriller El crepúsculo (1992; Twilight).

EXISTENTIALISM. Although this train of thought may be traced


to philosophers such as Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), Friedrich
Nietzsche (1844–1900), and Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), its in-
fluence in Latin America was also felt through the literary work of
Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–1881), Franz Kafka (1883–1924), Jean
Paul Sartre (1905–1980), and Alberta Camus (1913–1960) and had
its greatest impact in literature on the novel. At the core of existen-
tialism is the notion that individuals give meaning to their own lives.
Although this makes them free and responsible, it also highlights
the potential meaninglessness and absurdity of existence that results
in confusion and produces individuals at odds with themselves and

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178 • FALLAS, CARLOS LUIS

society. This condition is amply reflected in the main characters of


novels by Juan Carlos Onetti and Ernesto Sábato and figures also
in the short stories of Juan José Arreola and in the theater of Car-
los Solórzano, as well as in the work of a number of other authors.
See also LISPECTOR, CLARICE; MALLEA, EDUARDO; MON-
TEFORTE TOLEDO, MARIO; OROZCO, OLGA; SOLOGUREN,
JAVIER; VARGAS VILA, JOSÉ MARÍA.

– F –

FALLAS, CARLOS LUIS (Costa Rica, 1909–1966). Novelist. After


working for the United Fruit Company, he became a militant union
and political activist against it. His experiences are represented in
his best-known novel, Mamita Yunai (1941; Mama Yunai), a title
that refers to United Fruit. The same political stance is maintained in
other works, including Gentes y gentecillas (1947; People and Plebs),
Marcos Ramírez (1952; Marcos Ramírez), and Mi madrina (1954;
My Godmother), but without the same success as in Mamita Yunai.

FANTASTIC LITERATURE. The genre originated in 19th-century


Europe and was popularized in North America by Edgar Allan Poe
(1809–1849). It is based on the narration of events whose ambiguity
cannot be entirely resolved, either through a rational explanation or
through a clear attribution to the paranormal or supernatural. Belong-
ing mainly, but not exclusively, to the realm of the short story, one of
its earliest successful exponents in Latin America was the Uruguayan
Horacio Quiroga, who was heavily influenced by Poe. Although
authors from other countries, such as Salarrué in El Salvador, Juan
José Arreola and Carlos Fuentes in Mexico, Teresa de la Parra
in Venezuela, and Manuel Antônio Álvares de Azevedo, Murilo
Rubião, and Moacyr Scliar in Brazil, have also contributed to it, the
genre was especially attractive to writers in the River Plate countries
of Uruguay and Argentina. It was promoted there by Adolfo Bioy
Casares, Jorge Luis Borges, and Silvina Ocampo in an anthology
of stories published in 1940. Then, in the 1960s and after, their fellow
Argentinean Julio Cortázar is said to have revived and renewed the
genre in what is known as the “neo-fantastic” by emphasizing the

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FEINMANN, JOSÉ PABLO • 179

emergence of the traditional ambiguity in the context of everyday


life. See also ANDERSEN IMBERT, ENRIQUE; FERNÁNDEZ,
MACEDONIO; GARMENDÍA, JULIO; HERNÁNDEZ, FELIS-
BERTO; LUGONES, LEOPOLDO; PERI ROSI, CRISTINA; PEY-
ROU, MANUEL; QUEIRÓS, DINAH SILVEIRA DE.

FARIA, OTÁVIO DE (Brazil, 1908–1980). Essayist and novelist.


Trained in law, de Faria is one of the main exponents of the genera-
tion that followed Brazilian modernism. He wrote political essays
reflecting a conservative position, including Maquiavel e o Brasil
(1931; Machiavelli and Brazil), Destino do Socialismo (1933; The
Future of Socialism), and Cristo e César (1937; Christ and Caesar).
He is better known, however, for an uneven 13-volume cycle of
novels, Tragédia Burguesa (1937–1971; Bourgeois Tragedy), which
portrays characters plagued by spiritual and ethical conflicts. See also
MORAES, VINÍCIUS DE.

FAUSTINO, MÁRIO (Brazil, 1930–1962). Poet. Born in Teresina,


Piauí, Faustino studied in Belém, then at Pomona College in Cali-
fornia. On his return to Brazil he went to Rio, where he taught and
wrote for the newspaper Jornal do Brasil. Between 1953 and 1958,
his criticism column “Poesía Experiencia” was fundamental in in-
troducing many modern poets into the Brazilian context through his
translations and commentary. Faustino, who died in a plane crash
that had been predicted by a seer, published only one book in his
life: O Homem e Sua Hora (1955; Man and His Hour). His poetics,
employing traditional forms, were a mix of symbolism and surreal-
ism, influenced by French poets and also Jorge de Lima. Later on
he became interested in Ezra Pound (1885–1972) and e.e. cummings
(1894–1962). Faustino is seen as a brilliant poet who anticipated
concrete poetry, whose premature death kept him from finishing a
projected long autobiographical and cosmic poem based on the ideo-
grammic method. His posthumous volume Poesias (1966; Poems)
gathers uncollected poems.

FEINMANN, JOSÉ PABLO (Argentina, 1943– ). Novelist and es-


sayist. A philosopher whose television presentations have won him
wide recognition in Argentina, Feinmann’s writing in general is

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180 • FERNANDES, MILLÔR

characterized by its philosophical underpinnings. He has also written


for the cinema as well as television and often resorts to the forms of
popular culture in his work. In his novels, he makes ample and inno-
vative use of the conventions of crime fiction as a means to explore
contemporary society. His novels include Últimos días de la víctima
(1979; Last Days of the Victim), Ni el tiro del final (1981; Not Even
the Final Shot), El ejército de ceniza (1994; Army of Ash), Los
crímenes de van Gogh (1994; The Crimes of Van Gogh), El mandato
(2000; The Mandate), La astucia de la razón (2001; The Astuteness
of Reason), El cadáver imposible (2003; The Impossible Corpse), La
crítica de las armas (2003; The Critique of Arms), and La sombra
de Heidegger (2005; Heidegger’s Ghost). As an essayist, Feinmann
has written on cinema in Pasiones de celuloide (2000; Celluloid
Passions) and El cine por asalto (2006; Cinema by Assault) and on
philosophy in La filosofía y el barro de la historia (2008; Philosophy
and the Clay of History), and in La sangre derramada: ensayo sobre
la violencia política (2003; Spilt Blood: An Essay on Political Vio-
lence) he has undertaken an anlysis of the history of political violence
in Argentina.

FERNANDES, MILLÔR (Brazil, 1924– ). Humorist, novelist, and


dramatist. An award-winning cartoon artist, Fernandes (who signs
his name as Millôr) is also known for his successful cosmopolitan
comedies, among which is Liberdade, Liberdade (1965, Freedom,
Freedom), written in collaboration with Flávio Rangel. See also
THEATER.

FERNÁNDEZ, MACEDONIO (Argentina, 1874–1952). Novelist.


An avant-garde writer whose work is sometimes associated with
fantastic literature, but is not easily classified. He was an eccentric
who became increasingly reclusive and uninterested in his own writ-
ing, to the extent that it was published mainly thanks to the initiative
of friends and admirers. In works such as Papeles de recienvenido
(1929; Papers of a New Arrival) and the posthumously published
Museo de la novela de la eterna (1967; Museum of the Novel of the
Eternal Woman), he challenges conventional fiction and the literary
enterprise, proposing that readers should become authors. He was an
important influence in Argentina, especially on Jorge Luis Borges

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FERNÁNDEZ DE OVIEDO, GONZALO • 181

and Julio Cortázar, whose novel Rayuela embodies the principle of


reader engagement. See also PIGLIA, RICARDO.

FERNÁNDEZ DE LIZARDI, JOSÉ JOAQUÍN (Mexico, 1776–


1827). Novelist and journalist. He was a prolific journalist and pam-
phleteer whose writing often attracted the attention of the censors
and led to periods of imprisonment. He founded the periodical El
Pensador Mexicano (1812–1814; The Mexican Thinker) in support
of the fledgling independence movement in Mexico and adopted its
title as his pseudonym. Shortly after, he turned to fiction as a means
to criticize colonial society and the status quo. His El periquillo sar-
niento (1816; The Mangy Parrot) is considered the first truly Spanish
American novel and a classic of Mexican literature. Adapting the
European tradition of the picaresque novel, his hero’s wanderings
serve to offer a critical panorama of colonial society. His second
novel, Noches tristes y día alegre (1818; Sad Nights and Happy
Day), a didactic work on marriage, is less of an adventure novel and
more reflective. La Quijotita y su prima (1819; Little Quixote and
Her Cousin) is concerned with the education of women, and in Vida
y hechos del famoso caballero don Catrín de la Fachenda (written
1820; published 1832; The Life and Deeds of the Celebrated Knight
Don Catrín de la Fachenda) he returned to the picaresque genre to tell
the story of an unreformed social parasite. Lizardi also wrote several
short pieces for the theater, one of the genres to which he turned
after his journalism was curtailed by the censor. His plays include
El fuego de Prometeo (The Fire of Prometheus), Auto mariano (A
Marian Auto), La noche más venturosa (The Happiest Night), and
Todos contra el payo (All Against the Fool). See also PAYNO,
MANUEL.

FERNÁNDEZ DE OVIEDO, GONZALO (Spain, 1478–1557).


Chronicler. His Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias (1526;
Natural History of the West Indies) was the first natural history of
the New World and anticipated the author’s longer Historia general
y natural de las Indias (1535; General and Natural History of the In-
dies). This ambitious chronicle sets out to describe the natural world
and tell the story of the discovery, conquest, and colonization of the
Americas. Although the first part appeared in 1535, the complete
work was not published till 1851–1855. Parts of it, such as the story

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182 • FERRAZ, HEITOR

of the shipwreck and wanderings of Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca,


have been published separately in English translation.

FERRAZ, HEITOR (Brazil, 1964– ). Poet. In his early works, such


as Resumo do Dia (1996; Summary of the Day) and A Mesma Noite
(1997; The Same Night), Ferraz appears as an heir to Manuel Ban-
deira’s poetry of the everyday. His later collections, such as Goethe
nos Olhos do Lagarto (2001; Goethe in the Eyes of the Lizard) and
Hoje Como Ontem ao Meio-Dia (2002; Today Like Yesterday at
Midday), evidence a more ironic perspective and clearer existential
concerns.

FILHO, ADONIAS (Brazil, 1915–1990). Journalist, novelist, and


publisher. His Faulknerian trilogy Os Servos da Morte (1946; The
Servants of Death), Memórias de Lázaro (1952; Memories of Laza-
rus), and Corpo Vivo (1962; Live Body), set in the cacao-growing
region of Bahia, exposes the violence and fatalism associated with
the third phase of Northeastern Brazilian modernism. O forte (1965;
The Strong One) explores existential drama, and Luanda, Beira,
Bahia (1971; Luanda, Beira, Bahia) depicts the saga of Portuguese
colonization in Angola, Mozambique, and Brazil.

FILHO, ARMANDO FREITAS (Brazil, 1940– ). Poet. Initially


attracted to concrete poetry, Freitas Filho then joined Mário
Chamie’s dissident “praxis poetry” with titles such as Dual (1966;
Dual) and Marca Registrada (1970; Trademark). Influenced by po-
ets such as Ferreira Gullar, he then evolved into an antirhetorical
poetry that joins avant-garde concerns to the body in works such as
De Corpo Presente (1975; Present Body), Longa Vida (1982; Long
Life), De Cor (1988; By Heart), Cabeça de Homem (1991; Man’s
Head), Duplo Cego (1997; Double Blind), Fio Terra (2000; Ground
Wire), and Raro Mar (2006; Strange Sea). His book 3X4 (1985; 3X4)
won the Jabuti Prize.

FILLOY, JUAN (Argentina, 1894–2000). He was something of a


literary curiosity. Although he was a prolific author in a wide variety
of genres, much of his work remained unpublished. Several books
appeared in the 1930s in private editions, including Periplo (1931;

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FOGWILL, RODOLFO ENRIQUE • 183

Journey), ¡Estafen! (1932 and 1968; Swindle!), La potra (1973;


Filly), and La purga (1992; The Purge), then nothing until many
years later, when he became a celebrity, although he was already
known to some writers, Julio Cortázar among them. His work is
characterized by humor and irony. His titles all tend to have seven
letters and to begin with a different letter of the alphabet. He was a
great collector and writer of palindrones, claiming to have amassed
over 6,000 of them, and he was one of Latin America’s longest-lived
writers, dying at the age of 107.

FOGWILL, RODOLFO ENRIQUE (Argentina, 1941– ). Poet, short


story writer, and novelist. Customarily known only by his last name,
Fogwill was a sociologist and businessman who turned to writing
full time after winning a prize for his short story “Muchacha punk”
(Punk Girl) in 1980. Since then, he has become one of Argentina’s
established contemporary writers, and his work is frequently antholo-
gized. His poetry includes El efecto de realidad (1979; The Effect of
Reality), Las horas de citas (1980; Times of Appointments), Partes
del todo (1991; Parts of the Whole), Lo dado (2001; The Given), and
Últimos momentos (2004; Last Moments). Among his collections of
short stories are Mis muertos punk (1980; My Punk Dead), Música
japonesa (1982; Japanese Music), Ejércitos imaginarios (1983;
Imaginary Armies), Pájaros de la cabeza (1985; Birds of the Head),
Muchacha punk (1992; Punk Girl), Restos diurnos (1993; Remains
of the Day), and Cantos de marineros en las pampas (1998; Songs
of Pampas Sailors).
Fogwill’s first novel, Los pichiciegos (1983; Malvinas Requiem),
also one of his most widely read novels, was one of the first works
of fiction in Argentina to deal with the Malvinas/Falklands War
against Great Britain (1982). His more recent novels have dealt with
the society emerging in Argentina in the post-dictatorship period
after 1983, reflecting new technologies and a new economy, changes
in mass culture, and a sense of disorientation as the country rees-
tablishes itself in the context of a new reality and memories of the
recent past. Vivir Afuera (1998; Living Outside) is one of the most
representative novels in this respect, a loosely structured narrative
presenting six disparate, somewhat alienated characters, whose lives
intersect briefly in Buenos Aires for a few hours during one night

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184 • FONSECA, RUBEM

and early morning. Other novels by Fogwill include La buena nueva


de los libros del caminante (1990; The Good News of the Books of
the Wanderer), set in the period between 1955 and 1970; Una pálida
historia de amor (1991; A Pale Love Story); La experiencia sensible
(2001; The Notable Experience); En otro orden de cosas (2001, On
the Other Hand); Urbana (2003; Urban); and Runa (2003; Rune).

FONSECA, RUBEM (Brazil, 1925– ). Novelist and short story writer.


Born in Minas Gerais, Fonseca has lived in Rio since the age of eight,
however, and in his literary work has become a true representative of
the urban fiction of that city, an heir to Joaquim Maria Machado de
Assis, Afonso Henriques de Lima Barreto, and Marques Rebelo.
Fonseca first became known for short crime fiction that portrays, in
a crude style of realism, violence and lawlessness across all segments
of Rio society, especially the southern part of the city. Having served
in the police force in the 1950s, Fonseca had firsthand knowledge of
his subject matter. Some of his most celebrated collections of short
stories are Feliz Ano Novo (1975; Happy New Year) and O Cobrador
(1979; The Taker and Other Stories). In “Feliz Ano Novo,” a gang
invades a private New Year’s party, killing and raping the guests.
“O Cobrador” is a first person account by a serial killer. Other short
story collections include Os Prisioneiros (1963; The Prisoners), A
Coleira do Cão (1965; The Dog’s Leash), Lúcia McCartney (1967;
Lúcia McCartney), and O Homem de Fevereiro ou Março (1973; The
Man from February or March). Although these tales could be seen as
overly violent and lurid, as a whole, they represent a critical view of
Brazilian society at the turn of the century.
In the 1980s, Fonseca began to write novels instead of short sto-
ries, many of which became best sellers. A Grande Arte (1983; High
Art) features Mandrake, a lawyer looking to unmask a serial killer of
women. In Bufo & Spallanzani (1986; Bufo & Spallanzani), a police
officer investigates the murder of a socialite and her involvement
with a writer. Vastas Emoções e Pensamentos Imperfeitos (1988; Vast
Emotions and Imperfect Thoughts) tells the story of a filmmaker, bat-
tling a creative and personal crisis, who finds inspiration for his work
again in a famous jewel and the tales of Isaak Babel (1894–1940).
Agosto (1990; August) tells of the violent circumstances that led to
the suicide of Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas in 1954. Histórias

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FRESÁN, RODRIGO • 185

de Amor (1997; Love Stories) unsentimentally portrays the conse-


quences of misguided passions. The influence of cinema is evident
in Fonseca’s fiction, some of which has been adapted for the screen,
and he has been recognized as one of Brazil’s key writers of the 20th
century by such important prizes as the Jabuti and the Camões. See
also BONASSI, FERNANDO.

FRANÇA JR., JOAQUIM JOSÉ DA (Brazil, 1838–1890). Journalist


and dramatist. França Jr.’s chronicles portrayed Rio society during
the Second Empire, ridiculing the rising bourgeoisie’s corrupt poli-
tics and morals. As a dramatist, he is noted as a precursor of light
comedy. His plays include Meia Hora de Cinismo (1861; Half an
Hour of Cynicism), A República Modelo (1861; The Model Repub-
lic), and Amor com Amor se Paga (1882; Love Breeds Love). His
best comedy, As Doutoras (written 1889; published 1932; The Lady
Doctors), features the theme of feminism. See also THEATER.

FRANCOVICH, GUILLERMO (Bolivia, 1901–1990). Dramatist. He


was best known as a philosopher and critic and the author of books
about Bolivia and the national character, such as La filosofía en
Bolivia (1945; Philosophy in Bolivia), El pensamiento boliviano en
el siglo XX (1956; Bolivian Thought in the Twentieth Century), and
Los mitos profundos de Bolivia (1980; Profound Myths of Bolivia).
In the 1970s, however, he turned to drama as a way of expressing his
thoughts and wrote more than 20 plays, some of them one-act plays.
They are all collected in the two volumes of his complete theater
(1985) and include Soledad y tiempo (Time and Solitude), Reen-
cuentro (Re-encounter), El monje de Potosí (The Monk from Potosí),
Monseñor y los poetas (Monseigneur and the Poets), and Como los
gansos (Like Geese).

FRESÁN, RODRIGO (Argentina, 1963– ). Novelist and short story


writer. He has published several collections of short stories: Historia
argentina (1991; History of Argentina), Vidas de santos (1993; Lives
of the Saints), and La velocidad de las cosas (1998; The Speed of
Things). His novels include Esperanto (1995; Esperanto), Mantra
(2001; Mantra), and Jardines de Kensington (2003; Kensington
Gardens). He is a post-boom writer and inveterate storyteller whose

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186 • FREYRE, GILBERTO DE MELO

fiction often focuses self-reflexively on the process of literary pro-


duction. International mass culture is a constant source of reference
in his work, and he frequently adopts an iconoclastic attitude with
respect to literary and cultural traditions.

FREYRE, GILBERTO DE MELO (Brazil, 1900–1984). Soci-


ologist and essayist. Born into a wealthy landowning family from
Pernambuco, Freyre attended a Baptist school and then traveled to
Baylor University in Texas for his undergraduate degree. In 1923,
he received a master’s degree in anthropology from Columbia Uni-
versity with a thesis entitled “Social Life in Brazil in the Middle of
the 19th Century.” After extended travels in Europe, he returned
to Brazil, where he began writing for newspapers and gathered a
group of intellectuals around the concept of regionalism, aiming at
promoting local values. He organized the First Brazilian Congress
of Regionalism in 1926, at which the Manifesto regionalista (1952;
Regionalist Manifesto) was first read. His Guia Prático, Histórico
e Sentimental da Cidade do Recife (1934; Practical, Historical, and
Sentimental Guide of the City of Recife) is a practical guide but also
a poetic text extolling Freyre’s native city. As a result of his politi-
cal troubles in the Revolution of 1930, he exiled himself in Portugal,
where he worked as a journalist and translator and began to draft his
best-known work, Casa-Grande e Senzala (1933; The Masters and
the Slaves), published upon his return to Brazil.
Casa-Grande e Senzala is a theory of the formation of Brazilian
society from the patriarchal structures of the sugar mill economy.
Freyre argues that the labor and culture of African slaves are cen-
tral to Brazilian identity. He was the first intellectual of stature
to draw attention to the contribution of Afro-Brazilians and orga-
nized the Congress of Afro-Brazilian Studies. Freyre’s insistence
on regional and local values had a wide and lasting influence on
a number of writers and artists, notably José Lins do Rego Cav-
alcanti, Jorge de Lima, and Manuel Bandeira. Freyre continued
developing his ideas on miscegenation (or racial mixing), which in
his mind made Brazil a “racial democracy,” in the sequel to Casa-
Grande e Senzala, Sobrados e Mocambos (1936; The Mansions
and the Shanties).

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FUENTES, CARLOS • 187

In O Mundo Que o Português Criou (1940; The World the Por-


tuguese Created), Freyre advanced the notion of “lusotropicalism,”
or the ability of the Portuguese to settle and thrive in the tropics.
Other reflections on Brazilian culture include Brazil: An Interpreta-
tion (1945), Ordem e Progresso (1959; Order and Progress: Brazil
from Monarchy to Republic), and New World in the Tropics: The
Culture of Modern Brazil (1959). In addition to his groundbreaking
ideas on race and the formation of Brazilian society and culture,
Freyre was also innovative in his research methods, paying attention
to documents such as newspaper ads and personal diaries, popular
clubs, and interviews with former slaves and masters. A highly
influential and somewhat controversial figure, Freyre remains one
of Brazil’s key cultural interpreters. See also HOLANDA, SÉRGIO
BUARQUE DE; RIBEIRO, DARCY; RIBEIRO, JOÃO UBALDO;
ROMERO, SÍLVIO.

FRÍAS, HERIBERTO (Mexico, 1870–1925). Novelist. His first


novel, Tomochic (1906; Tomochic), also his most successful, was
based on an uprising in Chihuahua witnessed by the author as a
lieutenant in the force sent to repress it. His earliest version of the
events was written as a report for an opposition newspaper, for which
he was imprisoned and came close to being executed. Frías was an
admirer of Emile Zola (1840–1902) and adopted the philosophy of
naturalism in Tomochic, which is also considered a precursor of
the novel of the Mexican Revolution. His other novels include El
naufragio (1895; The Shipwreck), El amor de las sirenas (1908; The
Sirens’ Love), El último duelo (1896; The Last Duel), El triunfo de
Sancho Panza (1911; Sancho Panza’s Triumph), Las miserias de
México (1916; Mexico’s Miseries), and ¿Águila o sol? (1923; Heads
or Tails?).

FUENTES, CARLOS (Mexico, 1928– ). Novelist, short story writer,


and essayist. He is one of Mexico’s major literary figures and among
those who have achieved most international recognition. Having
spent significant periods of his life outside Mexico, Fuentes is a
cosmopolitan writer, although his work is still very much concerned
with Mexico, albeit written by one who has had the benefit of seeing
it from an external perspective. In Los días enmascarados (1954; The

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188 • FUENTES, CARLOS

Masked Days), his first work of fiction, notably in the story “Chac
Mool,” he used the mode of fantastic literature as a way to evoke
the persistence of Mexico’s mythic past in the present, a theme on
which he often dwells.
His first three novels, with a focus on Mexican society after the
revolution, continue the process, already begun by Agustín Yáñez
and Juan Rulfo, of moving fiction in Mexico further away from the
traditional novel of the Mexican Revolution. Las buenas concien-
cias (1959; The Good Conscience), set in Guanajuata, is framed as
a conventional coming-of-age novel showing the loss of idealism of
the revolution in a provincial bourgeois family, exemplified through
the novel’s young protagonist. In La región más transparente (1958;
Where the Air Is Clear), influenced by John Dos Passos (1896–1970),
Fuentes turned to Mexico City to offer a broad view of the capital’s
social classes and analyze the pragmatic capitalism of the country in
the 1940s and 1950s. In his third novel, La muerte de Artemio Cruz
(1962; The Death of Artemio Cruz), the revolution is again placed in
a longer historical context through the narration of the life of Artemio
Cruz, told from his deathbed in the first, second, and third persons,
representing, respectively, his present, future, and past. This is likely
the author’s best-known novel. With a content and narrative tech-
nique that show traces of the work of William Faulkner (1897–1962),
it located him among the boom writers and marked him as one of the
most significant Latin American novelists of his generation.
Since the appearance of La muerte de Artemio Cruz, Carlos Fuen-
tes has published more than 20 works of fiction. Although their con-
tent varies, Mexican history and mythology, the relation between the
past and the present, and the psychological development of themes
and characters are dominant features. Aura (1962; Aura) is a short
novel written in the future tense that belongs to the genre of fantastic
literature. Cambio de Piel (1967; A Change of Skin) and Zona sa-
grada (1967; Holy Place) are both fragmented narratives embodying,
respectively, elements of Mexican and Greek mythology. The former
deals with themes of violence and evil in Mexico and Europe; the lat-
ter has the lives of the Mexican movie star María Félix (1914–2002)
and her son as its central motifs.
Terra Nostra (1975; Terra Nostra), recipient of the 1977 Rómulo
Gallegos Prize, has perhaps been Fuentes’s most ambitious narrative

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FUTORANSKY, LUISA • 189

project. At close to 800 pages, it is his longest work of fiction. It deals


with the historical relations between Europe and Latin America. Part
of the narrative is set in the Escorial in the time of Philip II of Spain
(1556–1598), and it includes such archetypal figures of Spanish
literature as Celestina, Don Juan, and Don Quixote. La cabeza de
la hidra (1978; The Hydra Head) is a novel of intrigue about the
petroleum industry in Mexico. Una familia lejana (1980; A Distant
Family), set in France, is a novel with a Proustian flavor. Gringo
viejo (1987; Old Gringo), based on the disappearance in Mexico of
U.S. writer Ambrose Bierce (1842–1914?) at the time of the revolu-
tion, shows Fuentes’s affinity with post-boom writers and the emerg-
ing Latin American new historical novel. The novel provided the
basis of a successful commercial movie. In Cristóbal Nonato (1987;
Christopher Unborn), he again explores the persistence of the mythic
past in the present, portraying an apocalyptic vision of Mexico City.
More recent titles include El naranjo (1993; The Orange Tree) La
frontera de cristal: una novela en nueve cuentos (1995; The Crystal
Frontier: A Novel in Nine Stories), Los años con Laura Díaz (1999;
The Years with Laura Díaz), and Todas las familias felices (2006;
Happy Families: Stories).
Carlos Fuentes’s work for the theater includes Todos los gatos
son pardos (1970; All Cats Are Grey), El tuerto es rey (1970; The
One-eyed Man Is King), Los reinos originarios (1971; The King-
doms of Origin), Orquídeas a la luz de la luna: comedia mexicana
(1982; Orchids by Moonlight: A Mexican Comedy), and Ceremonias
del alba (1990; Dawn Ceremonies). He is also a prominent public
intellectual in Mexico who has written and spoken widely on Latin
American literature, politics, culture, and social issues. Among his
published essays are La nueva novela hispanoamericana (1969; The
New Spanish American Novel), Cervantes o la crítica de la lectura
(1976; Cervantes or the Critique of Reading), Tiempo mexicano
(1971; Time in Mexico), El Espejo Enterrado (1992; The Buried
Mirror: Reflections on Spain and the New World), and Contra Bush
(2004; Against Bush).

FUTORANSKY, LUISA (Argentina, 1939– ). Novelist and poet.


She is the author of more than 15 volumes of poetry, the first of
which were Trago fuerte (1963; Strong Drink), El corazón de los

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190 • GALEANO, EDUARDO

lugares (1964; The Heart of Places), and Babel Babel (1968; Babel
Babel). Her fiction, noteworthy for her sardonic humor and settings
in France and the Far East, where the author has lived, includes Son
cuentos chinos (1983; Chinese Tales), De Pe a Pa (1986; From Be-
ginning to End), and Urracas (1992; Magpies). Her themes include
exile and language, identity and Jewishness. See also WOMEN.

– G –

GALEANO, EDUARDO (Uruguay, 1940– ). Journalist, essayist, and


historian. He is a very widely read and translated author on the social,
cultural, and political history of Latin America. Las venas abiertas
de América Latina (1971; The Open Veins of Latin America) is a
collection of essays on the economic exploitation of Latin America
through the mining of natural resources and plantation economies. In
Memoria del fuego (3 vols., 1982–1986; Memory of Fire), he draws
on the work of many writers to give a broad view of Latin American
history through scores of short sketches. In this book, and in El li-
bro de los abrazos (1989; The Book of Embraces), Galeano focuses
on the significance of people, places, and events in short chapters
or poetically evocative fragments (sometimes in verse) rather than
through the extended narrative perspective of a conventional aca-
demic historian. In Las palabras andantes (1993; Walking Words) he
brings together a collection of oral narratives in texts and images to
give voice to the voiceless. Other more recent titles include El fútbol
a sol y sombra (1995; Football in Sun and Shadow), Patas arriba:
la escuela del mundo al revés (1998; Upside Down: A Primer for
the Looking-Glass World), and Bocas del Tiempo (2004; Voices of
Time: A Life in Stories). Some of his journalism has been collected
in Nosotros decimos no: crónicas, 1963–1988 (1989; We Say No,
1963–1991) and Ser como ellos y otros artículos (1992; To Be Like
Them and Other Articles).

GALICH, MANUEL (Guatemala, 1915–1984). Dramatist. Like


many other Guatemalan writers and members of opposition groups,
he spent much of his life in exile and died in Cuba. His first works
for the theater, El retorno (1938; The Return) and El señor Gukup-

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GALLARDO, SARA • 191

Kakix (1939; Mr. Sunbird), the latter based on an episode from the
Popol Vuh, were written for schools. In 1949, he wrote a group of
historical dramas: Carta a su ilustrísimo (Letter to His Grace), set in
the 17th century; Belem, 1813 (Belem, 1813); and 15 de septiembre
(15 September), on the independence movement in Guatemala. At
the same time, he had also begun to write plays that were more so-
cially and politically critical, including M’hijo el bachiller (1939; My
Boy the Graduate) on the education system; De lo vivo a lo pintado
(1947; From the Living to the Painted), a critique of the legal system
and the status of women; El tren amarillo (1954; The Yellow Train),
about the banana companies; Entre cuatro paredes (1964; Between
Four Walls), a comedy of manners satirizing the middle class; and El
último cargo (1974; The Last Charge), on the guerrilla war.

GALINDO, SERGIO (Mexico, 1926–1993). Novelist and short story


writer. His books of short stories include La máquina vacía (1951;
The Empty Machine), Oh, hermoso mundo (1975; Oh, Beautiful
World), El hombre de los hongos (1976; The Mushroom Man), Este
laberinto de hombres (1979; This Labyrinth of Men), and Terciopelo
violeta (1985; Violet Velvet). His first novel, Polvos de arroz (1958;
Rice Powder), conveys the tedium of provincial life through the
memories of a spinster. La justicia de enero (1959; January Justice)
is about the life of migrants to Mexico City. El Bordo (1960; The
Precipice), his best-known work, returns to the provinces, to a family
living in a country house in Las Vigas, Veracruz, where reverbera-
tions from the revolution are still felt. La comparsa (1964; Carnival)
is a story of the freedom felt at carnival time. Nudo (1970; Knot),
another of the author’s widely read works, has been compared to Un-
der the Volcano (1947) by Malcolm Lowry (1909–1957). Galindo’s
late novels include Los dos ángeles (1984; The Two Angels), Declive
(1985; Decline), and Otilia Rauda (1986; Otilia’s Body).

GALLARDO, SARA (Argentina, 1931–1988). Novelist. The central


theme of her writing is alienation in its various forms (social, envi-
ronmental, spiritual, economic, and personal). Enero (1958; January)
is a story set in the country about an adolescent who is raped and
becomes pregnant. Both Pantalones azules (1963; Blue Pants) and
Los galgos, los galgos (1968; The Greyhounds, the Greyhounds)

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192 • GALLEGOS, RÓMULO

are novels about rebellion by members of the social elite against the
conventions imposed on them. Eisejuaz (1971; Eisejuaz) narrates the
conflict of a Chaco Indian between the world and the spirit. La rosa
en el viento (1979; The Rose in the Wind), set in Patagonia, conveys
the stories of immigrants seeking to establish themselves in a new
land. Gallardo has also written children’s literature and published
a collection of short stories, El país del humo (1977; The Smoke
Country). See also WOMEN.

GALLEGOS, RÓMULO (Venezuela, 1884–1969). Novelist. His first


two novels, El último Solar (1920; The Last Solar), later published
as Reinaldo Solar (1930), and La trepadora (1925; The Creeper),
introduce the author’s concern for the formation of Venezuela as a
modern state, one of the central concerns of both his literary work
and his life in politics. His greatest literary success came with Doña
Bárbara (1929; Doña Bárbara), a novel that has become one of
Latin America’s standard works of fiction. It is a novel of the land
set on the plains in Venezuela and tells a story of struggle against
authoritariansm in terms of the conflict between civilization and
barbarism. These themes are continued in Cantaclaro (1934; Can-
taclaro), also set on the plains, and Canaima (1935; Canaima), set
in the jungle. In later novels—Pobre negro (1937; Poor Black), a
historical novel about a slave uprising in the 1860s; El forastero
(1942; The Outsider), also about rebellion against oppression; and
Sobre la misma tierra (1943; On the Same Land)—Gallegos was un-
able to reach the levels of his earlier novels of the land. In 1948, he
served as president of Venezuela for eight months and wrote his last
two novels, La brizna de paja en el viento (1952; The Blade of Straw
in the Wind) and La tierra bajo los pies (1971; The Ground Beneath
the Feet), while living in exile (1948–1958) after being forced from
office by a military coup. The former novel is set in Cuba, the latter
in Mexico. The Rómulo Gallegos Prize was established in his honor
in 1964. See also LISCANO, JUAN.

GALLEGOS LARA, JOAQUÍN (Ecuador, 1911–1947). Novelist


and short story writer. He was one of the prime movers of the Grupo
de Guayaquil and coauthor, with Demetrio Aguilera Malta and
Enrique Gil Gilbert, of the collection of short stories Los que se

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GÁLVEZ, MANUEL • 193

van (1930; Those Who Leave), but published little on his own. He
advocated socially committed writing, to which he adhered in Las
cruces sobre el agua (1946; Crosses on the Water), a novel based on
a 1922 workers’ massacre in Guayaquil, and in La última erranza
(1947; The Last Wandering), a collection of short stories.

GALVÃO, PATRÍCIA a.k.a. PAGÚ (Brazil, 1910–1962). Journalist


and novelist. Born in São Paulo, Galvão attended teachers college
and wrote for newspapers. In 1928, she joined the antropofagia
group, associating especially with Raúl Bopp, who suggested she
use the literary name “Pagú,” and Oswald de Andrade, whom she
married in 1930. In 1931, Galvão and Andrade founded the jour-
nal O Homem do Povo (The Man of the People), for which Galvão
wrote the feminist section “A Mulher do Povo” (“The Woman of the
People”). They also joined the Communist Party and were political
activists. Under the pseudonym Mara Lobo, Galvão published the
proletarian novel Parque Industrial (1933; Industrial Park), a tale of
class oppression in São Paulo influenced linguistically by Brazilian
modernism. In the years that followed, Galvão traveled extensively
in Europe and Asia, also visiting the Soviet Union, where she became
disillusioned with Communism when she witnessed the reigning
inequality. Due to her political involvement, she was deported back
to Brazil, where she was imprisoned. Upon her release in 1940, she
broke with the Communist Party and married Geraldo Ferraz, with
whom she authored her second novel, A Famosa Revista (1945; The
Famous Review), a critique of the ills of the Communist Party. She
also wrote a book of criticism, Vanguarda Socialista (1945–1946;
Socialist Vanguard), and in the 1950s became involved in theater,
writing reviews for numerous newspapers. See also WOMEN.

GÁLVEZ, MANUEL (Argentina, 1882–1962). Novelist and biogra-


pher. He wrote some 20 novels on a wide range of subjects, covering
both contemporary society and history. He was a Catholic traditional-
ist who often reflected a stern moral position in his fiction and wrote
in the manner of realism and naturalism. His first novel, La maestra
normal (1914; The Normal School Teacher), is a portrayal of life in a
provincial town. In Nacha Regules (1919; Nacha Regules), the story
of a prostitute, and Historia de arrabal (1922; Suburban Story),

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194 • GAMA, JOSÉ BASÍLIO DA

set in the sordid industrial world of Buenos Aires, he presents the


unsuccessful struggle of women against heredity and a hostile social
environment. Gálvez’s historical novels include a trilogy on the war
with Paraguay (1865–1870)—Los caminos de la muerte (1928; The
Roads of Death), Humaitá (1929; Humaitá), and Jornadas de agonía
(1929; Marches of Agony)—and a seven-volume series, Escenas de
la época de Rosas (Scenes from the Age of Rosas), on the life and
times of the dictator Juan Manuel Rosas. His biographies include
the lives of a number of distinguished Argentineans, including Juan
Manuel Rosas (1793–1877) and Hipólito Yrigoyen (1852–1933),
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811–1888), and José Hernández
(1834–1886).

GAMA, JOSÉ BASÍLIO DA (Brazil, 1741–1795). Poet. Educated in


Brazil by the Jesuits until their expulsion in 1773, da Gama later trav-
eled to Portugal and Italy, where he assimilated arcadianism from
other poets. After a short period in Brazil, he went back to Portugal,
where he was accused of being a Jesuit and sent to prison in Angola.
In prison, he wrote a poem in honor of the daughter of a powerful
Portuguese nobleman, the Marquis of Pombal (1699–1782), which
earned him his freedom. His main work is the short epic poem O
Uraguai (1769; Uruguay), which narrates the battles fought by the
Portuguese and Spanish against the natives and the Jesuits in the
mission settlements of Uruguay. The poem, in five cantos and blank
verse, uses various meters, making it more of a narrative-lyrical poem
that attempted to distinguish itself from the celebrated Portuguese
epic poetry of Luís de Camões (1524–1580). Other works include
Declamação Trágica, Poema Dedicado às Belas-Artes (1772; Tragic
Declamation, Poem Dedicated to the Fine Arts) and Quitúbia (1791;
Quitúbia). See also PEIXOTO, INÁCIO JOSÉ DE ALVARENGA.

GAMBARO, GRISELDA (Argentina, 1928– ). Dramatist, novelist,


and short story writer. She is best known for her theater and is one of
Latin America’s most significant women dramatists. She participated
in influential theater groups in Argentina, including Teatro Abierto.
Her early plays, such as El desatino (1965; The Absurdity), Las pare-
des (1966; The Walls), Los siameses (1967; Siamese Twins), and El
campo (1967; The Camp), show the characteristics of the theater of

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GAMBOA, FEDERICO • 195

cruelty and the theater of the absurd and are allegories of socio-
political conditions in Argentina. Their themes of imprisonment and
sadism are common to much of her later drama and fiction, although
Lo impenetrable (1984; The Impenetrable Madam X), a parody of an
exotic novel, is a notable exception.
Gambaro’s novel Ganarse la muerte (1977; Earning Death) was
banned by the military under conditions that prompted her to leave
Argentina for three years. As a result, her theater sometimes works
through analogy. In La malasangre (1982; Bad Blood), set during
the dictatorship of Juan Manuel Rosas, and Del sol naciente (1984;
From the Rising Sun), set in Japan, for example, she used historical
or foreign locations to represent contemporary situations and there-
fore avoid censorship. At the same time, however, the dramatization
of a situation analogous to that prevailing in her own country is a way
of drawing out the universal implications of national politics. Such
is the case in Antígona furiosa (1988; Antigone’s Fury), in which the
Greek myth serves as a basis for examining the terror of repressive
regimes everywhere.
Her work is also experimental. In Información para extranjeros
(1987; Information for Foreigners), she used the techniques of total
theater to dissolve the barriers between reality and performance and
draw audiences into the themes of her drama. Her more recent work
for the theater includes Penas sin importancia (1991; Insignificant
Troubles), Atando cabos (1991; Tying Loose Ends), La casa sin
sosiego (1991; House Without Peace), and Es necesario entender
un poco (1994; It’s Necessary to Understand a Little). Many of her
plays have been published in numbered volumes. The first of these,
Teatro 1 (Theater 1), appeared in 1984. The most recent, Teatro 7
(Theater 7), was published in 2004. Gambaro has also written chil-
dren’s literature.

GAMBOA, FEDERICO (Mexico, 1864–1939). Novelist. Affiliation


with the regime of Porfirio Díaz (1876–1880, 1884–1911) and the
counterrevolutionary government of Victoriano Huerta (1913) affec-
ted his reputation and led to six years in exile in Cuba (1913–1919).
As a novelist, he successfully accommodated European naturalism
to Mexican positivism in works such as La ley suprema (1896; The
Supreme Law) and Santa (1903; Santa), the story of a country girl

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196 • GAMERO, LUCILA

who turned to prostitution in the city after being seduced and aban-
doned. Gamboa also wrote for the theater, and Santa, which was an
extraordinarily popular novel, was the source of the screenplay for
Mexico’s first commercial sound movie in 1932. In his last novels,
Reconquista (1908; Reconquest) and La llaga (1913; The Wound),
Gamboa turned away from his earlier attraction to naturalism. See
also MAGAÑA, SERGIO.

GAMERO, LUCILA (Honduras, 1873–1964). Novelist. Considered


the initiator of the novel in her country, her fiction is a derivative of
romanticism. Her best-known novel, Blanca Olmedo (1903; Blanca
Olmedo), drew attention for its criticism of the clergy. Other titles in-
clude Adriana y Margarita (1897; Adriana and Margarita), Páginas
del corazón (1897; Pages of the Heart), Aída (1932; Aida), Betina
(1941; Betina), Amor exótico (1954; Exotic Love), La secretaria
(1954; The Secretary), and El dolor de amar (1955; The Pain of
Love). See also WOMEN.

GÂNDAVO, PERO DE MAGALHÃES (Portugal, 16th century).


Historian and chronicler. A Portuguese of Flemish origin, Gândavo
was a professor of Latin and a friend of the poet Luís de Camões
(1524–1580). He is the first systematic chronicler and historian of Bra-
zil. Never published during his lifetime, his Tratado da Terra do Brasil
(1827; Treatise on the Land of Brazil) was written around 1570. Better
known is his História da Província Santa Cruz a que Vulgarmente
Chamamos Brasil (1576; History of the Province of Santa Cruz Which
Is Commonly Called Brazil). Both works, written from a Catholic hu-
manist perspective, narrate the discovery and settlement of Brazil, but
more important, praise the beauty and resources of the land destined to
be a successful Portuguese colony. Although some of the hyperbolic
descriptions are influenced by medieval myths of El Dorado and the
Garden of Eden, he also left descriptions of the Brazilian natives and
their way of life, always framed by an apology for the Jesuit missionary
efforts. (See CHRONICLE.)

GARCÍA, SANTIAGO (Colombia, 1928– ). Dramatist. As director


of the theater collective La Candelaria, founded in Bogotá in 1966,
he was, with Enrique Buenaventura, one of the key figures in the

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GARCÍA MÁRQUEZ, GABRIEL • 197

renovation of theater in Colombia. La Candelaria would become an


important theatrical institution in Colombia and win an international
reputation. Its early successes included La ciudad dorada (1972;
The Golden City), on migration to urban centers, and Guadalupe,
años sin cuenta (1975; Guadalupe, Countless Years), on the life of
Guadalupe Salcedo Unda, a 1950s revolutionary leader during la
violencia in Colombia. García’s own writing for the theater includes
Corre, corre Carigüeta (1987; Run, Run, Carigüeta), El diálogo de
rebusque (1987; Conversation on the Side), Maravilla Estar (1991;
Marvelous Star), El paso (1991; The Passage), and La trifulca (1992;
The Squabble).

GARCÍA CALDERÓN, VENTURA (Peru, 1887–1959). Short story


writer. Born in France and having spent most of his life there, he
wrote in both French and Spanish with equal facility. Dolorosa y
desnuda realidad (1914; Bare and Painful Reality) has the flavor of
European modernism, but later collections, La venganza del cóndor
(1924; The White Llama) and Cuentos peruanos (1952; Peruvian
Tales), are more distinctly Peruvian. He also wrote chronicles about
Peru and Europe.

GARCÍA MÁRQUEZ, GABRIEL (Colombia, 1927– ). Novelist,


short story writer, and journalist. He was the 1982 recipient of the
Nobel Prize for Literature, is the best known of the boom writ-
ers, and is one of Latin America’s most celebrated authors of all
times. García Márquez’s vision of Colombia goes back to his rural
childhood and the world of history and legend he derived from the
grandparents who raised him. His specific creation of the fictional
world of Macondo, the mythical country that stands in for Colombia,
began in early short narratives of the 1950s and 1960s. La hojarasca
(1954; Leaf Storm) is an account of the arrival of a foreign-owned
banana company. El coronel no tiene quien le escriba (1958; No One
Writes to the Colonel), set in the time of Colombia’s civil wars and la
violencia, tells the story of a colonel waiting for news of the pension
he expects in exchange for his service to his country. Funerales de
la Mamá Grande (1962; The Funeral of Mama Grande) is a mocking
view of social authority, and La mala hora (1962; In Evil Hour) is a
story of the corrupting effects of power.

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198 • GARCÍA MÁRQUEZ, GABRIEL

The novel that grew out of these novellas and short stories was
García Márquez’s masterpiece Cien años de soledad (1967; One
Hundred Years of Solitude), a work that for its narrative power and
storytelling is sometimes considered as important for Latin America
as Don Quixote is for Spain. It received the 1972 Rómulo Gallegos
Prize. The story told in the novel is an allegory of Colombian history
and a central work of magic realism, with which much of García
Márquez’s work is associated. A series of short texts followed the
author’s landmark novel, including La increíble y triste historia de
la cándida Eréndira y su abuela (1972; Innocent Eréndira and Other
Stories), which prefigured in part the style of his second novel, El
otoño del patriarca (1975; The Autumn of the Patriarch), a dictator
novel about a fictional Caribbean tyrant, written in a breathless style
without paragraphs and periods.
A series of works of fiction have appeared since the early 1980s,
all of them marked by García Márquez’s indomitable capacity as a
storyteller. Crónica de una muerte anunciada (1981; Chronicle of a
Death Foretold), taken from true-life events in Colombia, unfolds
with the inevitability of Greek tragedy. El amor en los tiempos del
cólera (1985; Love in the Time of Cholera) is a love story, exem-
plifying the themes of decline and renewal, loosely based on the
experiences of the author’s parents. El general en su laberinto (1989;
The General in His Labyrinth) is a new historical novel that offers
a revisionist version of the life and last journey of the Liberator of
South America, Simón Bolívar. Doce cuentos peregrinos (1992;
Strange Pilgrims: Twelve Stories), in which García Márquez appears
as himself, is a varied collection of narratives about the experiences
of Latin Americans in Europe. Del amor y otros demonios (1994; Of
Love and Other Demons) is a story of love, demonic possession, and
miracles set in 18th-century Colombia. Memoria de mis putas tristes
(2004; Memories of My Melancholy Whores) is a novella about an
old man’s memories and his affair with an adolescent girl.
In addition to writing fiction, García Márquez worked in journal-
ism for much of his life and earned his living at it in his early years.
His newspaper writings of the 1950s are collected in Cuando era
féliz e indocumentado (1973; When I Was Happy and Unknown),
and a larger collection has appeared as Obra periodística (6 vols.,
1981–1984; Journalistic Work). He has also written several books

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GARCÍA PONCE, JUAN • 199

with a basis in reporting and journalism. These include Relato de


un náufrago (1970; The Story of a Ship-Wrecked Sailor), based on a
series of newspaper articles first published by the author in 1955; La
aventura de Miguel Littín clandestino en Chile (1986; Clandestine in
Chile: The Adventures of Miguel Littín), a report on the Chilean film
director; and Noticia de un secuestro (1997; News of a Kidnapping)
about events in the drug wars in Colombia.
García Márquez has also had a lifelong interest in cinema. Some
of his works have a cinematic quality. He has written screenplays
and has held positions in institutes and foundations for the promotion
and development of cinema in Latin America. He has talked about
himself and his work in conversation with Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza
in El olor de la guayaba (1982; The Fragrance of Guava) and has
published the first volume of his memoirs, Vivir para contarla (2002;
Living to Tell the Tale). See also ALLENDE, ISABEL; COBO
BORDA, JUAN GUSTAVO; QUIROGA, HORACIO; SABINO,
FERNANDO; SCORZA, MANUEL; VARGAS LLOSA, MARIO.

GARCÍA MONGE, JOAQUÍN (Costa Rica, 1881–1958). Novel-


ist. He figured significantly throughout his life as an editor and was
notable for his association with the Costa Rican cultural journal
Repertorio americano, which he founded in 1919 and remained with
until his death. The novels he wrote early in life contributed to the
introduction of realism and the realist novel in Costa Rica. El moto
(1900; The Orphaned Calf) is a rural romance, and Las hijas del
campo (1900; Daughters of the Countryside) is an urban novel that
shows the influence of naturalism.

GARCÍA PONCE, JUAN (Mexico, 1932–2003). Novelist, short


story writer, and essayist. He began his literary career writing for
the theater but is better known for his fiction. His fictional worlds
focus on the everyday through an exploration of the erotic in themes
related to voyeurism, love triangles, encounters and separations,
overlapping identities, and the demonic side of life. His novels in-
clude Figura de paja (1964; Straw Man), La casa en la playa (1966;
The House on the Beach), La presencia lejana (1968; The Distant
Presence), La cabaña (1969; The Cabin), La vida perdurable (1970;
Everlasting Life), El nombre olvidado (1970; The Forgotten Name),

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200 • GARCILASO DE LA VEGA, EL INCA

La invitación (1972; The Invitation), and Inmaculada, o los placeres


de la inocencia (1989; Inmaculada, or the Pleasures of Innocence).
His most ambitious novel was Crónica de la intervención (1982;
Chronicle of Intervention), a two-volume work about middle-class
Mexico set in the context of the Tlatelolco massacre. García Ponce’s
short stories have the same themes as his novels and include Imagen
primera (1963; First Image), La noche (1963; The Night), and En-
cuentros (1972; Encounters). As an essayist, he has published books
on painting and literature, including: Rufino Tamayo (1967; Rufino
Tamayo), Nueve pintores mexicanos (1968; Nine Mexican Painters),
Entrada en materia (1968; Entry Into Matter: Modern Literature and
Reality), and La errancia sin fin: Musil, Borges, Klossowsky (1981;
Endless Wandering: Musil, Borges, Klossowsky).

GARCILASO DE LA VEGA, EL INCA (Peru, c. 1539–1616).


Chronicler. He was the illegitimate child of a Spanish aristocrat and
an Inca princess who moved to Spain in 1560. He is customarily
styled “El Inca” to distinguish him from the Spanish poet Garcilaso
de la Vega. In Spain he wrote his Comentarios reales de los Incas (in
2 parts, 1609, 1617; Royal Commentaries of the Incas), a chronicle
of the dynastic history of the Incas accompanied by a narrative of the
Spanish conquest of Peru (both written from an Incan point of view)
and an important source of Peruvian history. His other works include
La Florida del Inca (1605; The Florida of the Inca), a narrative of the
expedition (1538–1542) led by Hernando de Soto (ca. 1496/1497–
1542) to Florida, and Diálogos de amor (1590; Dialogues of Love),
a translation from Italian into Spanish of the celebrated debate by
León Hebreo (ca. 1465–c. 1523). See also CISNEROS, ANTONIO.

GARMENDÍA, JULIO (Venezuela, 1898–1977). Short story writer.


Although credited with having brought the avant-garde to Venezu-
ela, in his lifetime he only published two books, which were two
collections of short stories, each containing eight stories: La tienda
de muñecos (1927; The Puppet Store) and La tuna de oro (1957; The
Golden Players). The title stories of both collections, with elements
of the fantastic and escape from reality, are especially celebrated. A
further 10 stories by Garmendía were published posthumously in La

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GARRO, ELENA • 201

hoja que no había caído en su otoño (1979; The Leaf That Hadn’t
Fallen in Autumn).

GARMENDÍA, SALVADOR (Venezuela, 1928–2001). Novelist and


short story writer. He wrote novels about the existential angst of
the urban bourgeoisie with characters who experienced alienation,
isolation, hallucinations, and fear of madness. His main works are
Los pequeños seres (1959; Small Beings), Día de cenizas (1964; Ash
Wednesday), Los habitantes (1968; The Inhabitants), and La mala
vida (1968; The Bad Life). His short stories include El brujo hípico
y otros relatos (1979; The Horse Racing Wizard and Other Tales),
El único lugar posible (1981; The Only Place Possible), El capitán
Kid (1988; Captain Kid), and La vida buena (1995; The Good Life).
Garmendía was also the scriptwriter of popular television soaps.

GARRO, ELENA (Mexico, 1920–1998). Novelist, short story writer,


and dramatist. Her reputation did not initially stand as high as it does
now, when she is considered one of Mexico’s finest women writers.
Her first novel, Los recuerdos del porvenir (1963; Recollection of
Things to Come) was completed in the 1950s but not published until
several years later, a delay characteristic of a number of her works.
The novel, set in Ixtepec during the time of civil unrest in Mexico
known as the Cristero War (1926–1929), draws on the author’s mem-
ories of her childhood in Iguala, in the state of Guerrero. It is about
a tragic love, but also introduces themes that figure in the author’s
later work. These include the persecution and violence perpetrated
against women and marginalized groups in society; the importance of
memory, the circularity of time, and the experience of multiple chro-
nologies, as in the coexistence of the present with a mythical time;
and the magic realism with which many of the events narrated in her
fiction are told. La semana de colores (1964; Week of Colors) was
also written in the 1950s and includes one of her best-known stories,
“La culpa es de los tlaxcaltecas” (“The Tlaxcalans Are to Blame”).
Garro’s later works were in some ways affected by two factors: her
marriage to Octavio Paz and her implication in events surrounding
the Tlatelolco massacre. Allegations that she was complicit in the
student demonstrations and that she had betrayed fellow intellectuals

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202 • GAUCHO LITERATURE

when she was held in prison led to her taking refuge in France in
1972, where she remained for 20 years.
Andamos huyendo Lola (1980; Let’s Flee, Lola) is a set of 11
interconnected stories tracing the flight of two women through
Mexico, New York, and Spain away from a malevolent force that is
reminiscent of the author’s own flight into exile. Testimonios sobre
Mariana (1981; Testimonies About Mariana) consists of the memo-
ries about Mariana of three different people. It has been read as a
thinly disguised portrait of the author’s former husband. Reencuen-
tro de personajes (1982; A Reunion of Characters) is the story of a
masochistic relationship, and La casa junto al río (1983; The House
Beside the River) tells of a woman who is murdered when she goes
in search of her relatives in her father’s hometown in Spain. Y Mata-
razo no llamó (1989; And Matarazo Did Not Call) reexamines some
of the events of Tlatelolco, and Inés (1995; Inés) is another story of
female persecution.
Garro earned a solid reputation for her work for the theater,
although her writing in this area belongs mainly to the 1950s and
1960s. Her plays have themes similar to her works of fiction, inclu-
ding her inclination toward representation of a magical reality. Felipe
Ángeles (published 1979; Felipe Ángeles) takes its title from the
name of the revolutionary hero whose story is dramatized. The title
of La dama boba (1963; The Foolish Lady) comes from a play of the
same name by the Spanish dramatist Lope de Vega (1562–1535) and
is an example of theater within theater used to confront issues in rural
life in Mexico. A collection of one-act plays, published in Un hogar
sólido (1958 and 1983; A Solid Family), conveys a good idea of the
range of issues and styles of Garro’s writing for the stage.

GAUCHO LITERATURE. Representations of the life and culture of


the gaucho occur in all literary genres. The gaucho and his way of
life, often compared to that of the North American cowboy, evolved
during the colonial period in the pampas regions of Argentina and
Uruguay and had an impact on the independence movements and
postindependence politics of both countries. As he appears in litera-
ture, the gaucho is a strong, independent individual, often living close
to nature and on the margins of society. His songs, language, quick
wit, and personality were captured in the early 19th-century work of

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GAY AND LESBIAN WRITERS AND WRITING • 203

Bartolomé Hidalgo and were developed further by later authors such


as Hilario Ascasubi, Estanislao del Campo, and José Hernández,
who gave shape to an icon representing the rural origins of the na-
tional character of Argentina and Uruguay at the same time that they
established an appetite for literature featuring this regional type. In
the theater, verse, and prose fiction, the gaucho became a literary
staple of the late 19th and early 20th centuries in both those coun-
tries. See also AMORIM, ENRIQUE; CIVILIZATION AND BAR-
BARISM; EICHELBAUM, SAMUEL; GÜIRALDES, RICARDO;
GUTIÉRREZ, EDUARDO; LARRETA, ENRIQUE; LUGONES,
LEOPOLDO; LUSSICH, ANTONIO DIONISIO; MADARIAGA,
FRANCISCIO; PAYRÓ, ROBERTO JORGE; REYLES, CARLOS;
SAINETE; TREJO, NEMESIO; VIANA, JAVIER DE.

GAVIDIA, FRANCISCO (El Salvador, 1863–1955). Poet, short


story writer, and dramatist. His pursuits were eclectic, and he wrote
in several different literary forms. In poetry, he published Libro de
los azahares (1885; Book of Blossoms). His interest in the French
alexandrine verse led him to suggest it to Rubén Darío, who used
it with celebrated effect. His short stories have the exoticism of mo-
dernismo and were collected in Cuentos y narraciones (1931; Tales
and Narratives) and Cuentos de marinos (1947; Seamen’s Tales). As
a dramatist, he contributed to the first surge in theater in El Salvador
at the beginning of the 20th century. His best-known work is Júpiter
(1895; Jupiter), about Salvadoran independence. Other plays include
Los aeronautas (1909; The Aeronauts), Héspero (1931; Hesperos),
Los juramentos (1943; The Oaths), and La torre de marfil (1949; The
Ivory Tower).

GAY AND LESBIAN WRITERS AND WRITING. Representations


of gender and sexuality that challenged an established order remai-
ned relatively taboo until well into the 20th century, although some
writers, such as Adolfo Caminha and Qorpo-Santo in Brazil, pro-
voked scandal by venturing into the topic in the 19th century. By
contrast, contemporary gay and lesbian writers openly declare their
sexuality, and contemporary literature is open to homosexual themes
as an integral element of the literary description and analysis of human
life and society. Among the most prominent authors in this respect

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204 • GELMAN, JUAN

are Caio Fernando Abreu, Glauco Mattoso, and João do Rio


(Brazil), Fernando Vallejo (Colombia), Cristina Peri Rossi (Uru-
guay), Manuel Puig (Argentina), and Pedro Lemebel (Chile). See
also BAYLY, JAIME; BRUNET, MARTA; COSTA, HORÁCIO;
D’HALMAR, AUGUSTO; DÍAZ VARGAS, HENRY; ECUADOR;
EDWARDS BELLO, JOAQUÍN; HILST, HILDA; MORO, CÉSAR;
NOVO, SALVADOR; PERLONGHER, NÉSTOR; RODRIGUES,
NELSON; ROFFÉ, REINA; SANTIAGO, SILVIANO; WOMEN.

GELMAN, JUAN (Argentina, 1930– ). Poet. He is one of Argentina’s


most prestigious 20th-century poets and the author of more than 20
books. He is also a journalist and political commentator. His in-
volvement in politics and the Montoneros urban guerrillas led to 12
years of exile in 1976 after the coup that brought the regime of Jorge
Videla (1976–1981) to power. Politics and social reality are reflected
in his writing, which addresses a wide range of themes, including the
sufferings endured by himself and his family, exile, his Jewish heri-
tage, the Cuban revolution, popular culture, and the tango. Languages
and the language of painting are a significant dimension of his work,
but he has established his own poetics without drawing on classical
traditions or the work of his contemporaries, laying out his project as
a poet in his first four books: Violín y otras cuestiones (1958; Violin
and Other Matters), El juego en que andamos (1959; The Game We
Are Playing), Velorio del solo (1961; Solo Vigil), and Gotán (1962;
Tango). Later books include Los poemas de Sidney West (1969; The
Poems of Sidney West), Fábulas (1971; Fables), Citas y comentarios
(1982; Quotes and Commentaries), Cartas a mi madre (1989; Letters
to My Mother), and Dibaxu (1994; Below). He was awarded the Mi-
guel de Cervantes Prize for literature in 2007.

GENERATION OF ’45. The postwar period in Brazil ushered in


important changes, including the end of Getúlio Vargas’s first presi-
dency (1930–1945) and the redemocratization of Brazil. Parallel to
those changes, debates about the development of Brazilian literature
sought to chart Brazilian modernism in three stages: 1922 (modern-
ism), 1930 (postmodernism), and 1945 (neomodernism), which also
became known as “Geração de 45” or Generation of ’45. This new
generation sought to abandon both the combative spirit of 1922 and

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GERCHUNOFF, ALBERTO • 205

the regional concerns of 1930 and instead espouse a more timeless


and universal approach to literature. Although some see novelists
such as Clarice Lispector and João Guimarães Rosa as portraying
this new ethos, the actual debate itself took place more in the realm
of poetry. Representatives of this tendency include Geir Campos,
Ledo Ivo, João Cabral de Melo Neto, Péricles Eugênio da Silva
Ramos (1919–1992), and Darci Damasceno (1922–1988). See also
GULLAR, FERREIRA; PIGNATARI, DÉCIO.

GERBASI, VICENTE (Venezuela, 1913–1992). Poet. A member


of the Grupo Viernes, he developed into one of Venezuela’s most
prominent 20th-century poets. He published steadily throughout
his life, although his early affinity for surrealism and the work of
the German Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926), evident in Vigilia del
Náufrago (1937; The Castaway’s Vigil), Bosque Doliente (1940;
Sorrowful Forest), and Liras (1943; Lyres), became more attenuated
in later collections when his own voice had matured. His long poem
Mi padre, el inmigrante (1945; My Father the Immigrant), one of
the central pieces of his oeuvre, traces the cycle of life and death.
In Espacios cálidos (1952; Warm Spaces), he evokes memories of
childhood in Venezuela and his father’s hometown in Italy. Olivos
de eternidad (1961; Eternal Olive Trees) recalls a journey to Jerusa-
lem. Tirano de sombra y fuego (1955; Tyrant of Shadow and Fire),
a more historical work, is about the Spanish conquistador rebel Lope
de Aguirre (ca. 1510–1561). Other collections include Poemas de
la noche y de la tierra (1943; Poems of the Night and the Land),
Tres nocturnos (1947; Three Nocturns), Círculos del trueno (1953;
Thunder Circles), La rama del relámpago (1953; Branch Lightning),
Por arte del sol (1958; Through the Art of the Sun), Edades perdidas
(1981; Lost Ages), Los colores ocultos (1985; Hidden Colors), Un
día muy distante (1987; A Very Distant Day), and El solitario viento
de las hojas (1990; The Lonely Wind of the Leaves).

GERCHUNOFF, ALBERTO (Argentina, 1889–1950). Novelist,


short story writer, and journalist. Born in the Ukraine, he grew up
in the province of Entre Ríos and became fully acculturated to Ar-
gentina while retaining his own cultural heritage. For 40 years, he
worked for the daily newspaper La Nación. In addition to eight works

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206 • GIARDINELLI, MEMPO

of fiction, Gerchunoff also wrote a number of books on literature and


life and culture in Argentina, including Nuestro señor don Quijote
(1913; Our Lord Don Quixote), El problema judío (1945; The Jewish
Problem), and most notably, Los gauchos judíos (1910; The Jewish
Gauchos of the Pampas), a significant contribution to gaucho litera-
ture and Jewish writing in Argentina.

GIARDINELLI, MEMPO (Argentina, 1947– ). Novelist and journal-


ist. Although he is a widely published journalist and commentator,
he is best known for his novels. He left Argentina in 1976 after his
novel Toño tuerto, rey de ciegos (One-eyed Tony, King of the Blind)
was destroyed by his publisher for political reasons, and his early
work was completed while living in exile in Mexico. Giardinelli
is a post-boom writer known for his referencing of other texts and
genres in his work. This is especially so in two of his most suc-
cessful works, Luna caliente (1983; Sultry Moon) and Qué solos se
quedan los muertos (1985; How Lonely Are the Dead), in which
the tradition of hard-boiled crime fiction figures prominently, both
as a parody of the genre and as a way to examine social violence.
Other novels include La revolución en bicicleta (1980; Revolution
on a Bicycle); ¿Por qué prohibieron el circo? (1983; Why Was the
Circus Banned?); Santo oficio de la memoria (1991; Holy Office of
Memory), which received the 1993 Rómulo Gallegos Prize; and
Imposible equilibrio (1995; Impossible Balance).

GIL GILBERT, ENRIQUE (Ecuador, 1912–1973). Short story


writer and novelist. He was a member of the Grupo de Guayaquil
and coauthor, with Demetrio Aguilera Malta and Joaquín Gallegos
Lara, of the short story collection Los que se van (1930; Those Who
Leave). He also published several collections of his own: Yunga
(1933; Yunga), Relatos de Emmanuel (1939; Tales of Emmanuel),
and La cabeza de un niño en un tacho de basura (1967; The Head
of a Child in a Garbage Can). Political militancy is a feature of his
writing, notably in Nuestro pan (1942; Our Daily Bread), a novel of
social protest about conditions in the countryside and the rice fields
in Ecuador that placed second, behind El mundo es ancho y ajeno
by Ciro Alegría, in a competition sponsored by the U.S. publisher
Farrar & Rinehart.

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GIRRI, ALBERTO • 207

GIRONDO, OLIVERIO (Argentina, 1891–1957). Poet. His work


went through several stages, at times reflecting the ongoing changes
in aesthetics and the broader literary environment. After writing for
literary journals in Buenos Aires, he was drawn into the circle of
ultraísmo and Jorge Luis Borges, and was linked with the avant-
garde from his earliest collections. He was one of the moving forces
behind the avant-garde journal Martín Fierro and wrote its manifesto
in 1924. Veinte poemas para ser leídos en el tranvía (1922; Twenty
Poems to Be Read on a Trolley) is a mock-serious collection that
includes verses, prose poems, and drawings representing the author’s
travels through cities in Europe and America. Calcomanías (1925;
Decals) is concerned with Spain. Later collections, beginning with
Espantapájaros (1932; Scarecrow), introduce a more interior world.
Then, in collections such as Interlunio (1937; Intermoonlude) and
Persuasión de los días (1942; The Days’ Persuasion), he began to
produce a poetry based on wordplay, leading to En la masmédula
(1954; Moremarrow), his best-known work, in which he sought
to create a new vocabulary and break with established syntax. See
also LANGE, NORAH; MADARIAGA, FRANCISCO; MOLINA,
ENRIQUE.

GIRRI, ALBERTO (Argentina, 1919–1991). Poet. He was a prolific


writer, with over 30 collections of poetry to his credit. As a mem-
ber of a group that began to publish in the 1940s, which included
Olga Orozco and Enrique Molina, he belonged to a generation
representing a post-avant-garde trend in literature and a return to a
more traditional style. Like others of his generation, he was strongly
influenced by poetry in English, by both North American and Brit-
ish writers, and habitually appended a selection of translations from
English to his own collections. His early books include Playa sola
(1946; Lonely Beach), Coronación de la espera (1947; The Corona-
tion of Hope), La penitencia y el mérito (1957; Penitence and Worth),
Propiedades de la magia (1959; The Properties of Magic), and El ojo
(1963; The Eye).
Girri developed and refined his writing with each collection; his
best work began with Valores diarios (1970; Daily Values) and was
sustained in subsequent volumes, among which are Poesía de ob-
servación (1973; Observation Poetry), El motivo es el poema (1976;

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208 • GLANTZ, MARGO

The Motive Is the Poem), Homenaje a W.C. Williams (1981; Hom-


age to W.C. Williams), and Monodías (1985; Monodies). He often
made poetry and artistic creation the subject of his writing, and at
the same time that he published one of his collections, En la letra,
ambigua selva (1972; Within the Writing, Ambiguous Jungle), he
also published Diario de un libro (1972; Diary of a Book), contain-
ing the notes written while composing the poems. In Notas sobre
la experiencia poética (1883; Notes on the Poetic Experience), he
published an account of his poetics. Girri contributed to a number of
the prominent literary journals of his time, including Sur, and also
wrote two novels, Crónica del héroe (1946; The Hero’s Chronicle)
and Un brazo de Dios (1966; An Arm of God).

GLANTZ, MARGO (Mexico, 1930– ). Novelist, critic, and essayist.


She is the author or editor of more than 30 books. Her fiction includes
Las mil y una calorías: novela dietética (1978; A Thousand and One
Calories: A Dietetic Novel), Zona de derrumbe (2001; Slide Area),
and El rastro (2002; The Wake). Her criticism and essays cover a
wide range of themes and include five books on Sor Juana Inés de
la Cruz, essays on la onda and on Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca,
and a study of mysticism and nuns during the colonial period. Among
her best-known publications is Las genealogías (1981; Family Tree),
an autobiography that traces the history of an intellectual Jewish
family, Jewish cultural history, and the Mexicanization of Jewish
culture. See also WOMEN.

GOIC, CEDOMIL (Chile, 1928– ). Critic. As a teacher, writer, and


editor, Goic’s work has had a profound impact in Chile and through-
out Spanish America. He has written many essays of literary criti-
cism; his major books include La poesía de Vicente Huidobro (1956;
The Poetry of Vicente Huidobro), La novela chilena (1968; The
Chilean Novel), Historia de la novela hispanoamericana (1972; His-
tory of the Spanish American Novel), and La novela de la Revolución
Mexicana (1983; The Novel of the Mexican Revolution).

GOLDEMBERG, ISAAC (Peru, 1945– ). Novelist and poet. He is the


author of books on Jewish themes and is best known for his novel

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GÓMEZ CARRILLO, ENRIQUE • 209

La vida a plazos de don Jacobo Lerner (1978; The Fragmented Life


of Don Jacobo Lerner). He has lived in the United States since 1964.

GOMES, ALFREDO DIAS (Brazil, 1922–1999). Dramatist. Born in


Bahia, Dias Gomes won a playwriting contest at age 15, and at age
20, his plays were already being staged in Rio and São Paulo. He
gained recognition for the comedies Pé-de-Cabra (1942; Crowbar),
followed by Doutor Ninguém (Doctor Nobody), Amanhã será outro
dia (Tomorrow Will Be Another Day), and Zeca Diabo (Joe Devil).
In the 1950s, he had to leave the stage for political reasons and be-
gan writing plays for the radio. His best-known play is O Pagador
de Promessas (1960; The Keeper of Promises). Set in rural Bahia
and featuring aspects of popular religiosity, this tale of a simple man
intent on keeping a religious vow was adapted for the screen, becom-
ing the first Brazilian production to win a major prize at the Cannes
Film Festival. After the 1964 military coup, Dias Gomes was banned
from radio and turned successfully to writing scripts for soap operas,
one of which was based on his play Doutor Getúlio, sua Vida e sua
Gloria (1968; Doctor Getúlio, His Life and His Glory), a portrait of
the populist leader Getúlio Vargas written in collaboration with Fer-
reira Gullar. Dias Gomes was killed in an accident one night while
returning home from the theater in a taxi.

GÓMEZ CARRILLO, ENRIQUE (Guatemala, 1873–1927). Novel-


ist, essayist, and journalist. After traveling to Europe at an early age,
he established himself in Paris, where he led a somewhat bohemian
existence and figured in the European literary scenes of his time. His
output was prodigious, amounting to more than 50 books and a vast
amount of journalism; his chronicles appeared in major newspapers
in Spain, Mexico, Argentina, and Chile and were widely read. The
aesthetics of modernismo and contemporary tastes are reflected
in his fiction, such as El evangelio de amor (1922; The Gospel of
Love), his most popular novel, combining paganism and Christianity
and set in the 14th century. His fiction never attained the popularity
of his newspaper columns or even the books on his travels through-
out the world and those he wrote about World War I. He was an
inveterate Francophile and commentator on developments in French

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210 • GÓMEZ VALDERRAMA, PEDRO

literature and culture who remained in the public eye for more than
25 years. A significant part of his work was ephemeral, however, and
remains uncollected in the columns of newspapers and magazines
where it first appeared.

GÓMEZ VALDERRAMA, PEDRO (Colombia, 1923–1995). Poet,


short story writer, and novelist. His poetry, Normas para el efímero,
1938–1942 (1943; Norms for the Ephemeral) and Biografía de la
campana (1946; Biography of the Bell), belongs to his youth. He
produced several collections of short stories: ¡Tierra! (1960; Land
Ho!), with a title story about the sighting of land during the first voy-
age of Christopher Columbus; El retablo de Maese Pedro (1967;
Maese Pedro’s Tableau); La procesión de los ardientes (1975; The
Procession of the Fervid); and La nave de los locos y otros relatos
(1984; The Ship of Fools and Other Tales). However, he wrote only
one novel, La otra raya del tigre (1977; The Tiger’s Other Stripe),
the story of a German immigrant in 19th-century Colombia. His es-
says were mainly on literature and education.

GÓNGORA DE MARMOLEJO, ALONSO DE (Chile, 1523–1575).


Chronicler. Born in Spain, he wrote an eyewitness chronicle of the
conquest of Chile, Historia de todas las cosas que han acaecido en
el Reino de Chile y de los que lo han gobernado, 1536–1575 (History
of Everything That Has Happened in the Kingdom of Chile and of
Those Who Have Governed It, 1536–1575). Góngora de Marmolejo
is thought to have been inspired by Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga and
is considered one of the more reliable historical sources of the period.
His chronicle was not published until1862.

GONZAGA, TOMÁS ANTÔNIO (Brazil, 1744–1810?). Poet. Born


in Portugal of Brazilian parents, Gonzaga received his early educa-
tion in Brazil before attending university in Portugal. He taught in
Portugal for a while and then held public office in Brazil. In Vila
Rica, where he was a magistrate and solicitor, he wrote Cartas
Chilenas (1957; Chilean Letters), a series of satirical letters in verse
supposedly written by a Chilean named Critilo to a friend in Madrid,
ridiculing Fanfarrão Minésio, a disguise for the governor of Minas,
Gonzaga’s political enemy. While in Bahia as a public official,

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GONZÁLEZ LANUZA, EDUARDO • 211

he met and courted Maria Joaquina Dorotéia das Seixas, a young


woman who inspired his poem cycle, Marília de Dirceu (1792–1812;
Marília of Dirceu). In 1789, he was denounced as the head of the
Minas Gerais conspiracy and sent to prison for three years in Ilha
das Cobras. He wrote some of his best poems during his imprison-
ment. He was then sentenced to life in prison in Angola, but his
sentence was reduced to 10 years in Mozambique, where he married
the daughter of a wealthy slave trader. He was promoted to customs
judge in 1809 but died shortly thereafter.
Gonzaga’s main work, Marília, is a cycle of short poems known
as liras in the style of arcadianism, in which Dirceu, the shepherd
lover, sings of his platonic love for Marília, an ideal woman, in a
bucolic setting. The poems, however, escape the conventions of
the genre to reflect the circumstances of Gonzaga’s life. His Obras
Completas de Tomás Antônio Gonzaga (1957; Complete Works of
Tomás Antônio Gonzaga) also contains Tratado de Direito Natural
(Treatise of Natural Law), which he wrote as a student, and Carta
Sobre a Usura (Letter on Usury). See also PEIXOTO, INÁCIO JOSÉ
DE ALVARENGA.

GONZÁLEZ DE ESLAVA, FERNÁN (Mexico, 1534–1601?). Dra-


matist and poet. His place in Mexican literature is based mainly on
a collection of 16 short dramatic pieces known as coloquios (collo-
quies). They are written mainly in verse with some prose and share
some of the characteristics of the traditional auto, but they also in-
troduce topics of interest to the local Mexican population within the
religious themes. Their structure is similar to that of plays of the early
Spanish theater of the 16th century and incorporates dramatic forms
such as the loa and entremés.

GONZÁLEZ LANUZA, EDUARDO (Argentina, 1900–1984). Poet.


As an adherent to the aesthetics of ultraísmo, he collaborated with
Jorge Luis Borges in the production of the literary journals Prisma
and Proa and contributed to Martín Fierro in the 1920s. During
this period he published two collections of poetry, Prismas (1924;
Prisms) and Treinta y tantos poemas (1932; Thirty or So Poems),
as well as Aquelarre (1927; Witches’ Sabbath), a collection of short
stories, although González Lanuza is not known for fiction. His later

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212 • GONZÁLEZ LEÓN, ADRIANO

poetry became rather conventional in both its content and form. He


also published essays on travel and literature.

GONZÁLEZ LEÓN, ADRIANO (Venezuela, 1933–2008). Nov-


elist, short story writer, and poet. His reputation was made with the
novel País portátil (1968; Portable Country), dealing with rural and
urban violence. Through the narrative of its protagonist, a student
carrying a suitcase across Caracas for delivery to a group of guer-
rilleros, without knowing what the suitcase contained, the novel
introduced the theme of urban guerrilla conflict to Latin American
fiction. González León published another novel, Viejo (1994; Old),
long after the appearance of his more successful work, and he is
the author of several collections of short stories: Las hogueras más
altas (1957; The Tallest Fires), El hombre que daba sed (1967; The
Man Who Made People Thirsty), Linaje de árboles (1988; Lineage
of Trees), and Crónicas del rayo y de la lluvia (1998; Chronicles
of Rain and Lightning). His poetry, somewhat in the style of César
Vallejo, includes Hueso de mis huesos (1997; Bone of My Bones),
De ramas y secretos (1980; Of Branches and Secrets), and Damas
(1998; Checkers).

GONZÁLEZ MARTÍNEZ, ENRIQUE (Mexico, 1871–1952). Poet.


His work is marked by a movement away from modernismo and
an exploration of the theme of the hidden meanings of the universe.
He is best known as the author of the poem “Tuércele el cuello al
cisne . . .” (“Wring the swan’s neck . . .”), in which he suggests doing
away with the swan, one of the images symbolic of modernismo, in
favor of the owl. He published more than 15 books of poetry. Those
from his early period include Preludios (1903; Preludes), Lirismos
(1911; Lyricisms), La muerte del cisne (1915; Death of the Swan),
La hora inútil (1915; The Empty Hour), Parábolas y otros poemas
(1918; Parables and Other Poems), and La palabra del viento (1921;
The Word of the Wind). Later works include Segundo despertar
(1945; Second Awakening) and El nuevo Narciso (1952; The New
Narcissus).

GONZÁLEZ PRADA, MANUEL (Peru, 1944–1918). Poet and es-


sayist. His collections of verses Minúsculas (1901; Miniatures) and
Exóticas (1916; Exotica) show the characteristics of modernismo,

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GONZÁLEZ ZELEDÓN, MANUEL • 213

but he is better known for his polemical writings, such as Páginas


libres (1894; Free Pages), calling for social reform. He was an
important figure in the development of indigenismo in Peru and an
influence on other writers, including Clorinda Matto de Turner,
César Vallejo, and José Carlos Mariátegui. See also CABELLO
DE CARBONERA, MERCEDES.

GONZÁLEZ TUÑÓN, RAÚL (Argentina, 1905–1974). Poet. He


published his first poem at the age of 17 and continued to write
and publish throughout his life. In the 1920s, he was affiliated with
ultraísmo and contributed to other avant-garde journals of the
time, including Martín Fierro. His first books, El violín del diablo
(1926; The Devil’s Violin) and Miércoles de ceniza (1928; Ash
Wednesday), depict the suburbs of Buenos Aires during a period
of rapid transformation. His next work, La calle del agujero en
media (1930; The Street with a Hole in the Middle), is a collection
of sketches of Paris written after a visit to France. González Tuñón
was also a journalist, and his poetry became more militant after join-
ing the Communist Party and experiencing the Spanish Civil War
(1936–1939) as a war correspondent. His poetry from that period
includes La rosa blindada (1936; The Armored Rose), Las puertas
del fuego (1938; The Doors of the Fire), La muerte en Madrid (1939;
Death in Madrid), Canciones del tercer frente (1941; Songs from
the Third Front), and Himno de pólvora (1943; Gunpowder Hymn).
Other collections followed, including a cycle of poems from his alter
ego, Juancito Caminador.

GONZÁLEZ ZELEDÓN, MANUEL (Costa Rica, 1864–1936). Jour-


nalist. Writing under the pseudonym “Magón,” González Zeledón
became a popular costumbrismo author. He published his first cos-
tumbrista article in 1885 and continued to contribute to Costa Rican
newspapers thereafter, even though he was living in exile in the
United States from 1901 until shortly before his death in 1936. His
articles, consisting of short sketches, brief narratives, and commen-
taries, usually drawn from personal experience, have been antholo-
gized in various compilations. He produced only one longer work, a
novella, La propia (1909; His Wife), a tragic tale, although it still
has many of the lighter touches of his shorter pieces.

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214 • GORODISCHER, ANGÉLICA

GORODISCHER, ANGÉLICA (Argentina, 1928– ). Novelist and


short story writer. She has written more than 15 books and is cel-
ebrated for her science fiction and fantasy writing. Gender and
language, the domestic world of women, and their relation to men
figure prominently in her work and have earned her a significant
place among contemporary women writers in Argentina. Her novels
include Floreros de alabastro, alfombras de Bokhara (1985; Vases of
Alabaster, Carpets from Bokhara), Fábula de la virgen y el bombero
(1993; Fable of the Virgin and the Fireman), Prodigios (1994; Prodi-
gies), and La noche del inocente (1996; The Night of the Innocent).
Among her collections of short stories are Opus dos (1967; Opus
Two), Bajo las jubeas en flor (1973; Under the Yubayas in Bloom),
and Casta luna electrónica (1977; Chaste Electronic Moon). The
two volumes of tales about an imaginary empire, Kalpa Imperial
(1983–1984; Kalpa Imperial: The Greatest Empire That Never Was),
in particular have brought her international recognition.

GOROSTIZA, CARLOS (Argentina, 1920– ). Dramatist. He began


his career in the theater as a puppeteer, and his plays for children
included La clave encantada (1942; The Enchanted Clavichord) and
Nuevos títeres de la clave encantada (1949; New Puppets from the
Enchanted Clavichord). His first play for the commercial theater, El
puente (1949; The Bridge), on class conflict, was very successful and
is noted for technical innovations in its use of performance space.
Later works, generally on the themes of identity and human relation-
ships, include El pan de la locura (1958; The Bread of Madness),
Los prójimos (1966; Neighbors), Los hermanos queridos (1978; The
Beloved Brothers), and Aeroplanos (1990; Airplanes). Gorostiza
participated in the teatro abierto project. Although his work was
generally realist, it also had elements of the theater of the absurd
and the grotesco criollo. His play El acompañamiento (1981; The
Accompaniment) was the basis of a successful 1991 musical film in
Argentina. He also wrote several novels.

GOROSTIZA, CELESTINO (Mexico, 1904–1967). Dramatist. He


participated in experimental theater groups in the 1920s, and his
plays of this period include El nuevo paraíso (1930; The New Para-
dise), Ser o no ser (1934; To Be or Not to Be), and Escombros del

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GORRITI, JUANA MANUELA • 215

sueño (1939; Remains of the Dream). During the 1940s, he wrote


mainly for the cinema, but returned to the theater in the 1950s. The
plays from this period include La leña está verde (1958; The Fire-
wood Is Green), a historical drama about the relationship between
Hernán Cortés and Doña Marina, his Native American mistress,
and dramas on social issues of the day, such as El color de nuestra
piel (1952; The Color of Our Skin), about racial prejudice, one of
Gorostiza’s best-known works.

GOROSTIZA, JOSÉ (Mexico, 1901–1979). Poet. He was a member


of Los Contemporáneos and published two main collections of po-
etry. The first, Canciones para cantar en las barcas (1925; Songs to
Sing in Ships), is mostly a series of poems about the sea, as its title
suggests. The second, Muerte sin fin (1939; Death Without End),
has been hailed as one of the most important works of poetry of the
avant-garde, as significant as T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922)
or Four Quartets (1945). It is a long, philosophical poem on death
with the idea at its core that death is fundamental to the possibility
of life. He was a descendant of the dramatist Manuel Eduardo de
Gorostiza. See also TORRES BODET, JAIME.

GOROSTIZA, MANUEL EDUARDO DE (Mexico, 1789–1851).


Dramatist. Although he was born in Mexico, he lived in Spain and
England between 1794 and 1833. He wrote light, gently moralizing
domestic comedies somewhat in the style of neo-classicism, and
most of his surviving six plays were first performed in Spain. His
best works are Indulgencia para todos (1818; Tolerance for All),
Don Dieguito (1820; Little Don Diego), and Contigo pan y cebolla
(1833; Through Thick and Thin). See also GOROSTIZA, JOSÉ;
THEATER.

GORRITI, JUANA MANUELA (Argentina, 1818–1892). Novelist,


short story writer, and essayist. She was one of South America’s most
important 19th-century women writers. Although she was born in
Argentina, the politics of the postindependence era drove her family
into exile in 1831. She eventually returned to Argentina in 1875, after
living in both Bolivia and Peru, and her later life was spent between
Buenos Aires, Lima, and La Paz. In Bolivia, she attained social and

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216 • GREIFF, LEÓN DE

political prominence through her marriage to Manuel Isidoro Belzú,


who became president of Bolivia (1848–1855), albeit after their
separation. In Peru, she was known for her literary and cultural
salon, whose members included such notable figures as Ricardo
Palma, Clorinda Matto de Turner, and Mercedes Cabello de
Carbonera.
Gorriti’s writing reflects her travels, knowledge of history, and
experience of the social and political conflicts of the countries she
lived in, often presented through her fictional female protagonists.
Her short novels, short stories, and essays were published mainly in
several compilations. The first of these, in two volumes, was Sueños
y realidades (1865; Dreams and Realities). Among the many texts in-
cluded are La quena (The Flute), a story of doomed loved in colonial
times; El guante negro (The Black Glove), about two women vying
for the love of the same man, set in the time of the conflict between
Unitarians and Federalists in Argentina; and Gubi Amaya: historia
de un salteador (Gubi Amaya: Story of a Bandit), the adventures of
a woman dressed as a man. A second collection, Panoramas de la
vida (1876; Panoramas of Life), was published 10 years later. It is
also in two volumes and, as its subtitle promises, is a “collection of
novels, fantasies, legends and descriptions of America.” Misceláneas
(1878; Miscellany) has a similar subtitle and content. El mundo de
los recuerdos (1886; The World of Memories) is a mix of fiction and
autobiography. A final volume of memoirs, Lo íntimo de Juana Ma-
nuela Gorriti (1893; The Personal Story of Juana Manuela Gorriti),
was published posthumously. More recently, Martha Mercader
has written a fictionalized biography drawing on Gorriti’s life and
writings as her sources.

GREIFF, LEÓN DE (Colombia, 1895– ). Poet. Although his poetry


addresses some standard themes, such as nature, love, death, soli-
tude, poetry, and art, it is also very idiosyncratic. León de Greiff
was quite eccentric and followed his own paths. His poetry is full
of Nordic characters, fantasies, and his own mythologies. It is col-
lected mainly in eight “hefty volumes,” from Tergiversaciones:
primer mamotreto (1925; Distortions: First Hefty Volume) to Nova
et vetera: octavo mamotreto (1973; New and Old: Hefty Volume
Number Eight).

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GROUSSAC, PAUL • 217

GREZ, VICENTE (Chile, 1847–1909). Novelist. He worked as a jour-


nalist and produced several books on Chilean history before turning
to fiction. As a novelist, he followed in the footsteps of Alberto Blest
Gana and wrote in the tradition of European realism. His novels,
Emilia Reynals (1883; Emilia Reynals), La dote de una joven (1884;
A Young Woman’s Dowry), Marianita (1881; Marianita), and El
ideal de una esposa (1887; A Wife’s Ideal), unfold in domestic inte-
riors and feature passionate characters.

GRIFFERO, RAMÓN (Chile, 1954– ). Dramatist. He has written


about dictatorship and postdictatorship Chile, notably in the trilogy
Historias de un galpón abandonado (1984; Stories from an Aban-
doned Warehouse), Cinema-Utoppia (1985; Cinema Utoppia), and
La morgue (1987; The Morgue), using the theater and its space
strategically as a way to circumvent textual censorship. Later works,
such as Río abajo (1995; Downstream), about life in a Santiago tene-
ment, are also centered on social conditions.

GROTESCO CRIOLLO. “Grotesque” in this context alludes to a


predominantly pessimistic view of life reflecting the defeated social
aspirations of immigrants to Argentina that pervaded urban life and
culture in the early decades of the 20th century. The grotesco criollo
refers in particular to the dramatic form through which this condition
was represented in the theater. Derived from the 19th-century sai-
nete, the grotesco criollo makes use of the comic, the absurd, and the
dramatic to convey the stories of a wide range of social characters
and types. The dramatists who contributed to the genre include Fran-
cisco Defilippis Novoa, Armando Discépolo, Osvaldo Dragún,
Carlos Gorostiza, Carlos Maggi, and Ricardo Talesnik.

GROUSSAC, PAUL (Argentina, 1848–1929). Essayist. Although


born in France, he lived in Buenos Aires from the age of 18 and
became a prominent figure in Argentinean literary circles through
essays on literary history and criticism published in literary journals
and through the auspices of the national library, of which he became
director. His posthumous reputation owes much to Jorge Luis Bor-
ges, who prepared an anthology of his work and alluded to him in
his own writing.

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218 • GRUPO DE BOEDO

GRUPO DE BOEDO. Boedo is the name of a street in working-class


Buenos Aires attached to a literary group in 1920s Argentina, asso-
ciated with the periodical Claridad, which espoused social realism
in its writing. The Grupo de Boedo contrasted with the Grupo de
Florida, which represented the avant-garde, and the conflict be-
tween the two became a matter of public record as well as a symbol
of the cultural and economic divide in 1920s Argentina. It ended in
reconciliation in 1930, although some writers, such as Roberto Arlt,
had already contributed to the publications of both groups. See also
KORDON, BERNARDO.

GRUPO DE FLORIDA. Named for one of the most elegant stre-


ets in Buenos Aires, members of the group were adherents of the
literary avant-garde in Argentina in the 1920s and contrasted with
the Grupo de Boedo, which espoused social realism. The Florida
group’s journals were Martín Fierro and Proa, whose contributors
included Jorge Luis Borges, Oliverio Girondo, Raúl González
Tuñón, Ricardo Güiraldes, Norah Lange, Leopoldo Marechal,
and Conrado Nalé Roxlo.

GRUPO DE GUAYAQUIL. A group of writers of the 1930s in Ecu-


ador whose social realism, indigenismo, and interest in popular
culture ran contrary to the predominant avant-garde style of the day.
The collection of short stories Los que que se van (1930; Those Who
Leave), by Demetrio Aguilera Malta, Joaquín Gallegos Lara, and
Enrique Gil Gilbert, became their manifesto. José de la Cuadra
and Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco were also members of the group.
See also ICAZA, JORGE.

GUAMAN POMA DE AYALA, FELIPE (Peru, ca. 1550–post


1616). An indigenous Peruvian whose El primer nueva corónica y
buen gobierno (First New Chronicle and Good Government) is a
unique chronicle of colonial life, written from an indigenous per-
spective, that exposes the harshness of colonial rule in a manuscript
of more than 1,200 pages with almost 400 illustrations. Although
written between 1612 and 1615, it was not widely available until
a facsimile edition appeared in 1936, and a transcription was pub-

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GUATEMALA • 219

lished in 1980 under the title Nueva crónica y buen gobierno (New
Chronicle and Good Government).

GUARNIERI, GIANFRANCESCO (Brazil, 1934–2006). Dramatist.


Born in Italy, Guarnieri arrived in Brazil as a small child with his
parents, who were fleeing Italian fascism. He received his educa-
tion in São Paulo. His first and most famous play, Eles Não Usam
Black Tie (1958; They Don’t Use Black Ties), is the story of a fac-
tory worker who comes into conflict with his father, the leader of
a strike, when his girlfriend becomes pregnant and he must choose
financial stability over the workers’ struggle. This play was staged in
the famed Teatro Arena, where Guarnieri also worked with Augusto
Boal, and was adapted for the screen. Guarnieri’s social and politi-
cal drama displays Marxist and Brechtian theater influences. Other
plays include Gimba, o Presidente dos Valentes (1959; Gimba, or the
President of the Brave), a musical on life in the Rio shantytowns; A
Semente (1961; The Seed), a piece criticizing the political methods
of both the Right and the Left; Um Grito Parado no Ar (1973; A Cry
Suspended in Mid-Air), about the difficulties of artists; and Ponto
de Partida (1976; Point of Departure), a play about censorship and
repression. His last play was A Luta Secreta da Maria Encarnação
(2001; Maria Encarnação’s Secret Struggle). See also BOAL, AU-
GUSTO; THEATER.

GUATEMALA. Pre-Columbian Guatemala, indigenous traditions,


and the hybrid culture that began to evolve soon after the conquest
are represented in the Annals of the Cakchiquel, the Books of Chi-
lam Balam, and the Popol Vuh (the last discovered and transcribed
by Francisco Ximénez in the early 18th century). As literature in
Spanish began to establish a national tradition after independence
in the early 19th century, the most significant lyric poet was José
Batres Montúfar, whose verse narratives in the mold of Spanish
romanticism anticipated the tradiciones of the Peruvian Ricardo
Palma. However, prose has in general inclined to be more dominant
than verse in Guatemalan literature. José Milla y Vidaure introduced
costumbrismo to Guatemala, and his historical novels made him a
pioneer in fiction. During the heyday of modernismo, Enrique

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220 • GUATEMALA

Gómez Carrillo was one of the most widely influential writers in


Latin America, and his younger contemporary Rafael Arévalo Mar-
tínez, although not so widely read in his time, anticipated some of the
later trends in Latin American fiction.
The first half of the 20th century in Guatemala was dominated
politically by two dictators, Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1898–1920)
and Jorge Ubico (1931–1944), and in economics by foreign fruit
companies. The early part of this period is represented in fiction in
the criollismo of Carlos Wyld Ospina, the costumbrismo of César
Brañas, and the indigenismo of the novels by Flavio Herrera.
However, the two giants of Guatemalan literature in the first half of
the 20th century are Luis Cardoza y Aragón and the Nobel Prize
winner Miguel Ángel Asturias, whose fiction connected with the in-
digenous traditions of Guatemala, the contemporary political travails
of the country, and the European avant-garde. They were followed
by two other significant writers, both belonging to the post-Ubico
era: the novelist Mario Monteforte Toledo and the short story writer
Augusto Monterroso.
The post-1944 history of Guatemala is one of failed presidencies,
military coups, interventionism, dictatorships, and revolutionary
movements that endured until a peace agreement ended the last civil
war in 1996. Asturias, Monteforte Toledo, and Monterroso remained
the dominant figures for much of the second half of the 20th century.
New writers appeared, including a significant group of women poets,
but the oppressiveness of the times made it difficult for them to rise
above their sociopolitical circumstances. Among the revolutionary
poets, the work of Otto René Castillo stands out, and in prose the
testimonio of the 1992 winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, Rigoberta
Menchu, provides a vision of those conflictive times, notwithstand-
ing the controversy surrounding it about its authenticity.
Guatemalan theater also traces its origins to preconquest times,
notably to the dance-drama Rabinal Achí. Theater was part of for-
mal culture in the 19th century, but the history of the genre in the
country has been one of alternating activity and decline, with few
dramatists establishing anything more than a local reputation. The
period between 1954 and 1974, although politically troubled, was
one of the most notable in the history of the theater. It was marked by
the presence of several significant contributors to the stage, including

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GUIMARAENS, ALPHONSUS DE • 221

the novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias; Manuel Galich; Hugo Carrillo,


whose 1974 stage adaptation of Asturias’s novel El señor presidente
was a highlight of the period; and Carlos Solórzano, although he has
lived mostly in Mexico and has a high profile in Mexican theater. In
more recent decades, after an initial decline, the theater has begun
to grow again thanks to a rise in public interest and an increase in
the number of commercial theaters, touring companies, and institu-
tions such as café-theaters. See also CHOCANO, JOSÉ SANTOS;
CHRONICLE; CIVILIZATION AND BARBARISM; DICTATOR
NOVEL; MAGIC REALISM; MOLINA, JUAN RAMÓN; NEO-
INDIGENISMO; ODIO, EUNICE; OREAMUNO, YOLANDA;
THEATER IN QUECHUA.

GUIDO, BEATRIZ (Argentina, 1925–1988). Novelist and short story


writer. Her novels are about contemporary politics and tell stories of
women struggling for independence and self-realization, such as La
casa del ángel (1954; The House of the Angel), La caída (1956; The
Fall), and La mano en la trampa (1961; The Hand in the Trap). Her
short stories, which include the collections Los insomnes (1974; The
Insomniacs) and Piedra libre (1976; Free Stone), are notable for the
inventiveness of their plots. Several of her novels and stories have
been adapted for the cinema in films directed by her husband, Leo-
poldo Torre Nilsson, and Guido wrote the screenplay for the 1973 film
version of Los siete locos (The Seven Madmen) by Roberto Arlt.

GUIMARAENS, ALPHONSUS DE, pseudonym of AFONSO HEN-


RIQUES DA COSTA GUIMARÃES (Brazil, 1870–1921). Poet.
Born in Minas Gerais to a family related to the writer Bernardo
Guimarães, Alphonsus de Guimaraens studied law in São Paulo and
Belo Horizonte. After a short trip to Rio to meet the poet João Cruz
e Sousa, he returned to the interior of Minas Gerais, where he worked
as a judge, settling in Mariana. For the rest of his life, he left the town
only once, to attend an homage his friends organized for him in the
capital. From the mountains where he lived, he sent his poems to the
newspapers and literary journals in which they were published. His
relative isolation did not allow him to achieve much recognition in
his lifetime, but he was hailed as one of the most important voices
of symbolism in Brazil after his death. His poetry was noted for its

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222 • GUIMARÃES, BERNARDO JOAQUIM DA SILVA

musical qualities and its invented and archaic vocabulary, as re-


flected in the archaic spelling he used for his name. The recurrent
theme in Guimaraens’s poetry is the death of the beloved, perhaps in-
spired by the real-life death of his teenage fiancée, Constança. There
are numerous references to nature, art, and mysticism in works such
as Setenário das Dores de Nossa Senhora (1899; Septenary of the
Sorrows of Our Lady), Câmara Ardente (1899; Burning Chamber),
and Dona Mística (1899; Mystical Lady). Kyriale (1902; Kyriale)
portrays death through funeral rites. A disciple of the French poets
Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898) and Paul Verlaine (1844–1896),
he published Pauvre Lyre (1921, Poor Lyre) in French. His works
published posthumously include Pastoral aos Crentes do Amor e da
Morte (1923; Pastoral of the Believers and of Death), Poesias (1938,
Poems), and Obra Completa (1960; Complete Works).

GUIMARÃES, BERNARDO JOAQUIM DA SILVA (Brazil, 1825–


1884). Uncle of the poet Alphonsus de Guimaraens, Bernardo Gui-
marães studied in Minas Gerais and then in São Paulo, where he met,
among others, Manuel Antônio Alvares de Azevedo, and founded
the literary circle Epicurean Society. During this period, he produced
humorous nonsense poems known as “bestialógicos.” Although he
was a prolific writer in many genres, he is best remembered for his
narratives centered on national subjects and specific social issues. O
Seminarista (1872; The Seminarist) is a tragic story portraying the
problem of celibacy in the clergy. O Índio Afonso (1873; Afonso the
Indian) presents indigenous characters but not as the “noble savage”
stereotype of indianismo. Celebrated as the Brazilian Uncle Tom’s
Cabin (1852), the antislavery novel A Escrava Isaura (1875, The
Slave Isaura) denounces the abuses of slave owners but not without
romantic idealization. These works have earned him a place as one
of the founders of the Brazilian novel in the period of romanticism.
Guimarães was also noted for his regionalism, or the portrayal of
regional ambiances and popular speech, particularly of the central
plateau and backlands, as seen in O Ermitão de Muquém (1864; The
Hermit of Muquém). Manuel Bandeira admired his preromantic
Poesias (1865; Poems), with their mythological allusions and medi-
tations on the landscape.

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GULLAR, FERREIRA • 223

GUIMARÃES, JÚLIO CASTAÑON (Brazil, 1951– ). Poet. Casta-


ñon Guimarães began his career with Vertentes (1975; Currents),
poems influenced by concrete poetry and the work of Fernando
Pessoa (1888–1934), Carlos Drummond de Andrade, and Murilo
Mendes, about whom he wrote the essay Territorios/Conjunções
(1993; Territories/Conjunctions). Castañon Guimarães writes a self-
reflexive poetry that explores relationships between meaning and
sound. Other works include 17 Peças (1983; 17 pieces), Inscrições
(1992; Inscriptions), Dois Poemas Estrangeiros (1995; Two Foreign
Poems), and Matéria e Paisagem e Poemas Anteriores (1998; Mat-
ter and Landscape, and Other Poems). Recent titles include Práticas
de Extravio (2003; Loss Practices) and Poemas, 1975–2005 (2006;
Poems, 1975–2005).

GÜIRALDES, RICARDO (Argentina, 1886–1927). Novelist. He is


best known for Don Segundo Sombra (1926; Mr Second Shadow),
a classic of Spanish American literature, although he had already
published other books before it appeared toward the end of his life.
His first book, El cencerro de cristal (1915; The Crystal Cowbell),
is a miscellaneous collection of short pieces in descriptive and poetic
prose. It was followed promptly by a volume of short stories, Cuentos
de muerte y de sangre (1915; Tales of Death and Blood), some taken
from oral tradition. These were followed by Raucho: momentos de
una juventud contemporánea (1917; Raucho: Moments of a Contem-
porary Youth), a partly autobiographical work on the adventures at
home and abroad of a young well-to-do Argentinean; Rosaura (1922;
Rosaura), a tragic story of a young woman who dreams of escaping
a small town on the pampas; and Xaimaca (1923; Xaimaca), a tale of
travel and romance in the Caribbean, a product of the author’s own
voyage in 1916–1917. Don Segundo Sombra is a wistful coming-of-
age novel of the land set against the traditions of life on the pampas
and gaucho literature. Its success is due in no small measure to how
it captured the rural dimension of the Argentinean national psyche.

GULLAR, FERREIRA, pseudonym of JOSÉ RIBAMAR FER-


REIRA (Brazil, 1930– ). Poet and dramatist. Born in São Luís,
Maranhão, in northern Brazil, Ferreira Gullar studied in the local

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224 • GUSMÁN, LUIS

schools and then worked as journalist and radio host. Upon winning
a literary contest in 1950, he moved to Rio, where he met important
writers, such as Oswald de Andrade. In this period he began writing
A Luta Corporal (1954; The Bodily Struggle), a book of prose poems
that signaled a new poetic diction different from that of Brazilian
modernism and the Generation of ’45. From 1955 to 1957, Ferreira
Gullar joined Augusto de Campos and Haroldo de Campos in
the concrete poetry movement. Finding the paradigms of concrete
poetry too restrictive, he broke with that movement—and in 1959
founded the neo-concrete movement and published his essay Teoria
do Não-Objeto (1959; Theory of the Non-Object).
Throughout the 1960s, Ferreira Gullar was active in cultural poli-
tics and cowrote plays with dramatists such as Alfredo Dias Gomes.
In 1968, he was jailed for his political activism, along with other art-
ists and musicians such as Caetano Veloso. Due to his run-ins with
the military regime of Brazil, he lived in exile from 1971 to 1976,
residing first in Paris and then in Chile, where he wrote Dentro da
Noite Veloz (1975; Inside the Fast Night) and Poema Sujo (1976;
Dirty Poem), perhaps his best-known work. In this 2,000-verse
poem, Ferreira Gullar denounces political persecution and also
reminisces about his childhood and youth in Maranhão. On his 50th
birthday, he published Na Vertigem do Dia (1980; In the Vertigo of
the Day). Other books of poems include Barulhos (1987; Noises)
and Muitas Vozes (1999; Many Voices), all included in Toda Poesia
(2000; Complete Poetry). See also FILHO, ARMANDO FREITAS;
GOMES, ALFREDO DIAS; THEATER.

GUSMÁN, LUIS (Argentina, 1944– ). Novelist and short story writer.


His first novel, El frasquito (1973; The Small Flask), the story of
a twin accused of murdering his brother, was critically acclaimed,
although it was banned in 1977 by the military dictatorship. Several
other novels have also now appeared: Brillo (1975; Shine); Cuerpo
velado (1978; The Body Watched Over), which received a Casa de
las Américas prize; En el corazón de junio (1983; In the Heart of
June); La música de Frankie (1993; Frankie’s Music); Tennessee
(1997; Tennessee); and Ni muerto has perdido tu nombre (2000;
Even Death Hasn’t Taken Your Name). His collections of short sto-
ries include La muerte prometida (1986; Promise of Death), Lo más

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GUTIÉRREZ, JUAN MARÍA • 225

oscuro del río (1990; The Darkest Part of the River), and De dobles
y bastardos (2000; Of Doubles and Bastards). Gusmán’s professional
interest in psychology and psychoanalysis is reflected in his writing,
which is often quite dark, incorporates elements of crime fiction in
the situations narrated, and presents characters who confront their
memories or re-encounter their past.

GUTIÉRREZ, EDUARDO (Argentina, 1851–1889). Novelist. He


was one of Argentina’s most popular authors of serialized novels
(folletines), of which he published more than 30. They include gau-
cho novels, historical novels, and crime fiction. Among his contri-
butions to gaucho literature are several fictionalized biographies of
well-known 19th-century characters, such as Juan Moreira (1879;
Juan Moreira) and Santos Vega (n.d.; Santos Vega). In the novel
Hormiga negra (n.d.; Black Ant), he showed the violence of gaucho
life. His novel about Juan Moreira was based on real events and be-
came the source from which José J. Podestá introduced the gaucho
to the theater of the River Plate region. Gutiérrez’s historical fiction
includes several works set in the time of Juan Manuel Rosas, such
as La mazorca (n.d.; The Secret Police), Viva la Santa Federación
(n.d.; Long Live the Holy Federation), and El puñal del tirano (n.d.;
The Tyrant’s Dagger). His crime fiction, with titles like Un capitán
de ladrones en Buenos Aires (1879; A Captain of Thieves in Buenos
Aires), Infamias de una madre (n.d.; A Mother’s Infamy), and Los
enterrados vivos (n.d.; Buried Alive), is often inspired by the most
bloodthirsty cases in police files. His novels had long, complicated
plots, and his perspective on nationalism and the history of Argentina
corresponded more with conventional popular views than with those
of the governing class.

GUTIÉRREZ, JUAN MARÍA (Argentina, 1809–1878). Essayist.


Literature was one among his several interests, which included his-
tory, science, and ethnography. He was one of Argentina’s earliest
literary historians. América poética (1848; Poetic America), com-
piled by Gutiérrez, was the first continentwide anthology of poetry
in Spanish America, and in essays such as Estudios bibliográficos y
críticos sobre algunos poetas sud-americanos anteriores al siglo XIX
(Bibliographical and Critical Studies of South American Poets Prior

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226 • GUTIÉRREZ NÁJERA, MANUEL

to the Nineteenth Century), he encouraged a rediscovery of the litera-


ture of the colonial period. In 1876, he was at the center of a heated
debate after he declined membership in the Spanish Royal Academy
because he refused to accept the primacy of peninsular Spanish.

GUTIÉRREZ NÁJERA, MANUEL (Mexico, 1859–1895). Poet and


journalist. His verse, collected and published posthumously in Poe-
sías (1896; Poems) by Justo Sierra, represents a significant stage
in the early development of modernismo. Death and the anguish
of existence predominate in his poetry, which clearly reflects his
reading of French 19th-century authors. Although his poetry is more
accessible, his prose works are more numerous, a consequence of his
life as a journalist. He signed himself with a variety of picturesque
pseudonyms (“El Duque Job” was the best known), in part to avoid
censorship, in part so that he could publish variations of the same
text in different places. He wrote about art, literature, politics, cul-
ture, and the issues of the day, accommodating the chronicle to the
newspaper in Mexico by fictionalizing and subjectivizing historical
events in imitation of practices already found in European literary
journalism.

GUZMÁN, AUGUSTO (Bolivia, 1903–1994). Novelist and historian.


He wrote biographies of prominent figures from Bolivian history and
several books concerned with the history of Bolivian literature. His
fiction includes La sima fecunda (1933; The Fruitful Abyss), set in
his native Cochabamba, and Prisionero de guerra (1937; Prisoner of
War), a novel of the Chaco War (1932–1935) between Bolivia and
Paraguay, based on personal experiences.

GUZMÁN, MARTÍN LUIS (Mexico, 1887–1976). Novelist and jour-


nalist. Guzmán’s major contribution to the novel of the Mexican
Revolution is El águila y la serpiente (1928; The Eagle and the
Serpent), a title derived from elements of the Mexican national flag.
It is an episodic narrative that benefits from the author’s training as
a journalist and his personal experience of the revolution under the
command of Francisco “Pancho” Villa, whose biography he later
wrote, Memorias de Pancho Villa (1936–1951, 5 vols.; Memoirs of
Pancho Villa). Guzmán also wrote La sombra del caudillo (1929;

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HATOUM, MILTON • 227

The Shadow of the Caudillo), a novel that successfully captures


the intrigue and violence of politics during the revolutionary period
in Mexico by following the career of one particular strongman, or
caudillo.

– H –

HALLEY MORA, MARIO (Paraguay, 1927–2003). Dramatist and


novelist. He was one of Paraguay’s most prolific writers of the
20th century and obtained recognition in both theater and fiction.
His work for the theater includes scripts for more than 50 different
performances, including some written in Yopará, the local mix of
Spanish and Guaraní, and the libretto for musical plays. One of his
best-known works was El juego del tiempo (1986; The Play of Time),
and his other works for the stage include Se necesita un hombre para
cosa urgente (Man Needed for Something Urgent), El dinero del
cielo (Money from Heaven), El último cuadillo (The Last Chief),
Magdalena Servín (Magdalena Servín), Nada más que uno (No More
Than One), Memorias de una pobre diabla (Memories of a Wretched
Devil), Despedida de soltero (Bachelor’s Farewell), La mano del
hombre (The Man’s Hand), and Testigo falso (False Witness).
As a narrative author, Halley Mora’s novels and short stories are
published in two dozen books, and he is credited with having created
the urban novel in Paraguay. La quema de Judas (1965; The Burning
of Judas) is one of the first novels about Asunción. Los hombres de
Celina (1981; Men of Celina) is a coming-of-age novel about a boy
who leaves the country to find his fortune in the city, and Memoria
adentro (1989; Memory Within) is a detective novel that incorpo-
rates the story of the capital of Paraguay. Early in his literary career,
Halley Mora also published a book of poems, Piel adentro (1967;
Skin Inside).

HATOUM, MILTON (Brazil, 1952– ). Novelist. He was born to Leb-


anese parents in Manaus, the largest city in the Amazon. Hatoum’s
fiction has been noted for its portrayal of the ethnic and cultural
variety of peoples who came together in that part of the world, from
Arab immigrants working as traders, to the native Indians, to the

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228 • HAYA DE LA TORRE, VÍCTOR RAÚL

descendants of the Portuguese. Though recognition came slowly, his


four novels to date have sold thousands of copies. Relato de um Certo
Oriente (1989; The Tree of the Seventh Heaven, also translated as
Tale of a Certain Orient), which tells the story of a Lebanese immi-
grant family in Manaus and their struggle to adapt to a new cultural
environment, won the Jabuti Prize. His subsequent works, Dois Ir-
mãos (2000; Two Brothers) and Cinzas do Norte (2005; Ashes of the
Amazon), contain veiled critiques of Brazil’s military government.

HAYA DE LA TORRE, VÍCTOR RAÚL (Peru, 1895–1979).


Essayist. As the founder of the Alianza Popular Revolucionaria
Americana (APRA; American Popular Revolutionary Alliance), he
was a significant 20th-century political figure and several times an
unsuccessful candidate for the presidency of Peru. His advocacy of
the link between workers and intellectuals had an impact on litera-
ture, particularly indigenismo. He was an active writer whose ideas
were first gathered in El antimperialismo y el APRA (1927; Anti-
Imperialism and APRA) and later in publications such as Espacio-
tiempo histórico (1948; Historical Space-Time) and Treinta años
de aprismo (1956; Thirty Years of Aprismo). See also ALEGRÍA,
CIRO; MARIÁTEGUI, JOSÉ CARLOS; PORTAL, MAGDA.

HEIREMANS, LUIS ALBERTO (Chile, 1928–1964). Dramatist and


short story writer. His first publications were collections of short
stories, Los niños extraños (1950; Strange Children) and Los demás
(1952; The Others), but he is best known for his writings for the the-
ater. Some of his early plays, including Noche de equinoccio (1951;
Night of the Equinox), La hora robada (1952; The Stolen Hour),
La jaula en el árbol (1957; The Cage in the Tree), and El palomar
a oscuras (1962; Dovecot in the Dark), present variations of the
conflict between desires and reality, similar to the themes developed
in his fiction, and reflect the influence of the French dramatists Jean
Anouihl (1910–1987) and Jean Giraudoux (1882–1944). In the last
few years before his death, however, his drama took a different turn
and showed more maturity and independence, influenced by Chilean
folklore and a desire to offer a Christian view of the world. With
some of the character of a Christmas auto, Versos de ciego (1961;
A Blindman’s Poems) presents the three Magi, who follow the Star

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HERNÁNDEZ, JOSÉ • 229

of Bethlehem as a group of wandering musicians and are joined by


others on their journey. In El abanderado (1962; The Man with a
Kerchief), he combines the biblical story of the crucifixion with lo-
cal legends to tell the tale of a human Christ who approaches death
through guilt and fear. Heiremans’s last play, El tony chico (1964;
The Littlest Clown), first performed a few days after he died, is the
story of a man who identifies with his past as he confronts his death
and the afterlife.

HERNÁNDEZ, FELISBERTO (Uruguay, 1902–1964). Short story


writer. His literary production went largely unrecognized dur-
ing his lifetime, perhaps because of the unconventionality of its
themes and the social and economic marginality of his life. He
gained some following in the later part of his life, and his influence
has since been acknowledged by writers such as Julio Cortázar
for stories written in the vein of fantastic literature and their af-
finity with the avant-garde.
Hernández’s early collections were Fulano de tal (1925; So-
and-so), Libro sin tapas (1928; Book Without Covers), La cara de
Ana (1930; Ana’s Face), and La envenenada (1931; The Poisoned
Woman). Humor and unusual points of view are characteristics of
these stories. “Historia de un cigarrrillo,” for example, is the story
of a cigarette. “El balcón” (“The Balcony”) is a tale about a woman
who becomes enamoured of the balcony on her house. Several other
books appeared after a lapse of 10 years: Por los tiempos de Cle-
mente Colling (1942; In the Time of Clemente Colling), a novella;
and El caballo perdido (1943; The Lost Horse), Nadie enciende las
lámparas (1947; No-one Lights the Lamps), Las Hortensias (1949;
The Hortenses), and La casa inundada (1960; The Flooded House),
all further collections of stories, the last three of which were included
in English translation in Piano Stories (1993). These later collections
contain a number of narratives about childhood and adolescence and
themes of eroticism and infantilism. The title story in Las Hortensias,
for example, is about a man who replaces his wife with dolls.

HERNÁNDEZ, JOSÉ (Argentina, 1834–1886). Poet. The author


was virtually unknown before the publication of El gaucho Martín
Fierro (1872; The Gaucho Martín Fierro). He drew on the travails

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230 • HERNÁNDEZ, LUISA JOSEFINA

of his own life when writing his narrative poem: his situation as an
orphan, his experience of poverty and war, life on the Argentinean
pampas, and his lack of a permanent home. His work is a landmark
of Latin American romanticism, a defense of rural life and values,
and perhaps the most important contribution to gaucho literature,
being the one that gave canonical literary status to verse narratives of
gaucho life. The story of Martin Fierro, set at the time of the frontier
wars in Argentina, when the traditional life of the gaucho was already
disappearing under the advance of modernity, exalts the virtues of
manliness and self-reliance and is one of the foundational texts of Ar-
gentinean identity. In La vuelta de Martín Fierro (1878; The Return
of Martín Fierro), Hernández continued the story, reflecting some of
the changes that had occurred in his own life, but also reasserting the
virtues that had figured in the first part of the poem. See also ASCA-
SUBI, HILARIO; LUSSICH, ANTONIO DIONISIO; MARTÍNEZ
ESTRADA, EZEQUIEL.

HERNÁNDEZ, LUISA JOSEFINA (Mexico, 1928– ). Dramatist and


novelist. She was a student of Rodolfo Usigli and has been a suc-
cessful writer for the theater since the age of 21. She has written in a
variety of styles and on different historical and fictional themes. Her
output amounts to more than 30 plays, including Los sordomudos
(1950; Deaf Mutes), Aguardiente de caña (1951; Rum), La corona
del ángel (1951; The Angel’s Crown), Los frutos caídos (1957;
Fallen Fruit), La fiesta del mulato (1970; The Mulatto’s Orgy), La
paz ficticia (1974; False Peace), Caprichos y disparates de Francisco
Goya (1979; Francisco Goya’s Caprices and Follies), En una noche
como ésta (1988; On a Night Like This), and Las bodas (1992; The
Wedding). She professes no particular ideology, although she is one
of Mexico’s prominent women writers and is often considered a fem-
inist, notwithstanding her disclaimers about being classified as such.
Women, as victims, but also as strong, assertive characters intent
on self-realization and self-identity, are at the core of her dramas.
Marginalization, justice, marriage, and divorce figure significantly
among the social themes she has tackled. Similar themes also ap-
pear in Hernández’s novels, of which she has published more than
a dozen, although she is better known for her theater. Among her
novels are La noche exquisita (1965; The Exquisite Night), Nostalgia

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HERRERA LUQUE, FRANCISCO • 231

de Troya (1970; Nostalgia for Troy), and Apostasía (1978; Apos-


tasy). She has also translated work by authors such as Christopher
Fry (1907–2005) and Dylan Thomas (1914–1953) from English into
Spanish. See also MAGAÑA, SERGIO.

HERRERA, DARÍO (Panama, 1883–1914). Poet. He was a friend


of Rubén Darío, whom he met in Buenos Aires in 1898, and is
Panama’s best-known poet of modernismo. However, he published
only one book during his lifetime, Horas lejanas (1903; Distant
Hours), a collection of poems about love and the landscape, in which
he experimented with versification.

HERRERA, ERNESTO (Uruguay, 1889–1917). Dramatist. A promi-


nent figure at the beginning of the 20th century during the period
when the theater in Uruguay first flourished, he wrote a number of
plays on Uruguayan themes, which reflect his political commitment
to anarchism. La moral de Misia Paca (Dame Paca’s Morality), El
pan nuestro (1914; Our Daily Bread), and La bella Pinguito (1916;
Beautiful Pinguito) were set in the city. El estanque (1910; The
Pond), Mala laya (1911; Bad Kind), El león ciego (1911; The Blind
Lion), and El caballo de comisario (1915; The Policeman’s Horse)
all have rural themes. He also published a collection of short stories,
Su majestad el hambre (1910; Her Majesty Hunger).

HERRERA, FLAVIO (Guatemala, 1895–1968). Novelist and poet.


He is noted in particular for El tigre (1932; The Tiger), La tempestad
(1938; The Storm), and Caos (1949; Chaos), novels about native
America, concerned with the theme of civilization in the tropics, that
fall between the tendencies of indianismo and indigenismo.

HERRERA LUQUE, FRANCISCO (Venezuela, 1927–1990).


Novelist and essayist. His early essays, beginning with Los viajeros
de Indias (1961; Travelers in the Indies), were psychological studies
of Venezuela that grew out of his training as a psychiatrist. He later
turned to fiction and wrote a very popular series of historical novels
covering the history of Venezuela. These include La luna de Fausto
(1983; Fausto’s Moon) and Los amos del valle (1979; Masters of
the Valley), concerned with the colonial period; Boves el Urogallo

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232 • HERRERA Y REISSIG, JULIO

(1972; Boves the Urogallo) and Manuel Piar, caudillo de dos colores
(1987; Manuel Piar, Two-Faced Chieftain), located during the wars
of independence; and En la casa del pez que escupe el agua (1975;
In the House of the Fish That Spits Water), a family saga from re-
publican times.

HERRERA Y REISSIG, JULIO (Uruguay, 1875–1910). Poet. Al-


though he gathered his poetry in various collections, such as La éx-
tasis de la montaña (The Ecstasy of the Mountain) and Los parques
abandonados (The Abandoned Parks), he prepared only one volume
of verse for publication, Los peregrinos de piedra (1910; The Pil-
grims of Stone), which appeared posthumously the year he died. The
excesses of his language and daring images are often seen in light of
his experiments with narcotics, prescribed for him for a heart condi-
tion. Los parques abandonados was inspired by Los crepúsculos del
jardín by Leopoldo Lugones, but Herrera y Reissig’s images of the
grotesque and sadomasochism take him much further than his source.
Similarly, the sonnets in La éxtasis de la montaña represent a darker
side of the pastoral tradition. In these respects, his style made him a
bridge between modernismo and the avant-garde, and his impor-
tance has been acknowledged by later poets such as César Vallejo,
Vicente Huidobro, and Pablo Neruda. See also VAZ FERREIRA,
MARÍA EUGENIA; VILARIÑO, IDEA; VITALE, IDA.

HIDALGO, ALBERTO (Peru, 1893–1967). Poet. He published two


early volumes of poetry in Peru, Arenga lírica (1916; Lyric De-
clamation) and Panoplia lírica (1917; Lyrical Panoply), but lived
mainly in Argentina after 1918 and was a prominent figure of the
avant-garde. In Buenos Aires, he produced several collections aris-
ing from his association with ultraísmo: Muertos, heridos y contusos
(1920; Dead, Wounded, and Bruised), Tu libro (1923; Your Book),
Química del espíritu (1923; Chemistry of the Spirit), and Simplismo
(1926; Simplism). The last of these became his manifesto for a po-
etry reduced to metaphor as its primary essential element. His later
publications included Descripción del cielo (1928; Description of
the Sky), Actitud de los años (1933; Attitude of the Years), Edad de
corazón (1940; The Age of the Heart), Oda a Stalin (1945; Ode to
Stalin), Patria completa: canto a Macchu Picchu (1960; Complete

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HILST, HILDA • 233

Fatherland: Song to Macchu Picchu), and Árbol genealógico (1963;


Genealogical Tree).

HIDALGO, BARTOLOMÉ (Uruguay, 1788–1822). Poet. Although


born in Montevideo, he fled to Argentina in 1818 and wrote much
of the work for which he is best known while living in Buenos Aires.
Nevertheless, he is still acclaimed as one of Uruguay’s major poets. In
1820 he published Cielitos, a collection of songs traditionally known
by that name, with patriotic themes and written in the language of the
gaucho. He subsequently wrote Diálogos patrióticos, o Diálogos de
Chano y Contreras (1822; Patriotic Dialogues, or Dialogues Between
Chano and Contreras), conversations in verse between two men from
the country in their own language, which are now seen as one of the
main points of departure of gaucho literature.

HILST, HILDA (Brazil, 1930–2004). Dramatist, short story writer, and


poet. Only daughter of a landowning couple, Hilst was young when
her parents separated and was deeply affected as a teenager by her fa-
ther’s schizophrenia. A free-spirited, unconventional young woman,
after briefly practicing law she led a bohemian life in São Paulo in
the 1950s. She traveled widely in Europe and had numerous liaisons
with actors and writers, among whom were the American actor Dean
Martin and Vinícius de Moraes. In the 1960s, she abandoned her life
as a socialite to dedicate herself to literature, living in semi-isolation
on an estate she built near Campinas (state of São Paulo), which she
called Casa do Sol. There she hosted many writers, especially during
the period of the military dictatorship in Brazil (1964–1984). She was
a close friend of the writer Lygia Fagundes Telles.
Hilst’s oeuvre is a mix of poetry, chronicle, and fiction. Going
from one extreme to another, her poetry revisits the religious vein
of authors such as Jorge de Lima and Murilo Mendes and also the
medieval tradition of the troubadors. Her first publications were po-
etry collections, among which are Sete Cantos do Poeta para o Anjo
(1962; Seven Songs of the Poet for the Angel) and Cantos de Perda
e Predileção (1984; Songs of Loss and Preference), but she is better
known for her narratives and plays.
Her early fiction, Fluxo-Poema (1970; Flux-Poem) and Quadós
(1973), republished in 2002 as Kadosh (Kadosh), is a reflective prose

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234 • HISTORICAL NOVEL

with hardly a narrative. A Obscena Senhora D (1982; The Obscene


Mrs. D) tells the story of a woman who goes to live in a building
stairwell after her lover dies, continuing to mourn her lost love de-
spite being harassed by neighbors. Some of her work is explicitly
sexual and deliberately obscene or pornographic, at times focusing
on lesbian relationships. In this vein, she wrote the trilogy that in-
cludes O Caderno Rose de Lory Lambi (1990; The Rose Notebook of
Lory Lambi), Contos d’Escárnio/Textos Grotescos (1990; Stories of
Mockery/Grotesque Texts), and Cartas de um Sedutor (1991; Songs
of a Seducer), which also makes use of metalinguistic devices and
parody.
Hilst received major literary prizes, including the Jabuti Prize.
Her theater, much of which was performed but not published, was
influenced by her poetic work and reflects the environment of São
Paulo, such as in Rato no Muro (Mouse in the Wall) and A Possessa
(The Possessed Woman). A somewhat eccentric personality, toward
the end of her life Hilst was preoccupied by questions of immortality
and often affirmed she had contact with beings from another world.
See also ABREU, CAIO FERNANDO.

HISTORICAL NOVEL. Introduced to Latin America from Europe in


the 19th century, the popularity of the historical novel is attested by
the frequent serialization in newspapers and magazines, even in the
20th century, of works by authors, such as Walter Scott (1771–1832)
and Alexandre Dumas, father (1802–1870) and son (1824–1995).
Contributors to the genre, whether through single volumes or through
series in which the history of a country is represented in fiction, in-
clude Eligio Ancona, Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Julio Jiménez
Rueda, Fernando del Paso, Manuel Payno, Vicente Riva Palacio,
Justo Sierra O’Reilly, Manuel Payno, and Artemio de Valle
Arizpe in Mexico; José Milla y Vidaure in Guatemala; Tomás
Carrasquilla and William Ospina in Colombia; Rómulo Gallegos,
Francisco Herrera Luque, Miguel Otero Silva, and Arturo Uslar
Pietri in Venezuela; José de Alencar, Moacyr Scliar, and Dinah
Silveira de Queirós in Brazil; Néstor Taboada Terán in Bolivia;
Enrique López Albújar in Peru; Manuel Gálvez, Eduardo
Gutiérrez, Sylvia Iparraguirre, Enrique Larreta, Vicente Fidel
López, Manuel Mujica Láinez, and Roberto Payró in Argentina;

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HOLANDA, SÉRGIO BUARQUE DE • 235

Eduardo Acevedo Díaz in Uruguay; Daniel Barros Grez, Aberto


Blest Gana, Magdalena Petit, and Benjamín Subercaseaux in
Chile.
In Mexico, the historical novel, introduced in the 19th century,
is often referred to as the colonial novel. Both in Mexico and other
countries, however, historical novels may be set in more recent times
as well as in the colonial period that tended to be favored by novels
written in the mold of 19th-century romanticism. Since the 1970s,
a new version of the historical novel, known as the new historical
novel, has developed in Latin America, departing from the conven-
tions of the traditional genre by focusing on the nature of historical
discourse and historiography.

HOJEDA, DIEGO DE (Peru, ca. 1571–1615). Poet. Hojeda was a


Dominican friar whose La Christiada (1611; The Christiad), based
on the passion and death of Christ, was the first important New
World religious epic and a notable contribution to 17th-century epic
poetry in Spanish America.

HOLANDA, SÉRGIO BUARQUE DE (Brazil, 1902–1982). Essayist


and historian. Father of Chico Buarque, Buarque de Holanda was
an early participant in Brazilian modernism, cofounding the avant-
garde journal Estética (1924–1925) and writing criticism under the
influence of futurism and other European trends. Later on, his inter-
ests alternated between history and literature seen from a sociologi-
cal perspective, particularly influenced by Max Weber (1864–1920).
Along with the essayists Arthur Ramos (1903–1949) and Gilberto
Freyre, among others, he is one of a number of celebrated “interpret-
ers of Brazil” who, beginning in the 1930s, attempted to systemati-
cally define the Brazilian national character on the basis of anthro-
pological research.
Buarque de Holanda’s most famous works are Raízes do Brasil
(1936; Roots of Brazil) and Visão do paraíso: Os Motivos Edênicos
no Descobrimento e Colonização do Brasil (1959; Vision of Para-
dise: Edenic Motifs in the Discovery and Colonization of Brazil).
The former is a historical interpretation of the role of Portuguese
colonization in the formation of Brazilian society, including adapta-
tion processes, and the latter offers an analysis of the myth of the

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236 • HOMOSEXUALITY

Garden of Paradise in conquest and colonization narratives from the


15th to the 18th centuries.

HOMOSEXUALITY. See GAY AND LESBIAN WRITERS AND


WRITING.

HONDURAS. Although a small country, Honduras has had many no-


table writers. However, few of them are part of the Latin American
literary canon. The two most significant figures of the 19th century
were José Cecilio del Valle and José Trinidad Reyes, both of
whom contributed to several cultural domains and had considera-
ble influence on the formation of the literary culture of Honduras.
A similar role was played by Rafael Heliodoro Valle in the 20th
century. Two poets stand above others as having achieved recog-
nition beyond the borders of Honduras. Juan Ramón Molina is a
well-known figure in Latin American modernismo, and Roberto
Sosa, in more recent times, has been widely read and translated. In
the field of narrative, the first novelist was Lucila Gamero de Me-
dina, who wrote in a romantic vein. After her, the narrative of the
first half of the 20th century was dominated by costumbrismo and
criollismo. Since then, more recent writers of fiction have developed
a more socially committed writing. They have also explored trends in
Latin American fiction, such as magic realism, as well as focusing
on economic and political conditions in Honduras and the country’s
language and culture.
In spite of several attempts, the formation of a firmly established
national theater in Honduras is yet to be achieved. Among those who
have contributed to its development, however, the names of José Trini-
dad Reyes and Andrés Morris stand out, the former for the 19th cen-
tury, the latter for the mid-20th. See also CASA DE LAS AMÉRICAS;
MONTERROSO, AUGUSTO; THEATER OF THE ABSURD.

HUERTA, EFRAÍN (Mexico, 1914–1982). Poet. His first collection


of verse, Absoluto amor (1935; Absolute Love), evokes the many
forms taken by love, but his later books range more widely. His
themes include Mexico City and everyday life on its streets, as well
as his place in the cosmos. His poetry is often militantly political,
a reflection of his sympathies for the downtrodden. Later books

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IBÁÑEZ, ROBERTO • 237

include Línea del alba (1936; Line of Dawn), Poemas de guerra y


esperanza (1943; Poems of War and Hope), La rosa primitiva (1950;
The Primitive Rose), Estrella en alto (1956; Star on High), and Cir-
cuito interior (1977; Interior Circuit). Pablo Neruda was the greatest
influence on his work.

HUIDOBRO, VICENTE (Chile, 1893–1948). Poet. A key figure


of the Latin American avant-garde whose work contributed to the
break with modernismo. Even before he traveled to Paris in 1916, he
had published the literary manifesto Non serviam (1914; I Will Not
Serve) and begun to develop the poetics that would become known
as creacionismo. Several collections of poetry had also appeared,
notably El espejo de agua (1916; Water Mirror), which already
indicated the direction his work would take. In Paris, he associated
with leading figures of the French avant-garde and published both in
French and Spanish. The themes of his poetry of this period, which
includes Poemas árcticos (1918; Arctic Poems), stress the idea of
fragmentation, and the format of his verses and the disposition of the
text on the page break with all conventions. Huidobro also traveled
frequently between Paris and Madrid, where he was one of the found-
ers of ultraísmo. He returned to Chile in 1925 and published two
major works several years later, Temblor de cielo (1931; Skyquake)
and the work that is acknowledged as his masterpiece, Altazor, o el
viaje en paracaídas (1931; Altazor, or A Voyage in a Parachute).
This is a poem in seven cantos, deploying the techniques and poet-
ics of the avant-garde, which uses the image of a fall to describe the
discontinuity and disintegration of modern life and the creative drive
of the poet in exploring the limits of expression. Huidobro also car-
ried his theory of poetics into other genres and wrote several works
of fiction as well as two plays. See also HERRERA Y REISSIG, JU-
LIO; MORO, CÉSAR; OQUENDO DE AMAT, CARLOS; PARRA,
NICANOR; TEITELBOIM, VOLODIA; THEATER.

– I –

IBÁÑEZ, ROBERTO (Uruguay, 1907–1978). Poet. Some of the uni-


versal themes of human existence, such as lost youth, love, death, and

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238 • IBÁÑEZ, SARA DE

solitude, figured in his early work, although he later turned to more


social themes. His collection La frontera (1961; The Frontier) re-
ceived the first Casa de las Américas poetry prize. His other collec-
tions include Olas (1925; Waves), La danza de los horizontes (1927;
Dance of the Horizons), and Mitología de la sangre (1939; Blood
Mythology). He was a notable literary critic and one of the first in
Uruguay to adopt a scholarly approach to literary commentary. He
was married to Sara de Ibáñez.

IBÁÑEZ, SARA DE (Uruguay, 1909–1971). Poet. She wrote on


nationalistic, patriotic themes taken from Uruguayan history as well
as on war and apocalypse, death, nature, and love. Her publications
include Canto (1940; Song), with a prologue by Pablo Neruda;
Canto a Montevideo (1943; Song for Montevideo); Artigas (1952;
Artigas); La batalla (1967, The Battle); and Apocalipsis XX (1970;
Apocalypse XX). She was married to Roberto Ibáñez.

IBARBOUROU, JUANA DE (Uruguay, 1892–1979). Poet. Her


poetry represents a move toward a simpler style after modernismo.
She was a feminist writer who questioned the conservative middle
class from within. Her work obtained wide popularity and earned
her a number of national and international awards, including the title
“Juana de América,” granted in Montevideo in 1929. Nature and a
sensually erotic lyricism predominate in her first book, Las lenguas
de diamante (1919; Diamond Tongues), and a pantheistic attitude
toward nature is sustained in her next two books, the first, El cántaro
fresco (1920; The Refreshing Pitcher), in prose, the second, Raíz sal-
vaje (1922; Wild Root), in verse. Between these two books and her
later publications there is a gap of some 20 years, during which her
poetry became more reflective, giving greater prominence to death,
nostalgia, the passage of time, and biblical imagery, as in Perdida
(1950; Lost), Azor (1953; Falcon), Oro y tormenta (1956; Gold and
Tempest), and Elegía (1967; Elegy). Ibarbourou’s other prose works
also include Estampas de la Biblia (1934; Scenes from the Bible) and
autobiographical sketches in Chico Carlo (1944; Young Carlo). See
also VAZ FERREIRA, MARÍA EUGENIA.

IBARGÜENGOITIA, JORGE (Mexico, 1928–1983). Dramatist,


novelist, short story writer, and journalist. He was a popular satirical

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ICAZA, JORGE • 239

writer whose literary career began in the theater. His early notable
plays include Susana y los jóvenes (1954; Susana and the Youths)
and Clotilde en su casa (1955; Clotilde at Home), both irreverent
glimpses into the daily life of middle-class Mexico. Later dramas
included Antes varias esfinges (1959; Before Various Sphinxes), El
tesoro perdido (1960; The Lost Treasure), and El atentado (1964;
The Assassination). El atentado deals with the 1928 assassination
of Mexican president Álvaro Obregón (1920–1924), but it was not
performed until 1974 because of its political content.
The same play was also the source of Ibargüengoitia’s best-known
novel, Los relámpagos de agosto (1964; Lightning in August), a
spoof of the myths of the Mexican Revolution that won the author
a Casa de las Américas prize. In this work, as in some of his other
novels, he took historical events and transformed them into litera-
ture, treating them with humor, irony, and sarcasm, but often with
a dark undertone. His other narratives in this vein include Maten al
león (1969; Kill the Lion), a dictator novel written as a farce; Estas
ruinas que ves (1975; The Ruins You See), an autobiographical satire
on academic life in Guanajuato; Las muertas (1977; The Dead Girls),
based on a celebrated real-life case about two brothel-keepers who
were also serial killers; Dos crímenes (Two Crimes), another thriller;
and Los pasos de López (1982; López’s Steps), a novel developed
from La conspiración vendida (1965; The Sold Out Conspiracy),
another of the author’s plays, a critique of revolutions led from above
set at the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence.
Ibargüengoitia published several collections of short stories, of
which La ley de Herodes (1967; Herod’s Law), narratives about daily
life in Mexico City, is the best known. His regular journalistic contri-
butions to publications such as the Mexican journal Vuelta and the
Mexican daily Excelsior have been collected and published in vol-
umes such as Viajes en la América ignota (1972; Journeys Through
Unknown America) and Sálvese quien pueda (1975; Every Man for
Himself). Ibargüengoitia died in the Madrid air disaster.

ICAZA, JORGE (Ecuador, 1906–1978). Novelist. Although not a


member of the Grupo de Gayaquil, his fiction was contemporary
with theirs and he shared their objectives. He is best known for the
novel Huaspipungo (1934; Huasipungo: The Villagers), a story of
the frustrated attempts of an Indian community to retain possession

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240 • INCLÁN, LUIS G.

of ancestral lands. It is a significant indigenista novel, albeit a deter-


ministic and pessimistic portrayal of Native Americans in the social
realist style of naturalism. The origins of the novel may be found
in Barro de la sierra (1933; Clay of the Mountain), a collection of
stories by Icaza that appeared the year before Huasipungo. In later
novels, including El chulla Romero y Flores (1958; The Upstart Ro-
mero y Flores) and Atrapados (1973; Trapped), Icaza attempted to
give a broader view of Ecuadorian culture and society, with particu-
lar attention to the figure of the mestizo. He also wrote for the theater
and completed several plays before he turned to fiction, among them
Flagelo (1932; Scourge), a drama that anticipates the content of the
novel Huasipungo.

INCLÁN, LUIS G. (Mexico, 1816–1875). Novelist. He is known for


his only work of fiction, Astucia, el jefe de los hermanos de la hoja o
los charros contrabandistas de la rama (1965; Astucia, Chief of the
Brotherhood of the Leaf or the Smuggler Horsemen of the Branch),
about the adventures of a band of 19th-century tobacco smugglers
in rural Mexico, told with an attention to detail characteristic of cos-
tumbrismo.

INDIANISMO. The word is used to refer to the conventions of


representation of Latin American native peoples and their cultures
by non-Indians in terms that subordinate Indians to preconceptions
derived from the cultural perspective of the viewer. As such, the
Indian is made a source of exoticism or nostalgia or becomes the
projection of a cultural other. Indianismo has its origins in the earliest
documents, or chronicles, of the conquest and colonization, which
set the framework for how indigenous peoples were viewed during
the colonial period and for a long time thereafter. The term is used
in particular to designate the trends prevailing in literary works of
19th-century romanticism that idealized, exoticized, and demonized
Indians following the influence of concepts such as primitivism and
the “noble savage” and the writings of authors such as François-René
de Chateaubriand (1768–1848), whose indianist novels Atala (1801)
and René (1802) were widely read in Latin Amerca. Prominent in-
dianista authors in Spanish America include Esteban Echeverría
(Argentina), Juan León Mera (Ecuador), and Juan Zorrilla de

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INDIGENISMO • 241

San Martín (Uruguay), whose works also embodied elements of the


incipient nationalism of the 19th century.
Indianismo began in Brazil with arcadianism and poets such as
Basílio da Gama and Santa Rita Durão, who saw native Brazilians
only through the Enlightenment lens of the “noble savage” or the
Christian perspective of heathens to be converted. Indianism became
truly prominent during romanticism, which promoted the creation
of national literature, culture, and identity following Brazil’s inde-
pendence from Portugal, achieved between 1808 and 1822. Most
point to “Nênia” by Firmino Rodrigues Silva (1816–1879) as the
first truly Indianist poem, followed by important figures such as the
poets Domingos José Gonçalves de Magalhães and Antônio Gon-
çalves Dias and the novelist José de Alencar. Romantic indianism
came under attack in the modernist period by Oswald de Andrade,
who countered the romanticized “noble savage” with the figure of
the cannibal in his “Manifesto Antropófago.” Mário de Andrade
and Raul Bopp also explored native motifs from a modernist,
primitivist perspective. See also GUIMARÃES, BERNARDO JOA-
QUIM DA SILVA; HERRERA, FLAVIO; INDIGENISMO; NEO-
INDIGENISMO.

INDIGENISMO. In contrast to 19th-century indianismo, which ex-


oticized the native people and cultures of Latin America, indige-
nismo (derived from indígena, meaning “indigenous”) highlighted
their marginalized condition and the centuries of subjugation and
exploitation endured by native populations. It belongs in particular to
the first half of the 20th century and developed in Spanish America
in the context of the rise of political philosophies that challenged the
status quo and advocated more egalitarian societies.
The movement was strongest in the Andean region, where the in-
digenous population is demographically dominant. Clorinda Matto
de Turner was a literary precursor, and the theory of indigenismo
owed much to her fellow Peruvians Manuel González Prada and
José Carlos Mariátegui. The principal indigenista novelists of the
region were Ciro Alegría (Peru), Alcides Arguedas (Bolivia), and
Jorge Icaza (Ecuador). In Mexico the indigenista novel is often
associated with the novel of the Mexican Revolution, in which a
movement for social change is also documented, such as in the work

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242 • INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS

of Mariano Azuela, Gregorio López y Fuentes, and Mauricio


Magdalena. Other authors whose work has elements of indigenismo
include Flavio Herrera and Mario Monteforte Toledo (Guate-
mala), Miguel N. Lira (Mexico), Enrique López Albújar (Peru),
Jesús Lara (Bolivia), Augusto Roa Bastos (Paraguay), Ángel Fe-
licísimo Rojas and members of the Grupo de Gayaquil (Ecuador),
and Patricio Manns (Chile).
Although they promoted political change, most of these authors
were not themselves indigenous and tended to write in manners that
originated with 19th-century costumbrismo, realism, and natural-
ism. Some of this, at least with respect to approaches to indigenous
questions and the style in which indigenista literature was written,
would begin to change in the 1950s with neo-indigenismo. See also
ARGUEDAS, JOSÉ MARÍA; HAYA DE LA TORRE, VÍCTOR
RAÚL; PALACIO, PABLO.

INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS. Although the myths and legends of


pre-Columbian times were expressed through oral traditions, ritual
practices, and the monuments of preconquest America, they were not
written down until European writing made this possible. Following
the arrival of the Europeans, many of the stories were transcribed.
The chronicles, especially those by mestizo authors, such as Fer-
nando de Alva Ixlilxochitl in Mexico and El Inca Garcilaso de la
Vega in Peru, are important sources. Other stories are preserved in
dramatic form, such as El güegüense (Nicaragua), Rabinal Achí
(Guatemala), and Ollantay (Peru), and some texts, such as the Popol
Vuh and the Books of Chilam Balam, both from Guatemala, have
important religious and historical significance. Although the Indian
has figured as a topic of Brazilian literature in romanticism and
indianismo, in Brazilian modernism, and especially antropofagia,
indigenous cultures have only been thematized in fiction by writers
such as Darcy Ribeiro. The oral traditions of indigenous peoples
have had little impact on mainstream Brazilian literature. See also
INDIGENISMO.

INGENIEROS, JOSÉ (Argentina, 1877–1925). Essayist. A psychia-


trist by profession, he wrote a number of books related to his pro-
fessional activities and was also one of the most significant voices

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IVO, LEDO • 243

of positivism in Argentina. His pertinent contributions in this area


include Sociología argentina (1918; Argentinean Sociology) and La
evolución de las ideas argentinas (1920; The Evolution of Argen-
tinean Ideas).

IPARRAGUIRRE, SYLVIA (Argentina, 1947– ). Novelist. She is


best known for her new historical novel Tierra del Fuego (2000;
Tierra del Fuego: A Biography from the End of the World), the
story of Jemmy Button (ca. 1815–1864), a Fuegian taken to England
by Robert FitzRoy, captain of the HMS Beagle, on which Charles
Darwin made his momentous voyage to South America, and later
returned to his homeland. The same story is the subject of a his-
torical novel by Benjamín Subercaseaux. Iparraguirre’s other
works include En el invierno de las ciudades (1988; In the Winter of
the Cities), Probables lluvias por la noche (1993; Probable Rain at
Night), El parque (1996; The Park), and El muchacho de los senos
de goma (2007; Boy with Rubber Breasts). Iparraguirre has also pu-
blished essays on literature and painting.

ISAACS, JORGE (Colombia, 1837–1895). Novelist. Although he


produced a small body of poetry, published in Poesías (1864;
Poems), his reputation rests on the novel María (1867; María: A
South American Romance). This is a significant work of Spanish
American romanticism and was the most widely read Spanish
American novel of the 19th century. Within the convention of a story
of love thwarted by separation and tragic death, borrowed in many
respects from French sources, the novel also explores the relations-
hips connecting humanity both to the natural world and to the worlds
of religion, politics, and the social order.

IVO, LEDO (Brazil, 1924– ). Essayist, journalist, short story writer,


and poet. Born in the Northeast but residing most of his life in Rio,
Ivo is primarily known as an editor of the journal Orfeu during the
polemical neomodernist wave known as the Generation of ’45. His
main poetry books, which revive traditional forms such as the sonnet,
include Ode e Elegia (1945; Ode and Elegy) and Antologia Poética
(1991; Selected Poetry). Among his narrative works are Ninho de
Cobras: Uma História Mal Contada (1973; Snake’s Nest or A Tale

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244 • IXTLILXOCHITL, FERNANDO DE ALVA

Badly Told), which recalls life in the author’s native state of Alagoas,
and the short-story collection O Flautim e Outras Histórias Cariocas
(1966; The Piccolo and Other Tales from Rio de Janeiro). He has
also produced the essays A Morte do Brasil (1984; The Death of
Brazil) and A Experiência da Imaginação (1991; The Experience of
Imagination).

IXTLILXOCHITL, FERNANDO DE ALVA (Mexico, 1568–1648).


Chronicler. He was a mestizo, a descendant of the emperors of
Mexico and the lords of Texcoco, who wrote two chronicles, the Re-
lación histórica de la nación tulteca (1600–1608; Historical Narra-
tive of the Toltec Nation) and the Historia chichimeca (1610–1640;
History of the Chichimecas), both of which drew significantly on
indigenous traditions for the pre-Columbian part of their narrative.

– J –

JABUTI PRIZE. Founded in 1958 by Edgard Cavalheiro, the Prêmio


Jabuti (literally “Tortoise Prize”) is one of Brazil’s most prestigious
book awards. The jabuti, a kind of tortoise native to Brazil, was
picked as a symbol to honor book authors and publishers because
in Brazilian folklore it represents patience and tenacity in overcom-
ing obstacles. There are 20 categories, including the major literary
genres, children’s literature, and other areas in the sciences and
humanities. Winners for the short story include Caio Fernando
Abreu, Marçal Aquino, Hilda Hilst, Rubem Fonseca, and Lygia
Fagundes Telles; for poetry, Francisco Alvim, Affonso Ávila,
Carlito Azevedo, Haroldo de Campos, Armando Freitas Filho,
Sebastião Uchoa Leite, Adélia Prado, Bruno Tolentino; and for
the novel, Rubem Fonseca, Milton Hatoum, and Silviano Santiago.

JAIMES FREYRE, RICARDO (Bolivia, 1863–1933). Poet. He was


born in Peru and spent a significant part of his early life in Ar-
gentina, where he collaborated with Rubén Darío and Leopoldo
Lugones and became an important contributor to modernismo.
Although he wrote short stories and other works in prose, he is best
known for two collections of verse, both influenced by European

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JESÚS MARTÍNEZ, JOSÉ DE • 245

symbolism and parnassianism. The first, and most celebrated, of


these collections is Castalia bárbara (1899; Barbarous Castalia), set
in Nordic mythology and landscape, on the theme of death and the
conflict between pagan and Christian values. Death also figures in his
second collection, Los sueños son vida (1917; Dreams Are Life), but
is approached from a more universal point of view, without the Nor-
dic associations of his earlier verse. Jaimes Freyre was one of the first
practitioners of free verse in Spanish and a theorist who expressed his
thoughts on poetic practice in Leyes de la versificación castellana
(1912; Rules for Spanish Versification). He also wrote some fiction
and several historical works, notably on Tucumán (Argentina), as
well as several dramas. These included Los conquistadores (The
Conquerors), on the Spanish conquest, and the biblical drama La hija
de Jefthé (1889; Jephtha’s Daughter), both written in verse and in the
style of Spanish romantic theater.

JARAMILLO LEVI, ENRIQUE (Panama, 1940– ). Short story


writer. Collections of his stories include Duplicaciones (1973; Du-
plications and Other Stories), La voz despalabrada (1986; Voice
Without Words), El fabricante de máscaras (1992; The Mask
Maker), Tocar fondo (1996; Touch Bottom), En un abrir y cerrar de
ojos (2002; In a Twinkling of an Eye), Híbridos (2004; Hybrids), and
Para más señas (2005; To Be More Precise). Jaramillo Levi has also
edited a large number of collections of short stories by other authors.

JAURETCHE, ARTURO (Argentina, 1904–1974). Essayist. He was


a prominent conservative intellectual and cofounder of Fuerza de
Orientación Radical de la Joven Argentina (FORJA; Force for the
Radical Orientation of Young Argentina). He found favor in the first
government of Juan Domingo Perón. He turned to writing more
fully after a fall from grace in 1951 and produced a number of com-
mentaries on Argentinean culture and society, including El medio
pelo de la sociedad argentina (1966; The Middle Brow in Argen-
tinean Society) and Manual de zonceras argentinas (1968; Guide to
Argentinean Follies).

JESÚS MARTÍNEZ, JOSÉ DE (Panama, 1929–1991). Dramatist,


essayist, and poet. Although born in Nicaragua, he was Panamanian

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246 • JEWISH WRITING

by adoption and taught mathematics at the Universidad de Panamá.


His biography Mi general Torrijos (1987; General Torrijos) of
the Panamanian dictator Omar Torrijos (1929–1981), written after
serving as his adviser, received a Casa de las Américas prize. He
also wrote more than a dozen plays exploring themes related to his
background in philosophy and mathematics, such as the nature of
being and religion, the soul and solitude, death, communication,
and time and space. His most successful plays included La mentira
(1954; The Lie), Caifás (1961; Caiphas), El juicio final (1962; The
Last Judgement), and Segundo asalto (1968; Second Assault). See
also THEATER.

JEWISH WRITING. Writers whose work displays an awareness of


their Jewish heritage commonly approach their identity by exami-
ning the combination of Jewishness with the life and culture embo-
died in particular Latin American nationalities. One of the earliest
examples is Alberto Gerchunoff’s Los gauchos judíos (1910; The
Jewish Gauchos of the Pampas). The same trend is apparent in more
recent authors, where it may also be combined with a search for
roots, such as in work by Margo Glantz (Mexico) or Luisa Futo-
ransky (Argentina). See also ARIDJIS, HOMERO; BRAZIL; GEL-
MAN, JUAN; GOLDEMBERG, ISAAC; PERU; PORZECANSKI,
TERESA; SCLIAR, MOACYR; SZICHMAN, MARIO; URUGUAY.

JIMÉNEZ RUEDA, JULIO (Mexico, 1896–1960). Dramatist, nov-


elist, and essayist. As a dramatist, he wrote in a variety of styles.
Tempestad en las costumbres (1922; An Upset in Customs) is a co-
medy of manners; La silueta de humo (1927; The Smoke Silhouette)
is a farce; Toque de diana (1928; Reveille) is a drama about the
Mexican Revolution; and Miramar (1943; Miramar) is a historical
play about the Empress Carlota of Mexico (1864–1867). He is per-
haps better known for his historical novels, set mainly in the colonial
period. These include Sor Adoración del Divino Verbo (1923; Sister
Adoration of the Divine Word), Moisén (1924; Moses), and Novelas
coloniales (1949; Colonial Novels). As an essayist, Jiménez Rueda
is known primarily as a critic of Mexican literature, including studies
of the theater of Juan Ruiz de Alarcón.

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JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, AND PERIODICALS • 247

JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, AND PERIODI-


CALS. Although books are the form most commonly associated with
the production and distribution of literature, other print media have
also had important, long-standing connections. Since at least the
beginning of the 19th century in Latin America, literature has figured
significantly in the diverse world of printing and publication under
the heading of journals, magazines, newspapers, and periodicals, an
eclectic collection of different types of publications that often overlap
with respect to their function and form.
Literary journals have had an important role as a focal point for
writers with interests in common and have served to give a voice to
particular literary groups or movements. As vehicles for the dissemi-
nation of information relating to literature, they are specifically dedi-
cated to the publication of literary texts, book reviews, manifestos
and theory, commentary, and criticism. Although many of them have
been short-lived, others have proven to be more durable. Cultural and
news magazines and periodicals, with broader mandates governing
their content, have also considered literature within their purview,
and their impact has been no less than that of newspapers since the
advent of the mass circulation press in the late 19th century. Not only
have newspapers contributed to the circulation of creative and criti-
cal writing, both in their daily columns and through the publication
of literary supplements, but the steady source of income they gave
to writers advanced the professionalization of writing in a way that
might not otherwise have been possible.
Brazil’s first periodical, As Variedades ou Ensaios de Literatura
(Varieties or Essays on Literature), was an ephemeral publication
that appeared in Bahia in 1812. The first major literary journal was
Niterói: Revista Brasiliense (1836; Niteroi: Brazilian Review),
founded by Domingos José Gonçalves de Magalhães, which helped
officially introduce the ideas of romanticism into the country. In
Spanish America, periodic publications were associated with the
movements for political independence and counted a number of sig-
nificant literary figures among their founders and contributors. One
of the most celebrated was José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi,
also known as El Pensador Mexicano (The Mexican Thinker), a pen
name he took from the title of one of his periodicals. During the 19th

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248 • JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, AND PERIODICALS

century costumbrismo, which promoted a greater taste for realism


in writing, was a feature of newspapers and periodicals and is as-
sociated with authors such as José Álvarez (Argentina), Manuel
González Zeledón (Costa Rica), Guillermo Prieto (Mexico), and
José Joaquín Vallejo (Chile), who wrote regularly for the press.
In the 20th century it was replaced in due course by the chronicle,
a daily column of commentary and narrative that has enhanced the
reputation of many authors ever since, including Jorge Ibargüen-
goitia, Ramón López Velarde, and Carlos Monsiváis in Mexico;
Manuel Bandeira, João do Rio, and Fernando Sabino in Brazil;
Enrique Bernardo Núñez in Venezuela; Clemente Palma in Peru;
Elena María Walsh in Argentina, and Joaquín Edwards Bello in
Chile. For all these writers, whether costumbristas or chroniclers, the
narratives and commentaries that first appeared in the columns of the
press were subsequently collected and published as books.
Both in Brazil and Spanish America, literary journals are espe-
cially associated with the various avant-garde movements in litera-
ture that emerged in the early decades of the 20th century. One of the
signature movements of Brazilian modernism, antropofagia, gave
rise to the Revista de Antropofagia (1928–1929; Cannibal Review),
cofounded by Oswald de Andrade, Raul Bopp, and António de
Alcântara Machado, to which Murilo Mendes also contributed.
Other journals of the same era include Klaxon (1922–1923; Klaxon),
in which Oswald de Andrade also published, as did Sérgio Milliet
da Costa e Silva; Estética (1924–1925; Aesthetics), of which Sér-
gio Buarque de Holanda was a cofounder; A Revista (1925; The
Review), founded by Carlos Drummond de Andrade; and Festa
(1927; Feast), cofounded by Cecília Meireles. Later developments
of Brazilian modernism, such as concrete poetry, also had their jour-
nals, such as the poetry review Noigandres (founded in 1952), which
published work by Pedro Xisto and was edited by Augusto de Cam-
pos, Haroldo de Campos, and Décio Pignatari. The journal Inven-
ção, with Paulo Leminski as a contributor, was also founded by this
group, and Glauco Mattoso conceived the parodic Jornal Dobrabil,
1977–1981 (2001; Foldable News), a mimeographed newspaper.
In avant-garde Mexico, Los Contemporáneos and estridentismo
were both represented by journals. Contemporáneos (1928–1931;
Contemporaries), the voice of the former, was edited by Bernardo

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JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, AND PERIODICALS • 249

Ortiz de Montellano. The estridentistas published in Irradiador


(1923; Radiator) and Horizonte (1926–1927; Horizon), under the
direction of Manuel Maples Arce and Germán List Arzubide.
Martín Fierro and Proa (Prow), both founded in 1924, under the
auspices of ultraísmo in Argentina, included writings by Jorge
Luis Borges, Oliverio Girondo, Eduardo González Lanuza, Raúl
González Tuñón, and Conrado Nalé Roxlo, among many others.
Since the 1920s and 1930s, a number of magazines and periodi-
cals, appealing to a wider audience than journals having a somewhat
narrowly defined literary purpose, have flourished in Latin America
and are among some of the continent’s most significant undertakings
in publishing. In Mexico, Plural (1971–1976) and Vuelta (founded
1976; Returned), both founded by Nobel Prize winner Octavio Paz,
have attracted wide attention. The reputation of Repertorio Ame-
ricano became well established beyond the borders of Costa Rica,
where it was founded in 1919 by Joaquín García Monge; Yolanda
Oreamuno contributed to it. Zona Franca, founded in 1964 by Juan
Liscano and edited by him for almost 20 years, was a prominent
journal in Venezuela. Amauta (1926–1930), established by José
Carlos Mariátegui in Lima, Peru, was an important cultural and po-
litical journal in its time. Marcha, in Montevideo, Uruguay, fulfilled
a similar role and featured such notable figures as Ángel Rama and
Emir Rodríguez Monegal among its writers. One of the most pres-
tigious long-running periodicals in South America of importance for
literature was Sur, founded by Victoria Ocampo in 1931 and pub-
lished in Argentina. In addition to Jorge Luis Borges, its contributors
included Alberto Girri, Eduardo Mallea, and Héctor A. Murena.
The tradition established by Sur is maintained today by Punto de
Vista, one of Argentina’s major cultural periodicals, founded in 1978
by Beatriz Sarlo and still edited by her. In Brazil, Revista do Brasil,
founded in 1916, is a long-standing publication with a nationalist fo-
cus and has had many notable contributors, including Dinah Silveira
de Queirós and José Bento Monteiro Lobato.
Daily newspapers in Latin America, as in other countries of the
world, are often prominent social institutions with significant roles
in political and cultural life. Their journalists, correspondents, and
reporters include many who have also made a name in literature. In
Mexico, Vicente Leñero wrote for Excélsior and Rafael F. Muñoz

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250 • JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, AND PERIODICALS

for El Universal. In Brazil, Guilherme de Almeida, Moacir Amân-


cio, and João Ubaldo Ribeiro wrote for O Estado do São Paulo, and
Nelson Ascher and Bernardo Carvalho for Folha de São Paulo.
Marco Denevi and Alberto Gerchunoff published in the Buenos
Aires daily La Nación. In Chile, Jorge Edwards contributed to El
Mercurio. Indeed, the number of literary authors who have written
for newspapers or have had extended careers in journalism is le-
gion and includes major figures such as Roberto Arlt (Argentina),
Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis (Brazil), Rosario Castellanos
(Mexico), Euclides da Cunha (Brazil), Gabriel García Márquez
(Colombia), Clarice Lispector (Brazil), Tomás Eloy Martínez
(Argentina), Gabriela Mistral (Chile), Elena Poniatowska (Mex-
ico), and Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru).
The connection of literature with newspapers is also maintained
through the literary supplements, often published weekly, such
as the one published with Minas Gerais in Brazil, or La cultura
en México, a supplement of the newspaper Siempre!, with which
Carlos Monsiváis was associated for a number of years. Through
their supplements and their daily columns, the newspapers also
publish poetry and fiction. Many of the short stories of Horacio
Quiroga (Uruguay), Benito Lynch (Argentina), and Baldomero
Lillo (Chile) first appeared in newspapers. And through serial pub-
lication, the novels of authors such as Manuel Antônio Almeida
(Brazil), José Milla y Vidaurre (Guatemala), and Mariano Azuela,
Manuel Payno, and Justo Sierra (Mexico), as well as many Eu-
ropean authors, first found their way to readers through the pages
of the daily press. It is a tradition still maintained today. See also
ACOSTA DE SAMPER, SOLEDAD; ALMEIDA, JÚLIA LOPES
DE; ÁLVAREZ GARDEAZÁBAL, GUSTAVO; CABELLO DE
CARBONERA, MERCEDES; CARBALLIDO, EMILIO; COR-
TÁZAR, JULIO; DIAS, ANTÔNIO GONÇALVES; EGUREN,
JOSÉ MARÍA; FREYRE, GILBERTO DE MELO; FRÍAS, HERIB-
ERTO; GALVÃO, PATRÍCIA; GROUSSAC, PAUL; GRUPO DE
FLORIDA; GUIMARAENS, ALPHONSUS DE; IVO, LEDO; KIL-
KERRY, PEDRO; LEITE, SEBASTIÃO UCHOA; MACHADO,
DUDA; MAGGI, CARLOS; MOLINA, ENRIQUE; MONTALVO,
JUAN; MUJICA LÁINEZ, MANUEL; ODIO, EUNICE; PARDO
Y ALIAGA, FELIPE; RAMOS, GRACILIANO; RAMOS SUCRE,

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JUANA INÉS DE LA CRUZ, SOR • 251

JOSÉ ANTONIO; REBOLLEDO, EFRÉN; REGO CAVALCANTI,


JOSÉ LINS DO; SCHMIDT, AUGUSTO FREDERICO; SOCA,
SUSANA; SOLOGUREN, JAVIER; SORIANO, OSVALDO;
SOUSÂNDRADE, JOAQUIM DE; TEITELBOIM, VOLODIA;
TIMERMAN, JACOBO; USLAR PIETRI, ARTURO; VALLE,
RAFAEL HELIODORO; VERÍSSIMO DIAS DE MATOS, JOSÉ;
ZAPIOLA, JOSÉ.

JUANA INÉS DE LA CRUZ, SOR (Mexico, 1651–1695). Poet, dra-


matist, and prose writer. She is one of the major figures of Mexican
and Latin American colonial literature and one of Latin America’s
most significant women writers. She was a precocious child and had
already established her literary reputation at the viceregal court in
Mexico before she resolved to enter a convent in 1667 to pursue her
intellectual vocation. As a woman in a man’s world, however, her
success was made a source of conflict among both secular and reli-
gious authorities, and she eventually felt compelled to abandon her
writing. As a poet of the colonial baroque, Sor Juana’s highly intel-
lectual verse stands alongside the work of the great Spanish poets of
the 16th and 17th centuries. In her sonnets and Primero sueño (1692;
First Dream), she pursues the themes of the inevitability of death and
the transience of human life, but she also wrote songs (villancicos),
ballads (romances), and other verse in a lighter vein.
Sor Juana’s writing for the theater has a similar wide range and
includes both religious and secular dramas. El divino Narciso (1690;
The Divine Narcissus) is an allegorical auto based on the classical
story of Echo and Narcissus as a vehicle for dramatizing Catholic
teachings. By contrast, Los empeños de una casa (1683; Family
Obligations) and Amor es más laberinto (1689; Love the Greatest
Labyrinth) are plays that present traditional love intrigues in the
style of those performed in the Spanish court of the late 17th century.
Among Sor Juana’s prose writings, her Respuesta a Sor Filotea de
la Cruz (1691; Answer to Sister Filotea de la Cruz) is viewed today
as an important early-modern feminist essay. It is a declaration of
her religious faith and her commitment to an intellectual life, which
is all the more remarkable for having been written in the late 17th
century by a woman and a member of a religous order. Her life and
work have been the subject of several movies, and the bibliography

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252 • JUARROZ, ROBERTO

of interpretations of her life is extensive, including books by Octavio


Paz and Isabel Allende. See also GLANTZ, MARGO; NERVO,
AMADO; REIN, MERCEDES.

JUARROZ, ROBERTO (Argentina, 1925–1995). Poet. He published


14 collections between 1958 and 1997, each titled Poesía vertical
(Vertical Poetry) and numbered consecutively, the last being Déci-
mocuarta poesía vertical (Vertical Poetry Number Fourteen). The
poems are an exploration of the uses of language and are often quite
abstract, although the impact of their originality diminishes in the
later volumes. Juárroz has been highly praised by Octavio Paz and
Julio Cortázar.

– K –

KILKERRY, PEDRO (Brazil, 1885–1917). Poet. The son of an


Irishman and a Brazilian mestizo woman, Kilkerry was born in
Bahia. One of the main exponents of symbolism in Brazil, he
studied law, but led a penniless bohemian life, suffering from tu-
berculosis and writing poetry, a veritable poète maudit who died
during a windpipe operation. Kilkerry translated Tristan Corbière
(1845–1875) and developed a distinct “colloquial-ironic” style
in the manner inaugurated by Jules Laforgue (1860–1887). He is
the most radical and modern symbolist poet of Brazil, eliciting
comparisons with Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891) and Stéphane
Mallarmé (1842–1898). Thanks to his poetic explorations of
the unconscious and the world of dreams, he has been seen as a
precursor of surrealism. His poetry also has a mystical and intel-
lectual vein despite its apparent sentimentalism. He died without
having published any books, although he had contributed to the
periodicals Os Anais, A Voz do Povo, and Nova Cruzada. Largely
ignored for years, his poems were collected in 1970 by Augusto
de Campos in Revisão de Kilkerry (1970; Revision of Kilkerry).
Other works can be found in Jackson de Figueiredo, Humilhados e
Luminosos (1921; Humiliated and Luminous) and Andrade Murici,
Panorama do Movimento Simbolista Brasileiro (1952; Panorama
of the Brazilian Symbolist Movement).

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LA VIOLENCIA • 253

KORDON, BERNARDO (Argentina, 1915–2002). Novelist and


short story writer. He inherited the brand of social realism commonly
associated with the Grupo de Boedo and wrote about working-class
Buenos Aires with humor and authenticity, using a colloquial lan-
guage that successfully captures the reality of daily life. His fiction
includes La vuelta de Rocha (1936; The Bend in the Rocha), Un ho-
rizonte de cemento (1940; Cement Horizon), Reina del Plata (1946;
Queen of the River Plate), Hacele bien a la gente (1968; Do Good to
People), and Adiós pampa mía (1978; Farewell My Pampa). Several
of Kordon’s stories have been turned into films. Kordon was also the
only Argentinean whose interest in China’s communist revolution
was followed by a visit to the country and the publication of several
books about it, one based on an interview with Mao Tse-tung.

– L –

LA ONDA. Meaning “on the same wave-length” or “in the groove,” the
term was coined by Margo Glantz, who used it to refer to a tendency
in narrative in Mexico of the 1960s and 1970s. It principal exponents
were José Agustín and Gustavo Sainz, whose fiction, both in its
language and content, represents the changes in Mexico City society
brought on by new forms of popular culture, the sexual revolution,
and new patterns in the use of drugs reflected in the lifestyle of
middle-class adolescents.

LA VIOLENCIA. The term is used in Colombia to refer to a period


of civil conflict between 1948 and 1965. Although it had roots in the
long-standing animosity between Liberals and Conservatives and
was preceded by an intensification of the hostility between them, it
was sparked by the 9 April 1948 assassination of the liberal leader
Jorge Eliécer Gaitán and the three days of rioting in Bogotá that fol-
lowed and became known as el bogotazo. This period of conflict is
represented most notably in the fiction of Gabriel García Márquez
and in the work of the Colombians Gustavo Álvarez Gardeazábal,
Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Manuel
Zapata Olivella.

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254 • LAFOURCADE, ENRIQUE

LAFOURCADE, ENRIQUE (Chile, 1927– ). Novelist. He is a popu-


lar novelist who has written on a wide variety of themes. La fiesta del
rey Acab (1959; King Acab’s Feast) is a satirical dictator novel based
on the life of the Dominican Rafael Leónidas Trujillo (1930–1938,
1942–1952). Palomita blanca (1971; Little White Dove), about class
differences, was a best seller in Chile, and El Gran Taimado (1984;
The Great Deceiver), an anti-Augusto Pinochet novel that got the
author into trouble with the regime, was also very widely read. Other
novels include Frecuencia modulada (1968; Modulated Frequency);
Hoy está solo mi corazón (1990; Today My Heart Is Lonely); and,
more recently, El inesperado (2004; Unexpected), about the life in
Africa of the French poet Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891). Lafourcade
also contributes editorials and chronicles regularly to the Santiago
daily El Mercurio and frequently appears on Chilean television.

LAMBORGHINI, OSVALDO (Argentina, 1940–1985). Novelist


and poet. Although his work has been variously associated with the
neo-baroque and the late avant-garde of the 1960s and 1970s, it is
difficult to classify. His writing appears as a collage of fragments that
makes all sense of narrative impossible and goes against all conven-
tions in its obscenity and representation of violence. Only three of his
books were published during his lifetime: El fiord (1969; The Fjord),
a novel about politics in 1960s Argentina; Sobregondi retrocede
(1973; Sobregondi Retires), a long prose poem; and Poemas (1980;
Poems). Other volumes have appeared since his death, notably Nove-
las y cuentos (1988; Novels and Tales), compiled and introduced by
César Aira.

LANDA, DIEGO DE (Mexico, 1524–1579). Chronicler. He was a


Franciscan friar and among the first missionaries sent to the Yucatán,
a province of which he would eventually be appointed bishop (1571).
His chronicle Relación de las cosas de Yucatán (ca. 1566; Yuca-
tan Before and After the Conquest) is an account of the language,
writing, religion, and culture of the Maya. Although the Relación is
an important document for understanding the Maya at the time of the
conquest, Landa also contributed to the destruction of their culture
through his zealous pursuit of the objectives of the Spanish conquest
and the conversion of indigenous people to Christianity.

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LARRETA, ENRIQUE • 255

LANGE, NORAH (Argentina, 1906–1972). Poet, novelist, and au-


tobiographer. As a poet and avant-garde writer, she was associated
with ultraísmo and the circle of Jorge Luis Borges and Oliverio
Girondo, whom she married in 1946. Their home became a hub for
artists and intellectuals, repeating the situation in her parents’ home
when she was a child. Her collections of verse include La calle de
la tarde (1925; The Street in the Evening) and Los días y las noches
(1927; Days and Nights), both exemplifying the aesthetics of ultra-
ísmo. Among her early novels were Voz de la vida (1927; Voice of
Life), an epistolary novel about female passion and adultery, and
45 días y 30 marineros (1933; 45 Days and 30 Sailors), the story
of a woman on board a ship bound for Oslo from Buenos Aires. In
Personas en la sala (1950; People in the Room) and Los dos retratos
(1956; Two Portraits), she wrote stories about the self, the enclosed
female world, and the realization of identity through literary creation.
Her published work also includes Discursos (1942; Speeches) and
Estimados congéneres (1968; Dear Friends), collections of addresses
given at the salons held at her home, and a notable autobiography,
Cuadernos de infancia (1937; Childhood Notebooks), narrated
anonymously, but drawn from her own life, which became standard
reading in Argentinean schools for several decades.

LARA, JESÚS (Bolivia, 1898–1980). Novelist. A militantly political


writer, one of his first books was a memoir of the Chaco War (1932–
1935), Repete, diario de un hombre que fue a la guerra del Chaco
(1938; Repete, Diary of a Man Who Fought in the Chaco War). He
then wrote a series of novels in the mode of indigenismo in defense
of Bolivian Indians: Suruni (1943), Yanakuna (1952), Yawarninchij:
nuestra sangre (1959; Yawarninchij: Our Blood), Sinchikay (1962),
Llalliypacha: tiempo de vencer (1965; Llalliypacha: Time to Tri-
umph), and Sujnapura (1965). His writing on this theme extended to
essays about indigenous culture and the compilation of literature in
Quechua. In a collection of short stories, Ñancahuazú (1969), he also
wrote about the death of Ernesto “Che” Guevara (1967) in Bolivia.

LARRETA, ENRIQUE (Argentina, 1873–1961). Novelist. He is


best known for La gloria de don Ramiro (1908; The Glory of Don
Ramiro), a historical novel set in the Spanish city of Ávila in the

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256 • LARS, CLAUDIA

time of Felipe II (1556–1598), in which the protagonist is caught


between his Christian and Moorish heritage, the aesthetic life of
religion and the call of love and adventure. The description of exotic
objects and the sensuality of some of its scenes have made the novel
one of the most significant examples of modernismo in prose. Lar-
reta’s second novel, Zogoibi (1926; Zogoibi), published almost 20
years later, is a story of the Argentinean pampas in the tradition of
gaucho literature that praises the virtues of the author’s homeland,
contrasting the ways of the upper class with the simple life of country
folk. His subsequent writing, including four more novels, a collection
of verse, and several works for the theater, developed both contem-
porary and historical themes from Spain and Argentina, but without
repeating the success of his first novel.

LARS, CLAUDIA (El Salvador, 1899–1974). Poet. Although born


Carmen Brannon Beers, she wrote under her pseudonym. In the
course of several volumes of poetry, her thematic interests devel-
oped from the personal, intimate experiences of her own life to more
universal philosophical issues and social questions. In Estrellas en
el pozo (1934; Stars in the Well), she writes about poetry itself and
about motherhood. Canción redonda (1937; Rounded Song), her
second book of verse, is about romantic love. In Romances de norte
y sur (1946; Ballads of North and South), she adopts a greater sense
of social consciousness, particularly in her acknowledgment of her
Native American heritage. Later collections, Sonetos (1947; Son-
nets), Donde llegan los pasos (1953; Where the Steps Lead), and
Sobre el ángel y el hombre (1962; About the Angel and the Man),
are representative of a spiritual quest through the exploration of love
and religion. Lars also contributed to the development of children’s
literature through a number of books of verse for children, includ-
ing La casa de vidrio (1942; The Glass House), Escuela de pájaros
(1955; School for Birds), Canciones (1960; Songs), and Girasol
(1962; Sunflower), an anthology that includes poems for children by
her and other well-known writers.

LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE (Spain, 1484–1566). Chronicler.


He first traveled to the Americas in 1502, where he witnessed some
of the early stages of the conquest and colonization. In 1522 he

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LEITE, SEBASTIÃO UCHOA • 257

joined the Dominican Order; by that time, he had already begun to


express sympathy for the suffering of indigeous populations. In due
course, he became their most prominent defender and an advocate for
reform, a point of view documented in his chronicles. His Brevísima
relación de la destrucción de las Indias (written 1542; published
1552; A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies) was widely
read and frequently cited to criticize the conduct of the Spanish in
the Americas in what became known as the “black legend” of the
conquest. In a longer work, Historia general de las Indias (written
1527–1562; published 1875; History of the Indies), Las Casas covers
the years 1492–1520 in three volumes, giving most attention to the
time of Columbus and the period of which Las Casas was himself a
witness. The diary of the first voyage (1492) of Christopher Colum-
bus has survived, in effect, only through the edited transcription Las
Casas included in his chronicle.

LASSO DE LA VEGA, GABRIEL LOBO (Spain, ca. 1558–1615).


Poet. Although he does not appear to have ever traveled to the
Americas, his work figures among the chronicles and epic poetry of
the New World thanks to two verse narratives of the exploits of Her-
nán Cortés, Cortés valeroso (written 1582–1584; Stout Cortés) and
Mexicana (1594; Mexicana). Lasso de la Vega also figures in the his-
tory of theater in Spain for the tragedies he wrote in a classical style.

LASTARRIA, JOSÉ VICTORINO (Chile, 1817–1888). Essayist and


short story writer. He is known as Chile’s first fiction writer for his
short story “El mendigo” (“The Beggar”). He was also a prominent
intellectual in 19th-century Chile and an advocate of positivism. His
writings that are read most today are Miscelánea literaria (1855;
Literary Miscellany), for his short stories, and Recuerdos literarios
(1878; Literary Memoirs), for the insights into intellectual life in
Chile of the mid-1800s, written by one who was a disciple of Andrés
Bello in his youth and a friend of Rubén Darío when he was much
older.

LEITE, SEBASTIÃO UCHOA (Brazil, 1935–2003). Poet, essayist,


and translator. A contemporary poet who incorporated modernist
techniques into his poetry without major innovations, Uchoa Leite

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258 • LEMEBEL, PEDRO

won the Jabuti Prize for his book Antilogia (1979; Antilogy). He
also was partly responsible for editing the eclectic poetry journal
José in the 1970s and translated the work of Lewis Carroll (1832–
1898), Julio Cortázar (1914–1984), Octavio Paz (1914–1998), and
Stendhal (1783–1842), among others. Other books of poetry include
A Uma Incógnita (1991; To an Unknown), A Ficção Vida (1993; The
Fiction Life), A Espreita (2000; Spying), and A Regra Secreta (2002;
The Secret Rule).

LEMEBEL, PEDRO (Chile, 1952– ). Novelist and essayist. Both as


a writer and a performance artist, he addresses reality from a ho-
mosexual perspective. His first book of fiction, Incontables (1986;
Untellable Tales), presents writing as a form of transvestism with
which to deal with homosexual desire. Lemebel’s first novel, Tengo
miedo torero (2001; My Tender Matador), which has made his name
more widely known outside Chile, is set in Santiago in 1986. It is the
story of a gay male known only as La Loca del Frente (The Queen
of the Corner), who comes under the sway of a student revolutionary
plotting against President Augusto Pinochet (1974–1990).
Lemebel is also well known for his humourously critical chroni-
cles of life in Santiago, of which he has published several volumes.
La esquina es mi corazón: crónica urbana (1995; The Corner Is My
Heart: Urban Chronicle) focuses on marginalization and poverty in
the neoliberal city, where gays from the poor suburbs are seen as
symbols of waste and injustice. In Loco afán: crónicas del sidario
(1996; Queer Desire: AIDS Chronicles), he writes about victims of
AIDS in Chile, and in Adiós, Mariquita Linda (2004; Farewell, Pretty
Mary), he presents 30 autobiographical chronicles of queer life in
the city.

LEMINSKI, PAULO (Brazil, 1944–1989). Poet, essayist, and transla-


tor. Born in Curitiba of Polish and Afro-Brazilian ancestry, Leminski
became an important cultural icon of the bohemian and rebellious
generation of the 1970s and 1980s in Brazil. He was a popular mu-
sician and a black belt judo instructor as well as a poet. His poetic
career began under the sign of concrete poetry, publishing texts
influenced by the visual in the journal Invenção. Later he broke with
this tendency, turning toward a more colloquial poetry that also dia-

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LEÑERO, VICENTE • 259

logued with popular culture, a trend known as poesia marginal. Le-


minski’s irony, however, distanced him from any particular tendency
and allowed him to follow a unique path. His early works, mostly
published by a self-run small press, are gathered under the titles
Caprichos e Relaxos (1983; Capricious and Relaxed) and Distraídos
Venceremos (1987; Distracted We Shall Prevail). His attention to
sound and conciseness in poetry is indebted to his involvement with
popular music and the Japanese poetic form haiku, which he studied
and favored in his writing. Besides Japanese, Leminski knew English
and French and translated writers such as Alfred Jarry (1873–1907),
James Joyce (1882–1941), Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), and Yukio
Mishima (1925–1970).
Leminski’s erudition and intellectual acumen were legendary,
only matched by his inventiveness, as seen in his “biography es-
says”: Matsuó Bashô (1983; Matsuo Basho), Jesus a. C. (1984; Jesus
BC), and Cruz e Sousa (1983; Cruz e Sousa), about João da Cruz e
Sousa. Perhaps his most daring work is Catatau (1975; Catatau), an
exuberant, avant-garde narrative about a fictitious visit of René Des-
cartes (1596–1651) to Brazil in a style influenced by the baroque.
Leminski was a prolific author, yet many of his works were out of
print for a long time before being republished. His native city, Cu-
ritiba, hosts a yearly event in his honor called “Perhappiness” (from
one of his one-word poems). A bohemian and laborious intellectual
who often experimented with drugs and alcohol, which undermined
his health, Leminski died before his time.

LEÑERO, VICENTE (Mexico, 1933– ). Novelist, dramatist, and


journalist. He often plays with different genres and styles in his
novels. His first success was Los albañiles (1963; The Bricklayers),
a suspense novel about the killing of a night watchman. This was
followed by Estudio Q (1965; Studio Q), which explores the relation-
ship between reality and performance for television, and El garabato
(1967; The Scrawl), a narrative framed as the story of a critic who
is reading a novel. In other novels, fiction and nonfiction sometimes
overlap: Los periodistas (1978; The Journalists) is partly drawn
from his own experiences as one of several writers ousted from the
newspaper Excélsior; El evangelio según Lucas Gavilán (1979; The
Gospel According to Lucas Gavilán) is a rewriting of Saint Luke’s

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260 • LEÓN, CARLOS ARTURO

gospel from the perspective of liberation theology; and La gota de


agua (1983; The Drop of Water) is a comic domestic chronicle about
water shortages in Mexico City.
As a dramatist, Leñero was one of the first exponents of documen-
tary drama in Mexico, in works such as Pueblo rechazado (1968;
Rejected People); El juicio (1972; The Trial), about the trial of those
accused of the assassination of president-elect Álvaro Obregón in
1928; and Los hijos de Sánchez (1972; The Children of Sánchez), a
dramatization of the well-known Óscar Lewis (1914–1970) study in
urban anthropology. Leñero has also been a very successful screen-
writer and journalist, having contributed to the Mexican daily Excél-
sior and the periodicals Proceso and Claudia, of which he was editor
(1969–1972). See also THEATER.

LEÓN, CARLOS ARTURO (Ecuador, 1886–1967). Dramatist. His


plays, with their emphasis on everyday lives, the national character,
and satire of social customs, contributed to the development of a
social theater in Ecuador. The play that had the most impact was El
recluta (1918; The Recruit), which created a stir that ended with the
abolition of military conscription. Other titles include Reparación
(1914; Reparation), La huérfana (1928; The Orphan Girl), La mujer
de tu prójimo (1936; Thy Neighbor’s Wife), and En pos de felicidad
(1927; Pursuit of Happiness).

LESBIAN WRITERS AND WRITING. See GAY AND LESBIAN


WRITERS AND WRITING.

LIERA, ÓSCAR (Mexico, 1946–1990). Dramatist. He began writing


in 1979 and by 1985 had already written 30 of his 36 plays. Notwith-
standing the humor in his writing, his plays are known for their bi-
ting criticism of the Church and state. Cúcara y Mácara (1980; Eeny
Meeny Miny Moe), for example, was the source of public outcry
because of its criticism of the Church. He is also known for his inno-
vative staging, such as El gordo (1980; The Big One), in which the
actors transform the stage to represent their illusions about winning
the lottery. His other plays include El lazarillo (1979; The Guide),
La fuerza del hombre (1982; The Man’s Force), Los camaleones
(1980; The Chameleons), La verdadera revolución (1982; The True

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LIHN, ENRIQUE • 261

Revolution), El crescencio (1979; The Crescence), Aquí no pasa


nada (1979; Nothing Happening Here), La pesadilla de una noche de
verano (1982; Nightmare of a Summer Night), Soy el hombre (1982;
I Am the Man), El oro de la revolución mexicana (1984; The Gold of
the Mexican Revolution), and Repaso de indulgencias (1990; Review
of Indulgences). See also THEATER.

LIHN, ENRIQUE (Chile, 1929–1988). Poet, novelist, essayist, and dra-


matist. Best known as a poet, he followed first in the wake of Pablo
Neruda, but soon began to develop his own, more radical voice. In
some of his earlier collections, such as La musiquilla de las pobres
esferas (1969; The Little Music of the Poor Spheres) and Escrito en
Cuba (1969; Written in Cuba), he explores the nature of poetic creation
and, in common with his compatriot Nicanor Parra, pursues the no-
tion of antipoetry in search of new directions. Among themes that
recur in his work are the sensual and the erotic. In La pieza oscura
(1963; The Dark Room and Other Poems), also an early collection,
they surface in the context of childhood, memory, and sexual awaken-
ing, and the erotic figures in his mature verse, in Al bello aparecer de
este lucero (1983; At the Beautiful Appearance of This Bright Star), a
relatively late publication. Travel is another of Lihn’s recurring themes
and figures in Estación de los desamparados (1973; Station for the
Forsaken), París, situación irregular (1977; Paris, Situation Irregular),
and A partir de Manhattan (1979; From Manhattan).
Toward the end of his life, darker elements began to appear in
Lihn’s poetry. In El paseo ahumado (1983; The Smokey Stroll),
he writes of his sense of internal exile in Chile under dictatorship
and, in Diario de muerte (1989; Death’s Diary), published posthu-
mously, there are anticipations of his end. Lihn’s three novels are all
caricatures of the genre. The first, Batman en Chile; o, El ocaso de
un ídolo; o, Solo contra el desierto (1973; Batman in Chile; or, the
Decline of an Idol; or, Alone Against the Desert), is a political satire.
His second novel, La orquesta de cristal (1976; The Glass Orches-
tra), as the title suggests, is a history of an orchestra equipped with
glass instruments, and his third, El arte de la palabra (1980; The Art
of the Word), is a burlesque of writers and writing. In addition to his
novels, Lihn also published two collections of short stories and used
drawing as another form of self-expression.

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262 • LILLO, BALDOMERO

LILLO, BALDOMERO (Chile, 1867–1923). Short story writer.


With his first collection of stories, Sub terra (1904; Below Ground),
Baldomero acquired a reputation as one of Latin America’s most
significant representatives of naturalism. Like the French novel
Germinal (1885) by Emile Zola (1840–1902), with which they
are compared, the Chilean’s stories tell of the inhuman conditions
endured by underground mine workers. One of his narratives most
frequently anthologized is “La compuerta número 12” (“Hatch No.
12”), the tragedy of an eight-year-old boy forced to work in the
mine. The author’s second book of stories, Sub sole (1907; Under
the Sun), is a more eclectic collection, however. It still represents
aspects of a harsh, unforgiving reality, but its themes are more
varied, and it has touches of modernismo in stories with a more
aesthetically oriented style. Baldomero wrote many other stories for
publication in newspapers and magazines, and a number have since
been collected and published in several volumes: Relatos populares
(1942; Popular Tales), El hallazgo y otros cuentos del mar (1956;
The Discovery and Other Sea Stories), and Pesquisa trágica (1963;
Tragic Inquiry).

LIMA, JORGE DE (Brazil, 1893–1953). Poet. Born in Alagoas, Jorge


de Lima studied medicine in Salvador and Rio de Janeiro, during
which time he began to write poetry in the style of parnassian-
ism. He became known for his sonnet “O Acendedor de Lampiões”
(Lamplighter), part of his collection Quatorze Alexandrinos (1914;
Fourteen Alexandrines). After his studies, de Lima set up a medical
practice in Maceió, where he published O Mundo do Menino Impos-
sível (1925; The World of the Impossible Boy), his first truly per-
sonal poetry. He then abandoned the worn out parnassian forms for
the nascent style of Brazilian modernism, particularly the substyle
of regionalism, which is evident in his Poemas (1927; Poems) and
in one of his best-known works, Essa Negra Fulô (1928; That Black
Woman Fulô), a collection on the topic of slavery.
Following the 1930 revolution, de Lima moved to Rio de Janeiro,
where he practiced medicine and participated in intellectual life. His
subsequent collections, Novos Poemas (1929; New Poems) and Poe-
mas Escolhidos (1932; Selected Poems), evoke childhood scenes and
explore regional and Afro-Brazilian themes. A new phase, this time

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LIMA BARRETO, AFONSO HENRIQUES DE • 263

of religious inspiration under the motto “Let us restore the poetry in


Christ,” began with Tempo e Eternidade (1935; Time and Eternity),
written in collaboration with Murilo Mendes. A Túnica Inconsútil
(1938; The Seamless Tunic) was inspired by the Old Testament and
continues this line of religious poetry; Poemas Negros (1947; Black
Poems) revisits the Afro-Brazilian theme he had previously explored.
De Lima’s last creative phase is marked by the influence of
surrealism in novels such as O Anjo (1934; The Angel). Though
returning to meter in Livro de Sonetos (1949; Book of Sonnets),
de Lima’s poetic expression became more obscure, culminating in
Obra Poética (1950; Poetic Works), edited by Otto Maria Carpeaux,
which contains Anunciação e Encontro de Mira-Celi (Annunciation
and Meeting at Mira-Celi) and Invenção de Orfeu (1952; Invention
of Orpheus), an original poem based on quotes from classic authors
and one of his best-known works.
De Lima also published a few novels: Salomão e as Mulheres
(1927; Solomon and the Women), Calunga (1935; Calunga), and A
Mulher Obscura (1939; The Obscure Woman). He taught literature
at various higher education institutions and published Dois Ensaios:
Proust e Todos Cantam a Sua Terra (1929; Two Essays: Proust and
Everyone Sings His Own Land), a fine piece of literary criticism.
Despite the variety of his subject matter, de Lima is constant in his
lyrical approach to poetry and is noted for his versatility and for hav-
ing been one of the few Brazilian poets of the period to combine his
engagement in black poetics with surrealism. See also FAUSTINO,
MÁRIO; FREYRE, GILBERTO DE MELO; HILST, HILDA.

LIMA BARRETO, AFONSO HENRIQUES DE (Brazil, 1881–


1922). Novelist and short story writer. Although not much recog-
nized in his day, Lima Barreto today is considered one of Brazil’s
best fiction writers in the style of realism. He was born to a family
of mixed racial background and lost his mother at a young age. His
relatively short life was plagued by mental illness and economic
struggles. Although he received a good education, paid for by a fam-
ily friend, he had to interrupt an engineering career to take care of
his father, who became mentally ill. He nevertheless read avidly and
acquired a good library. Employed as a secretary in the Ministry of
War, he also began to write regularly for the press.

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264 • LINDO, HUGO

Lima Barreto’s semiautobiographical novel Recordações do Es-


crivão Isaías Caminha (1909; Memoirs of the Secretary Isaías
Caminha) contains elements of satire in the portrayal of various urban
types. This satirical vein is continued in his best-known novel, Triste
Fim de Policarpo Quaresma (1915; The Patriot), whose protagonist,
Major Policarpo, an honest and quixotic man, is often ridiculed by his
peers for his patriotic projects. This novel, like his Vida e Morte de
M. J. Gonzaga de Sá (1919; Life and Death of M.J. Gonzaga de Sá),
chronicles and criticizes urban life in post-abolition Rio de Janeiro.
Racial inequalities and class conflicts inspired his unfinished novel,
Clara dos Anjos (1948; Clara dos Anjos).
Lima Barreto’s political preoccupations mirror the racial and
social contradictions of late 19th- and early 20th-century Brazil,
brought on by abolition and modernization, as pictured in the social
satire of Os Bruzundangas (1922; The Bruzundangas) and Coisas
do Reino de Jambon (1952; Things of the Kingdom of Jambon).
Some of Lima Barreto’s best nonfiction was also inspired by his
own struggles with alcohol and mental illness, as witnessed by his
posthumous Diário Íntimo (1953; Personal Diary), which contains
the memoir of his stay in a psychiatric institution, and O Cemitério
dos Vivos (1953; Cemetery of the Living). Other works include the
novel Numa e a Ninfa (1915; Numa and the Nymph), the collection
of short stories Histórias e Sonhos (1920; Stories and Dreams), and
the nonfiction Bagatelas (1923; Bagatelles) and Vida Urbana (1956;
Urban Life). De Lima died at age 41 from a heart attack. See also
FONSECA, RUBEM; REBELO, MARQUES.

LINDO, HUGO (El Salvador, 1917–1985). Poet, novelist, and short


story writer. Less political than others of his generation, he was a
Catholic intellectual who wrote in a refined style and was highly
appreciated in his own country. Among more than 20 books of po-
etry, the most representative are Poema eucarístico y otros (1943;
Eucharistic Poem and Others), El libro de las horas (1948; The Book
of Hours), and Sinfonía del límite (1963; Symphony of the Limit).
His collections of short stories include Guaro y champaña (1957;
Moonshine and Champagne), Aquí se cuentan cuentos (1959; Tales
Told Here), and Espejos paralelos (1974; Parallel Mirrors). Of his
four novels ¡Justicia, señor Gobernador! (1960; Justice, Mr. Gover-

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LINS, PAULO • 265

nor!), a story of suspense about a judge charged with bringing down


a verdict in a brutal murder case, is the most widely read. The others
are El anzuelo de Dios (1943; God’s Bait), Cada día tiene su afán
(1965; Each Day Brings Its Desire), and Yo soy la memoria (1983; I
Am Memory).

LINS, OSMAN (Brazil, 1924–1978). Novelist, dramatist, and short


story writer. Born in the Northeast, Lins studied economics and
worked for the Bank of Brazil in São Paulo for many years. His
first novel, O Visitante (1955; The Visitor), already revealed the
innovative style he would become known for. Likewise, the short
stories in Os Gestos (1957; The Gestures) feature an introspective
style and characters faced with difficult moral choices. O Fiel e a
Pedra (1961; The Scale Pointer and the Stone) is a novel set in the
Northeast, featuring a man who heroically defends his honesty in
a corrupt environment. The stories in Nove, Novena: Narrativas
(1966; Nine, Novena: Narratives) include characters who overlap
from one story to the next, an innovative structure partly inspired
by the baroque and medieval religious literature. Avalovara (1973;
Avalovara), whose title is derived from one of the avatars of Bud-
dha, is a radically creative allegorical novel with mysterious, fluid
characters. This novel, like A Rainha dos Cárceres da Grécia (1976;
The Queen of the Prisons of Greece), also presents the reader with
a variety of reading options, much like Julio Cortázar’s novel
Rayuela (1963; Hopscotch). Lins also had a successful career as
a dramatist, and his plays Lisbela e o Prisioneiro (1964; Lisbela
and the Prisoner), Guerra do “Cansa Cavalo” (1967; War of the
“Cansa Cavalo”), “Capa Verde” e o Natal (1967; “Green Cape” and
Christmas), and Santa, Automóvel e Soldado (1975; Saint, Car and
Soldier), social dramas in the style of regionalism, were staged in
Rio and São Paulo. See also THEATER.

LINS, PAULO (Brazil, 1958– ). Novelist. Born in Rio de Janeiro, Lins


lived as a young boy in the low-income housing project known as
Cidade de Deus. His personal experience as well as anthropological
research in this poverty-stricken and gang-plagued district inspired
his acclaimed novel Cidade de Deus (1997; City of God), which was
turned into an Oscar-nominated movie of the same name in 2004.

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266 • LIRA, MIGUEL N.

The novel portrays a world dominated by drug deals and violence


through the eyes of the young photographer Busca-pé.

LIRA, MIGUEL N. (Mexico, 1905–1961). Novelist. Although he


made his entry into literature through poetry and theater, Lira is
remembered mainly for his novels. In the manner of indigenismo,
Donde crecen los tepozanes (1947; Where the Tepozan Grows) fo-
cuses on the survival of native beliefs and practices in spite of mod-
ernization and conversion to Christianity. By contrast, La escondida
(1947; The Hidden Woman) is a novel of the Mexican Revolution
that traces the sentimental journey of a female protagonist as the
wife of a federalist general and then as the lover of a revolutionary
leader. Other narratives by Lira are an epistolary novel, Una mujer en
soledad (1956; A Woman in Solitude), and Mientras la muerte llega
(1958; As Death Approaches), a story also set against the background
of the revolution.

LISBOA, HENRIQUETA (Brazil, 1904–1985). Poet. Born in Minas


Gerais, Lisboa was trained as an educator. Her early poetry books
Fogo Fâtuo (1925; St. Elmo’s Fire) and Enternecimento (1929; Ten-
derness) were influenced by symbolism, but she soon evolved into
a modern diction in Velário (1936; Velarium). Among her didactic
and children’s poetry are Prisioneira da Noite (1941; Prisoner of
the Night) and O Menino Poeta (1943; The Child Poet), respectively.
Other important works in an introspective and historical vein are
Madrinha Lua (1952; Godmother Moon) and Azul Profundo (1956;
Deep Blue). Lírica (1958; Lyric Poetry) is a collection of works
selected by the author herself. Among her metaphysical and medita-
tive texts are A Face Lívida (1945; The Sallow Face), Flor da Morte
(1949; Flower of Death), Além da Imagem (1963; Beyond the Im-
age), O Alvo Humano (1973; The Human Goal), Miradouro e Outros
Poemas (1976; Belvedere and Other Poems), and Reverberações
(1976; Reverberations). She is considered an important lyric voice
in Brazilian modernism of the 1930s and received many literary
awards. See also WOMEN.

LISCANO, JUAN (Venezuela, 1915–2001). Poet and essayist. He was


an influential figure in the literary and intellectual life of Venezuela

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LISPECTOR, CLARICE • 267

in the 20th century. Among other ventures, he founded the journal


Zona Franca and was its editor for almost 20 years (1964–1983),
and he served as director of the state-owned publishing company
Monte Ávila. The themes of Venezuela and the Americas figure
significantly in his poetry, which also draws on his extensive folk-
lore research. Among his collections are 8 poemas (1937; 8 Poems),
Nuevo mundo Orinoco (1959; New Orinoco World), Cármenes
(1966; Songs), and Fundaciones (1981; Foundations). As an essay-
ist, he wrote on Venezuelan literature in Panorama de la literatura
venenzolana actual (1973; Panorama of Contemporary Venezuelan
Literature) and on the work of Rómulo Gallegos in Rómulo Gallegos
y su tiempo (1961; Rómulo Gallegos and His Time), Rómulo Gal-
legos, vida y obra (1968; Life and Work of Rómulo Gallegos), and
La geografía venezolana en la obra de Rómulo Gallegos (1970; The
Geography of Venezuela in the Work of Rómulo Gallegos).

LISPECTOR, CLARICE (Brazil, 1925–1977). Novelist, short prose


writer, and journalist. One of Brazil’s most gifted prose writers of the
20th century and a major representative of the last phase of Brazilian
modernism, Lispector was born in Ukraine but emigrated to Brazil as
a young child. Growing up in Recife, Northeastern Brazil, she moved
to Rio as a teenager and attended law school there. She married a
career diplomat at a young age and, due to her husband’s job, spent
several decades of her life abroad. As a law student, Lispector began
to publish in periodicals. Her first novel, Perto do Coração Selvagem
(1944; Near to the Wild Heart), an introspective young woman’s
coming-of-age story told in an innovative style, was a critical success.
Along similar lines, O Lustre (1946; The Chandelier) and A Cidade
Sitiada (1949; The Besieged City) also depict female characters in
fragmented narratives that explore psychological states. A novel with
a more developed plot, A Maçã no Escuro (1961; The Apple in the
Dark), tells the story of Martim, a man who seeks refuge on a farm
after committing a crime he is not punished for. One of her most cel-
ebrated novels, A Paixão Segundo G.H. (1964; The Passion Accord-
ing to G.H.), portrays a woman who, confined to a room, extensively
reflects on the fragility of life and love after killing a cockroach.
Lispector also excelled as a writer of short stories in her collec-
tions Laços de Família (1960; Family Ties), A Legião Estrangeira

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268 • LIST ARZUBIDE, GERMÁN

(1964; The Foreign Legion), Uma Aprendizagem ou o Livro dos


Prazeres (1969; An Apprenticeship or the Book of Pleasures), Feli-
cidade Clandestina: Contos (1971; Secret Joy: Short Stories), Onde
Estivestes de Noite (1974; Where You Were Last Night), and A Via
Crucis do Corpo (1974; Soulstorm: Stories). Her unconventional
tales often portray introspective situations linked to existentialism.
Some of her last novels, such as Água Viva (1973; Stream of Life)
and Um Sopro de Vida (1978; A Breath of Life), adopt a more poetic
than narrative form. A Bela e a Fera (1979; Beauty and the Beast) is
a posthumously published collection of stories written in the 1940s
and 1970s.
Although she was often accused of not being Brazilian and of not
referring to Brazil in her works, her last novel, A Hora da Estrela
(1977; The Hour of the Star), is the sympathetic yet tragic tale of
an impoverished young woman from Northeastern Brazil seeking a
better life in the South. It mirrors the life of many internal migrant
workers and was adapted for the screen. Lispector’s contributions
to children’s literature include O Mistério do Coelhinho Pensante
(1967; The Mystery of the Thinking Bunny) and A Mulher Que Ma-
tou os Peixes (1968; The Woman Who Killed the Fish). Her contri-
butions to the chronicle were in the form of extensive columns for
newspapers that were gathered under the titles Visão do Esplendor:
Impressões Leves (1975; Vision of Splendor: Fleeting Impressions),
De Corpo Inteiro (1975; Full-Length), and A Descoberta do Mundo
(1984; The Discovery of the World). See also PRADO, ADÉLIA.

LIST ARZUBIDE, GERMÁN (Mexico, 1898–1998). Poet. He was a


combatant in the Mexican Revolution under the leadership of Emil-
iano Zapata and wrote his first poems on revolutionary themes.
After the war, he became associated with the avant-garde move-
ment estridentismo. He contributed to the group’s manifesto, edited
the journal Horizonte (1926–1927), and produced an account of the
movement, written in both verse and prose, El movimiento estri-
dentista (1926; The Strident Movement). In his own poetry of that
period, in Esquina (1923; Corner) and El viajero en el vértice (1926;
The Traveler at the Apex), he writes about the modern world and its
technological progress.

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LÓPEZ, LUIS CARLOS • 269

LOA. Originally a dramatic prologue that preceded a one-act or full-


length play, it was often a poem written in praise of a patron or to
extol the virtues of the play and its themes. The loa was brought
to Spanish America from Spain and figures in the work of colonial
writers such as Fernán González de Eslava, Sor Juana Inés de la
Cruz, and Pedro de Peralta y Barnuevo.

LOBATO, JOSÉ BENTO MONTEIRO (Brazil, 1882–1948). Jour-


nalist, essayist, and short story writer. A man of many talents,
Monteiro Lobato is remembered today mostly for his didactic and
children’s literature. He published more than a dozen children’s
books, later adapted for television, mostly set in the imaginary Sítio
do Picapau Amarelo (“Yellow Woodpecker Ranch”), populated by
invented characters with educational roles. Monteiro Lobato was also
a nationalist and progressive thinker who played a key role in sup-
porting the Week of Modern Art. Among his other books are the
collections of short stories, Urupês (1918; Urupês), Cidades Mortas
(1919; Dead Cities), and Negrinha (1920; Little Black Girl), and the
novel O Choque das Raças ou o Presidente Negro (1926; The Black
President). Urupês, the best known, portrays the hard life in the rural
interior of Brazil and features his character Jeca Tatu, a personifica-
tion of Brazilian mixed-race peasants riddled by ignorance, illness,
and poverty, also further explored in Idéias de Jeca Tatu (1919; Ideas
of Jeca Tatu). An admirer of modern civilization, Monteiro Lobato
lived for some time in the United States as a commercial attaché,
an experience that inspired his books of essays and memoirs, Mr.
Slang e o Brasil (1929; Mr. Slang and Brazil) and América (1932;
America). As an editor and publisher, Monteiro Lobato directed the
journal Revista do Brasil (1918–1944) and founded several publish-
ing houses.

LÓPEZ, LUIS CARLOS (Colombia, 1879–1950). Poet. He wrote


four books of verse: De mi villorio (1908; From My Old Town), Pos-
turas difíciles (1919; Difficult Positions), Por el atajo (1920; By the
Short Cut), and Versos (1946; Verses), as well as collaborating on a
fifth, Varios a varios (1910; Various to Various). With irony and hu-
mor, he wrote mainly about the people and events of his hometown,

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270 • LÓPEZ, VICENTE FIDEL

Cartagena, where he spent most of his life. Nevertheless, his poetry


traveled considerably and was widely influential, much like that of
the Mexican Ramón López Velarde, which also occupied a pivotal
position between modernismo and the avant-garde.

LÓPEZ, VICENTE FIDEL (Argentina, 1815–1903). Novelist. Pri-


marily the author of histories of Argentina and one of the precursors
of modern Argentinean historiography, he also produced two works
of fiction, both written while living in exile in Chile to escape the
regime of Juan Manuel Rosas. One of these, a novella, La loca de
la guardia (1848; The Mad Woman of the Guard), about a woman
who accompanies the army of José de San Martín (1778–1850)
across the Andes in South America’s War of Independence, has had
little resonance. The other, La novia del hereje, o La inquisición en
Lima (1846; The Heretic’s Bride, or The Inquisition in Lima), has
fared better, however. A historical novel, set in 1578 Lima, it is the
story of two ill-fated lovers, a criollo girl and a seaman from one of
the ships of Sir Francis Drake (1540–1595), told in the manner of
full-blown romanticism.

LÓPEZ ALBÚJAR, ENRIQUE (Peru, 1872–1966). Novelist and


short story writer. He was a follower of Manuel González Prada,
and his fiction brought racial issues into Peruvian literature. The
stories in Cuentos andinos (1920; Andean Tales) had considerable
impact because of their representation of the gross ill-treatment of
Indians. They are thought to have influenced Ciro Alegría and the
direction taken by indigenismo in Peru. A second collection, Nuevos
cuentos andinos (1937; New Andean Tales), appeared almost two de-
cades later and, in Las caridades de la señora Tardoya (1955; Señora
Tardoya’s Charitable Deeds), López Albújar published a book of sto-
ries in the style of naturalism. He also wrote two novels. The better
known is the historical novel Matalaché (1928; Matalaché), a tale
of sexual freedom, based on the true story of a love affair between a
mulatto and an aristocratic landowner in 1816 in Piura, set against the
background of a slave-owning society on the eve of independence.
His other novel, El hechizo de Tomayquichua (1943; The Spell of
Tomayquichua), has a similar erotic theme.

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LÓPEZ VELARDE, RAMÓN • 271

LÓPEZ DE GÓMARA, FRANCISCO (Spain, 1511?–1566?).


Chronicler. Although he never traveled to the Americas, he wrote a
chronicle, Historia de las Indias y la conquista de México (1552;
Cortés: The Life of the Conqueror by His Secretary), relying on
eyewitness accounts and written documents. Its first part is a general
history of the Americas, showing little sympathy for native peoples
and their culture. The second part is a history of the conquest of
Mexico told as a biography of the conqueror Hernán Cortés. See
also DÍAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL.

LÓPEZ PORTILLO Y ROJAS, JOSÉ (Mexico, 1850–1923). Nov-


elist and short story writer. His first collection of narratives appeared
in Seis leyendas (1883; Six Legends) and was followed by several
others: Novelas cortas (1900; Short Novels), Sucesos y novelas
cortas (1903; Events and Short Novels), and Historias, historietas
y cuentecillos (1918; Stories, Fables, and Little Tales). They are
mainly tales of rural life, but López Portillo’s success in this genre
has been largely overshadowed by the success of his first novel,
La parcela (1898; The Parcel of Land), a regional novel of rural
Mexico and one of the best among those of his generation who were
influenced by Spanish realism and, in his case in particular, by the
Spanish regionalist writer José María de Pereda (1833–1906). Two
later novels by López Portillo, Los precursores (1909; The Precur-
sors) and Fuertes y débiles (1919; The Strong and the Weak), were
less well received.

LÓPEZ VELARDE, RAMÓN (Mexico, 1988–1921). Poet. The


themes of nostalgia and the opposition between metropolitan and
provincial values characterize his verse, which belongs aesthetically
between modernismo and the avant-garde and is therefore at an im-
portant juncture in the history of poetry in Mexico. In the two books
of verse published during his lifetime, he worked his themes around
a central preoccupation with love. In La sangre devota (1915; De-
vout Blood), this is a romantic, unfulfilled, even platonic sentiment,
thought to be inspired by Josefa de los Ríos, known as “Fuensanta,”
although there are underpinnings of eroticism. The verses in Zozobra
(1919; Anguish), marked by experiences in the city and the poet’s

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272 • LÓPEZ Y FUENTES, GREGORIO

relationship with Magarita Quijano, are, as the title suggests, more


intense and express a sensual love felt more physically. Finally, in the
posthumously published El son del corazón (1932; The Sound of the
Heart), there is a return to the poet’s earlier, less anguished, reflection
on love and a use of more conventional verse forms. Although López
Velarde’s writings have little to say about the politics of the revolu-
tion, his preoccupation with Mexico and his poem “Suave patria”
(“Gentle Fatherland”), published in El son de corazón, have given him
the status of national poet. His prose chronicles, written for the news-
papers El minutero (1923; The Minute Hand) and El don de febrero
(1952; The Gift of February), were collected and published posthu-
mously. See also LÓPEZ, LUIS CARLOS; REBOLLEDO, EFRÉN.

LÓPEZ Y FUENTES, GREGORIO (Mexico, 1897–1967). Novel-


ist. His sympathy for the lower classes, rural Mexicans, and Indians
is already apparent in his first novels, El vagabundo (1922; The
Vagabond) and El alma del poblacho (1924; Soul of the Hick Town).
Campamento (1931; Encampment), Tierra (1932; Land), and ¡Mi
general! (1934; My General!) are all considered novels of the Mexi-
can Revolution. All three are episodically constructed: Campamento
consists of scenes in a military encampment; Tierra is an account
of Emiliano Zapata’s campaign; and ¡Mi general! is the story of a
revolutionary general or caudillo, which shows considerable disen-
chantment with the revolution and subsequent political processes in
Mexico.
López y Fuentes’s best-known work is El indio (1935; El indio), a
novel of indigenismo that may be read as an allegory of the history
of Mexican Indians since the Spanish conquest, presented through
the lens of naturalism and against the background of the revolution.
Later fiction by this author includes Arrieros (1937; Mule Drivers),
a political novel; Huasteca (1939; Huasteca), about the petroleum
industry; Acomodaticio (1943; Accommodating), a second look at
themes first developed in ¡Mi general!; Los peregrinos inmóviles
(1948; Immobile Pilgrims); Entresuelo (1948; Between Floors); and
Milpa, potrero and monte (1951; Cornfield, Pasture, and Mountain).

LOS CONTEMPORÁNEOS. Sharing the same name as the journal


to which they contributed, Contemporáneos (1928–1931), members

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LUGONES, LEOPOLDO • 273

of this avant-garde group of writers in Mexico advocated a modern


country connected both to its origins and to developments taking
place in the world at large. Its members included Jorge Cuesta,
José Gorostiza, Bernardo Ortiz de Montellano, Salvador Novo,
Gilberto Owen, Carlos Pellicer, Jaime Torres Bodet, and Xavier
Villaurrutia.

LOYOLA BRANDÃO, IGNÁCIO DE (Brazil, 1936– ). Novelist and


short story writer. Loyola Brandão began his writing career as a jour-
nalist. His first novel, Bebel Que a Cidade Comeu (1968; Bebel Who
Was Eaten by the City), was adapted for the screen, as were some
of his short stories. His second and best-known novel, Zero (1975;
Zero), influenced by the cinema of Federico Fellini (1920–1993) and
banned for some time in Brazil, is an honest portrait of a common
man living in a violent city during a period of dictatorship. Among
other novels and short story collections he has published are Dentes
ao Sol (1976; Teeth in the Sun), Cadeiras Proibidas (1976; Illegal
Chairs), Não Verás País Nenhum (1981; You Will Not See Any
Country), and O Anônimo Célebre (2002; The Famous Anonymous
Man).

LUCO CRUCHAGA, GERMÁN (Chile, 1894–1936). Dramatist.


Although his oeuvre is not extensive, he was a significant figure in
the revival of theater in Chile in the early 20th century. He used
traditional structures and wrote realist plays that embodied the then
new theories of Sigmund Freud. Amo y señor (1926; Lord and Mas-
ter) is a critique of bourgeois corruption, and La viuda de Apablaza
(1928; The Widow of Aplabaza) is a retelling of the Phaedra myth
transferred to a rural setting in Chile.

LUGONES, LEOPOLDO (Argentina, 1874–1938). Poet, essay-


ist, and short story writer. His work covers a wide range of genres,
moods, and styles, a reflection of his shifting interests and loyalties.
Although an ardent socialist in his youth, he was later equally fervent
in his support of fascism. Lugones’s early volumes of poetry, Las
montañas de oro (1897; Mountains of Gold), Los crepúsculos del
jardín (1905; The Garden Twilights), and Lunario sentimental (1909;
Sentimental Moon), show European influence but are innovative

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274 • LUSSICH, ANTONIO DIONISIO

representatives of modernismo that made him one of the most im-


portant South American exponents of this trend and very influential.
Lunario sentimental, for example, is a miscellany of pieces, in prose
and verse, on the theme of the moon and represents a shift toward the
avant-garde. Later collections, in which Argentinean themes figured
prominently, were less experimental. These included Odas secula-
res (1910; Secular Odes), written as part of the nation’s centenary
celebrations; Romancero (1924; Ballads); Poemas solariegos (1928;
Ancestral Poems); and Romance del Río Seco (1938; The Ballad of
Rio Seco), which reveal a more traditional aesthetic affiliated to more
conventional verse forms, the Argentine landscape, and its customs
and people.
Lugones’s fiction includes La guerra gaucha (1904; Gaucho War),
a series of episodes about the exploits of a 19th-century gaucho,
which along with elements of the author’s verse, such as Odas secu-
lares, locates his work in the tradition of gaucho literature. In an
entirely different vein, Las fuerzas extrañas (1906; Strange Forces)
is a collection of short stories that demonstrates his originality in
the area of fantastic literature. His essays, amounting to almost
20 published volumes, covered a wide range of subjects, including
education, history, politics, and literary criticism. Among his books
that have had most impact are La patria fuerte (1930; The Strong
Fatherland), written in defense of the pro-military stance he took over
the military coup of 1930, and El payador (1916; The Troubador),
a study of José Hernández’s Martín Fierro. Lugones committed
suicide at the age of 63. See also HERRERA Y REISSIG, JULIO;
JAIMES FREYRE, RICARDO.

LUSSICH, ANTONIO DIONISIO (Uruguay, 1848–1928). Poet. He


followed in the tradition of gaucho literature established by Bar-
tolomé Hidalgo and owes his celebrity in part to the notion that his
Los tres gauchos orientales (1872; Three Uruguayan Gauchos) was
once considered the inspiration for Martín Fierro by José Hernán-
dez. Other works he wrote in the same tradition are El matrero Lu-
ciano Santos (1873; The Oulaw Luciano Santos) and Diálogo entre
los paisanos Cantalicio Quirós y Miterio Castro en un baile del
club Paraguay (1883; Dialogue Between the Compatriots Cantalicio
Quirós and Miterio Castro at a Dance at the Paraguay Club).

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LYNCH, MARTA • 275

LYNCH, BENITO (Argentina, 1880–1951). Novelist and short story


writer. He wrote nine novels and many short stories, predominantly
in the vein of naturalism. His fiction deals mainly with rural life of
the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reminiscent of criollismo, and
has not generally transcended his own time. Few of his novels have
been republished, and many of his short stories remain uncollected
in newspapers and magazines. El inglés de los güesos (1924; The
Englishman with the Bones), Lynch’s best-known novel, is the story
of the conflicts arising in a rural community when a young woman
falls for an English paleontologist, whose presence is an example of
the many English people who visited or settled in Argentina between
the late 1800s and 1930.

LYNCH, MARTA (Argentina, 1929–1985). Novelist, short story


writer, and journalist. She was a popular and public figure, recog-
nized for the success of her fiction and journalism, her involvement
in politics, and her television appearances. She committed suicide,
perhaps in response to a fear of aging and loss of public attention, at
a time when her popularity was greatest. The themes that dominate
her fiction are love, female desire, and politics, but the outcomes are
rarely positive. Lynch’s first published novel was La alfombra roja
(1962; The Red Carpet), written as a series of monologues spoken
by characters who accompany a politician on his rise to becoming
president, based on the presidential campaign of Arturo Frondizi
(1958–1962). Al vencedor (1965; To the Victor), her second novel,
is a bleak look at two military draftees whose experiences anticipate
the violence that would overcome the country in the 1970s. Her third
novel, also her most popular, was La señora Ordóñez (1967; Mrs.
Ordóñez), whose female protagonist, the bored wife of a doctor,
has been considered by many to be an autobiographical representa-
tion of the author. Her later novels—Un árbol lleno de manzanas
(1974; A Tree Full of Apples), La penúltima versión de Colorada
Villanueva (1978; The Penultimate Version of Colorada Villanueva),
and Informe bajo llave (1983; Report Under Wraps)—all intertwine
love and politics and show the darker side of existence, reflecting
events in Argentina. Lynch’s collections of short stories, with their
variations on loneliness, sex, and politics, present the same themes
as her longer fiction and include Crónicas de la burguesía (1965;

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276 • LYRA, CARMEN

Chronicles of the Bourgeosie), Los cuentos tristes (1967; Sad Tales),


Los dedos de la mano (1976; The Fingers of the Hand), Los años de
fuego (1980; Years of Fire), and No te duermas, no me dejes (1985;
Don’t Sleep, Don’t Leave Me). See also WOMEN.

LYRA, CARMEN (Costa Rica, 1888–1949). Short story writer. Born


María Isabela Carvajal, Lyra was a noted educator, a politically
militant figure, and Costa Rica’s first major woman writer. She
published one novel, En una silla de ruedas (1918; In a Wheelchair),
a view of Costa Rican life and customs represented through a senti-
mental story and the eyes of a young handicapped artist. Her collec-
tion of stories, Los cuentos de mi tía Panchita (1920; Tales from My
Aunt Fanny), containing traditional European fairy tales as well as
tales from folklore, all told in the voice of the same female narrator,
is her most celebrated book and a notable contribution to children’s
literature. A similar strategy of stories all told by the same narrator
was also used two years previously in Las fantasías de Juan Silvestre
(1918; Juan Silvestre’s Fantasies). Lyra’s other collections of stories,
Siluetas de la maternal (1929; Maternal Silhouettes) and Bananos
y hombres (1931; Bananas and Men), have a more political content
and reflect the author’s use of literature for social protest. She was,
in effect, one of the earliest authors in Central America to protest the
dominance of transnational fruit companies. Lyra also wrote for the
stage, including theater for children.

– M –

MACEDO, JOAQUIM MANUEL DE (Brazil, 1820–1882). Novelist


and dramatist. Although Macedo studied medicine, he followed a ca-
reer in teaching and politics. His doctoral thesis, a study of nostalgia,
was published in the same year as his first novel A Moreninha (1844;
The Dark Girl), which was also the first novel in Brazil in the style
of romanticism influenced by European models such as Sir Walter
Scott (1771–1832) and Alexandre Dumas (1802–1870). This tale of
fidelity to childhood love is Macedo’s best-known work. Considered
the father of the sentimental novel in Brazil, Macedo employed a
number of plot formulas, including mistaken identities, conflicts be-

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MACHADO, ANÍBAL • 277

tween duty and passion, and humorous situations involving second-


ary characters, and was responsible for introducing vernacular speech
in literature. He wrote a total of 17 novels, attempting, like Honoré
de Balzac (1799–1850), a broad portrait of 19th-century urban (in
this case Brazilian) society. His novels include Rosa (1849; Rosa),
Vicentina (1853; Vicentina), O Forasteiro (1855; The Foreigner),
Romances da Semana (1861; Romances of the Week), O Culto do
Dever (1865; The Cult of Duty), As Vítimas Algozes (1869; The Vic-
tim Executioners), O Rio do Quarto (1869; Rio from the Bedroom),
A Namoradeira (1870; The Flighty Girl), Um Noivo e Duas Noivas
(1871; One Groom and Two Brides), Os Quatro Pontos Cardeias
(1872; The Four Cardinal Points), A Misteriosa (1872; The Mysteri-
ous Woman), A Baronesa do Amor (1876; The Baroness of Love),
and O Moço Loiro (1845; The Blonde Boy). Macedo also wrote
satirical dramas with less success, though O Primo da Califórnia
(1858; The Cousin from California) is still staged occasionally. See
also THEATER.

MACHADO, ANÍBAL (Brazil, 1894–1964). Short story writer and


novelist. Born in Minas Gerais, where he studied law and wrote
for the newspapers alongside Carlos Drummond de Andrade and
other members of Brazilian modernism, Machado is mostly known
for short narratives that he first published in newspapers and then
gathered in the volumes Vida Feliz (1944; Happy Life) and Histórias
Reunidas (1959; Collected Short Stories), among which “Viagem
aos Seios de Duília” (“Voyage to Duília’s Breasts”), “Tati, a Garota”
(“Tati, the Girl”), and “A Morte da Porta-Estandarte” (“The Death
of the Standardbearer”) are well-known and are often anthologized.
In a succinct and ironic style, often psychologically introspective,
Machado commented on the daily life of obscure characters, much
in the style of Franz Kafka, whom he translated. His “poem/essay”
Cadernos de João (1957; John’s Notebooks) is a collection of lyrical
meditations inspired by Paul Valéry (1871–1941) and prose poems
in the style of surrealism. João Ternura (1965; John Tenderness) is
a posthumously published, semiautobiographical narrative and set of
personal reflections. Linked also to regionalism, he wrote Brandão
Entre o Mar e o Amor (1942; Brandão Between the Sea and Love)
collectively with José Lins do Rêgo, Raquel de Queirós, Jorge

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278 • MACHADO, ANTÓNIO DE ALCÂNTARA

Amado, and Graciliano Ramos. Among other things, Machado


belonged to theater groups, wrote movie scripts based on his short
stories, and was a soccer player with Clube Atlético Mineiro.

MACHADO, ANTÓNIO DE ALCÂNTARA (Brazil, 1901–1935).


Journalist, novelist, and short story writer. Born in São Paulo,
Alcântara Machado studied law, but soon turned to journalism,
working for Jornal do Comércio. In 1925, he published a series of
humorous travel chronicles, which he later brought out as the vol-
ume Pathé-Baby (1926; Pathé Baby). These texts were influenced
in style and content by the new medium of cinema, as seen in the
title of the collection, taken from the name of a popular film camera.
Alcântara Machado soon joined the ranks of Brazilian modernism
by frequenting artists gathered around the Week of Modern Art,
especially Oswald de Andrade, with whom he collaborated on the
journals Terra Roxa e Outras Terras and Revista de Antropofagia.
Notably, Alcântara Machado also portrayed the life of Italian immi-
grants in São Paulo in his collections of short stories, Brás, Bexiga
e Barra Funda (1927; Brás, Bexiga and Barra Funda), named after
three well-known working-class districts in São Paulo, and Laranja
da China (1928; Mandarin Orange). As chronicler of music and
culture, Alcântara Machado left the important volume, Cavaquinho
e Saxofone (1940; Cavaquinho and Saxophone), containing mostly
pieces published in periodicals. Machado died prematurely from
complications after an appendectomy.

MACHADO, DIONÉLIO (Brazil, 1895–1986). Novelist. Born in


Rio Grande do Sul, Machado studied psychiatry and later worked
as a journalist. Following his first book of short stories, Um Pobre
Homem (1927; A Poor Man), his first novel, Os Ratos (1935; The
Rats), earned him almost instant fame. The novel describes one day
in the life of a low-level bureaucrat who is desperately looking for
money to pay the milkman, focusing on his psyche and the stress
and frustrations of daily life, in the style of realism. Machado’s
next novel, O Louco de Cati (1942; The Madman from Cati),
was written entirely by dictation and makes much use of the oral.
Although he attempted to use similar plots and techniques in his
following novels, Desolação (1944; Desolation), Passos Perdidos

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MACHADO, GILKA • 279

(n.d.; Lost Steps), and Os Deuses Econômicos (1966; The Eco-


nomic Gods), he was less successful. Machado was in jail at the
same time as Graciliano Ramos during Getúlio Vargas’s Estado
Novo (1930–1945).

MACHADO, DUDA, a.k.a. CARLOS EDUARDO LIMA MACH-


ADO (Brazil, 1944– ). Poet and translator. Born in Salvador, Mach-
ado was linked to the Tropicália movement, writing song lyrics with
fellow poet Waly Salomão. He studied social sciences and literature
in São Paulo and today is a university professor in Minas Gerais.
He has also translated works by Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880),
Ford Madox Ford (1873–1939), and Marcel Schwob (1867–1905).
Machado’s poetry emerges from the lessons of the concrete poetry
movement moving through the impact of popular culture from Trop-
icália. His early poems evince a concern with the visual and with
language as a topic, but evolve toward more awareness of the politi-
cal. The title of Machado’s first book Zil (1977; Zil) is not a word,
but rather a fragment whose sound suggests a number of possibilities,
including the word “Brazil” and “fuzil,” setting the stage for a poetry
of indeterminacy and verbal play. For years Machado did not publish
another book and gathered all his uncollected poems published in
journals in the volume Crescente (1990; Crescent) and his unpub-
lished book Um Outro (1990; An Other). Other titles by Machado
include Margem de Uma Onda (1997; Edge of a Wave) and Histórias
com Poesia, Alguns Bichos & Cia. (1997; Stories with Poetry, Some
Animals, & Co.), a work of children’s literature.

MACHADO, GILKA (Brazil, 1893–1980). Poet. Born in Rio, Mach-


ado married a fellow poet and had two children. Her first poetry
book was Cristais Partidos (1915; Broken Crystals), soon followed
by Estados d’Alma (1917; States of the Soul). Her poetry, written in
the styles of parnassianism and symbolism, was considered scan-
dalous because of its open eroticism. Machado, hailed as the great-
est female poet of Brazil in 1933, was gradually forgotten, but has
been recently rediscovered by scholars of writing by women. Other
works by Machado include Mulher Nua (1922; Nude Woman), Meu
Glorioso Pecado (1928; My Glorious Sin), and Sublimação (1938;
Sublimation).

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280 • MADARIAGA, FRANCISCO

MADARIAGA, FRANCISCO (Argentina, 1927–2000). Poet. The


province of Corrientes, where he was born and grew up, figures
significantly in his work, which evokes the landscape, the contrast
between the urban and the rural, and the coexistence of Spanish and
Guaraní. As a member of the group founded by Aldo Pellegrini,
surrealism was a fundamental part of his aesthetic vision, although
his writing also shows the influence of the baroque, gaucho lite-
rature, and the writers Oliverio Girondo and Pablo Neruda. He
published more than a dozen books of poetry, including El pequeño
patíbulo (1954; The Small Scaffold), Las jaulas del sol (1960; Cages
of the Sun), Los terrores de la suerte (1967; The Terrors of Luck),
Tembladerales de oro (1973; Golden Quicksands), Una acuarela
móvil (1985; A Moving Watercolor), and Aroma de apariciones
(1998; Scent of Apparitions). Collected editions of his poetry have
appeared in La balsa mariposa (1982; Butterfly Raft) and El tren casi
fluvial (1988; The Almost Riverine Train).

MADRID AIR DISASTER. This was a plane crash on 27 November


1983, at Barajas Airport, which claimed the lives of 180 passengers
and crew, including the Latin American writers Jorge Ibargüengoi-
tia, Ángel Rama, Manuel Scorza, and Marta Traba, who had all
been in Spain to attend a congress.

MAGALHÃES, DOMINGOS JOSÉ GONÇALVES DE (Brazil,


1811–1882). Poet and dramatist. Trained as a painter, Gonçalves de
Magalhaes also received a degree in medicine in 1832, the year he
published his Poesias (Poems). He traveled to Europe to further his
studies in medicine, and during his stay there became acquainted
with French and Italian romantic authors. In 1836, he published the
poetry volume Suspiros Poéticos e Saudades (1836; Poetic Sighs
and Nostalgia) in Paris, which officially introduced romanticism
to Brazil. In that year also, with Francisco Sales Torres-Homem
(1812–1876) and Manuel de Araújo Porto Alegre (1806–1879), he
founded the journal Niterói: Revista Brasiliense (1836; Niterói: Bra-
zilian Magazine), in which they theorized and promoted the romantic
nationalist and religious ideal and rejected foreign classical models.
Gonçalves de Magalhães also attempted to reform the theater
with his play Antônio José ou o Poeta e a Inquisição (1838; Antônio

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MAGAÑA, SERGIO • 281

José or the Poet and the Inquisition), the first Brazilian tragedy on
a national subject, which still employed an antiquated verse form.
This too is the case with his contribution to epic poetry, A Confed-
eração dos Tamoios (1856; The Confederation of the Tamoio Indi-
ans), which deals with Brazilian native themes but was rejected as
backward-looking by other romantics such as José de Alencar and
sparked a debate on the role of indianismo in Brazilian literature.
Gonçalves de Magalhães, however, was defended by writers and by
the emperor Pedro II (1821–1891), in whose cultural enterprises he
collaborated and who named him baron and viscount. Gonçalves de
Magalhães’s Ensaio Sobre a História da Literatura do Brasil (1834;
Essay on the History of Literature in Brazil), a lecture he delivered
at the Institut Historique de France, presents and develops reflections
on Brazilian cultural history by scholars such as Ferdinand Denis
(1798–1890) and Almeida Garrett (1799–1854). See also PENA,
LUÍS CARLOS MARTINS.

MAGAÑA, SERGIO (Mexico, 1924–1990). Dramatist. Although he


wrote novels and short stories at the beginning of his career, Magaña
soon turned to the theater, where he established his reputation. His
early mentors were Salvador Novo and Rodolfo Usigli, and he was
later associated with Luisa Josefina Hernández and Emilio Carba-
llido. Much of his work is in a realist vein, but he has written in many
modes and on a wide variety of themes, including the revolution,
nationalism, pre-Hispanic history, love and incest, suicide and death,
and diverse aspects of urban life. Among his urban plays, Los signos
del Zodíaco (1951; Signs of the Zodiac), about a neighborhood af-
flicted by adversity, is one of his best-known dramas. El pequeño
caso de Jorge Lívido (1958; The Small Case of Jorge Lívido), a
critique of the justice system and methods used to obtain confes-
sions, and Los motivos del lobo (1965; The Wolf’s Motives), about a
man who shuts his family in to protect it from the world outside, are
both set in urban environments. Magaña’s historical drama includes
Moctezuma I (1953; Montezuma I), in which the Aztec emperor is
destroyed by his gods amid premonitions of religious conflict, and
Los argonautas (1967; The Argonauts), about Hernán Cortés and his
native mistress, La Malinche.

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282 • MAGAZINES

Children’s literature finds a place in the dramatist’s work with


El viaje de Nocresida (1952; Nocresida’s Journey), written in col-
laboration with Emilio Carballido, and El anillo de oro (1960; The
Golden Ring), the story of some mice and a cat that come to the aid
of a mother and child. Magaña’s musical dramas, to which he con-
tributed music and lyrics, include a dig at landlords and civil servants
in Rentas congeladas (1960; Frozen Rents); an auto, El mundo que
tú heredas (1970; The World You Inherit); and Santísima (1980;
Santísima), a musical play based on Federico Gamboa’s best-known
novel. Magaña also wrote a number of plays taken from literary
sources: El reloj y la cuna (1952; The Clock and the Cradle), about a
woman who is seduced and betrayed, murders her son, and falls into
madness, based on the Greek tragedy Medea (431 BCE) by Euripides
(480–403 BCE); La dama de las camelias (1979; The Lady of the
Camellias), inspired by a work by the younger Alexandre Dumas
(1824–1895); and Ensayando a Molière (1966; Rehearsing Molière),
an interview with the celebrated French comic dramatist.

MAGAZINES. See JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS,


AND PERIODICALS.

MAGDALENO, MAURICIO (Mexico, 1906–1986). Novelist. Com-


monly associated with the novel of the Mexican Revolution, his
work does not deal directly with the revolution, which tends rather
to form the background to his narratives. His early novels were El
compadre Mendoza (1934; The Godfather Mendoza), Campo Celis
(1935; Campo Celis), and Concha Bretón (1936; Concha Bretón).
These were followed by El resplandor (1937; Sunburst), his most
celebrated novel, which pits an Indian community afflicted by
drought against the rich and powerful. Elements of indigenismo and
the rural setting also figure in his later fiction: Sonata (1941; Sonata),
Cabello de elote (1949; Corn Silk), and La tierra grande (1949;
The Big Land). His best short stories were published in La ardiente
verano (1954; Burning Summer). Magdaleno was also a highly suc-
cessful screenwriter, who wrote the screenplays for a number of clas-
sic Mexican films of the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, beginning with the
adaptation of his own novel, El compadre Mendoza.

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MAGIC REALISM • 283

MAGGI, CARLOS (Uruguay, 1922– ). Dramatist and essayist.


Fiction appears among Maggi’s works, notably the short story col-
lections Cuentos de humoramor (1967; Tales of Humorlove) and
El libro de buen humor (1985; The Book of Good Humor), but is
not where he has made his most significant mark. He is known as
the author of ironically humorous essays on Uruguayan society,
including Polvo enamorado (1951; Enamored Dust), El Uruguay y
su gente (1961; Uruguay and Its People), Gardel, Onetti y algo más
(1964; Gardel, Onetti, and Something Else), and Los militares, la
televisión y otros razones de uso interno (1986; The Military, Televi-
sion and Other Reasons for Internal Use). Above all, his reputation
as a dramatist is well established. His first works for the theater, La
trastienda (1958; The Back Room) and La biblioteca (1961; The
Library), the latter a Kafkaesque encounter with bureaucracy during
the building of a library, were realistic, written in the tradition of the
River Plate sainete and grotesco criollo. In later works, with which
he had considerable critical and commercial success, he turned to a
more impressionistic style akin to the theater of the absurd, such
as La noche de los ángeles inciertos (1962; The Night of Uncertain
Angels) and Esperando a Rodó (1968; Waiting for Rodó). Maggi has
also written for newspapers, radio, and the cinema.

MAGIC REALISM. This term is used to refer to one of the most char-
acteristic trends in Latin American literature, especially fiction, of the
second half of the 20th century. It is commonly associated with the
boom, largely on the strength of Gabriel García Márquez’s Cien
años de soledad (1967; One Hundred Years of Solitude). Magic real-
ism is not easily defined, and there has been disagreement about the
kinds of works to which it applies virtually since critics first began to
use the term. The most common application is to narratives in which
elements of myth, religion, magic, or superstition are represented as
if they were part of everyday reality. This style therefore challenges
the rational conventions of modernity and proposes a more syncretic
reality in which the primitive or premodern coexists alongside the
modern, a condition that was taken to be representative of Latin
America itself. Although García Márquez’s groundbreaking novel
is considered one of magic realism’s paradigms, elements of the

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284 • MALLEA, EDUARDO

trend are also found in the work of many authors, including Laura
Esquivel, Elena Garro, and Juan Rulfo (Mexico); Rafael Arévalo
Martínez (Guatemala); Manlio Argueta and Salarrué (El Salva-
dor); Rogelio Sinán (Panama); Arturo Uslar Pietri (Venezuela);
Demetrio Aguilera Malta and Nelson Estupiñán Bass (Ecuador);
Augusto Roa Bastos (Paraguay); César Aira and Haroldo Conti
(Argentina); and Isabel Allende (Chile). See also CUADRA, JOSÉ
DE LA; HONDURAS; WOMEN.

MALLEA, EDUARDO (Argentina, 1903–1982). Novelist, short story


writer, and essayist. He was a prolific writer, editor (1931–1955) of
the literary supplement of the Buenos Aires daily La Nación, and
a longtime contributor to the literary journal Sur. His book-length
essay on Argentina in the 1930s, Historia de una pasión argentina
(1935; History of an Argentine Passion), won him considerable noto-
riety and provided what is often considered the theoretical underpin-
ning of his fiction. Indeed, several of his “thesis” novels are thought
to be essay-like. With elements in common with European existen-
tialism, his fiction explores the internal worlds of characters search-
ing for authenticity in an Argentinean culture that has exhausted
itself. This tendency appeared in La ciudad junto al río inmóvil
(1936; The City Beside the Stagnant River), a collection of short
stories depicting the anguish and alienation of life in Buenos Aires.
Mallea’s first novel, Fiesta en noviembre (1938; Fiesta in No-
vember), sets the tone for much of his later work. Telling the story
of a lavish party into which an account of the murder of a young
idealist is interleafed, it was written against the background of
Fascist violence in Europe and the execution of the Spanish poet
Federico García Lorca in 1936 at the beginning of the Spanish Civil
War (1936–1939). The novel Bahía de silencio (1940; The Bay of
Silence) is the autobiography of a writer, Martín Tregua, struggling
to realize his hopes and aspirations. Todo verdor perecerá (1941;
All Green Shall Perish), often considered the author’s best work,
develops similar themes of isolation, silence, and alienation from
reality through the story of a female character, Ágata Cruz. Other
novels by Mallea include Chaves (1953; Chaves), Los enemigos del
alma (1950; Enemies of the Soul), Triste piel del universo (1971; Sad
Skin of the Universe), and En la creciente oscuridad (1973; In the

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MANNS, PATRICIO • 285

Growing Dark). He published several collections of short narratives,


including La sala de espera (1953; The Waiting Room), La barca de
hielo (1967; The Ice Ship), and La penúltima puerta (1969; The Last
Door But One). See also OCAMPO, VICTORIA.

MANCISIDOR, JOSÉ (Mexico, 1894–1956). Novelist, short story


writer, and essayist. Mancisidor fought in the revolutionary army and
obtained the rank of lieutenant colonel of artillery before ending his
military career in 1920. He also became a militant communist whose
novels, customarily included in the novel of the Mexican Revolu-
tion, sought to convey a socialist perspective. His first novel was
La asonada (1931; The Coup), followed by La ciudad roja (1932;
The Red City), described as a “proletarian novel.” En la rosa de los
vientos (1941; At the Mercy of the Wind) and Frontera junto al mar
(1953; Frontier by the Sea) are both narratives of the revolution, the
latter set in Veracruz in 1914 at the time of the occupation of the port
by U.S. marines. Mancisidor’s short stories were collected in several
books: Cómo cayeron los héroes (1930; How the Heroes Fell), 120
días (1937; 120 Days), El juramento (1947; The Oath), El destino
(1947; Destiny), La primera piedra (1950; The First Stone), and Me
lo dijo María Kaimlova (1955; María Kaimlova Told Me). As an
essayist, he wrote books on Karl Marx (1818–1883), Vladimir Ilych
Lenin (1870–1924), and Joseph Stalin (1878–1953) and on French
and Russian literature.

MANNS, PATRICIO (Chile, 1937– ). Novelist, essayist, poet, and


musician. As a singer-songwriter, Manns has had a successful musi-
cal career, both before and after leaving Chile for exile in 1973. He
is a politically committed writer and performer who campaigned for
Salvador Allende in 1964 and 1970 and whose musical style extends
from the Chilean new song of the 1960s to more recent styles. As
a writer, he has published a number of novels, including Buenas
noches los pastores (1973; Goodnight Shepherds); Actas de Marusia
(1974; Acts of Marusia), the basis of a highly successful film from
the Chilean director Miguel Littín (1942– ); El corazón a contraluz
(1996; The Heart in Silhouette); and La vida privada de Emile Du-
bois (2004; The Private Life of Emile Dubois). His published poetry
includes Memorial de Bonampak (1995; Bonampak Memorial), a

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286 • MANSILLA, LUCIO V.

work of indigenismo that speaks for the oppressed Maya. He is also


the author of a biography of the Chilean singer-songwriter and folk-
lorist Violeta Parra and has written for the stage and screen.

MANSILLA, LUCIO V. (Argentina, 1831–1913). Essayist. Although


he wrote a number of books, he is remembered as a writer mainly
for his memoir, Una excursión a los indios ranqueles (1870; An Ex-
pedition to the Ranquel Indians), an account of his journey into the
province of Córdoba to negotiate a treaty with the Ranquel Indians
that became a significant text in the debate on civilization and bar-
barism in Argentina.

MAPLES ARCE, MANUEL (Mexico, 1900–1985). Poet. He was


the leading voice of the avant-garde movement estridentismo
and editor of several of its publications, including the broadsheet
Actual (1921) and the journals Irradiador (1923) and Horizontes
(1926–1927). His own poetry from the time of his involvement with
estridentismo was published in Andamios interiores (1922; Interior
Scaffolds); Urbe (1924; Metropolis), focused on the modern city; and
Poemas interdictos (1927; Forbidden Poems). His later poetry was
collected in Memorial de la sangre (1947; Blood Memorial) and La
semilla de tiempo (1971; Seed of Time). As a prose writer, Maples
Arce also produced three volumes of memoirs and numerous essays
on a wide range of topics, including Mexican art and literature.

MARECHAL, LEOPOLDO (Argentina, 1900–1970). Poet, novelist,


and dramatist. As a Peronist intellectual, he held government posi-
tions in education, but lapsed into relative obscurity after the fall of
Juan Domingo Perón in 1955. His writing is shaped by two main
factors: his position as a writer of the avant-garde and his unequivo-
cal Catholicism. Marechal was a metaphysician who also recognized
the place of science. His first two significant collections of poetry,
Días como flechas (1926; Days Like Arrows) and Odas para el hom-
bre y la mujer (1929; Odes for Man and Woman), explore aspects
of his daily life and show his affiliation with ultraísmo. His next
collections, Laberinto de amor (1935; Labyrinth of Love), Cinco
poemas australes (1937; Five Southern Poems), El centauro (1940;
The Centaur), and Sonetos a Sophía y otros poemas (1940; Sonnets

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MARIÁTEGUI, JOSÉ CARLOS • 287

for Sophia and Other Poems), are more clearly religious. They show
the development of his work from Spanish mysticism and the pres-
ence of symbols derived from religious sources. These elements are
further pursued in the author’s later, mature poetry: El heptamerón
(1966; The Heptameron), El poema de Robot (1966; Robot’s Poem),
and Poemas de la creación (1979; Poems of Creation).
Marechal is better known for his three novels, which repeat each
other thematically to some extent and explore concepts similar to
those developed in his poetry. Nevertheless, each of the novels is a
separate work, with its own structure and fictional world. The first
to appear was Adán Buenosayres (1948; Adam Buenosayres), an
allegory of the soul’s passage to a superior reality that traces the
metaphysical quest of the hero through the city. At the same time, the
novel is notable for its attention to daily life, humor, autobiographical
content, and poetic and colloquial language. With its introduction of
mythology, it represents a new phase in the Argentinean novel remi-
niscent of Ulysses (1922) by James Joyce (1881–1941). Although the
best known of the three novels, Adán Buenosayres, passed almost
unnoticed when first published, it is now considered a seminal work
of Argentinean narrative and was acclaimed by writers such as Julio
Cortázar and Ricardo Piglia. Marechal’s other two novels are El
banquete de Severo Arcángelo (1966; Severo Arcángelo’s Banquet)
and Megafón, o la guerra (1970; Megafón, or War), which both ex-
plore the inner self and the human struggle in history.
In addition to poetry and narrative, he also wrote five plays, among
which are Antígona Vélez (1965; Antígona Vélez), a reworking of
Sophocles’s drama on the theme of destiny, and Don Juan (1978;
Don Juan), a version of the story of the Spanish dramatic protagonist
that provides a further opportunity to explore questions of metaphys-
ics. Marechal’s work for the theater benefits from being viewed in
the light of his poetry and fiction.

MARIÁTEGUI, JOSÉ CARLOS (Peru, 1894–1930). Essayist and


journalist. He also wrote short stories, poetry, and plays, but is known
principally for his political activities and writings. He was a political
associate of Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, although the two went
different ways after 1927. Mariátegui founded the Peruvian Socialist
Party and the journal Amauta, which became an important vehicle

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288 • MARÍN CAÑAS, JOSÉ

of expression for the political Left. He also published many volumes


of essays. His Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana
(1928; Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality) is a classic
of political writing and continues to be read. It was a highly influ-
ential text in its advocacy of a Peruvian socialism and an important
political underpinning of indigenismo. See also ALEGRÍA, CIRO;
GONZÁLEZ PRADA, MANUEL.

MARÍN CAÑAS, JOSÉ (Costa Rica, 1904–1980). Novelist and


journalist. He first drew attention with the novel Lágrimas de acero
(1929; Tears of Steel), based on his student days in Spain, and Los
bígardos del ron (1929; The Drunken Beggars), a collection of short
pieces about socially marginalized characters in Costa Rica. He
became more widely known later, however, through two additional
novels. El infierno verde (1935; Green Inferno) is a story of the
Chaco War (1932–1935) between Bolivia and Paraguay, told in a
first person account by a Paraguyan soldier. Although Marín had no
experience of the war and had never been to either of the two coun-
tries involved, the work was first serialized in the newspaper La Hora
in Costa Rica, where it passed successfully as a factual account. By
contrast, Pedro Arnáez (1942; Pedro Arnáez) is closer to home. It is
set in Central America during the social and political turmoil of the
period between the two world wars and is the life story of a simple
man, reconstructed by a doctor who met him during three moments
of crisis. Marín Cañas also wrote for the theater, including the plays
Como tú (1929; Like You), En busca de un candidato (1935; In
Search of a Candidate), and Una tragedia de ocho cilindros (1938;
A Tragedy in Eight Cylinders). After his literary activity of the 1920s
and 1930s, however, he did not return to literature, but published
only a number of journalistic books in the second half of his life, in
which he collected essays, chronicles, articles, and impressions from
his travels, especially in Spain.

MÁRMOL, JOSÉ (Argentina, 1817–1871). Novelist, poet, and


journalist. He was politically active in opposition to the dictator
Juan Manuel Rosas and suffered imprisonment and exile as a con-
sequence, experiences that marked much of his writing. His novel
Amalia (1851; Amalia), the work for which he is most remembered,

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MARTÍNEZ, TOMÁS ELOY • 289

one of the most popular novels of Spanish American romanticism,


was written in exile in Montevideo and is an anti-Rosas narrative
that prompted similar works by other authors. The novel displays a
manichean view of Argentina, presented in the terms of a conflict
between civilization and barbarism. It was adapted for the cinema
in 1914 and became the source of Argentina’s first full-length feature
film. Mármol’s poetry includes an autobiographical narrative called
El peregrino (1847; The Pilgrim), an account of a sea voyage from
Brazil to Montevideo, written in the manner of Childe Harold’s Pil-
grimage by Lord Byron (1788–1824), and a collection of lyric verse
titled Armonías (1851; Harmonies), which express the poet’s feelings
for nature and social justice.

MARTÍNEZ, TOMÁS ELOY (Argentina, 1934–2010). Novelist,


journalist, and short story writer. Part of the post-boom generation,
Martínez’s rise to prominence came through two novels, La novela
de Perón (1985; The Peron Novel) and Santa Evita (1995; Santa
Evita), both new historical novels and the latter an international
best seller. He was a prolific journalist in his early years and wrote
for numerous periodicals, including Primera Plana and La Opinión,
both founded by Jacobo Timerman, and the Buenos Aires daily La
Nación. His first major book, La pasión según Trelew (1973; The
Passion According to Trelew), was also a product of journalism. It
is a documentary analysis of atrocities committed by the military in
the southern Argentinean town of Trelew. The compilation of mul-
tiple narratives and points of view in the book is a strategy to which
he would return later. Inevitably, La pasión según Trelew met with
the displeasure of the authorities: the book was banned and Mar-
tínez went into exile under death threats. He continued his work as
a journalist in Venezuela and published two books of essays there:
Los testigos de afuera (1978; Outside Witnesses) and Retrato de un
artista enmascarado (1979; Portrait of a Masked Artist), as well as
Lugar común de la muerte (1979; The Commonplace of Death), a
volume of short stories.
Although Martínez had already published Sagrado (1969; Sa-
cred), a novel of the fantastic, he did not gain wide attention until La
novela de Perón appeared in 1985, by which time he had begun to
establish himself in the United States. La novela de Perón takes the

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290 • MARTÍNEZ ESTRADA, EZEQUIEL

figure of Juan Domingo Perón in exile (1955–1973) as its subject.


Based in part on extensive interviews the author conducted with the
former president, he narrates the many different versions of Perón’s
story, including those that the president tells about himself, as if the
protagonist were writing his own novel. Martínez would return to the
Peronist period in Argentinean history, but not before publishing the
novel La mano del amo (1991; The Hand of the Master), an allegory
of attempted escape from authority represented through a protagonist
striving to become his own person against an overpowering mother.
When he returned to Peronism in 1995, it was to publish a novel,
Santa Evita, about the second wife of the president, Eva Duarte de
Perón. Santa Evita examines the mythology of Evita. It has a basic
linear momentum, but is also a novel within a novel, the story of how
Martínez wrote it by assembling a collage of narratives from Evita’s
life and the memories that others retained of her, including those of
her hairdresser. Using the story of what happened to Evita’s body
after her death and embalmment, the novel traces the movement of
her corpse from place to place and the incidents it provokes, until it
is finally interred in La Recoleta cemetery in Buenos Aires. After
completing this novel, Martínez continued to publish other works,
including the novels El vuelo del la reina (2002; The Flight of the
Queen) and El cantor de tango (2004; The Tango Singer).

MARTÍNEZ ESTRADA, EZEQUIEL (Argentina, 1895–1964).


Poet, short story writer, essayist, and literary critic. He was a pro-
lific writer, who wrote poetry in his younger days and short sto-
ries throughout his life, collecting them in La inundación (1944;
The Flood), Marta Riquelme: ensayo sin conciencia (1956; Marta
Riquelme: Essay Without a Conscience), and La tos y otros acon-
tecimientos (1957; The Cough and Other Events). He is recognized
mainly, however, for sociohistorical studies of the psychology of Ar-
gentina, such as Radiografía de la pampa (1933; X-ray of the Pampa),
a critique of Domingo Faustino Sarmiento’s notion of civilization
and barbarism; La cabeza de Goliat (1940; Goliath’s Head), on the
impact of Buenos Aires on the history of Argentina; and Muerte y
transfiguración de Martín Fierro (1948; Death and Transfiguration
of Martín Fierro), a commentary on José Hernández’s narrative
poem that expands aspects of Radiografía de la pampa. Martínez

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MÁRTIR DE ANGLERÍA, PEDRO • 291

Estrada’s other works on politics and literature include Sarmiento


(1946; Sarmiento), El mundo maravilloso de Guillermo Enrique
Hudson (1951; The Marvelous World of William Henry Hudson),
and Martí revolucionario (1957; Martí the Revolutionary). See also
MURENA, HÉCTOR A.

MARTÍNEZ MORENO, CARLOS (Uruguay, 1917–1986). Novel-


ist and short story writer. The political content of his writing is a
reflection of his own militancy. In 1972, his home was bombed in
retaliation for having published a series of articles critical of the
government and for having served as legal representative of political
detainees. He went into exile in 1977, eventually moving to Mexico,
where he spent the last years of his life. El paredón (1963; The Wall),
his first novel, caused a stir when it was published because of its
treatment of the Cuban Revolution (1959). In La otra mitad (1966;
The Other Half), he presents the figure of Delmira Agustini as a
key to understanding contemporary reality. Con las primeras luces
(1966; At First Light) is a novel about an upper-class family. Coca
(1970; Cocaine) is a story of trafficking and addiction and Tierra en
la boca (1974; Dirt in the Mouth) portrays lives of petty crime and
violence. Martínez Moreno’s last novel, El color que el infierno me
escondiera (1981; Inferno), with a title borrowed from Dante, brings
together stories of the civil strife in Uruguay of the 1960s and 1970s
and the experiences of his work as a lawyer in the years before he
went into exile. His short stories were published in the following
volumes: Los días por vivir (1960; Days to Live), Cordelia (1961;
Cordelia), Los aborígenes (1964; Native People), Los prados de
la conciencia (1968; Fields of Conscience), and De vida o muerte
(1971; Of Life and Death). He also wrote essays on literary topics.

MÁRTIR DE ANGLERÍA, PEDRO (Spain, 1457–1526). Chroni-


cler. He was the author of Décadas del Nuevo Mundo (written
1493–1525; De orbe novo. The Eight Decades of Peter Marty
d’Anghera), a chronicle written in Latin as a series of reports or let-
ters and published as he completed them. He wrote in the florid style
of literary humanism characteristic of the age and without the benefit
of firsthand experience, because he never visited the New World and
was not involved in any of the events about which he wrote.

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292 • MASTRETTA, ÁNGELES

MASTRETTA, ÁNGELES (Mexico, 1949– ). Novelist, short story


writer, and journalist. Her first novel, Arráncame la vida (1985;
Tear This Heart Out), was a best seller in Mexico and abroad and
established her reputation for strong female characters. Using the
Mexican bolero among its motifs, it tells the story of the wife of a
revolutionary general turned politician who rejects a submissive role
beside her husband and follows her own path. Her second novel,
Mal de amores (1996; Lovesick), was equally well received and won
her the 1997 Rómulo Gallegos Prize, the first time this prestigious
award had been given to a woman. It covers 50 years in the history of
20th-century Mexico through the life of Emilia Sauri, who is in love
with two men, one a revolutionary, the other a doctor. Between these
two novels, Mastretta published Mujeres de ojos grandes (1990;
Women with Big Eyes), a collection of 38 short pieces, each about
a woman who defies social convention. Her most recent works of
fiction are Ninguna eternidad como la mía (1999; No Eternity Like
Mine), a novel set in early postrevolutionary Mexico about a young
immigrant woman who studies dancing and is determined to retain
her independence, and a further collection of short stories, Maridos
(2007; Husbands). Mastretta has also published two anthologies of
essays from her work as a journalist: Puerto libre (1993; Free Port)
and El mundo iluminado (1998; The Enlightened World).

MATTO DE TURNER, CLORINDA (Peru, 1852–1909). Novel-


ist. Some of her earliest writings were “traditions,” written in the
style of Ricardo Palma and collected in her first book Tradiciones
cuzqueñas (1884; Traditions from Cuzco). In her three novels, Aves
sin nido (1889; Torn from the Nest), Índole (1891; Human Nature),
and Herencia (1895; Heredity), however, her writing took a turn
toward naturalism and the representation of contemporary reality.
Aves sin nido is the best known of the three. Its denunciation of the
treatment of native people made it a controversial novel in its day
and one of the earliest works of indigenismo. Índole, with some
of the anticlericalism also appearing in Aves sin nido, presents two
contrasting families in an Andean village, a newlywed Indian couple
and a criollo couple whose relationship is falling apart. In contrast
to these two novels, Herencia is set in Lima and is a story of social
segregation. In addition to her treatment of racial issues, Matto de

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MATTOS E GUERRA, GREGÓRIO DE • 293

Turner’s fiction also has an undercurrent of feminism evident in her


portrayal of female characters who resist the confinement of their
lives to the domestic sphere, although this aspect of her work is
more apparent in her journalism and in her ventures in publishing
undertaken to promote writing by women. See also CABELLO DE
CARBONERA, MERCEDES; GONZÁLEZ PRADA, MANUEL;
GORRITI, JUANA MANUELA.

MATTOS, TOMÁS DE (Uruguay, 1947– ). Novelist and short story


writer. He has published two collections of short stories, Libros y
perros (1975; Books and Dogs) and Trampas de barro (1983; Clay
Traps), as well as the novels La fragata de las máscaras (1996; Frig-
ate of Masks) and La puerta de la Misericordia (2002; The Door
to Mercy). His best-known work, however, is ¡Bernabé, Bernabé!
(1988; Bernabé, Bernabé!), a new historical novel that reexamines
the foundation of Tacuarembó in Uruguay by Colonel Bernabé Ri-
vera. The novel revisits the massacre of the Charrúa Indians in 1831,
the construction of a sense of national identity that silences minori-
ties, and the long-standing debate about civilization and barbarism.

MATTOS E GUERRA, GREGÓRIO DE (Brazil, 1636–1695).


Perhaps Brazil’s most noted baroque satirist and poet, de Mattos
(also spelled de Matos) was born in Salvador (Bahia) into a rich and
distinguished family. After initial studies with the Jesuits in Salva-
dor, he traveled to Coimbra, Portugal, where he obtained a degree in
canonical law. He also became acquainted at the time with Spanish
and baroque poetry, especially Luis de Góngora (1561–1827), Fran-
cisco de Quevedo (1580–1645), and Luís de Camões (1524–1580).
De Mattos held public positions and practiced law in Portugal and
only returned to Brazil when he was in his fifties. Settling back in
Salvador, he became a virulent critic of Bahian society, a practice
that earned him the sobriquet “Boca do Inferno” (Hell’s Mouth) and
deportation to Angola, whence he returned to Brazil only one year
before his death in Recife.
Although he is best known for his satirical poetry, de Mattos was
accomplished as a religious poet and a love poet in the Petrarchan
tradition. In his religious poetry, he exemplified the Counter-
Reformation concerns of man’s relationship with God, and his

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294 • MATTOSO, GLAUCO, PSEUDONYM OF PEDRO JOSÉ FERREIRA DA SILVA

love poetry features the idealization of the beloved and the poet’s
dissatisfaction with unfulfilled passion. Other poems also mix the
erotic with the grotesque. The variety and contrast of his writings
reflect similar contradictions in a society apparently ruled by strict
religious codes yet riddled with ambition for pleasure and riches. De
Mattos’s works circulated mostly in manuscript during his lifetime
and were only published for the first time in the 19th century, a fact
that has made the study of his work problematic. Among the editions
of his work are the six-volume Obras (1923–1933; Works), edited
by Afrânio Peixoto; the seven-volume Obras Completas (1968;
Complete Works), edited by James Amado; and Poemas Escolhidos
(1976; Selected Poems), edited and with an introduction and notes by
José Miguel Wisnik. See also MATTOSO, GLAUCO; OLIVEIRA,
MANUEL BOTELHO DE; RIBEIRO, JOÃO UBALDO.

MATTOSO, GLAUCO, pseudonym of PEDRO JOSÉ FERREIRA


DA SILVA (Brazil, 1951– ). Poet. An heir to the satirical tradition of
the Portuguese medieval songs of mockery and to the Brazilian poet
Gregório de Mattos, Glauco Mattoso is one of the few poets of the
1970s countercultural movements such as poesia marginal who con-
tinue to write effectively in that vein. Initially attracted to concrete
poetry and visual poems, Mattoso, whose pseudonym derives from
the congenital glaucoma he suffers from, had to abandon that mode
when he lost his sight completely, returning to metered forms such
as the sonnet and song lyrics. Early works such as Jornal Dobrabil,
1977–1981 (2001; Foldable News), a newspaper distributed by mim-
eograph whose title puns on the daily Jornal do Brasil, reflect the
time when artists sought alternative modes of distribution to avoid
censorship under the Brazilian dictatorship. His work also makes
explicit reference to gay and lesbian writers and writing in works
such as Manual do Pedólatra Amador (1986; Manual of the Amateur
Pedolatrist). In his so-called blind period, Mattoso continued his sa-
tirical vein in sonnets that explore polemical and transgressive topics,
such as Centipéia: Sonetos Nojentos & Quejandos (1999; Centipede:
Disgusting and Similar Sonnets), Paulisséia Ilhada: Sonetos Tópicos
(1999; Paulicéa Ilhada: Topical Sonnets), Geléia de Rococó: Sonetos
Barrocos (1999; Rococo Jelly: Baroque Sonnets), and Panacéia:
Sonetos Colaterais (2000; Panacea: Collateral Sonnets).

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MEIRELES, CECÍLIA • 295

MAYA, RAFAEL (Colombia, 1897–1980). Poet. Rather than adopt-


ing any precise influences from the past or subscribing to any con-
temporary movements, he followed his own inclinations derived
from Catholicism and nationalism and his conservative view of the
world. His books of poetry include La vida en la sombra (1925;
Life in the Shadow), Coros del mediodía (1928; Midday Choruses),
Después del silencio (1938; After the Silence), and Navegación noc-
turna (1959; Nocturnal Navigation). He also published short stories
and wrote essays on literature and nationalism.

MEIRELES, CECÍLIA (Brazil, 1901–1964). Poet. Orphaned at a


young age, Meireles was raised by her grandmother from the Azores.
She attended school in her native Rio, earning honors and a medal
conferred by the district school inspector and poet Olavo Bilac. She
graduated from teachers college in 1917 and followed a teaching
career. Two years later, she published her first book of poetry, Espec-
tros (1919; Specters), written under the influence of parnassianism.
Nunca Mais . . . e Poema dos Poemas (1923; Nevermore . . . and Po-
ems of Poems) and Baladas para El-Rei (1925; Ballads for the King)
were her next collections in this early phase in the style of symbol-
ism and displayed an interest in the mystical and the supernatural. In
this period, Meireles also associated with other writers who professed
a Catholic faith and with them founded the journal Festa in 1927, to
which she also contributed poems. In 1934 Meireles founded the first
children’s library of Brazil and visited Portugal, lecturing at various
universities.
In the next few years, Meireles suffered the loss of her grand-
mother and her husband, and was left with three young daughters to
raise. She published little for some 14 years. Her next volume to ap-
pear, Viagem (1939; Voyage), written in meter, displayed existential
concerns, often hermetic and despondent. Viagem was awarded the
Brazilian Academy of Letters Prize for 1939, although her conserva-
tive poetics was the subject of controversy.
Meireles wrote in a different modern style that did not follow
the Week of Modern Art, but evolved individually from symbol-
ism. Her deeply personal lyricism is present in Vaga Música (1942;
Vague Music), Mar Absoluto e Outros Poemas (1945; Absolute Sea
and Other Poems), and Retrato Natural (1949; Portrait from Life), in

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296 • MEJÍA VALLEJO, MANUEL

which she also begins to reflect on external realities. Amor em Le-


onoreta (1951; Love in Leonoreta) and Doze Noturnos da Holanda e
O Aeronauta (1952; Twelve Nocturnes from Holland and the Aero-
naut) are inspired by her travels and experiences of flying. Meireles
was an avid traveler and visited Mexico, India, and Portugal for long
periods. In one of her best-known works, Romanceiro da Inconfidên-
cia (1953; Inconfidência Ballads), she employs the Iberian ballad
tradition to recount the tragic fate of the poets who rebelled against
the Portuguese crown in the 18th century in the prosperous mining
region of Minas Gerais. Pequeno Oratório de Santa Clara (1955;
Little Oratorio for St. Clair), written for the 700th anniversary of the
saint, retells her life in verse. Other works include Pistóia (1955;
Pistóia), Canções (1956; Songs), Romance de Santa Cecília (1957;
Romance of St. Cecilia), A Rosa (1957; The Rose), Metal Rosicler
(1960; Pyrite Rock), Poemas Escritos na Índia (1962; India Poems),
Solombra (1963; Sun and Shadow), and Ou Isto ou Aquilo (1964;
This or That).
Besides poetry, Meireles also wrote chronicles and prose, includ-
ing Evocação Lírica de Lisboa (1948; Lyrical Remembrances of
Lisbon). She lectured widely on literature and was a folklore expert.
At the time of her death from cancer, she was considered Brazil’s
greatest woman poet and a major figure in Brazilian modernism.

MEJÍA VALLEJO, MANUEL (Colombia, 1923–1998). Novelist


and short story writer. Much of Mejía Vallejo’s fiction is set in rural
Antioquía, where he was born, and deals with history and the theme
of la violencia in Colombia. His first novel, La tierra éramos noso-
tros (1945; We Were the Land), was a traditional evocation of rural
life and customs in the manner of regionalism, but in the two that
followed, Al pie de la ciudad (1958; At the Foot of the City) and El
día señalado (1964; The Appointed Day), he applied more modern
techniques. El día señalado in particular won him recognition both
within and beyond Colombia and gave new life and form to both
the novel of Antioquía and the Colombian novel of violence. The
mature novels that followed include Los negociantes (1965; The
Businessmen); Aire de tango (1973; Tango Melody), set in Medellín,
about a man who was born on the day (24 June, 1935) that Carlos
Gardel died in that city and who believes himself to be a reincarna-

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MELO NETO, JOÃO CABRAL DE • 297

tion of the great singer; Las muertes ajenas (1979; The Deaths of
Others), also set in Medellín; La casa de las dos palmas (1989; The
House with Two Palms), which won its author further wide recogni-
tion as recipient of the 1989 Rómulo Gallegos Prize and was filmed
for Colombian television; and Memoria del olvido (1990; Memory
of Forgetfulness). His books of short stories are Tiempo de sequía
(1957; Time of Drought), Cielo cerrado (1963; Closed Sky), Cuen-
tos de zona tórrida (1967; Tales from the Torrid Zone), Las noches
de las vigilias (1975; Nights on Watch), Otras historias de Balandú
(1990; Other Stories of Balandú), Sombras contra el muro (1993;
Shadows on the Wall), and La venganza y otros relatos (1995; Re-
venge and Other Stories).

MELO NETO, JOÃO CABRAL DE (Brazil, 1920–1999). Poet. One


of the most influential Brazilian poets of the 20th century, Cabral
was born in Recife but grew up on the family’s plantation in the
rural interior. Contact with the popular narrative poems known as
literatura de cordel would later shape his poetics, firmly rooted in
the arid landscapes of the Northeastern backland and hard life of its
inhabitants. In 1930, Cabral moved with his family to Recife, whose
river, the Capibaribe, features in his poems. Although he had no
formal studies, Cabral came from a literary family and was an avid
reader who soon acquainted himself with French, English, and Span-
ish authors. In 1942, he moved to Rio and published his first book of
poetry, Pedra do Sono (1942; Stone of Sleep), a collection influenced
by surrealism and word association, that already anticipates his later
poetry in its use of stark images and concise language. Cabral joined
the diplomatic corps in 1945, married in 1946, and resided abroad for
many years of his life, serving in the Brazilian consulates of Asun-
ción, Barcelona, and Dakar.
In his next two books of poetry, O Engenheiro (1945; The Engi-
neer) and Psicologia da Composição (1947; Psychology of Composi-
tion), Cabral abandoned the surrealist mode and the sentimental and
irrational aspects of poetry in favor of an antilyrical and constructiv-
ist “ars poetica.” Many of these poems deal thematically with the
mechanics of a concise and precise poetry. This return to an attention
to form originally aligned him with the poets of the Generation of
’45, but eventually Cabral would follow his own path. His concern

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298 • MELO NETO, JOÃO CABRAL DE

with form was complemented by social concern in his later works,


O Cão sem Plumas (1950; The Dog without Feathers), an allegory
of the Capibaribe River and its impoverished denizens, and O Rio
(1954; The River).
This dual nature in his poetry was reflected in the title of the vol-
ume Duas Águas (1956; Two Waters), which included Morte e Vida
Severina (Death and Life of a Severino), Paisagens com Figuras
(Landscapes with Figures), and Uma Faca só Lâmina (A Knife All
Blade). Morte e Vida Severina, a long dramatic/narrative poem in a
vernacular vein that recounts the trials and tribulations of impover-
ished migrant sugarcane workers of Northeastern Brazil, was later
staged in France, subtitled “Auto de Natal Pernambucano” (A Per-
nambuco Nativity Play), earning Cabral prizes and international rec-
ognition. The poetry from this period, written while Cabral resided in
Spain, also evidences Cabral’s awareness of the arid Castilian plains
and its medieval poetry. Paisagens com Figuras and Uma Faca Só
Lâmina focus on the hardness of landscapes and figures expressed in
a nominal and stonelike language, and Quaderna (1960; Four Spot)
also incorporates the use of the Spanish cuaderna vía or medieval
quatrain form. Serial (1961; Serial) eliminates the lyrical “I” and
hints at the avant-garde musical experiments of the period. Dois
Parlamentos (1961; Two Voices) returns to the topic of the life of
the impoverished sugarcane workers. A Educação pela Pedra (1966;
Education by Stone), one of Cabral’s fundamental books, focuses on
a poetics inspired by the hardness of the stone in the Northeastern
backlands, yet devoid of all sentimentalism and marked by a rigor
of construction. Museu de Tudo (1975; Museum of Everything) col-
lects stylistically varied poems on a wide variety of subjects and set
in different places.
A Escola das Facas (1980; The School of Knives) returns to the
topic of the Northeastern backlands and sugar plantations of Cabral’s
childhood, this time in a memoirlike mode. Similarly, Agrestes
(1985; Rough and Rude) includes poems about Cabral’s memories
of Pernambuco and the poet’s own death. Crime na Calle Relator
(1987; Crime in Calle Relator) contains personal memoir poems
set in both Pernambuco and Spain, where the hardness of the early
poems is less apparent. Auto do Frade (1983; The Friar) a narrative
poem later adapted for the stage, recounts the life of Frei Caneca, a

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MENDES, MURILO • 299

friar sentenced to death for his involvement in the Pernambuco revo-


lution in the 19th century.
Among Cabral’s essayistic prose works are Considerações Sobre
o Poeta Dormindo (1941; Remarks on the Poet Sleeping), Joan Miró
(1950; Joan Miró), and Da Função Moderna da Poesia (1957; Of the
Modern Function of Poetry). Cabral received two important literary
prizes: the Camões Prize in 1990 and the Neustadt Prize in 1992. In
his last years, Cabral began to lose his eyesight and stopped writing
because he said he could not dissociate the literary from the visual.
He died in Rio, where he had resided during the last years of his life.

MENCHÚ, RIGOBERTA (Guatemala, 1959– ). Political activist.


She received the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize and was the subject of a
celebrated testimonio, Me llamo Rigoberta Menchú y así me nació
la conciencia (1982; I, Rigoberta Menchú: An Indian Woman in
Guatemala), by Elisabeth Burgos-Debray, which was the source of
a heated controversy when its historical authenticity was questioned.
See also WOMEN.

MENDES, MURILO (Brazil, 1901–1975). Poet. Born in Minas


Gerais, Mendes began his studies there, but soon moved to Rio. At
age nine, he was inspired to become a poet after seeing the passage
of Halley’s comet. He was also fascinated by the dancer Vaslav
Nijinsky (1890–1950) and escaped from boarding school in 1917 to
attend a performance by him. Mendes began writing for the literary
journals Verde and Revista de Antropofagia and joined the ranks
of Brazilian modernism. His first book, Poemas (1930; Poems),
already reveals a dreamlike quality that some associate with sur-
realism. It was followed by Bumba-meu-Poeta (1930; Dance of the
Poet and the Ox), and História do Brasil (1932; History of Brazil), a
satire of the events of Brazilian history. Mendes met and befriended
the painter Ismael Nery, who influenced him and was responsible
for Mendes’s conversion to Catholicism. After the painter’s death in
1934 due to tuberculosis, Mendes fell into depression.
Written in collaboration with Jorge de Lima, Tempo e Eterni-
dade (1935; Time and Eternity) employs the confessional mode to
solemnly address the Muse. A Poesia em Pânico (1938; Poetry in a
Panic) is a record of the poet’s struggle with his obligation to God

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300 • MENDOZA, MARÍA LUISA

and to the Muse, which the Muse eventually wins, leaving the poet
in distress. O Visionário (1941; The Visionary) again recalls the
dream states of his early poetry. As Metamorfoses (1944; The Meta-
morphoses) was written in the midst of World War II and evidences
pessimism in the face of destruction, a mood somewhat tempered
by love in his next volume, Mundo Enigma (1945; Enigma World).
In Poesia Liberdade (1947; Poetry Freedom), published the year he
married, Mendes again explores a pessimistic outlook.
In private life, Mendes worked in various government jobs and
traveled in Europe in 1953–1954 before settling in Italy in 1957 as
a teacher of Brazilian literature. Other works by Mendes include
Tempo Espanhol (1950; Spanish Time), in which he mixes observa-
tions about Spain with Brazil; Contemplação de Ouro Preto (1954;
Thoughts on Ouro Preto), introspective meditations on old cities
from Minas Gerais; Siciliana (1954–1955; Sicilian) and A Idade
do Serrote (1968; The Age of the Serrote), poems about personal
memories; Convergência (1970; Convergence); Poliedro (1972;
Polyhedron); a volume in Italian Ipotesi (1977; Hypotheses); and
his Poesias (1925–1955) (1955: Poems), which includes the unpub-
lished Sonetos Brancos (1946–1948; Blank Sonnets) and Parábola
(1946–1952; Parabola). Mendes also wrote the short stories in O
Discípulo de Emaús (1944; The Disciple from Emaus) and Retratos-
Relâmpago (1973; Flash Portraits). See also GUIMARÃES, JÚLIO
CASTAÑON; HILST, HILDA.

MENDOZA, MARÍA LUISA (Mexico, 1938– ). Novelist and jour-


nalist. Her career as a journalist has resulted in a wide and varied
contribution to print and broadcast media as a political commentator,
drama critic, and writer about her own and women’s experiences.
Several collections of her chronicles have been published, includ-
ing Crónica de Chile (1972; Chilean Chronicle), on political and
cultural topics, and Las cosas (1976; Things), a memoir of daily life
during her childhood. As a novelist and one of Mexico’s prominent
women writers, her writing has a clear autobiographical voice and
a significant focus on the world of women. Her first novel, Con él,
conmigo, con nosotros tres (1971; With Him, with Me, with We
Three), written as a monologue, is concerned with the events of the
Tlatelolco massacre. De Ausencia (1974; About Ausencia) chal-

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MERA, JUAN LEÓN • 301

lenges conventional proprieties through the narrative of the erotic life


of its 19th-century female protagonist, Ausencia Bautista Lumbre. El
perro de la escribana o las Piedecasas (1982; The Scrivener’s Dog,
or the Piedecasas Women) is also a biographical novel, based on the
memories of Leona Piedecasas and the different houses where she
has lived. Mendoza has also written children’s literature, and one
of her most recent books is the novel De amor y lujo (2003; Of Love
and Luxury).

MENESES, GUILLERMO (Venezuela, 1911–1978). Novelist and


short story writer. Notable for treatment of Afro-Venezuelan themes,
such as the novel Canción de negros (1934; Song of Blacks), the
novella La balandra Isabel llegó esta tarde (1934; The Sloop Isabel
Arrived This Afternoon), a classic of Venezuelan literature, and the
stories in Campeones (1939; Champions). El mestizo José Vargas
(1942; José Vargas the Mestizo), a story of fishermen, is also set
against the background of racial issues, but is concerned with Ven-
ezuelans of indigenous rather than African background. Meneses’s
best novel is perhaps El falso cuaderno de Narciso Espejo (1952;
Narciso Espejo’s Fake Journal), a complex novel within a novel in
which the notions of fiction and reality are played off against each
other. A similar interplay is also at the core of the author’s last novel,
La misa de Arlequín (1962; Harlequin’s Mass).

MERA, JUAN LEÓN (Ecuador, 1832–1894). Poet, novelist, journal-


ist, and critic. Beginning his literary career as a poet, Mera wrote
on the themes of family, patriotism, and religion in Poesías (1858;
Poems); La virgen del sol (1861; Virgin of the Sun), an Indian legend
written in verse; and Poesías devotas y nuevo mes de María (1867;
Devotional Verse: A New Month for Mary). He was a conservative
thinker, who remained faithful to the Spanish classics in his writing.
At the same time, he brought nativist elements into his work, reflect-
ing them in aspects of indigenous folklore, evocations of the natural
world, historical anecdotes, and the description of local customs. His
politics identified him with the two-time president and strongman
Gabriel García Moreno (1859–1865, 1869–1875), about whom he
wrote in La dictadura y la restauración (written 1884; published
1932; The Dictatorship and the Restoration). Juan León Mera’s

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302 • MERCADER, MARTHA

best-known literary work is the novel Cumandá, o un drama entre


salvajes (1879; Cumandá, or a Drama Among Savages), a novel of
tragic love in the manner of indianismo and romanticism, heavily
influenced by the French novel of the early 19th century, in which the
author sought to examine the role of religion in society and to offer
a model based on former Jesuit enterprises in South America for an
alliance between Church and state. One of his poems is the source of
Ecuador’s national anthem.

MERCADER, MARTHA (Argentina, 1927– ). Novelist and short


story writer. Her best-known novel is Juanamanuela mucha mujer
(1980; Juanamanuela, a Lot of Woman), based on the life of Juana
Manuela Gorriti. Like her more recent Belisario en son de guerra
(1984; Belisario Ready For War) and Vos sabrás (2001; You’ll
Know), it is also considered a new historical novel. Other works
by Mercader include her collections of short stories, Octubre en el
espejo (1966; October in the Mirror) and El hambre de mi corazón
(1989; The Hunger in My Heart). See also WOMEN.

MERCADO, TUNUNA (Argentina, 1939– ). Novelist and short story


writer. Mercado’s autobiographical novel En estado de memoria
(1990; State of Memory) is a narrative of exile and return that echoes
the author’s own experiences. Her other work includes the collections
of short stories Celebrar a la mujer como la pascua (1967; Celebrate
Woman Like a Holiday) and Canon de alcoba (1988; Bedroom
Lore), the novels Narrar después (2003; Relate Later) and Yo nunca
te prometí la eternidad (2005; I Never Promised You Eternity), and
her memoir, La madriguera (1996; The Lair). See also WOMEN.

MEXICO. Of all national literary histories of Latin America, Mexico’s


is one of the longest and fullest. Its pre-Columbian traditions are
preserved in its architectural heritage, its oral traditions, and in the
codices and narratives compiled both in the pre-Hispanic era and by
native and mestizo Mexicans after the conquest. Literature in Spanish
begins with the chronicles, the record of the conquest and coloniza-
tion. Accounts are preserved in the writings of participants, such as
the letters of Hernán Cortés and the narrative of Bernal Díaz del
Castillo, and in the work of historians such as Francisco López de

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MEXICO • 303

Gómara and the verse chronicler Gabriel Lobo Lasso de la Vega,


neither of whom ever traveled to Mexico from their native Spain.
The view of events from the conquered Indians is told by mestizo
chroniclers such as Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc and Fernando
de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, whereas the history of the christianization of
the native population and a description of their culture at the time of
the conquest has been recorded by a number of missionary priests
and friars, including Bernardino de Sahagún, Diego de Landa, and
Toribio de Benavente (Motolinía).
During the colonial period, a popular culture began to take shape
from the combination of elements of both local and European
traditions, whereas the more formal aspects of cultural life were
centered at the viceregal court in the capital. In poetry and prose,
the baroque 16th and 17th centuries produced works by three
notable figures: the epic poetry and lyric eulogy of Mexico City
by Bernardo de Balbuena; the lyric verse and religious writings
of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz; and the varied scientific writings,
poetry, and novel of Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora. The pre-
independence period of the late 18th century and the early years of
independence are represented by another significant figure, José
Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, whose critique of colonial society
in his fiction and journalism captures the intellectual climate sur-
rounding the break with Spain.
After Lizardi’s work, the first important 19th-century novel was
an anonymous historical novel called Xicoténcatl (1826), set in
the conquest period, but the first significant novelist was Manuel
Payno, whose fiction shows elements of romanticism, costum-
brismo, and the historical novel, sometimes known as the colonial
novel in Mexico. After him, the same combination of characteristics
are found in the fiction of Justo Sierra O’Reilly, Luis G. Inclán,
Vicente Riva Palacios, Eligio Ancona, José Tomás de Cuéllar, and
Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, the most influential of them all. In the
20th century, the colonial novel found a popular exponent in Arte-
mio de Valle Arizpe. Costumbrismo led to realism and to more of a
focus on contemporary society toward the close of the 19th and the
beginning of the 20th centuries, in writers such as Ángel de Campo,
Rafael Delgado, Emilio Rabasa, and José López Portillo y Ro-
jas. It would be followed by the more deterministic view of reality

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304 • MEXICO

represented by a Mexican version of naturalism, a trend found in


novels by Federico Gamboa and Heriberto Frías.
Mexico’s most significant 19th-century poet was Guillermo Pri-
eto, a highly popular figure sometimes considered the founder of
the national literary tradition. Among others of his generation were
Vicente Riva Palacio and Ignacio Manuel Altamirano. It was initially
through modernismo, centered on the literary journals Revista azul
and Revista moderna, that Mexican poetry really began to flourish in
the first two decades of the century, however. Manuel José Othón,
Efrén Rebolledo, Luis G. Urbina, and Salvador Díaz Mirón
were among the premodernists who adopted the new aesthetics in
due course. The modernists themselves included Manuel Gutiér-
rez Nájera, Amado Nervo, Enrique González Martínez, Alfonso
Reyes, and the early Juan José Tablada.
Although modernismo had a strong presence in Mexico, it yielded
in due course to the avant-garde. Bridging the two movements is the
poetry of Ramón López Velarde, who also achieved recognition as
a national poet. The Mexican avant-garde itself is represented mainly
by estridentismo and a group known as Los Contemporáneos, also
the title of the journal founded in 1928 in which they published their
philosophy and poetry. The estridentistas were the smaller group,
led by Manuel Maples Arce and including Germán List Arzubide.
Los Contemporáneos included Salvador Novo, Xavier Villaurru-
tia, José Gorostiza, Jorge Cuesta, Bernardo Ortiz de Montellano,
Jaime Torres Bodet, Gilberto Owen, and Carlos Pellicer.
After the avant-garde of the 1920s and 1930s, writers have been
more inclined to follow personal interests and aesthetics and have
tended less to associate in literary movements. Poetry of the second
half of the 20th century was dominated by Mexico’s Nobel Prize
winner Octavio Paz, although there have also been other very no-
table figures. Those who have achieved most recognition are José
Emilio Pacheco and Jaime Sabines, but a list of acknowledged
20th-century Mexican poets would also include Alí Chumacero,
Efraín Huerta, Rosario Castellanos, and Homero Aridjis.
Modernismo also influenced prose writing, such as Amado
Nervo’s fiction, but prose writing and much else in Mexico was
more strongly affected by the armed conflict known as the Mexican
Revolution (1910–1920). It resulted in one-party rule for over 70

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MEXICO • 305

years, not ended until 2000. The revolution also provided a context
for reflection about national identity and culture. This had already
begun with writers such as Servando Teresa de Mier and Justo
Sierra in the 19th century. Prominent authors of the 20th century
who have also concerned themselves with these questions include
José Vasconcelos, Octavio Paz, and Carlos Fuentes. More recently,
in chronicles on life and culture in Mexico, Carlos Monsiváis exam-
ined the significance of 20th-century mass culture on national iden-
tity. In fiction, the immediate product of the military conflict was the
novel of the Mexican Revolution. The first cycle of novels, begun in
1915 by Mariano Azuela, including works by Nellie Campobello,
Martín Luis Guzmán, Miguel Lira, Gregorio López y Fuentes,
Mauricio Magdaleno, José Mancisidor, Rafael F. Muñoz, José
Rubén Romero, Francisco L. Urquizo, and José Vasconcelos,
consisted primarily of narratives of the military campaigns, often
based on the authors’ personal experiences. A second cycle, initi-
ated by Agustín Yáñez in 1947 and continued in the work of Juan
Rulfo, Carlos Fuentes, José Revueltas, Sergio Galindo, and Ro-
sario Castellanos, took a broader view of the war and its contexts,
focusing on its place in social history and the continuing impact of
its consequences. Throughout the remainder of the 20th century, the
revolution and its aftermath were frequent sources of reference, often
subject to new interpretations, as in novels by Ángeles Mastretta
and Laura Esquivel, both of whom have written popular works from
a feminist perspective.
In terms of both the range and quality of his writing, Mexico’s
most important 20th-century novelist is undoubtedly Carlos Fuentes,
who also figures among Latin America’s boom writers. However,
the second half of the 20th century produced a significant body of
prose writers and a range of fictional works covering a wide variety
of topics and styles. The experiments of Julieta Campos, Salvador
Elizondo, Vicente Leñero, and Sergio Pitol in the 1960s and 1970s
had some of the characteristics of the new novel. The killing of
student demonstrators in 1968 that has come to be known as the Tla-
telolco massacre became a focal point for examining the social and
political life of the times and was the source of novels by Luis Spota,
Juan García Ponce, María Luis Puga, and Elena Poniatowska.
After the massacre, a movement known as la onda focused on

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306 • MEXICO

youth countercultures and the continuing modernization of Mexico,


produced two notable novelists, José Agustín and Gustavo Sainz.
The number of women writers increased as the century progressed,
including, in addition to those already mentioned above, Elena
Garro, Margo Glantz, María Luisa Mendoza, and Carmen Bou-
llosa. Writers who contributed to the new historical novel included
Fernando del Paso and Homero Aridjis. Other genres with notable
representatives are the fantastic short stories of Juan José Arreola
and the popular narratives of Bruno Traven, both belonging to the
mid-20th century; the crime fiction of Paco Ignacio Taibo II; and
the testimonios of Elena Poniatowska, which cover several events in
20th-century Mexican history.
The theater in Mexico had its origins in religious plays, autos
written in either Spanish or native languages and intended both to
entertain and instruct. The theater was also a medium for the Jesuits,
who took classical models in Latin as the basis of exercises in rhe-
toric. By the second half of the 16th century, the secular theater had
also become established, making Mexico one of the Latin American
countries with the oldest commercial theaters. Although the plays
performed were not necessarily by local dramatists, writers like Fer-
nán González de Eslava became known for their entremeses, sai-
netes, and coloquios, short comic pieces usually performed between
the acts of a longer play.
The 17th century in Mexico produced two notable contributors
to the theater: Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, who also became known in
Spain, and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, whose work for the stage in-
cludes the beginnings of musical theater. The 18th century was mar-
ked by the continued rise of the secular theater and the increase in
writing on local themes, but produced no outstanding figures save
for, perhaps, Eusebio Vela. José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi wrote
a few short pieces for the stage at the begining of the 19th century,
but the more notable dramatists were Manuel Eduardo de Goros-
tiza during the first half of the century and Manuel José Othón during
the second half. During this period, writing for the stage was domi-
nated by romantic plays, historical dramas, and comedies of manners
modeled principally on the European sources. By this time, although
most theaters were in the capital, there were also others established
in cities such as Guadalajara and San Luis Potosí.

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MEXICO • 307

Mexican theater of the 20th century began in the 1920s with the
avant-garde, the establishment of institutionalized support under
the auspices of José Vasconcelos and others, and the founding of a
sequence of theater enterprises. The Teatro Ulises, founded in 1928,
provided a stage for the work of Xavier Villaurrutia, Salvador Novo,
Gilberto Owen, Julio Jiménez Rueda, and Celestino Gorostiza,
who would go on to set up the Teatro Orientación and contribute to
the introduction of mainstream world theater to Mexico. More Mexi-
can themes and writing were featured by 1932 in the Teatro de Ahora
and the Teatro de Media Noche, under the tutelage of Mauricio Mag-
daleno and Rodolfo Usigli, respectively. To these dominant figures
of the 1930s were then added several others from Spain, notably Max
Aub (1903–1972), who took refuge in Mexico from civil war in their
own country.
During the 1940s, the pursuit of new directions was sustained by
Miguel N. Lira and María Luisa Ocampo, while Sergio Magaña
and Emilio Carballido represented two important additions to the
world of theater. At the same time, in 1947, the theater section of
the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (INBA; National Institute of
Fine Arts) was established, consolidating the continuation of institu-
tionalized support for the theater in Mexico. By the 1950s, several of
Usigli’s students, including Luisa Josefina Fernández and Jorge
Ibargüengoitia, began to have an impact, and Luis G. Basurto
registered his early successes. The 1950s and 1960s were, in effect,
a golden age for Mexican theater, not just on account of the work
of dramatists already mentioned, but through the addition of further
writers for the stage such as as Elkena Garro, Vicente Leñero, and
Maruxa Vilalta.
In contrast to the preceding decades, the 1970s represented a
decline in the performance of work by Mexican dramatists. By the
1980s and 1990s, however, a new generation of writers, including
Óscar Lieras and Sabina Berman, brought renewed vigor to the
stage. With a cohort of established dramatists, strong institutions,
and revivals of plays from the Mexican repertoire, theater in Mexico
is one of the strongest in Latin America. Its national success is also
complemented by an international presence, not just through fre-
quent performance of Mexican plays in the Southwestern United
States, but through performances in other countries and continents as

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308 • MEYER, AUGUSTO, JR.

well. See also ACOSTA, JOSÉ DE; BEST SELLER; CARDOZA Y


ARAGÓN, LUIS; CIVILIZATION AND BARBARISM; COSTA,
HORÁCIO; GIARDINELLI, MEMPO; GÓMEZ CARRILLO, EN-
RIQUE; INDIGENISMO; INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS; MAGIC
REALISM; MARTÍNEZ MORENO, CARLOS; MEIRELES, CE-
CÍLIA; MIGUEL DE CERVANTES PRIZE; MONTEFORTE TO-
LEDO, MARIO; MONTERROSO, AUGUSTO; MORO, CÉSAR;
MUTIS, ÁLVARO; NEO-BAROQUE; NEO-CLASSICISM; NEO-
INDIGENISMO; ODIO, EUNICE; OREAMUNO, YOLANDA;
SELVA, SALOMÓN DE LA; VITALE, IDA.

MEYER, AUGUSTO, JR. (Brazil, 1903–1970). Poet and critic. Born


in Rio Grande do Sul, Meyer is linked to Brazilian modernism in
its regional variant. His poetry explores provincial life, expressing
optimism tempered by irony. Among his poetry books are A Ilusão
Querida (1923; The Dear Illusion), Coração Verde (1926; Green
Heart), Poemas de Bilu (1929; Bilu’s Poems), Sorriso Interior (1930;
Inner Smile), Folhas Arrancadas (1940–1944; Torn Pages), and
Últimos Poemas (1950–1955). As a critic, Meyer also wrote reviews
and essays for the press and published books of literary criticism:
Machado de Assis (1935; Machado de Assis) and Camões o Bruxo e
Outros Ensaios (1958; Camões the Wizard and Other Essays).

MICROTALES. Microtales are miniature short stories, not much more


than a paragraph or two, or barely a page, in length. The first accom-
plished writer to produce them was Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina),
some of whose microtales are celebrated examples of the genre.
Other authors who have written them include Augusto Monterroso
(Guatemala), Nuno Ramos (Brazil), Marco Denevi (Argentina),
and Pía Barros (Chile).

MIER, SERVANDO TERESA DE (Mexico, 1763–1827). Essayist,


sermonist, and memorialist. A Catholic priest, his opinions on reli-
gion and government brought him into conflict with both ecclesias-
tical and civil authorities in Mexico and Spain, resulting in several
periods of exile and imprisonment, from which he invariably man-
aged to escape. His principal writings include Cartas de un ameri-

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MILLIET DA COSTA E SILVA, SÉRGIO • 309

cano, 1811–1812 (Letters from an American) and his autobiography,


Memorias (1819; The Memoirs of Fray Teresa Servando de Mier).

MIGUEL DE CERVANTES PRIZE. Considered the Nobel Prize for


Literature of the Spanish-speaking world, this prize, first awarded in
1976, is given annually to acknowledge the lifetime achievement of
a writer in Spanish. Latin American recipients have been Juan Gel-
man (2007; Argentina), Sergio Pitol (2005; Mexico), Gonzalo Ro-
jas (2003; Chile), Álvaro Mutis (2001; Colombia), Jorge Edwards
(1999; Chile), Mario Vargas Llosa (1994; Peru), Adolfo Bioy
Casares (1990; Argentina), Augusto Roa Bastos (1989; Paraguay),
Carlos Fuentes (1987; Mexico), Ernesto Sábato (1984; Argentina),
Octavio Paz (1981; Mexico), Juan Carlos Onetti (1980; Uruguay),
and Jorge Luis Borges (1979; Argentina).

MILLA Y VIDAURRE, JOSÉ (Guatemala, 1822–1882). Novelist.


Writing under the pseudonym “Salomé Gil” and publishing in se-
rial form in newspapers, he was one of Guatemala’s first significant
fiction writers. His novels, in the style of costumbrismo and the
historical novel, were very popular and have all the characteristics of
the 19th-century serialized novel, with its meandering, melodramatic
plot. His most significant works were La hija del Adelantado (1866;
The Governor’s Daughter), Los nazarenos (1867; The Nazarenes),
El visitador (1867; The Inspector), Historia de un Pepe (1872; Story
of a Nobody), and Memorias de un abogado (1876; Memoirs of a
Lawyer). El esclavo de don Dinero (1881; Slave to Money), his last
novel, reflects a shift in his work toward social criticism, in contrast
to his earlier work, which is rigidly conservative. In Un viaje a otro
mundo, pasando por otras partes, 1871–1874 (1875; Journey to
Another World by Way of Other Places), a fictionalized account of a
period of exile endured for political reasons, Milla y Vidaure intro-
duced the popular figure Juan Chapín, who has acquired the status of
the stereotypical Guatemalan.

MILLIET DA COSTA E SILVA, SÉRGIO (Brazil, 1898–1966).


Poet and critic. Born in São Paulo, Milliet studied social sciences
in Geneva and began his career as a poet writing in French. Among

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310 • MIRÓ, RICARDO

his early poetry books are Par le Sentier (1917; Along the Road), Le
Départ sous la Pluie (1919; The Departure in the Rain), and L’œil de
Bœuf (1923; The Bull’s Eye). Milliet joined Brazilian modernism,
participating in the Week of Modern Art. From that point on, he
collaborated with journals such as Klaxon and Terra Roxa e Outras
Terras. In his early books of poetry in Portuguese, such as Poemas
Análogos (1927; Analogous Poems), he employed a technique where
images are joined by analogy. His later books, such as Poemas (1937;
Poems), Oh Valsa Latejante (1943; Oh Palpitating Waltz), Poesias
(1946; Poems), Poema do Trigésimo Dia (1950; Poem of the Thirti-
eth Day), Alguns Poemas Entre Muitos (1957; Some Poems Among
Many), and Cartas à Dançarina (1959; Letters to the Dancer), ex-
plore the theme of love, but with a sense of ennui and pessimism.
Milliet became better known for his essays and criticism, in which
he displayed his vast erudition and explored the nature of the Brazil-
ian national character. His books of essays include Terminus Seco e
Outros Cocktails (1932; Dry Terminus and Other Cocktails), Marcha
à Ré (1936; Backing Up), Ensaios (1938; Essays), Roteiro de Café
(1938; Coffee Itinerary), O Sal da Heresia (1940; The Salt of Her-
esy), and Fora de Forma (1942; Out of Shape). He left a Panorama
da Poesia Moderna Brasileira (1955; Panorama of Modern Brazilian
Poetry) and, as director of the Museum of Modern Art, also wrote
Pintores e Pintura (1940; Painters and Painting), A Marginalidade
da Pintura Moderna (1942; The Marginality of Modern Painting),
and Pintura Quase Sempre (1943; Painting Almost Always). His
Diário Crítico (1944–1959; Critical Diary) spans 10 volumes.

MIRÓ, RICARDO (Panama, 1883–1940). Poet. Recognized for


his patriotic verses as one of his country’s national poets, he wrote
mainly under the influence of modernismo, and Rubén Darío was
instrumental in the publication of his first book of poems, Preludios
(1908; Preludes). His later collections were Segundos preludios
(1916; Second Preludes), La leyenda de Pacífico (1919; Legend of
the Pacific), Versos patrióticos y recitaciones escolares (1925; Pa-
triotic Verses and Student Recitations), Caminos silenciosos (1929;
Silent Paths), and El poema de la reencarnación (1929; The Poem
of Reincarnation). He also wrote two novels, Las noches de Babel

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MODERNISMO • 311

(1913; Babel Nights) and Flor de María (1922; Mary’s Flower), and
a volume of his short stories was published posthumously in 1957.

MISTRAL, GABRIELA (Chile, 1889–1957). Poet. Born Lucila Go-


doy Alcayaga, she is universally known by her pen name, Gabriela
Mistral. Highly respected as a teacher, she was a prominent figure in
education and diplomacy, and a prolific contributor to newspapers
and magazines in the Spanish-speaking world. She achieved im-
mense popularity during her lifetime, both in Chile and beyond, and
was the recipient of many honors and awards, including the 1945
Nobel Prize for Literature, the first Latin American author to be so
honored. She traveled widely and after 1926 returned to Chile only
briefly, on two occasions.
Gabriela Mistral’s poetry is contained mainly in five collections.
The first three, Desolación (1922; Desolation), Ternura (1924;
Tenderness), and Tala (1938; Tree Felling), underwent several revi-
sions and re-editions. The fourth collection was Lagar (1954; Wine
Press), and the last, Poema de Chile (1967; Poem of Chile), was
published posthumously. Her poetry is aesthetically independent,
and the simplicity of her verse is said to reflect the reaction of her
generation to modernismo. An identification with ordinary people; a
concern for peace, education, children’s rights, and social justice for
the dispossessed; and respect for the land figure significantly among
her themes. Although she also wrote of maternity, frustrated love,
and death, much of her poetry was also intended for children, giving
her a very visible place among writers of children’s literature. See
also ALEGRÍA, CIRO; DALTON, ROQUE; PARRA, NICANOR;
TEITELBOIM, VOLODIA; VAZ FERREIRA, MARÍA EUGENIA.

MODERNISMO. Unlike European or Brazilian modernism, which


refers to different forms of avant-garde artistic expression, and with
which it is not to be confused, Spanish American modernismo was
a predominantly literary phenomenon that began to coalesce in the
1890s and maintained its influence until the 1920s, when it began to
wane before the advance of the avant-garde. It was not a movement
as such, having no manifestos or the following of a coherent group
of members committed to a set of principles. Nevertheless, it was

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312 • MODERNISMO

characterized by certain distinguishable trends and had focal points


in various countries, represented by the work of particular authors.
Modernism was “modern” in that it entailed a break from the pre-
vailing styles of the past, especially the sentimentality of romanti-
cism and certain types of realism such as costumbrismo. Drawing
on French parnassianism and symbolism, it endeavored to renew
poetic imagery, language, and form and to place Latin American
writing in an international cultural context, exploiting the exotic and
valuing both the object of art and the artist for their own sake.
The impact of modernismo was felt throughout Spanish America
on all literary genres, although its greatest effect was on poetry. Its
principal exponent was the Nicaraguan Rubén Darío, whose work
transcended the borders of his own country, being read throughout
the continent and having some influence in Europe. Other significant
poets whose work reflects the characteristics of modernismo include
Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera, Ramón López Velarde, and Amado
Nervo (Mexico); Juan Ramón Molina and Rafael Heliodoro Valle
(Honduras); Guillermo Valencia (Colombia); Ricardo Jaimes
Freyre and Franz Tamayo (Bolivia); José Santos Chocano and
José María Egurén (Peru); Delmira Agustini and Julio Herrera y
Reissig (Uruguay); and Leopoldo Lugones (Argentina).
The effects on prose were less extensive, but quite diverse. In fic-
tion, the characteristics of modernismo seemed to lend themselves
best to the short story in writers such as Francisco Gavidia (El
Salvador) or the Argentinean Leopoldo Lugones. With respect to
the novel, a modernist style is evident in José María Vargas Vila
(Colombia), Manuel Díaz Rodríguez (Venezuela), and Enrique
Larreta (Argentina). The emergence of modernismo also coincided
with an advance in the professionalization of the writer, due in part
to a growth in literacy and the spread of mass circulation newspapers.
The chronicle became a feature of the daily press, with contributors
such as Rubén Darío, the Mexican Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera, and,
above all, the Guatemalan Enrique Gómez Carrillo. Notable critics
of modernismo include Rufino Blanco Fombona (Venezuela) and
Angel Rama (Uruguay).
See also AMBROGI, ARTURO; ARÉVALO MARTÍNEZ, RA-
FAEL; CHILE; CORREA, JULIO; CUADRA, PABLO ANTO-
NIO; D’HALMAR, AUGUSTO; DÍAZ MIRÓN, SALVADOR;

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MOLINA, JUAN RAMÓN • 313

GONZÁLEZ MARTÍNEZ, ENRIQUE; GONZÁLEZ PRADA,


MANUEL; HERRERA, DARÍO; HUIDOBRO, VICENTE; IBAR-
BOUROU, JUANA DE; LILLO, BALDOMERO; LÓPEZ, LUIS
CARLOS; MIRÓ, RICARDO; MISTRAL, GABRIELA; MOLINA,
JUAN RAMÓN; MUNDONOVISMO; NERUDA, PABLO; NICA-
RAGUA; NÚÑEZ, RAFAEL; OTHÓN, MANUEL JOSÉ; PERU;
PRADO, PEDRO; QUIROGA, HORACIO; RIVERA, JOSÉ EU-
STASIO; RODÓ, JOSÉ ENRIQUE; SABAT ERCASTY, CAR-
LOS; SELVA, SALOMÓN DE LA; SILVA, JOSÉ ASUNCIÓN;
STORNI, ALFONSINA; TABLADA, JOSÉ JUAN; TORRES-
RIOSECO, ARTURO; ULTRAÍSMO; URBINA, LUIS G.; USLAR
PIETRI, ARTURO; WOMEN.

MOLINA, ENRIQUE (Argentina, 1910–1997). Poet. Formed under


the influence of Aldo Pellegrini and the tutelage of Oliverio Gi-
rondo, Molina became one of Argentina’s most steadfast adherents
of surrealism. He was part of a group of poets known in Argentina
as the Generation of 1940, which included Olga Orozco and Alberto
Girri. He edited the literary journal A partir de cero (Begining at
Zero) from 1952 until 1956. In his poetry he frequently revisited the
dreams of childhood with a sense of adventure and undying opti-
mism, and he sought the traces of human history in domestic objects.
His books are Las cosas y el delirio (1941; Things and Delerium),
Pasiones terrestres (1946; Terrestrial Passions), Costumbres errantes
o la redondez de la tierra (1951; Wandering Customs or the Round-
ness of the Earth), Amantes antípodas (1961; Polar Lovers), Fuego
libre (1962; Free Fire), Los últimos soles (1980; The Last Suns), El
ala de la gaviota (1989; The Seagull’s Wing), Hacia una isla incierta
(1992; Towards an Uncertain Island), and El adiós (1997; The Fare-
well). He also published a novel, Una sombra donde sueña Camila
O’Gorman (1973; A Shade Where Camila O’Gorman Dreams), a
version of the historical tragic love story of Camila O’Gorman and
Ladislao Gutiérrez narrated as a series of surreal images set in 19th-
century Argentina under Juan Manuel Rosas.

MOLINA, JUAN RAMÓN (Honduras, 1875–1908). Poet. He spent


his life between Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala, affected by
the changing political scene in Central America. Much of his writing

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314 • MOLINARI, RICARDO E.

is gathered in a single volume, Tierras, mares y cielos (1911; Lands,


Seas and Skies), published postumously in Honduras after he had
succumbed to the consequences of drug and alcohol addiction. This
volume has been reedited several times and has brought the author
considerable recognition in Central America. It contains some prose
works, including short stories, but his reputation has come mainly
from his poetry, which he used to exorcise his personal anguish. He
wrote in traditional forms (almost half his poems were sonnets), but
also belonged aesthetically to modernismo.

MOLINARI, RICARDO E. (Argentina, 1898–1996). Poet. From the


publication of his first collection, El imaginero (1927; The Image
Maker), Molinari established his credentials with the Argentinean
avant-garde and a position among prominent Argentinean writers of
the 20th century through a style of writing informed by ultraísmo,
surrealism, and the classical tradition of Spain. He would go on to
publish more than 50 books, some illustrated and many private or
presentation editions of just a few pages prepared for friends. Mo-
linari remained out of the public eye, however, and spent his entire
working life in the civil service. His themes were concerned with the
landscape, the human condition and its metaphysical dimensions,
escape to the inexpressible and intangible, loneliness, melancholy,
and the elegiac. His poems were collected in two anthologies dur-
ing his lifetime: Un día, el tiempo, las nubes (1964; One Day, Time,
the Clouds) and Las sombras del pájaro tostado: obra poética,
1923–1973 (1975; The Shadows of the Brown Bird: Poetic Works,
1923–1973).

MONSIVÁIS, CARLOS (Mexico, 1938–2010). Essayist and journa-


list. Monsiváis was the most prominent commentator on Mexican
culture of his generation. For 15 years (1972–1987), he served as
editor of La cultura en México, a supplement of the newspaper Siem-
pre!, but also contributed to all of Mexico City’s major newspapers
and magazines and appeared regularly on television. Although a pu-
blic figure, who taught at various universities, he was an independent
writer with no fixed institutional affiliation. As a cultural commen-
tator, he has written on Mexican national culture, especially mass
culture and the sense of identification established between people and

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MONTEFORTE TOLEDO, MARIO • 315

cultural forms. His chronicles cover politics, personalities, literature,


popular music, art, film, religion, and sport and gave particular atten-
tion to Mexico City, especially to the urban chaos arising from its
size and its struggles to survive the crises that have afflicted it, such
as the Tlatelolco massacre and the 1985 earthquake.
Monsiváis was an acerbic critic, who wrote with considerable
humor and irony. His published books include Días de guardar
(1970; Red Letter Days), Amor perdido (1977; Lost Love), Historias
para temblar: 19 de septiembre de 1985 (1988; Stories for Quak-
ing: 19 September, 1985), Los rituales del caos (1995; The Rituals
of Chaos), Aires de familia: cultura y sociedad en América Latina
(1995; Family Resemblances: Culture and Society in Latin America),
Las tradiciones en la imagen: notas sobre poesía mexicana (2001;
Traditions in the Image: Notes on Mexican Poetry), and Las alusio-
nes perdidas (2007; Lost Allusions). An anthology of his chronicles
has been published in English translation under the title Mexican
Postcards (1997).

MONTALVO, JUAN (Ecuador, 1832–1889). Essayist. He is consid-


ered one of Ecuador’s greatest stylists. Parts of his life were spent in
exile, the result of his opposition to two Ecuadorian presidents, Ga-
briel García Moreno (1859–1865, 1869–1875) and Ignacio de Vein-
temilla (1876–1883). His best-known and most frequently published
work is Las Catilinarias (1880–1882; Speeches Against Cataline), a
series of 12 pamphlets, all written against the dictatorship of Veinte-
milla, in which the insult is raised to a fine art. Montalvo founded and
edited several journals, published a number of essays on moral phi-
losophy, and left Capítulos que se le olvidaron a Cervantes (Chapters
Cervantes Forgot), a sequel to Don Quixote, unpublished at his death.
He also contributed to 19th-century theater in Ecuador with plays on
political themes, although they were intended to be read rather than
performed. They include La leprosa (1872; The Leprous Woman);
El dictador (1873; The Dictator), written in opposition to García
Moreno; and Granja (1873; Farm).

MONTEFORTE TOLEDO, MARIO (Guatemala, 1911–2003).


Novelist. Politics played an important role in the first half of his

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316 • MONTERROSO, AUGUSTO

life. He opposed the government of Jorge Ubico (1931–1944) and


subsequently had roles in the administrations of Juan José Arévalo
(1945–1951) and Jacobo Arbenz (1951–1954), serving as Arévalo’s
vice president. He lived in exile in Mexico between 1954 and 1987.
In keeping with his public life, Monteforte Toledo’s early fiction has
a significant political content and is characterized by social realism.
His first novel, Anaité (1948; Anaité), follows in the tradition of the
theme of civilization and barbarism. His second, Entre la piedra
y la cruz (1948; Between the Stone and the Cross), is thematically
more akin to indigenismo and documents abuses committed against
Guatemalan Indians. By contrast, his later novels, Donde acaban los
caminos (1953; Where the Roads End), Una manera de morir (1957;
A Way to Die), and Llegaron al mar (1966; They Reached the Sea),
are more psychologically oriented and have some of the characteris-
tics of existentialism. La cueva sin quietud (1949; The Cave Without
Calm) and Cuentos de derrota y esperanza (1962; Tales of Defeat
and Hope) are collections of short stories. His complete works also
include several essays and pieces for the theater.

MONTERROSO, AUGUSTO (Guatemala, 1921–2003). Short story


writer. Although born in Honduras, Monterroso has become fully
associated with Guatemala and is considered one of that country’s
most significant writers. Political involvement led to periods of exile
in Chile and Mexico, and in 1956 he took up permanent residence in
Mexico. It is sometimes difficult to classify his writing, to determine
in which genre he is writing, or to separate fiction from reality. He
is commonly thought of as a writer of short texts or microtales such
as the following, one of his most celebrated: “When he awoke, the
dinosaur was still there.” His work is a constant engagement with
the world of literature and a search for novelty, characteristics that
have often led to comparisons with Jorge Luis Borges. Monterroso’s
first book has the ironic title Obras completas y otros cuentos (1959;
Complete Works and Other Stories), but his second book, La oveja
negra y demás fábulas (1969; The Black Sheep and Other Fables),
examines the short story genre more explicitly through a series of
humorous animal fables. Movimiento perpetuo (1972; Perpetual
Motion) is a collection of brief texts, part essay and part narrative.
By contrast, Lo demás es silencio: la vida y obra de Eduardo Torres

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MORAES, VINÍCIUS DE • 317

(1978; The Rest Is Silence: The Life and Work of Eduardo Torres)
is a more unified text than Monterroso’s earlier books and purports
to be the biography of a real writer told from several different points
of view. La palabra mágica (1983; The Magic Word) is a collection
of essays, notes, and brief narratives, mainly about literature. Los
buscadores de oro (1993; The Gold Seekers) and La vaca (1998; The
Cow) both have a more autobiographical orientation as a collection
of confessional, humorous texts tinged with some of the melancholy
of old age and approaching death. Finally, in Viaje al centro de la
fábula (1981; Journey to the Center of the Story), there is a collection
of interviews given by the author during the course of his life.

MOOCK, ARMANDO (Chile, 1894–1942). Dramatist. As the author of


more than 50 plays, many never published, he was one of Chile’s most
significant dramatists of the first half of the 20th century. His success
also extended to Argentina, where he lived for more than 20 years and
where his biggest commercial success, La serpiente (The Serpent), was
first performed in 1920. Moock’s preferred style was the bourgeois
comedy of manners characterized by the creation of popular social
types, somewhat in the traditions of costumbrismo and naturalism,
but he also explored other styles and wrote sainetes, dramas, and
theater for puppets. His most successful works include Los demonios
(1917; The Demons), M. Ferdinand Pontac (1922; M. Ferdinand
Pontac), Mocosita, o La luna en el pago (1929; Mocosita, or Moon
over the Homestead), and Algo triste que llaman amor (Something
Sad They Call Love). He also wrote plays for the radio. As a writer of
fiction, he had short stories published in literary journals and produced
the novels ¡Pobrecitas! (1916; Poor Things!), Sol de amor (1924; Sun
of Love), and Vida y milagos de un primer actor (1926; The Life and
Miracles of a Leading Actor), an autobiographical work.

MORAES, VINÍCIUS DE (Brazil, 1913–1980). Poet, dramatist, and


lyricist. Born into a musical family, his father was a guitarist and his
mother a pianist, Vinícius de Moraes began to compose music and
write lyrics and poetry at an early age. He grew up in Rio, between
the suburb Gávea and Governor’s Island. While a law student, he met
and befriended the conservative writer Otávio de Faria, who influ-
enced his first two collections of poetry in the style of symbolism, O

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318 • MORO, CÉSAR

Caminho para a Distância (1933; The Road to Distance) and Forma


e Exegese (1935; Form and Exegesis). In those early books and in
the following three, Ariana, a Mulher (1936; Ariana, the Woman),
Novos Poemas (1938; New Poems), and Cinco Elegias (1943; Five
Elegies), Moraes explored transcendental and mystical themes, us-
ing long lines of blank and free verse. During the 1930s and 1940s,
Moraes worked as a film critic and censor and studied English litera-
ture at Oxford. In 1943, he entered the Brazilian diplomatic corps and
served in the United States, South America, and Europe.
In his poetic production, Poemas, Sonetos e Baladas (1946;
Poems, Sonnets, and Ballads) marks a transition into a new phase
when Moraes experimented with metrical forms such as the sonnet
and the ballad. In this new phase, he wrote Pátria Minha (1949; My
Country), Livro de Sonetos (1957; Book of Sonnets), Novos Poemas
II (1959; New Poems II), and Para Viver Um Grande Amor (1962;
To Live a Great Love), a book of poems and chronicles. In this pe-
riod also Moraes went thematically from a mystical symbolism to
more carnal and material topics and came to be considered by many
one of Brazil’s best erotic poets. He also wrote many lyrics for the
bossa nova movement in the 1950s, and his play Orfeu da Conceição
(1956; Orfeu da Conceição), a retelling of the myth of Orpheus in
Brazil during carnival time, was turned into the blockbuster Black
Orpheus. His chronicles are gathered in Para uma Menina com uma
Flor (1966; For a Girl with a Flower). His poetry is collected in Obra
Poética (1968; Poetry Works). See also HILST, HILDA; SABINO,
FERNANDO.

MORO, CÉSAR (Peru, 1903–1956). Poet and painter. Born Alfredo


Quíspez Asín in Lima, Moro spent significant periods of his life out-
side Peru, notably in France and Mexico. In Paris, he was drawn to
surrealism and was an active member of the movement headed by
André Breton (1896–1966). He also adopted French as his preferred
language of expression, making his poetry less accessible among
Spanish-speaking readers. In 1935, he organized an exhibition of
surrealist art in Lima, the first on the continent, which also sealed
his reputation as an enfant terrible on account of his aesthetic prefer-
ences, his homosexuality, and his outspoken opinions. The catalog
to the exhibition appeared under the heading of a quotation from the

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MOYANO, DANIEL • 319

painter Francis Picabia (1879–1953), “Art is a pharmaceutical product


for imbeciles,” and included a vitriolic attack against Vicente Huido-
bro, who later responded in kind. Moro’s poetry in Spanish has been
collected in La tortuga ecuestre y otros poemas, 1924–1949 (1956;
The Equestrian Tortoise and Other Poems), and his prose in Spanish
in Los anteojos de azufre (1958; The Sulfur Tinted Spectacles).

MORRIS, ANDRÉS (Honduras, 1928– ). Dramatist. Although born


in Spain, he settled in Tegucigalpa in 1961, where he had consid-
erable impact on theater. He collaborated in the founding of a na-
tional theater, which began producing both foreign and local plays,
including some of his own, although it was not long-lived. Morris’s
plays are socially conscious works that dramatize the triumphs and
problems of everyday life in the context of a country dominated by
external economic forces. Among his best-known works is a trilogy
of plays called the Trilogía ístmica (Isthmus Trilogy), written in the
style of the theater of the absurd, on the theme of underdevelop-
ment. It consists of a rural play, El Guarizama (1967; Guarizama);
La miel de abejorro (1968; Bumblebee Honey), on land and technical
development; and Oficio de hombres (1969; Men’s Work), about
employment in an urban context. Other titles include La tormenta
(1955; The Storm) and Los ecos dormidos (1957; Dormant Echoes).

MOYANO, DANIEL (Argentina, 1930–1992). Novelist and short


story writer. In 1976, he left Argentina for exile in Spain, where he
spent the rest of his life. He writes about poverty, marginalization
in the city, childhood, and the mysterious side of life. Franz Kafka
(1883–1924) and Cesare Pavese (1908–1950) figure significantly
among writers who influenced him, and his own fiction often inclines
to the allegorical. His novels include Una luz muy lejana (1966; A
Very Distant Light), El oscuro (1967; The Dark One), El trino del
diablo (1974; The Devil’s Trill), El vuelo del tigre (1981; Flight of
the Tiger), and Libro de navíos y borrascas (1983; Book of Ships
and Squalls). Among his books of short stories, Artista de varieda-
des (1960; Vaudeville Artist), La lombriz (1964; The Earthworm),
El fuego interrumpido (1967; Interrupted Fire), Mi música es para
esta gente (1970; My Music Is for These People), and El estuche de
cocodrilo (1974; The Crocodile Skin Case) are worthy of note.

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320 • MUJICA LÁINEZ, MANUEL

MUJICA LÁINEZ, MANUEL (Argentina, 1910–1984). Novelist


and short story writer. He was born into an aristocratic, but no longer
wealthy, Argentinean family and worked as a journalist for much
of his life for the daily La Nación. Unlike others of his generation,
he formed no affiliation with the literary groups or journals of his
day, and his classical tastes separated him from the avant-garde.
However, he was a popular writer, the author of more than 20 books,
a number of which continue to be re-edited and read. Buenos Aires
and the history of the city figure prominently in much of his work.
His first novel, Don Galaz de Buenos Aires (1938; Don Galaz from
Buenos Aires), is a picaresque tale set in colonial times. Canto a
Buenos Aires (1943; Song to Buenos Aires), his only known poem,
was written in praise of the city, and Misteriosa Buenos Aires (1950;
Mysterious Buenos Aires) is a series of episodes covering its history
from the 16th to the 20th centuries. The core of his fiction, repre-
senting the work of his early maturity, is a series of novels about
the Argentinean upper class: Los ídolos (1952; The Idols), La casa
(1954; The House), Los viajeros (1955; The Travelers), and Invita-
dos en El Paraíso (1957; Guests at El Paraíso). Of these, the most
celebrated is La casa, the story of a mansion and its inhabitants on
Calle Florida in Buenos Aires, told by the building itself as it faces
demolition. Mujica returned to the theme of the Argentinean upper
class in El gran teatro (1979; The Great Theater).
The historical novel also holds a significant place in Mujica
Láinez’s work. Bomarzo (1962; Bomarzo) is a broad excursion into
the world of Renaissance Europe. It was also the source of an opera
by the Argentinean composer Alberto Ginastera (1916–1983), for
which Mujica Láinez wrote the libretto. Unicornio (1965; Unicorn)
is set in medieval France and the time of the Crusades. El laberinto
(1974; The Labyrinth) is the story of a Spanish adventurer at large
during the conquest of America, and El escarabajo (1981; The
Scarab), the author’s last novel, follows the history of a piece of
jewelry, beginning with its origin in antiquity. In several works,
Mujica Láinez combines history and fantasy. Thus, Crónicas reales
(1967; Royal Chronicles) is a collection of humorous stories about
the kings of an imaginary eastern European country; De milagros y
melancolías (1968; Of Miracles and Melancholy) is the history of an
imagined American city; and El viaje de los siete demonios (1974;

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MUÑOZ, RAFAEL F. • 321

The Journey of the Seven Devils) is a volume of stories about the


seven deadly sins, ranging in time and place from Pompei in the first
century to Siberia in the future. Fantasy is also the dominant mode
of the short stories published in El brazalete y otros cuentos (1978;
The Bracelet and other Stories). Mujica Láinez’s other publications
include biographies of Hilario Ascasubi (1943) and Estanislao del
Campo (1947), Cecil (1972; Cecil), a chronicle of part of his own
life told by his dog, and a posthumously published volume of short
stories, Un novelista en el Museo del Prado (1984; A Novelist in the
Prado Museum).

MUNDONOVISMO. The term was originally coined to designate a


trend in early 20th-century Spanish American literature that focused
on life and its contexts in the New World, in contrast to the aes-
theticism represented by modernismo. More recently, it has come to
refer to the novel of the land and narratives that evoke rural life and
the landscape. It is synonymous with criollismo and regionalism.
See also CHILE.

MUÑOZ, RAFAEL F. (Mexico, 1899–1974). Novelist and short story


writer. He earned his living as a journalist and wrote about the Mexi-
can Revolution in his fiction, drawing on memories of the conflict
from his youth and inspired in part by an encounter with Francisco
Villa. His short stories about the war were first published in the daily
newspaper El Universal and were subsequently collected in El feroz
cabecilla (1928; The Fierce Leader), El hombre malo (1930; The
Evil Man), and Si me han de matar mañana (1934; If I Am to Die To-
morrow), which were all published posthumously in a single volume,
Relatos de la Revolución (1976; Tales of the Revolution). Muñoz is
remembered most, however, for two novels of the Mexican Revolu-
tion, ¡Vámonos con Pancho Villa! (1931; Let’s Join Up with Pancho
Villa) and Se llevaron el cañón para Bachimba (1941; They Took the
Cannon to Bachimba). The first of these is an episodic narrative of
six comrades who are drawn to Pancho Villa and enlist in his army.
It became the source of a classic of Mexican cinema. The second is
the autobiographical story of a youth who becomes a man through
the revolution, a narrative that is thought to represent the aspirations
of the author when young.

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322 • MURENA, HÉCTOR A.

MURENA, HÉCTOR A. (Argentina, 1923–1975). Essayist, novelist,


poet, and short story writer. He was the author of more than 20 books
and contributed regularly to the literary journal Sur and the cultural
section of the daily newspaper La Nación, although he remained
independent of any schools or movements. His published poetry in-
cludes La vida nueva (1951; The New Life), El círculo de los paraí-
sos (1958; The Circle of Paradises), El escándalo y el fuego (1959;
The Scandal and the Fire), El demonio de la armonía (1964; The
Devil of Harmony), and El águila que desaparece (1975; The Dis-
appearing Eagle). His novels were written in two cycles, the first of
which consists of narratives of a single event seen from different per-
spectives: La fatalidad de los cuerpos (1955; The Fatality of the Bod-
ies), Las leyes de la noche (1958; The Laws of the Night), and Los
herederos de la promesa (1965; The Inheritors of the Promise). In
Epitalámica (1969; Epithalamic), Polipuercón (1970; Polipuercón),
Caína muere (1972; Caína Dies), and Folisofía (1976; Pholisophy),
the novels of his second cycle, he presents a pessimistic world bereft
of human communication.
As an essayist, Murena first followed in the steps of Ezequiel
Martínez Estrada in his analysis of the American condition in El
pecado original de América (1954; America’s Original Sin), a com-
mentary on immigration, uprootedness, and the effects of geography.
In later essays, he showed his disdain for a consumer society. Homo
atomicus (1961; Atomic Man) is a critique of nihilism, and in La
metáfora y lo sagrado (1973; The Metaphor and the Sacred), he
undertook a search for the sacred through religion. His other essays
are Ensayos sobre la subversión (1962; Essays on Subversion) and
El hombre secreto (1969; The Secret Man). His short stories were
collected in El centro del infierno (1956; The Center of Hell) and El
coronel de caballería y otros cuentos (1971; The Cavalry Colonel
and Other Stories). Murena also translated Walter Benjamin (1892–
1940) and Theodor Adorno (1903–1969) into Spanish.

MUTIS, ÁLVARO (Colombia, 1923– ). Poet and novelist. Part of


his childhood and adolescence was spent in Belgium, where his
father was a diplomat, and he has lived in Mexico since 1956. In
the 1950s he spent 15 months in a Mexican jail, a consequence of
charges of fraud leveled against him while working for Standard Oil

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NABUCO, JOAQUIM • 323

in Colombia. Since then Mutis has traveled widely and worked as


sales manager for Twentieth Century Fox and Columbia Pictures. He
first made his mark in literature as a poet and received the support of
Octavio Paz for his early work.
His published books of poetry include Los elementos del desastre
(1953; The Elements of the Disaster), Los trabajos perdidos (1964;
The Lost Works), Crónica regia y alabanza del reino (1985; Royal
Chronicle and Praise of the Kingdom), and Reseña de los hospitales
de ultramar (1986; Review of the Hospitals Overseas). Although
these established his reputation in poetry, his wider fame is more
firmly based on fiction. His early prose includes Diario de Lecum-
berri (1960; Lecumberri Prison Diary), an account of his imprison-
ment in Mexico; La mansión de Araucaíma (1973; The Mansion), a
gothic thriller set in the tropics; and La verdadera historia del flau-
tista de Hammelin (1982; The True Story of the Piper of Hammelin),
a reworking of the children’s story.
In the 1980s, Mutis began a series of novellas featuring his liter-
ary alter ego, an adventurer and wanderer called Maqroll el Gaviero
(Maqroll the Lookout), who had first appeared in his poetry. The first
of the novellas was La nieve del almirante (1986; The Snow of the
Admiral), followed by Ilona llega con la lluvia (1987; Ilona Comes
with the Rain), La última escala del Tramp Steamer (1988; The
Tramp Steamer’s Last Port of Call), Un bel morir (1989; A Beautiful
Way to Die), Amirbar (1990; Amirbar), Abdul Bashur, soñador de
navíos (1991; Abdul Bashur, Dreamer of Ships), and Tríptico de mar
y tierra (1993; Triptych on Sea and Land). The English translations
appear in The Adventures and Misadventures of Maqroll (2002). In
2001, Mutis was awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize.

– N –

NABUCO, JOAQUIM (Brazil, 1849–1910). Statesman, historian,


and essayist. Nabuco was born into an affluent family in Recife,
studied law, and became involved in politics after extended travels
in Europe. One of Brazil’s most fervent abolitionists, he published O
Abolicionismo (1884; Abolitionism), the most important work on the
subject in Portuguese. He also served as a diplomat abroad for many

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324 • NALÉ ROXLO, CONRADO

years and was known for his negotiation and social skills. Nabuco
left behind a vast oeuvre in many genres (poetry, criticism, historiog-
raphy, and political writings), but he is best remembered for his au-
tobiography, Minha Formação (1900; My Education), a work noted
for its style and the rich content of his life experience. He also wrote
Um Estadista do Império (1899; A Statesman of the Empire), a four-
volume biography of his father, Nabuco de Araújo (1813–1878). See
also ALVES, ANTÔNIO FREDERICO DE CASTRO.

NALÉ ROXLO, CONRADO (Argentina, 1898–1971). Short story


writer, poet, and dramatist. Although he first won recognition for
a collection of poems, El grillo (1923; The Cricket), Nalé Roxlo
published only two further books of poetry: Claro desvelo (1937;
Clear Insomnia) and De otro cielo (1956; From Another Sky). His
verse has a melancholy tone and is aesthetically related more to 19th-
century traditions than to 20th-century innovation. As a dramatist, he
wrote imaginative, poetic plays for the theater that contrasted with
the realism of his day. La cola de la sirena (1941; The Mermaid’s
Tail) is about a man who falls for a mermaid; El pacto de Cristina
(1945; Cristina’s Pact) is a retelling of the Faust legend, and Judith
y las rosas (1956; Judith and the Roses) is a farse based on the bibli-
cal story of Judith and Holophernes. He is remembered most for the
short, humorous pieces he published in newspapers and magazines,
including the journal Martín Fierro, under a variety of pseudonyms,
of which “Chamico” was the most celebrated. These pieces have
been collected in a number of volumes: Cuentos de Chamico (1941;
Tales by Chamico), El muerto profesional (1943; The Professional
Corpse), Cuentos de cabecera (1946; Bedside Stories), La medicina
vista de reojo (1952; A Sideways Look at Medicine), Mi pueblo
(1953; My Home Town), Libro de quejas (1953; Book of Com-
plaints), El humor de los humores (1953; The Humor of Humors),
Sumarios policiales (1955; Police Reports), and El ingenioso hidalgo
(1965; The Ingenious Knight).

NARANJO, CARMEN (Costa Rica, 1928– ). Novelist, poet, and


short story writer. In addition to being Costa Rica’s most important
female writer, she has had a successful career in public adminis-

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NASCIMENTO, ABDIAS DO • 325

tration and was the first woman in Costa Rica to hold high office
in a number of significant institutions. Her first publications were
verse, and her volumes of poetry include América (1961; America),
Canción de la ternura (1964; Song of Tenderness), Misa a oscuras
(1964; Mass Under Darkness), Hacia tu isla (1966; Towards Your
Island), Homenaje a don Nadie (1981; Homage to Mr. Nobody), and
En esta tierra redonda y plana (2001; On This Round Flat Earth).
She is better known for her fiction, in which she often draws on
her knowledge of bureaucratic institutions and portrays the plight
of lonely, alienated characters. Her first novel was Los perros no
ladraron (1966; The Dogs Didn’t Bark), about a bureaucrat trapped
in the system in which he works. Memorias de un hombre palabra
(1968; Memoirs of a Word-Man) is the story of a man who over-
comes his social marginality when he encounters others like him.
Diario de una multitud (1974; Diary of a Crowd) has a similarly
alienated protagonist, and the novelist uses dialogue to convey the
narration, a technique with which she also experimented in earlier
novels. Sobrepunto (1985; Overpoint), Naranjo’s first novel with a
female protagonist, explores the roles traditionally given to women
in a predominantly patriarchal society. Her more recent novels in-
clude Más allá de Parismina (2004; Beyond Parismina). Among
Naranjo’s collections of short stories are Hoy es un largo día (1974;
Today Is a Long Day), Nunca hubo alguna vez (1984; There Never
Was a Once Upon a Time), Ondina (1985; Ondina), and Otro rumbo
para la rumba (1989; Another Route for the Rumba). She has writ-
ten essays, including Cinco temas en busca de un pensador (1977;
Five Themes in Search of a Thinker), on negative aspects of human
development. She has also written for the stage.

NASCIMENTO, ABDIAS DO (Brazil, 1914– ). Dramatist. A scholar


and political activist, do Nascimento’s contributions to the theater,
including the 1944 founding of the Teatro Experimental do Negro
(Black Experimental Theater) to promote awareness of Afro-
Brazilian culture and values. He also published the anthology Dra-
mas para Negros e um Prólogo para Brancos (1961; Plays for Blacks
and a Prologue for Whites). His play Sortilege (1978; Black Mystery)
features elements of Candomblé, an Afro-Brazilian religion.

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326 • NASSAR, RADUAN

NASSAR, RADUAN (Brazil, 1935– ). Novelist. Born into a Lebanese


immigrant family, Nassar studied law and philosophy in São Paulo.
His first novel, Lavoura Arcaica (1975; To the Left of the Father),
based on conflict in a rural family, earned him many prizes. His next
novel, Um Copo de Cólera (1978; A Glass of Wrath), also met with
great critical success. In the 1980s, however, Nassar quit writing and
retired to a farm, devoting his time to raising animals. His book of
stories, Menina a Caminho (Girl on the Road), appeared in 1997, al-
though it was written decades before. In 2001, Lavoura Arcaica was
adapted for the screen.

NATURALISM. This late 19th- and early 20th-century movement


grew out of realism and was represented especially in the work of the
French novelist Emile Zola (1840–1902). It entailed a focus on the
underbelly of society, especially on the consequences of increased
industrialization and urbanization. It also reflected a Darwinian
determinism arising from heredity and the social environment, al-
though its deterministic elements in Latin America were sometimes
attenuated by the Christian concept of free will. Its characteristics are
apparent in a number of trends in fiction: the novel of the Mexican
Revolution of Mariano Azuela and Gregorio López y Fuentes;
the indigenismo of Jorge Icaza and Clorinda Matto de Turner
(Peru) and Alcides Arguedas (Bolivia); the urban novels of Fed-
erico Gamboa (Mexico) and Manuel Gálvez and Eugenio Cam-
baceres (Argentina); and the theater in dramatists such as Samuel
Eichelbaum (Argentina) and Armando Moock (Chile). Other
Spanish American authors whose work shows the influence of natu-
ralism include Heriberto Frías (Mexico), Joaquín García Monge
(Costa Rica); Enrique López Albújar (Peru); Benito Lynch and
Manuel T. Podestá (Argentina), Carlos Reyles (Uruguay), and
Joaquín Edwards Bello, Marta Brunet, Augusto D’Halmar, and
Baldomero Lillo (Chile).
In Brazil, naturalism is clearly tied to realism, but there are few
works that embody only Zola’s model, among them the novels of
Adolfo Caminha. After the publication of Aluísio Azevedo’s O
Mulato (1881; Mulatto), naturalism became established as a new
fashion through writers such as José Veríssimo, but it was soon fol-
lowed by authors who are today considered more under the heading

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NEO-INDIGENISMO • 327

of realism, including some of Brazil’s most notable 19th-century


fiction and nonfiction writers such as Manuel Antônio de Almeida,
Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, Henrique Maximiano Coelho
Neto, Euclides da Cunha, Afonso Henriques de Lima Barreto,
and Raúl d’Ávila Pompéia. See also AMBROGI, ARTURO;
EL SALVADOR; PERALTA LAGOS, JOSÉ MARÍA; RAMOS,
GRACILIANO; REGIONALISM; SYMBOLISM; TAUNAY, AL-
FREDO D’ESCRAGNOLLE, VISCONDE DE; WOMEN.

NEO-BAROQUE. The term refers to a 20th-century revival of the


baroque style in literature of the 17th century in Spain and colonial
Spanish America that entailed complex metaphors and allusions, a
tortuous syntax, and an elaborate vocabulary. Although more com-
monly associated with Cuba, it also appeared elsewhere in the work
of writers such as Osvaldo Lamborghini and Néstor Perlongher
(Argentina), Augusto Roa Bastos (Paraguay), and Gustavo Sainz
(Mexico).

NEO-CLASSICISM. The term refers to a new revival of the literary


styles, content, and form associated with classical Greek and Ro-
man cultures popularized in Europe in the Renaissance of the 15th
and 16th centuries. Although neo-classicism in Europe was a pre-
dominantly 18th-century phenomenon, it appeared in Latin America
mainly in the first half of the 19th. Among its exponents were Man-
uel Eduardo de Gorostiza (Mexico) and Manuel Ascensio Segura
(Peru) in theater and Andrés Bello (Venezuela), Cláudio Manuel
da Costa (Brazil), and José Joaquín Olmedo (Ecuador) in poetry.
See also CHILE; EL SALVADOR.

NEO-INDIGENISMO. Although sharing the same objective as indi-


genismo of representing the plight of native Americans as marginal-
ized and exploited subjects, neo-indigenismo offers a more complex
image than was possible in the first half of the 20th century. Neo-
indigenismo is more anthropologically grounded than its predeces-
sor. It recognizes the existence of mestizo populations and draws
them into consideration, and it abandons the different forms of real-
ism inherited from the 19th century in favor of the more innovative
forms of the modern novel and its aesthetics, sometimes drawing on

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328 • NERUDA, PABLO

avant-garde trends. Neo-indigenismo begins with the work of José


María Arguedas (Peru) and includes authors such as Miguel Ángel
Asturias (Guatemala), Rosario Castellanos (Mexico), and Manuel
Scorza (Peru).

NERUDA, PABLO (Chile, 1904–1973). Poet. He was born Neftalí


Ricardo Reyes Basoalto in Parral, Chile, but is universally known
by the pseudonym he adopted in 1920. A prolific writer, who pub-
lished more than 40 volumes of poetry, he is one of Latin America’s
great poets. His work has been translated into many languages and
is widely read. His poetry, produced over a period of 50 years, has
a protean quality, constantly evolving to reflect changes in literary
styles as well as the events of both his own life and the world at large.
Crepusculario (1923; Twilight Poems), his first volume of published
poems, still showed the thematic and stylistic influences of modern-
ismo. In Veinte poemas de amor y una canción desesperada (1924;
Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair), Neruda’s first major
work, a more personal style began to emerge. His poetic evocation of
sexual encounters and the landscape won him immediate recognition
and has proven to be of enduring value.
Between 1927 and 1939, Neruda held a series of consular appoint-
ments in Asia, Europe, and Latin America. Even before his departure
for the first of these in Burma, Ceylon, and Java, his writing had
taken a turn toward the avant-garde. Residencia en la tierra (1933;
Residence on Earth), a cycle of poems expanded in 1935 and 1947,
belongs mainly to this period and represents the sense of alienation
and despair he felt about his existence while living in the Far East.
By contrast, the time he spent in Spain (1933–1937) brought him
more success and friendships. It also impacted him ideologically and
converted him to the political Left, a position he would maintain for
the rest of his life. Among his writings from this period, España en
el corazón (1937; Spain in My Heart) expressed his sympathy for the
Republican cause during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).
Neruda formally entered Chilean politics in 1945, when he was
elected to the Senate. Shortly after, he joined the Chilean Communist
Party. In 1947, after criticizing President González Videla’s repres-
sion of striking miners, he was forced to live in hiding, and then

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NERUDA, PABLO • 329

in 1949 he went into exile. While in exile he published his Canto


General (1950; General Song) in Mexico, a collection of some 250
poems he had begun in 1938 and continued to write while in hiding
in Chile. This epic work on the natural and human history of Latin
America, focused on struggles against tyranny, is the centerpiece of
Neruda’s output. It was published clandestinely in Chile and trans-
lated into several other languages. Some sections of the collection,
particularly “Las alturas de Macchu Picchu” (The Heights of Macchu
Picchu) are well known independently of their original context.
When Neruda returned to Chile in 1952, he was a national cultural
icon, the most prominent literary spokesperson for the Left, and an
international celebrity. He continued to write prolifically. Los versos
del capitán (1952; The Captain’s Verses) celebrated his love for his
third wife, Matilde Urrutia. Las uvas y el viento (1954; The Grapes
and the Wind) covered recent political journeys. In the Odas elemen-
tales (Odes to Common Things), the first volumes of which began to
appear in 1954, Neruda wrote of everyday objects in simple terms,
repudiating the more opaque poetry of his earlier Residencias. Es-
travagaria (Extravagaria) appeared in 1958; Cien sonetos de amor
(100 Love Sonnets) in 1960, also inspired by Matilde Urrutia; Memo-
rial de Isla Negra (Memoir from Isla Negra), a five-volume poetic
biography, in 1964; Fin del mundo (The End of the World) and Aún
(Still Another Day), both in 1969; and La rosa separada (The Sepa-
rate Rose), about a journey to Easter Island, in 1973.
In 1970, after declining to run for president, Neruda campaigned
for Salvador Allende, and became Chilean ambassador to France after
Allende’s victory. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature
in 1971. In 1972, he returned to Chile, already seriously ill, and died
in September 1973, not long after the military coup that overthrew
Allende. Confieso que he vivido: memorias (1974; Pablo Neruda:
Memoirs), a prose autobiography, appeared posthumously, compiled
and edited by Matilde Urrutia. See also CARDENAL, ERNESTO;
DÍAZ, JORGE; EDWARDS, JORGE; HERRERA Y REISSIG, JU-
LIO; HUERTA, EFRAÍN; IBÁÑEZ, SARA DE; LIHN, ENRIQUE;
MADARIAGA, FRANCISCO; OROZCO, OLGA; PARRA, NICA-
NOR; RODRÍGUEZ MONEGAL, EMIR; ROKHA, PABLO DE;
SABAT ERCASTY, CARLOS; TEITELBOIM, VOLODIA.

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330 • NERVO, AMADO

NERVO, AMADO (Mexico, 1870–1919). Poet, novelist, and short


story writer. In both his poetry and prose, Nervo’s writing shows
the characteristics of modernismo and the influence of European
symbolism and parnassianism. He was especially drawn to the
spiritual dimensions of existence and explored the potential of differ-
ent beliefs and religions as a way of transcending the material world,
especially the pragmatic materialism of 19th-century positivism. The
novels El bachiller (1895; The Bachelor) and El domador de almas
(1897; The Soul Breaker), as well as the short story collections Almas
que pasan (1906; Passing Souls) and El diablo desinteresado (1916;
The Disinterested Devil), are noteworthy examples of his prose. He
also wrote Juana de Asbaje (1910; Juana de Asbaje), a biography of
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz.
Nervo’s poetry seems unaffected by the social upheavals of his
time, notably the Mexican Revolution. In his early collections of
verse, Místicas (1898; Mystiques) and Perlas negras (1898; Black
Pearls), he explores feelings of eroticism and religious doubt. In Los
jardines interiores (1905; Interior Gardens) and En voz baja (1909;
In a Soft Voice), he examines his place in the material world. La
amada inmóvil: versos a una muerta (written 1912; published 1920;
The Immobile Beloved: Verses for a Dead Woman) was written on
the occasion of his wife’s death. In his last collections, Serenidad
(1914; Serenity), Elevación (1917; Elevation), and El estanque de
los lotos (1919; The Lotus Pool), he seeks the consolation of religion
and philosophy.

NEW HISTORICAL NOVEL. Unlike the historical novel, which


conventionally tells a fictional story set in a previous time in his-
tory, new historical novels are concerned with the examination
and problematization of history itself and how the past has been
represented and understood. The events narrated and the characters
they involve are usually taken from history. They often entail iconic
elements of national identity, but are told from perspectives that
challenge traditional interpretations. At the same time, by making
writing and written documents part of the structure of the text, the
new historical novel questions the nature of historical discourse
and historiography. This approach to history was heightened in the
context of the commemoration in 1992 of the 500th anniversary of

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NICARAGUA • 331

the arrival of Europeans in the New World and the focus this gave
to five centuries of Latin American history. But it also occurred in
the wake of the authoritarian regimes of the 1970s and 1980s, which
produced a sense of disillusion with how national stories had been
written and interpreted and coincided with a postmodern distrust of
traditional narratives of interpretation. Among those who have writ-
ten new historical novels, some of the most prominent are Homero
Aridjis, Carlos Fuentes, and Fernando del Paso (Mexico); Ga-
briel García Márquez (Colombia); Sylvia Iparraguirre, Tomás
Eloy Martínez, Martha Mercader, Abel Posse, Andrés Rivera,
and Juan José Saer (Argentina); Napoleón Baccino Ponce de
León and Tomás de Mattos (Uruguay); and Augusto Roa Bastos
(Paraguay). See also POST-BOOM.

NEW NOVEL. The term is a translation of nouveau roman, a style in


fiction that flourished between the 1950s and 1970s among a group
of French authors that includes Alain Robbe-Grillet (1922–2008),
Marguerite Duras (1914–1996), Nathalie Sarraute (1900–1999), and
Michel Butor (1926– ). New novels sought to subordinate the con-
ventional elements of the novel, such as plot, chronological narrative,
and character, to the subjective experience of objects. Hence they
appear disjointed, repetitive, focused on detail, and having a circular
structure. Latin American novelists whose work incorporates ele-
ments of the new novel include Salvador Elizondo and José Emilio
Pacheco (Mexico), Julio Cortázar and Juan José Saer (Argen-
tina), and Jorge Enrique Adoum (Ecuador). See also PERU.

NEWSPAPERS. See JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS,


AND PERIODICALS.

NICARAGUA. There was little major literary production during the


colonial period and much of the 19th century. Literature in Nicara-
gua came to life with Rubén Darío, the leader of Spanish American
modernismo. Although he lived much of his life outside the coun-
try, he still had considerable influence and was the first of a series
of poets whose work has resonated widely. Salomón de la Selva
bridges the gap between modernist poetry and the avant-garde,
which itself includes figures such as José Coronel Urtecho, Pablo

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332 • NICARAGUA

Antonio Cuadra, and Joaquín Pasos. As the 20th century advanced,


the continuing conflicts that shook the country during the Somoza
dynasty (1936–1979), ending eventually in the triumph of the Sand-
inista Revolution, affected the direction taken by literature. In addi-
tion to other preoccupations expressed by it authors, poetry became
politically more committed, as in the work of Ernesto Cardenal
and women writers such as Gioconda Belli and Daisy Zamora.
Prose writing and the novel also reflected the moment and, for the
first time, several prominent prose writers became part of the liter-
ary scene. Gioconda Belli is a respected novelist as well as a poet,
although the dominant figure is Sergio Ramírez. At the same time,
the guerrilla war and the Sandinista Revolution were propitious con-
texts for the testimonio, for which the most representative author in
Nicaragua is Omar Cabezas.
The theater in colonial Nicaragua, with its popular religious festi-
vals, was built in part on the traditions of ritual performance of pre-
Columbian times. Its most notable result was the development of a
theater in Nahuatl and Spanish that flourished between the mid-16th
and mid-18th centuries and left the legacy of El güegüense, a comic
piece in which a popular character outwits government tax officials,
which continues to be performed today. A more formal theater in
Nicaragua took somewhat longer to develop, however. During the
19th century, stages were dominated by foreign plays and visiting
companies, with local dramatists not becoming more numerous and
productive until the 20th century. Hernán Robledo, who was the
first major figure, introduced costumbrismo to the theater, and the
avant-garde writers José Coronel Urtecho and Pablo Antonio Cuadra
both wrote successfully for the stage. The theater grew between the
1950s and 1970s, during an economic boom that saw the founding
of several companies, including the Teatro Experimental de Mana-
gua. Of the dramatists whose work was staged during this period,
Rolando Steiner stands out. However, the situation changed with
the triumph of the Sandinista Revolution in 1979, and in the 1980s
greater emphasis was placed on forms of popular theater, includ-
ing collective creation, associated with a different cultural climate.
See also ALEGRÍA, CLARIBEL; BEST SELLER; BRECHTIAN
THEATER; CASA DE LA AMÉRICAS; CRIME FICTION; IN-
DIGENOUS TRADITIONS; JESÚS MARTÍNEZ, JOSÉ DE; MO-

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NOVEL OF THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION • 333

LINA, JUAN RAMÓN; SOLÓRZANO, CARLOS; THEATER IN


QUECHUA; THEATER OF THE ABSURD.

NOBEL PRIZE FOR LITERATURE. The Nobel laureates from


Latin America are Gabriela Mistral (1945; Chile), Miguel Ángel
Asturias (1967; Guatemala), Pablo Neruda (1971; Chile), Ga-
briel García Márquez (1982; Colombia), and Octavio Paz (1990;
Mexico), and Mario Vargs Llosa (2010; Peru).

NÓBREGA, MANUEL DA (Brazil, 1517–1570). Historian and


chronicler. A Portuguese priest, Nóbrega headed the first Jesuit
mission in the Americas. His Cartas do Brasil (1886; Letters from
Brazil), written as reports to his superiors in Portugal, are important
early chronicles of Brazil. He was particularly concerned with the
issue of conversion, as shown in his Diálogo Sobre a Conversão do
Gentio (1556; Dialogue on the Conversion of the People).

NOVEL OF THE LAND. The term refers to novels, mainly from the
early 20th century, that focus on the landscape and the ways of life it
has fostered. They are sometimes referred to under the terms mun-
donovismo and criollismo and include works such as La vorágine
(1942; The Vortex) by José Eustasio Rivera (Colombia), Doña
Bárbara (1929; Doña Bárbara) by Rómulo Gallegos (Venezuela),
and Don Segundo Sombra (1926; Mr. Second Shadow) by Ri-
cardo Güiraldes (Argentina). See also REGIONALISM; YÁÑEZ,
AGUSTÍN.

NOVEL OF THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION. Although the first


novel of the Mexican Revolution, Mariano Azuela’s Los de abajo,
was published in 1915 in serialized form in a Texas newspaper, it
did not attract attention until it appeared as a book a decade later.
Other novels about the conflict began to appear by the late 1920s,
establishing a trend in fiction that would continue until the early
1940s. The novels published during these two decades were narra-
tives of events, often chronicling the campaigns of revolutionary
leaders such as Francisco (“Pancho”) Villa and Emiliano Zapata
and presenting a fictionalized version of the authors’ own experi-
ences. The novelists of this period include Nellie Campobello (the

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334 • NOVO, SALVADOR

only woman to be included in the canon), Martín Luis Guzmán,


Miguel N. Lira, Gregorio López y Fuentes, Mauricio Magdaleno,
José Mancisidor, Rafael F. Muñoz, José Rubén Romero, Fran-
cisco L. Urquizo, and José Vasconcelos. In the late 1940s and after,
beginning with Agustín Yáñez’s Al filo del agua (1947; The Edge
of the Storm), the novel of the revolution gave less attention to the
events of the war and was more concerned with the social causes and
conditions from which it emerged and the kind of society it came to
produce. In addition to Yáñez, other authors whose fiction reflects
this development include Carlos Fuentes, Juan Rulfo, and José
Revueltas. See also FRÍAS, HERIBERTO; NATURALISM.

NOVO, SALVADOR (MEXICO, 1904–1974). Poet, chronicler, and


dramatist. In his early life, Novo was affiliated with Los Contem-
poráneos in Mexico. His poetry of that time, in collections such as
xx poemas (1925; xx poems) and Poemas proletarios (1934; Prole-
tarian Poems), associate him with the avant-garde and modernity.
Another collection of that period, Espejo (1933; Mirror), is a poetic
autobiography written as a series of lyric and humorous verses. In
Nuevo amor (1933; New Love), he explored the themes of love and
solitude. Urban themes also figure in his poetry, although he wrote
about the city more fully as official chronicler of Mexico City.
Among his chronicles are a series of volumes, edited by José Emi-
lio Pacheco, about life in the capital during the term of a number
of Mexican presidents. Other prose works include Continente vacío
(1935; Empty Continent), about a trip to South America, with il-
lustrations by the Spanish poet Federico García Lorca (1898–1936),
whom he met in Buenos Aires; Nueva grandeza mexicana (1951;
New Grandeur of Mexico), a gloss on the poem by Bernardo de
Balbuena; and La estatua de sal (1998; The Salt Statue), an ac-
count of his early life that was not published until long after his
death because of the frank revelations it contains about his contem-
poraries. Salvador Novo was a flamboyant public figure, one of the
first of some eminence in Mexican cultural institutions to be open
about his homosexuality yet retain the patronage of the state. In
1968, he adopted a progovernment stance with respect to the Tla-
telolco massacre. See also MAGAÑA, SERGIO.

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NÚÑEZ CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAR • 335

NUEVO GRUPO. Formed by José Ignacio Cabrujas, Román Chal-


baud, and Isaac Chocrón, and inspired by César Rengifo, Nuevo
Grupo, or New Group, fostered the introduction of avant-garde
forms to the theater in Venezuela, such as the theater of the absurd
and total theater, and contributed to the renaissance in the country’s
stage that had begun in the 1950s. The group’s first success was
Chocrón’s Tric-trac (1967; Tick-Tock).

NÚÑEZ, ENRIQUE BERNARDO (Venezuela, 1895–1964).


Novelist and journalist. After two early novels, Sol interior (1918;
Interior Sun) and Después de Ayacucho (1929; After Ayacucho), he
published Cubagua (1931; Cubagua), his best-known novel, a fan-
tasy work that foreshadows trends in fiction of the 1960s. His fourth
and last novel was La galera de Tiberio (1938; Tiberius’ Galley).
As a journalist, he contributed to many Caracas newspapers and was
first named official chronicler of the Venezuelan capital in 1945. At
about this time, his interests became more attached to history than to
literature, and he wrote many chronicles of Caracas as well as books
on the history of Venezuela. One of his most popular books was La
ciudad de los techos rojos (1947; The Red Roof City).

NÚÑEZ, RAFAEL (Colombia, 1825–1894). Poet, journalist, and es-


sayist. A notable politician, he served twice as president of Colombia
(1887–1892 and 1892–1894). He is best known for his journalism on
culture and literature as well as essays such as Reforma política en
Colombia (1885; Political Reform in Colombia). As a poet, his early
work was quite exploratory, but later became more conservative and
inclined to the traditions of romanticism, although he was also a pa-
tron of Rubén Darío and modernismo. His verse, initially published
in newspapers in Europe and the Americas, was collected in Poesías
(1889; Poems) and published in Paris. Although important in his day,
Núñez is remembered as a poet mainly for having written the lyrics
of the Colombian national anthem.

NÚÑEZ CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAR (1490?–1559?) Chronicler.


He was a member of a disastrous Spanish expedition to Florida led
by Pánfilo de Narváez (1470–1528) in 1528 that was shipwrecked

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336 • NÚÑEZ DE PINEDA DE BASCUÑÁN, FRANCISCO

on the Gulf of Mexico. In his chronicle, in the form of a report pre-


sented to the Spanish crown, commonly known as Los Naufragios
(1542; The Narrative of Cabeza de Vaca), Cabeza de Vaca gave an
account of his captivity among native people and his wanderings
across southwestern North America, from present-day Texas to Cali-
fornia and northern Mexico, in the company of three other survivors
of the expedition. After returning to Spain, he was sent in 1540 to be
governor of the region of Río de la Plata in South America and wrote
of his experiences in his Comentarios (1555; The Commentaries of
Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca). See also FERNÁNDEZ DE OVIEDO,
GONZALO; GLANTZ, MARGO; POSSE, ABEL.

NÚÑEZ DE PINEDA DE BASCUÑÁN, FRANCISCO (Chile,


1607–1680). Chronicler. Captured in 1629 during an expedition to
defeat the Mapuche in Chile, he was held captive for seven months.
Years later, in 1673, after a successful military career, he wrote
about his experiences in the chronicle El cautiverio feliz, o razón
de las guerras dilatadas de Chile (The Happy Captive). His book is
both a memoir and an analysis of the protracted conflict between the
Spanish and the Mapuche.

– O –

OCAMPO, MARÍA LUISA (Mexico, 1905–1974). Dramatist. She


first made her name on the stage with her play Cosas de la vida
(1923; Things of Life) and was a member of a significant group
of writers who gave new life to Mexican theater in the 1920s
and beyond. Her works include La quimera (1923; The Illusion),
La hoguera (1924; The Bonfire), La jauría (1925; The Pack of
Hounds), Puedes irte (1926; You May Leave), Las máscaras
(1926; The Masks), La sed en el desierto (1927; Thirst in the
Desert), Más allá de los hombres (1929; Beyond Men), El corrido
de Juan Saavedra (1929; The Ballad of Juan Saavedra), Castillos
en el aire (1931; Castles in Spain), La casa en ruinas (1936; The
House in Ruins), and Una vida de mujer (1938; A Woman’s Life).
See also WOMEN.

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OCAMPO, VICTORIA • 337

OCAMPO, SILVINA (Argentina, 1906–1993). Short story writer


and poet. She was the sister of Victoria Ocampo and was married
to Adolfo Bioy Casares. Her reputation rests principally on her
short stories. Recollections of childhood in Viaje olvidado (1937;
Forgotten Journey) provided the basis for her first collection. This
was followed by La furia (1959; Fury) and Las invitadas (1961; The
Guests), which established her as the author of stories characterized
by horror, violence, and strange, contradictory events, a reputation to
some extent consolidated in two further collections, Y así sucesiva-
mente (1987; And So On) and Cornelia frente al espejo (1988; Cor-
nelia in the Mirror), although the degree of violence in both of them
is more subdued. An English translation of her stories has appeared
as Fantasies of the Feminine: The Short Stories of Silvina Ocampo.
In contrast to her fiction, Ocampo’s poetry is relatively conven-
tional and includes Los sonetos del jardín (1946; Sonnets from the
Garden), Poemas de amor deseperado (1949; Poems of Despairing
Love), Lo amargo por dulce (1962; Bitter Sweet); Amarillo celeste
(1972; Sky-blue Yellow), and Breve santoral (1984; A Small Book
of Saints). In collaboration with Adolfo Bioy Casares, Ocampo wrote
a detective novel, Los que aman odian (1946; Those Who Love
Hate), and she joined with Bioy Casares and Jorge Luis Borges to
edit two celebrated anthologies, Antología de la literatura fantástica
(1946; The Book of Fantasy) and Antología poética argentina (1941;
Anthology of Argentinean Poetry). In the 1970s, she wrote several
books of children’s literature, including El cofre volante (1974; The
Flying Trunk), El tobogán (1975; The Toboggan), El caballo alado
(1976; The Winged Horse), and La naranja maravillosa (1977; The
Magic Orange). Among her translations of poetry are the complete
poems of Emily Dickinson (1830–1886). See also WOMEN.

OCAMPO, VICTORIA (Argentina, 1890–1979). Essayist and trans-


lator. She came from an influential family and was the eldest of six
daughters. Silvina Ocampo was her sister. At a time in Argentina
when women faced discrimination in public and there were few
of any prominence in the field of letters, Victoria Ocampo was a
notable exception. She published numerous translations into Span-
ish and more than 20 volumes of essays on a wide range of cultural

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338 • ODIO, EUNICE

topics. Her books include a series of 10 Testimonios (1935–1977;


Testimonies) on life and literature; De Francesca a Beatrice (1924;
From Francesca to Beatrice), on Dante; Lawrence de Arabia y otros
ensayos (1951; Lawrence of Arabia and Other Essays); Virginia
Woolf en su diario (1954; Virginia Woolf in Her Diary); Juan Se-
bastián Bach, el hombre (1964; Johann Sebastian Bach, the Man);
La bella y sus enamorados (1964; Beauty and Her Lovers); and, in
collaboration with Jorge Luis Borges and Eduardo Mallea, Diálo-
gos (1969; Dialogues). In 1931, she founded the literary journal Sur,
which became an important vehicle for writers of her generation, a
source of contact with writers outside Argentina, and one of the most
prestigious periodicals of its kind in the Spanish-speaking world. In
1975, she was made a member of the Argentinean Academy of Let-
ters, the first woman to be so honored. Her autobiography is a notable
example of the genre and was published posthumously (1979–1984)
in six volumes.

ODIO, EUNICE (Costa Rica, 1922–1974). Poet. She was a rather


solitary figure, in part the consequence of her own polemical temper-
ament both in literature and politics. Her work remained virtually un-
known until the 1980s in her own country, which she left in 1947 for
Guatemala and then settled in Mexico in 1955, where she died alone
and in poverty. Although Odio’s work had already been recognized
earlier through publication in literary magazines, her first volume of
poetry was Los elementos terrestres (1948; Terrestrial Elements), a
series of eight long poems in free verse with themes of mystic eroti-
cism, echoes of the Bible, and a cosmic view of reality. Her second
collection, Zona en territorio del alba (1953; Zone in the Land of
Dawn), establishes her adoption of an avant-garde aesthetic, notably
through her adherence to creacionismo. El tránsito de fuego (1957;
Passage of Fire), an extensive poem of more than 400 pages on the
central themes of creation and exile, represents the culmination of
her literary work. See also OREAMUNO, YOLANDA; WOMEN.

OLIVEIRA, ALBERTO DE (Brazil, 1857–1937). Poet. One of the


major representatives of parnassianism in Brazil, Oliveira studied
pharmacy but worked as a civil servant and educator. He was one
of the founders of the Brazilian Academy of Letters (see ACA-

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OLLÉ, CARMEN • 339

DEMIAS). His Canções românticas (1878; Romantic Songs) contain


parnassian motifs but are still in the style of romanticism. In Me-
ridionais (1884; Southerners) and Sonetos e poemas (1885; Sonnets
and Poems), he achieved the impassibility and “cult of form” that
parnassianism preached. However, later volumes such as Livro de
Ema (1900; Emma’s Book), Por amor de uma lágrima (1912; For the
Love of a Tear), and Alma Livre (1905; Free Soul) evidence the influ-
ence of symbolism in their portrayal of sentimental and sensual love.
Oliveira was also noted for his lyrical portrayal of nature. He was
crowned King of Poets in 1924. See also CORREIA, RAIMUNDO.

OLIVEIRA, MANUEL BOTELHO DE (Brazil, 1636–1711). Poet


and dramatist. Born into a privileged family from Bahia, Botelho de
Oliveira studied law in Coimbra, where he met Gregório de Mat-
tos and came into contact with the Spanish and Portuguese literary
baroque. Back in Brazil, he practiced law and held public office.
He was a virtuoso poet who had mastered all the baroque devices
used by poets such as Luis de Góngora (1561–1627) and could write
poetry in Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Latin. He was also the
first Brazilian-born poet to see his work in print, namely the volume
Música do Parnaso (1705; Music of Parnassus), which included
poems and his comedies written in Spanish, Hay amigo para amigo
(There Is a Friend for a Friend), and Amor, engaños y celos (Love,
Deceit, and Jealousy). See also THEATER.

OLLANTAY. An anonymous 18th-century Peruvian drama written in


Quechua and set in Incan times that tells a story of love and rebellion
and effectively combines elements from both the Hispanic and indig-
enous dramatic traditions. See also TABOADA TERÁN, NÉSTOR;
THEATER IN QUECHUA.

OLLÉ, CARMEN (Peru, 1947– ). Poet and novelist. After the appear-
ance of her first book of poems, Noche de adrenalina (1981; Nights
of Adrenaline), Carmen Ollé was soon established as one of Peru’s
prominent contemporary women writers. Her second book was a col-
lection of verse and prose, Todo orgullo humea la noche (1988; The
Night Turns All Pride Smokey). Since then she has published several
narrative works, including ¿Por qué hacen tanto ruido? (1992; Why

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340 • OLMEDO, JOSÉ JOAQUÍN

Are They So Noisy?), Las dos caras del deseo (1994; The Two Faces
of Desire), Pista falsa (1999; False Trail), and Una muchacha bajo
su paraguas (2002; A Girl Beneath Her Umbrella).

OLMEDO, JOSÉ JOAQUÍN (Ecuador, 1780–1847). Poet. A promi-


nent politician, he served his country as both vice president and presi-
dent. He is known principally for two poems, both written in the style
of neo-classicism. The first of these is La victoria de Junín, canto a
Bolívar (1825), written to honor the victory of Simón Bolívar at the
Battle of Junín (6 August 1824), which turned the tide against the
Spanish. It made Olmedo the most renowned poet of the war of inde-
pendence in South America. His second celebrated poem, Al general
Flores, vencedor de Miñarica (1835), was also written to honor a
battle and its victor, Juan José Flores, who served as Ecuador’s first
president after the breakup in 1830 of the union of Colombia, Ven-
ezuela, and Panama known as Gran Colombia.

OÑA, PEDRO DE (Chile, 1570–1643?). Poet. Although he was


Chile’s first native-born poet of note, he left his homeland at the age
of 20 and lived in Peru. He is best remembered for Arauco domado
(1596; Arauco Tamed), a narrative poem in the cycle of epic poetry
initiated by Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga concerning the conquest
and colonization of Chile. In his version of history, Oña sought to
honor his patron, the Viceroy of Lima, García Hurtado de Mendoza
(1589–1596), who had been attributed no more than a secondary role
in Ercilla’s narrative.

ONETTI, JUAN CARLOS (Uruguay, 1909–1994). Novelist and


short story writer. Through the device of stories within stories, much
of Onetti’s fiction is about the nature of literature. It also reflects his
desire for a new way of writing, which he endeavored to exemplify
in his own work, in which he broke with a tradition of writing on
rural themes in favor of the city. His short novel El pozo (The Pit)
appeared in 1939, and his other major works of fiction before 1970,
but Onetti did not obtain broad critical recognition until he moved to
Madrid in 1975, after being imprisoned in Uruguay by the military
government. El pozo had already introduced many of the features of
his later fiction. His poetic view is Faulknerian and his characters are

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OQUENDO DE AMAT, CARLOS • 341

sombre, introspective figures, trapped in Kafkaesque predicaments


and afflicted by a Sartrean existentialism, representations, perhaps,
of his own reclusive existence. They are given to imagining alterna-
tive lives, so that Onetti’s stories often unfold on several levels at the
same time.
Alternative narratives figure in the life of Brausen in La vida breve
(1950; A Brief Life), in which the author introduced the fictional town
of Santa María, located on the River Plate, the setting for much of
his later fiction. Una tumba sin nombre (1959; A Grave With no
Name) tells conflicting versions of the life of Rita, a maid exploited
as a prostitute whose funeral takes place in Santa María. El astillero
(1961; The Shipyard) is the story of Larsen, who attempts to redeem
himself by throwing himself into the impossible task of restoring a
ruined shipyard. Juntacadáveres (1964; Body Snatcher) contains two
interconnected stories, both of which entail the pursuit of impossible
dreams: Larsen’s fantasy of a perfect brothel and Julita’s attempt to
establish a perfect relationship after the death of her husband. Al-
though published after El astillero, Juntacadáveres narrates events
that are chronologically earlier. In Dejemos hablar al viento (1979;
Let the Wind Speak), Onetti ended his Santa María saga by referring
to his own earlier work, as if rounding out his literary activity, and
by narrating the burning of the town. He published two more short
novels, however: Cuando entonces (1987; When Then) and Cuando
ya no importe (1993; When It No Longer Matters). Among his short
stories are the collections Un sueño realizado (1951; A Dream Come
True), El infierno tan temido (1962; The Hell So Fearful), and Jacob
y el otro y otros cuentos (1965; Jacob and the Other and Other Sto-
ries). Onetti was awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize for Litera-
ture in 1980. See also ARLT, ROBERTO; BENEDETTI, MARIO;
SAER, JUAN JOSÉ; VILARIÑO, IDEA.

OQUENDO DE AMAT, CARLOS (Peru, 1905–1936). Poet. He was


a political activist and member of the Communist Party, which he
joined in 1930, although little is known about his life. After leav-
ing Peru he eventually reached Europe and died of tuberculosis in a
hospital in Spain shortly after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.
His published literary output consists of one collection of poetry, 5
metros de poemas (1927; 5 Meters of Poems), a folding book that

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342 • OREAMUNO, YOLANDA

measures five meters when unfolded, in which he marries the avant-


garde to indigenous themes in the manner of Vicente Huidobro’s
creacionismo.

OREAMUNO, YOLANDA (Costa Rica, 1916–1956). Novelist and


short story writer. Like her compatriot Eunice Odio, with whom she
had a long and close friendship, she renounced her homeland and
lived much of the latter part of her life in Guatemala and Mexico.
She wrote a number of short stories, which were published in the
Costa Rican cultural periodical Repertorio americano and eventu-
ally collected in A lo largo del corto camino (1961; Along the Short
Road), together with much of the author’s other published work.
Although there were references to several novels, only one was
ever published, La ruta de su evasión (1950; Their Escape Route),
which explores the story of a family, both in the present and the past,
through its female members. It is an important work, one of the first
in the region to introduce narrative techniques already established by
the likes of Marcel Proust (1871–1922), Thomas Mann (1875–1955),
Virginia Woolf (1882–1941), and, above all, James Joyce (1882–
1941). See also WOMEN.

OROZCO, OLGA (Argentina, 1920–1999). Poet. Born Olga Noemí


Gugliotta, she grew up in La Pampa province and felt the influence
of its geography, which had a lasting effect on her writing. She
wrote two books of stories about childhood, La oscuridad es otro sol
(1967; Darkness Is Another Sun) and La luz también es un abismo
(1975; Light Is Also an Abyss), which are often taken to be autobio-
graphical and used as a source for interpreting her poetry. In total
she published nine books of verse: Desde lejos (1946; From Afar),
Las muertes (1952; Deaths), Los juegos peligrosos (1962; Dangerous
Games), Museo salvaje (1974; Savage Museum), Cantos a Berenice
(1977; Songs for Berenice), Mutaciones de la realidad (1979; Mu-
tations of Reality), La noche a la deriva (1984; Night Adrift), En el
revés del cielo (1987; On the Back of the Sky), and Con esta boca,
en este mundo (1994; With This Mouth, in This World). She was a
member of a group of poets known in Argentina as the Generation
of 1940, which included Enrique Molina and Alberto Girri among
others, a group of neo-romantics preoccupied with death, love, and

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ORTEGA, JULIO • 343

the anguish of human life. Among the influences on her work were
Pablo Neruda, Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926), the surrealist André
Breton (1896–1966), and the existentialist writers Jean-Paul Sartre
(1905–1980) and Albert Camus (1913–1960). See also PIZARNIK,
ALEJANDRA; WOMEN.

ORREGO LUCO, LUIS (Chile, 1866–1948). Novelist. Although


trained as a lawyer, he made his living from his journalism and
diplomatic appointments as a representative for Chile in Europe
and several Latin American countries. Like his compatriot, Alberto
Blest Gana, whose success he never equaled, however, Orrego Luco
was drawn to the realism of the French novelist Honoré de Balzac
(1799–1850). His principal novels were Un idilio nuevo (1900; A
New Idyll), concerned with middle-class incomes and conflicts very
much in the manner of Balzac; Memorias de un voluntario de la Pa-
tria Vieja (1905; Memoirs of a Volunteer for the Old Country), set in
the early 19th century; Casa grande (1908; The Big House), his most
celebrated work, which offers a portrait of aristocratic Santiago; Al
través de la tempestad (1914; Across the Storm), about a period of
civil conflict in 1891 Chile in which the author was himself caught
up; and Playa negra (1947; Black Beach), dealing with the times of
the author’s childhood.

ORTEGA, JULIO (Peru, 1942– ). Poet, dramatist, novelist, and


essayist. Although he has written a number of works of creative
literature and first obtained recognition as a poet, he is best known
for his critical work on Latin American literature. His books include
La contemplación y la fiesta (1968; Contemplation and Feast), Figu-
ración de la persona (1971; Figuration of the Person), Acto subver-
sivo (1984; Subversive Act), Ayacucho Goodbye (1994; Goodbye
Ayacucho), El combate de los ángeles: literatura, género, diferencia
(1999; The Fight of the Angels: Literature, Gender, Difference),
and Caja de herramientas: prácticas culturales para el nuevo siglo
chileno (2000; Box of Tools: Cultural Practices for the New Chilean
Century).
Ortega’s writing for the theater amounts to over a dozen plays that
gave him some prominence on the Peruvian stage in the 1960s and
1970s. A number of his pieces, including El intruso (The Intruder),

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344 • ORTIZ, ADALBERTO

Sociedad anónima (Limited Company), Como cruzar la calle (How


to Cross the Street), and Moros en la costa (Someone’s Listening),
were published together in 1965. Among his later plays are Varios
rostros de verano (1968; Several Faces of Summer), Mesa pelada
(1971; Bare Table), and Infierno peruano (1980; Peruvian Inferno).
Ortega has also edited works by many other writers and compiled
a number of literary anthologies. He has lived in the United States
since 1969.

ORTIZ, ADALBERTO (Ecuador, 1914–2003). Novelist, poet, and


short story writer. Much of his writing represents and explores the
world of the black minority in Ecuador in the northeast area of the
country, especially in Esmeraldas, where the author was born. As a
novelist, his most successful work was Juyungo (1943; Juyungo),
which tells the life story of its hero through a combination of history
and folklore and shows the influence of the American writers John
Dos Passos (1896–1970) and John Steinbeck (1902–1968). Other
narrative works include the novels El espejo y la ventana (1967; The
Mirror and the Window) and La envoltura del sueño (1974; Dream
Wrapping) and collections of short stories: Los contrabandistas
(1945; The Smugglers), La mala espalda (1971; Bad Back), and
La entundada (1971; The Bewitched Woman). Ortiz’s first book of
poetry, Tierra, son y tambor (1945; Land, Song and Drum), on the
music and traditions of the place where he was born, gave him an
early widespread reputation as a writer on black themes. A later col-
lection of his poetry, El animal herido (1961; The Wounded Animal),
has some of the characteristics of antipoetry. Ortiz published several
anthologies of Ecuadorian and Spanish American short stories, and
he was also a painter known for the naïf style he cultivated.

ORTIZ, JUAN L. (Argentina, 1896–1976). Poet. He worked in the


government records office and spent much of his life in Gualeguay
in the province of Entre Ríos. This retired life is echoed in his poetry,
which expresses his feelings of withdrawal and is a representation
of familiar riverine landscapes. His first four books—El agua y la
noche (1933; Water and Night), El alba sube (1937; Dawn Arises),
El ángel inclinado (1938; The Bowing Angel), and La rama hacia el
este (1940; The Eastward Branch)—serve to establish the terrain, its

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OTERO SILVA, MIGUEL • 345

people, and its atmosphere. In El aire conmovido (1949; The Emo-


tional Aire), Ortiz emphasized his poetic language. He continued to
explore the same riverside world in five additional books: La mano
infinita (1951; The Infinite Hand), El alma y las colinas (1956; The
Soul and the Hills), De las raíces del cielo (1958; From the Roots of
the Sky), La orilla que se abisma (1970; The Plunging Shore), and
El Gualeguay (1970; The Gualeguay). In En el aura del sauce (3
vols., 1970–1970; In the Aura of the Willow), Ortiz collected much
of his previous work, including some earlier limited editions and
unpublished poems.

ORTIZ DE MONTELLANO, BERNARDO (Mexico, 1899–1949).


Poet. A member of Los Contemporáneos, he was editor of the
group’s periodical. His own poetry includes the collections Avidez
(1921; Eagerness), El trompo de siete colores (1925; The Seven-
Colored Top), Red (1928; Net), Sueños (1933; Dreams), and Muerte
de cielo azul (1937; Blue Sky Death). Dream is the central motif of
his poetry, although he inclines to a more traditional approach than
that pursued by surrealism. Ortiz de Montellano also wrote plays,
short stories, and literary criticism. See also TORRES BODET,
JAIME.

OSPINA, WILLIAM (Colombia, 1954– ). Poet, novelist, and essay-


ist. When already established as a poet, he published his first novel,
Ursúa (2005; Ursúa), a historical novel about the Spanish conquis-
tador Pedro de Ursúa (1526–1561). However, he is better known for
his essays on Latin America and Colombia. Among these are Los
amores de sangre: Juan de Castellanos y el descubrimiento poético
de América (1998; Love from Blood: Juan de Castellanos and the
Poetic Discovery of America), América mestiza: el país del futuro
(2000; Mestizo América: The Country of the Future), La decadencia
de los dragones (2001; The Decline of the Dragons), and Érase una
vez Colombia (2006; Once Upon a Time There Was Colombia). His
most recent novel, El país de la canela (2008; The Country of Cin-
namon), is set in the time of the conquest and was the 2009 winner
of the Rómulo Gallegos Prize.

OTERO SILVA, MIGUEL (Venezuela, 1908–1980). Poet and nov-


elist. This author’s first novel, Fiebre (1939; Fever), was his most

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346 • OTHÓN, MANUEL JOSÉ

autobiographical and also his most conventional in terms of narrative


structure. It deals with the struggle in Venezuela against the military
ruler Juan Vicente Gómez (1908–1935), which forced Otera Silva
into exile. His later novels were more experimental, especially with
respect to his handling of chronology. Casas muertas (1955; Dead
Houses) and Oficina no. 1 (1961; Office Number 1) are thematically
linked through their treatment of the decline of the agriculture-based
economy in Venezuela and the rise of the petroleum industry. La
muerte de Honorio (1963; Honorio’s Death) is a narrative of politi-
cal militancy told through five interconnected stories. Cuando quiero
llorar no lloro (1970; When I Want to Weep I Don’t), set in the
1960s, has the complicated structure of the lives of three young men,
each called Victorino, told in alternating chapters, which culminate
in the deaths of all three.
Lope de Aguirre, príncipe de la libertad (1979; Lope de Aguirre,
Prince of Freedom) is a historical novel based on the rebellion of
Lope de Aguirre (ca. 1510–1561), told through a complex narrative
structure in a way that foreshadows independence in the Americas.
The same historical materials were used by Abel Posse and Arturo
Uslar Pietri and were the subject of the film Aguirre: The Wrath
of God (1972), directed by Werner Herzog (1942– ). Otero Silva’s
last novel was a fictionalized life of Christ, La piedra que era Cristo
(1984; The Rock That Was Christ). His collections of poetry include
Agua y cauce (1937; Water and Channel), 25 poemas (1942; 25
Poems), Elegía coral a Andrés Eloy Blanco (1958; Choral Elegy for
Andrés Eloy Blanco), La mar que es el morir (1965; The Sea That
Is Death), Umbral (1966; Threshold), and Un morrocoy en el cielo
(1972; A Tortoise in the Sky). He was also an essayist and wrote
some humorous plays for the theater.

OTHÓN, MANUEL JOSÉ (Mexico, 1858–1906). Poet and dramatist.


He was a poet in the traditional manner whose verse tended toward
the style of romanticism. He later disowned his early collection
Poemas (1880; Poems), and only one other collection, Poemas rústi-
cos (1902; Rustic Poems), appeared during his lifetime. This was
mainly descriptive compositions, but included verses on which his
reputation as a poet is principally founded: “Himno de los bosques”
(1891; “Hymn to the Woods”), on the countryside at dawn, and a
set of elegiac sonnets, “Noche rústica de Walpurgis” (1897; “Rustic

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PACHECO, JOSÉ EMILIO • 347

Walpurgis Night”). Although written in a relatively austere style,


they are not without some touches of modernismo, notwithstanding
the author’s energetic repudiation of it. He also wrote several short
plays and monologues for the theater.

OTT, GUSTAVO (Venezuela, 1963– ). Dramatist. His plays are quite


eclectic in both style and content and have been widely performed
and translated. Notable among them are Los peces crecen con la luna
(1983; Fish Grow with the Moon), El siglo de las luces (1986; The
Enlightenment), Passport (1988; Passport), Divorciadas, evangéli-
cas y vegetarianas (1989; Divorcées, Evangelists and Vegetarians),
80 dientes, 4 metros, 200 kilos (1996; 80 Teeth, 4 Meters, 200 Kilos),
Dos amores y un bicho (2001; Two Loves and a Bug), Tu ternura
Molotov (2004; Your Molotov Kisses), and 120 vidas x minuto (2007;
120 Lives a Minute). See also THEATER.

OVIEDO Y BAÑOS, JOSÉ AGUSTÍN (Venezuela, 1671–1738).


Historian. He is considered the founder of Venezuelan historiography
for his chronicle Historia de la conquista y población de la provin-
cia de Venezuela (1723; History of the Conquest and Settlement of
Venezuela).

OWEN, GILBERTO (Mexico, 1905–1952). Poet and novelist. He


was a member of the group Los Contemporáneos. While part of
that group he wrote a lyrical novel, La llama fría (1925; The Cold
Flame), and an experimental novel, Novela como nube (1928; Novel
Like a Cloud). His production as a poet includes a collection of prose
poems, Línea (1930; Line), published in Buenos Aires; El libro de
Ruth (1944; The Book of Ruth); and what is considered his best
work, Perseo vencido (1952; Perseus Conquered), published in Lima.
Like others in his group, he was profoundly influenced by English
poets, notably T. S. Eliot (1888–1965).

– P –

PACHECO, JOSÉ EMILIO (Mexico, 1939– ). Poet, novelist, and


short story writer. A prolific and versatile writer, Pacheco is one of
Mexico’s notable contemporary public intellectuals, whose work has

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348 • PACHECO, JOSÉ EMILIO

been recognized by many awards. He has written in several literary


genres, worked as a literary journalist and translator, and collabo-
rated on projects with visual artists. Influenced initially by Octavio
Paz, he is the most important poet of his generation. His early col-
lections include Los elementos de la noche (1963; The Elements of
the Night), El reposo del fuego (1966; Fire at Rest), and No me pre-
guntes cómo pasa el tiempo: poemas 1964–1968 (1969; Don’t Ask
Me How Time Goes By: Poems 1964–1968). These already showed
his predilection for everyday language and the use of set phrases and
quotations, practices that also reflect his awareness of 20th-century
Mexican history and a cultural knowledge that stretches far beyond
his own country. Subsequent collections of verse include Islas a la
deriva (1976; Islands Adrift); Ayer es nunca jamás (1978; Yester-
day Is Never Again); Desde entonces: poemas 1975–1978 (1980;
Since Then: Poems 1975–1978); Tarde o temprano (1980; Sooner
or Later), which includes translations of poems by other authors; Los
trabajos del mar (1983; Toils of the Sea); Fin de siglo y otros poemas
(1984; End of the Century and Other Poems) and Album de zoología
(1985; An Ark for the Next Millenium), both concerned with human–
animal relations; Alta traición (1985; High Treason); Miro la tierra:
poemas 1985–1986 (1986; I Look at the Land: Poems 1985–1986);
Ciudad de la memoria: poemas 1986–1989 (1989; City of Memory:
Poems 1986–1989); and Silencio de la luna: poemas 1985–1993
(1994; Silence of the Moon).
Pacheco is also well known as an anthologist and critic of Mexican
and Latin American literature and, as a writer of prose fiction, is the
author of several collections of short narratives, some of which show
the influence of Jorge Luis Borges. The title story in Las batallas
en el desierto (1981; Battles in the Desert and Other Stories) is a no-
vella, a coming-of-age narrative set during the social and economic
changes experienced by Mexico City in the 1940s. Other collections
of short stories include El viento distante y otros relatos (1963;
Distant Wind and Other Stories), El principio del placer (1972; The
Beginning of Pleasure), and La sangre de Medusa y otros cuentos
(1988; Medusa’s Blood and Other Stories). Pacheco is also the
author of a significant novel, Morirás lejos (1967; You Will Die Far
Away), written in the style of the French author Alain Robbe-Grillet
(1922–2008) and the new novel. Dwelling on the theme of Nazism,

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PALMA, CLEMENTE • 349

the novel presents a series of recurring scenes understood to be the


immediate before and after of a particular event. See also NOVO,
SALVADOR.

PAIXÃO, FERNANDO (Brazil, 1955– ). Poet. Born in Portugal,


Paixão moved to Brazil at an early age. His collection Fogo dos Rios
(1989; Fire of the Rivers) is a lyrical meditation on the Fragments of
Heraclitus (ca. 535–ca. 475 BCE). His volumes 25 Azulejos (1994;
25 Tiles) and Poeira (2001; Dust) display a concise, image-based
poetics.

PALACIO, PABLO (Ecuador, 1906–1947). Short story writer and


novelist. Although the predominant trends in fiction during his time
emphasized indigenismo and social realism, Palacio followed his
own inclinations and wrote fiction that has received more attention
recently than during his lifetime. He was afflicted with syphilis and
suffered the gradual loss of reason in the last years of his life, which
ended with his confinement and suicide. His literary work was not
extensive and belongs to his early life. A play, Comedia inmortal
(1926; Immortal Comedy), appeared first, then a collection of short
stories, Un hombre muerto a puntapiés (1927; A Man Kicked to
Death), and a short novel Débora (1927; Deborah). Several years
later, Vida del ahorcado (1932; Life of the Hanged Man), also a
short novel, appeared. Palacio’s short stories are based on a series of
unusual characters, just as his two novels are based on usual situa-
tions. Débora tells of a man who waits for something to happen in
order to begin his story, but nothing ever happens. Vida del ahorcado
is the story of a crime committed by a man who has hanged himself
in his cell and narrates events from within his consciousness.

PALMA, CLEMENTE (Peru, 1872–1946). Novelist and short story


writer. He was the son of Ricardo Palma, but wrote in a style quite
different from that of his more famous father. His collections of short
stories Cuentos malévolos (1904; Malevolent Tales) and Historietas
malignas (1924; Evil Tales) were written in the style of the French
author Villiers de l’Isle-Adam (1838–1889), with pathologically
affected characters, dark humor, and eccentric content. His short
novels Mors ex vita (1923; Death from Life) and XYZ (1935) are

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350 • PALMA, RICARDO

along the same lines. Palma was also a journalist and collected some
of his newspaper writings in Crónicas político-doméstico-taurinas
de Juan Apapucio Corrales (Politico-Domestic Bull-Fighting Chro-
nicles by Juan Apapucio Corrales). “Corrales” was his pseudonym.

PALMA, RICARDO (Peru, 1833–1919). Chronicler. Although he


tried his hand at poetry and drama, Ricardo Palma is known mainly
for his Tradiciones peruanas (Peruvian Traditions). His “tradi-
tions,” a genre he invented, are chronicles or historical variants of
the sketches of contemporary customs and manners associated with
costumbrismo. They are short historical anecdotes, set mainly in
colonial Peru, covering the full social spectrum, from low to upper
class, are frequently humorous, with digressive commentaries, and
are often derived from oral sources. Palma published his first series
of traditions in 1872, and subsequent series continued to appear until
1911. See also BATRES MONTÚFAR, JOSÉ; GORRITI, JUANA
MANUELA; MATTO DE TURNER, CLORINDA; PALMA, CLE-
MENTE; SEGURA, MANUEL ASCENSIO; TABOADA TERÁN,
NÉSTOR; VALLE ARIZPE, ARTEMIO DE.

PALOMARES, RAMÓN (Venezuela, 1935– ). Poet. Along with


others of his generation, he was initially drawn to surrealism. His
work is distinguished, however, by the presence of nature and his
homeland, his narrative inventiveness, his use of archaic language,
and references to myth and legend. He first came into the public eye
with El reino (1958; The Kingdom) and has published a number of
collections since then, including Al ahogado (1964; To the Drowned
Man), Paisano (1964; Countryman), Honras fúnebres (1965; Fu-
neral Rites), Santiago de León de Caracas (1967; Santiago de León
of Caracas), El vientecito suave del amanecer con los primeros aro-
mas (1969; The Gentle Breeze of Dawn with the First Scents), Adiós
Escuque (1974; Farewell Escuque), Elegía 1830 (1980; Elegy 1830),
Mérida, elogio de sus ríos (1984; Merida, in Praise of Its Rivers),
Alegres provincias (1988; Happy Provinces), and Lobos y halcones
(1997; Wolves and Falcons).

PANAMA. Known more for its canal than its literature, few of the
country’s writers have transcended its borders. The first notable

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PARAGUAY • 351

figures were two poets of modernismo, Darío Herrera and Ricardo


Miró. The recurring themes of nationalism, coinciding in the latter
with the independence newly won from Colombia in 1903, have
made him one of Panama’s national poets. Panama’s most recog-
nized writer, however, is Rogelio Sinán, who also introduced the
avant-garde to the country and had a considerable impact both on
poetry and prose. He was followed by a number of avant-garde and
post-avant-garde poets. Among short story writers, Enrique Jara-
millo Levi is a representative figure, but the novel has grown slowly.
Themes such as independence, the building of the canal, the treaty
with the United States, Panamanian society and politics, and the U.S.
invasion of 1989 have provided many subjects, and the number of
novelists has increased. Among a group of contemporary authors in
the genre, Rosa María Britton is one of the most productive and
widely known.
Theater in Panama before the 1930s was mainly for the upper
classes and represented by touring companies, among which was
one that brought Sarah Bernhardt (1844–1923) to perform for exec-
utives of the Panama Canal Company. The homegrown theater has
been less successful and has yet to produce any major dramatists.
A list of writers who have contributed to the Panamanian stage,
however, would include Rogelio Sinán, José de Jesús Martínez,
and Rosa María Britton. See also CASA DE LAS AMÉRICAS;
MAGIC REALISM.

PARAGUAY. Although Spanish remains the language of power and


authority, a full account of Paraguayan literature would also entail
an account of literary expression in Guaraní, the language of the ma-
jority of the population. Moreover, any history of the development
of a literary culture in either language in Paraguay must necessarily
acknowledge the numerous obstacles it has had to face. Asunción
had some strategic and commercial significance in colonial times,
but was culturally subordinated to Lima and Buenos Aires. Since in-
dependence, the country has been embroiled in two major wars with
its neighbors, the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870) against
Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, which decimated the Paraguayan
population, and the Chaco War (1932–1935) against Bolivia. It has
also endured long periods of authoritarian rule, notably under José

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352 • PARAGUAY

Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (1814–1840) and Alfredo Stroessner


(1954–1989), which entailed tight censorship and hampered the
growth of a literary culture.
Paraguayan literature begins with the Asunción-born Ruy Díaz
de Guzmán’s chronicle of 16th-century Spanish settlements in the
River Plate region. History is also one of the main topics of prose
writing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as writers retold
the myths of national formation, influenced by the late arrival of
romanticism. It was only after the Chaco War that fiction began to
develop and to offer a more realistic interpretation of reality. The
1950s saw the emergence of a group of writers that included Augusto
Roa Bastos, Paraguay’s most recognized author, Gabriel Casaccia,
and Rubén Bareira Saguier. Although they opened the door through
which others have since passed, none has yet to achieve a similar
recognition, especially that obtained by Roa Bastos. Like its fiction,
much of Paraguay’s poetry has been written in exile, as writers took
refuge from dictatorial regimes at home. The major poets are Jose-
fina Pla, Hérib Campos Cervera, Elvio Romero, and Hugo Rodrí-
guez Alcalá, and the last of these, along with Josefina Pla, is one of
the country’s most significant cultural historians. Since the end of the
Stroessner dictatorship, a number of other poets have also made their
mark, Delfina Acosta among them, one of several prominent women
writers in both poetry and prose.
The theater is the weakest of the literary genres in Paraguay. Its
development has been affected by political conditions and prolonged
periods of censorship, as well as the country’s predominantly agrar-
ian status, without the urban population, economy, and infrastructure
needed to support it. Although theater was present in the ritual per-
formances practiced in pre-Columbian times and was used in colonial
times as part of the process of Christianization, with the traditional
autos and loas often translated into Guaraní, few writers emerged to
develop a local tradition until the second half of the 20th century.
The founding of the Ateneo Paraguayo and the Escuela de Arte Es-
cénica de Asunción in 1948 became a source of continuing support,
and several writers have had a significant impact. Of these, the most
important are Julio Correa, Josefina Pla, and Mario Halley Mora.
Some further strides have been made during the last 25 years, with
several active theaters in Asunción and participation by national

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PAREJA DIEZCANSECO, ALFREDO • 353

companies in international festivals, but the contemporary theater


scene has yet to produce the dramatists needed to engage the public
or obtain an international profile. See also ACUÑA DE FIGUEROA,
FRANCISCO; CASA DE LAS AMÉRICAS; DICTATOR NOVEL;
INDIGENISMO; MAGIC REALISM; MARÍN CAÑAS, JOSÉ;
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES PRIZE; NEO-BAROQUE; NEW HIS-
TORICAL NOVEL; TABOADA TERÁN, NÉSTOR; TAUNAY,
ALFREDO D’ESCRAGNOLLE, VISCONDE DE.

PARDO Y ALIAGA, FELIPE (Peru, 1806–1868). Poet, journalist,


and dramatist. Although born in Lima, he was educated in Spain
and returned to Peru after the country had won its independence.
A member of the conservative faction of the ruling class, he wrote
satirical verse and essays on Peruvian life and customs for newspa-
per publication. His place in Peruvian literature is secured mainly,
however, by several plays, including El espejo de mi tierra (1840;
Mirror of My Land), which made him one of the country’s first
postindependence dramatists. His earliest work for the stage was
Frutos de la educación (1829; Benefits of Education), a comedy of
manners that uses the convention of generational conflicts over ma-
rriage as a device for commenting on social attitudes and presenting
scenes of costumbrismo. Two other plays, La huérfana de Cho-
rrillos (1833; The Orphan from Chorrillos) and Don Leocadio y el
aniversario de Ayacucho (1834; Don Leocadio and the Anniversary
of Ayacucho), are also moralizing comedies of manners. See also
THEATER.

PAREJA DIEZCANSECO, ALFREDO (Ecuador, 1908–1993).


Novelist. He was one of the most productive members of the Grupo
de Guayaquil. El muelle (1933; The Pier), perhaps his best work,
was the novel that first drew attention to him. It was followed by La
Beldaca (1935; Beldaca), Baldomera (1938; Baldomera), Hechos y
hazañas de don Balón de Baba y su amigo don Inocente Cruz (1939;
Life and Deeds of Don Balón de Baba and His Friend Don Inocente
Cruz), Hombres sin tiempo (1941; Men Without Time), and Las tres
ratas (1944; Three Rats). In 1956, under the title Los nuevos años
(The New Years), he began to write a series of novels intended to tell
the story of Ecuador in the 20th century, although, within the histori-
cal framework, the novels became progressively more psychological

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354 • PARNASSIANISM

and existential. They include La advertencia (1956; The Warning),


El aire y los recuerdos (1959; Air and Recollections), Los poderes
omnímodos (1964; Absolute Powers), Las pequeñas estaturas (1970;
Small Statures), and La mantícora (1975; The Manticore). In addi-
tion to his fiction, Pareja Diezcanseco wrote biographies, a study of
the German novelist Thomas Mann (1875–1955), and books on the
history of Ecuador.

PARNASSIANISM. This was the name of a movement in French


poetry of the 1860s and 1870s that took its name from Mount Par-
nassus, the home of the muses in Greek mythology. It was formed in
response to the sentimental excesses of romanticism and gave parti-
cular importance to the notion of “art for art’s sake.” Charles Leconte
de Lisle (1818–1894), Stephane Mallarmé (1842–1898), and Paul
Verlaine (1844–1896) were among the major figures in French par-
nassianism. In Spanish America it had a significant influence on the
work of Rubén Darío and the emergence of modernismo. In Brazil,
both “scientific poetry” and realist poetry, which were also reactions
to romantic excess, had been practiced since 1870. Beginning in
1886, they were called “parnassianism” for their similarity to the
French movement of the same name. The emphasis was on the per-
fection of poetic form, particularly the sonnet, and the avoidance of
sentimentalism, although not sentiment. The main exponents of par-
nassianism were Alberto de Oliveira, Raimundo Correia, Vicente
de Carvalho (1866–1924), and Olavo Bilac. See also ALMEIDA,
GUILHERME DE; ANJOS, AUGUSTO DOS; CARVALHO,
RONALD DE; JAIMES FREYRE, RICARDO; LIMA, JORGE DE;
MACHADO, GILKA; MEIRELES, CECÍLIA; NERVO, AMADO;
PICCHIA, PAULO MENOTTI DEL; POMPÉIA, RAUL D’ÁVILA;
REALISM; REBOLLEDO, EFRÉN; RICARDO LEITE, CAS-
SIANO; SOUSA, JOÃO CRUZ E; SYMBOLISM; VALENCIA,
GUILLERMO.

PARRA, MARCO ANTONIO DE LA (Chile, 1952– ). Dramatist. In


addition to his literary work, he is a practicing psychiatrist. His the-
ater is characterized by its uninhibited language and use of popular
culture, treatment of taboo themes, and demystification of national
myths, especially the corrupting influence of power. His early plays

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PARRA, NICANOR • 355

include Quiebrespejos (1974; Cracked Mirrors) and Brisca (1974;


Whist). In Lo crudo, lo cocido, lo podrido (1978; The Raw, the
Cooked, and the Rotten), he takes on Chilean national institutions.
Matatangos (1978; Tango Killer) is concerned with the life of the
celebrated singer Carlos Gardel (1887/1890–1935), and in La secreta
obscenidad de cada día (1984; The Secret Obscenity of Every Day)
he presents Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
in a verbal conflict drawn from their own theories and related to the
state of Chile under Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990). This play and
others, such as King Kong Palace (1990; King Kong Palace), have
made the author a significant commentator on the Pinochet dictator-
ship and the postdictatorship period in Chile. Other titles include El
deseo de toda ciudadana (1987; Every Woman’s Desire), La noche
de los volantines (1989; Night of the Kites), Límites (1991; Limits),
and El padre muerto (1991; The Dead Father). Marco Antonio de la
Parra has also written novels, among which are La secreta guerra
santa de Santiago de Chile (1985; The Secret Holy War of Santiago
de Chile) and El año de la ballena (2001; The Year of the Whale).
See also DORFMAN, ARIEL.

PARRA, NICANOR (1914– ). Poet. The brother of the folk singer-


songwriter Violeta Parra, he is a physicist by profession and one
of Chile’s most significant 20th-century poets. His first book of
poetry, Cancionero sin nombre (1937; Songbook Without a Name),
was a collection of mainly conventional verse, which the author has
since disowned. His second volume, published 17 years later, was
quite different. Poemas y antipoemas (1954; Poems and Antipoems),
written under the rubric of antipoetry, was an iconoclastic work
that marked a new turn in Chilean poetry, away from the more com-
plex verse of Gabriela Mistral, Vicente Huidobro, and the Pablo
Neruda of the Residencias toward a simpler style represented by a
more colloquial language. It also represented a search for a poetic
voice that was not bound by tradition but embodied the author’s own
irreverent view of the world and black sense of humor. The same atti-
tude has been sustained in much of Parra’s later work, which includes
La cueca larga (1958; The Long Cueca); Versos de salón (1962;
Salon Verses); Discursos (1962; Discourses), written in collabora-
tion with Pablo Neruda; Manifiesto (1963; Manifesto); Canciones

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356 • PARRA, TERESA DE LA

rusas (1967; Russian Songs); Los profesores (1971; The Teachers);


Artefactos (1972; Artefacts), reflecting his skepticism of the Popular
Unity government in Chile (1970–1970); Sermones y prédicas del
Cristo de Elqui (1977; Sermons and Homilies of the Christ of Elqui);
and Chistes para desorientar a la policía (1983; Jokes for Mis-
leading the Police), a critique of the government of Augusto Pinochet
(1973–1990). See also DÍAZ, JORGE; RULFO, JUAN.

PARRA, TERESA DE LA (Venezuela, 1890–1936). Novelist. Al-


though much of her life was spent outside Venezuela, she is con-
sidered the country’s first major female writer. Some of her earliest
literary endeavors were short stories in the vein of fantastic litera-
ture, published in journals. She is known mainly, however, for two
novels, both of which reflect on conflicts arising from the encounter
between modernization and tradition and on questions of gender and
female identity. Ifigenia: diario de una señorita que escribía porque
se fastidiaba (1924; Ifigenia: The Diary of a Young Lady Who Wrote
Because She Was Bored) is the story of a young woman with pro-
gressive ideas who returns to Caracas after a European upbringing
and engages in a futile struggle against the assimilation of women
into the conventional world prescribed by a patriarchal society. Las
memorias de Mamá Blanca (1929; Mama Blanca’s Souvenirs), her
second novel, is set initially in rural Venezuela and is subsequently
relocated in the city. It deals with the education of a young girl,
particularly the heritage received from her mother. See also DÍAZ
SÁNCHEZ, RAMÓN.

PARRA, VIOLETA (Chile, 1917–1967). Poet and songwriter. She


came from a talented, artistic family and was the sister of Nicanor
Parra. As a singer-songwriter, folklorist, collector of traditional
songs, and prominent figure in the New Song movement of the
1950s and 1960s, she was an icon of popular culture. More recently,
however, she has also been recognized for her writing, not just song
lyrics, but also her verse autobiography. At the same time that this
is a narrative of 40 years of history, Las décimas: autobiografía en
versos chilenos (1970; Décimas: Autobiography in Chilean Verses)
is also the story of her own journey through Chilean society. An an-

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PASOS, JOAQUÍN • 357

thology of her writings and interviews is presented in Toda Violeta


Parra (1974; All Violeta Parra), and her biography has been written
by Patricio Manns. See also WOMEN.

PASO, FERNANDO DEL (Mexico, 1935– ). Novelist. The three


novels for which Fernando del Paso is principally known are gar-
gantuan works, ranging in length from 500 to over 1,200 pages
each. Although each has a story of sorts, they do not have a linear
structure, but rather a series of apparently disconnected narratives in
a seemingly arbitrary content characterized by all kinds of linguistic
games. They are also historical novels, in that they explore facets of
Mexican history. José Trigo (1966; José Trigo) is concerned with the
railway workers’ movement that figured prominently in 1958–1959.
Palinuro de México (1977; Palinurus of Mexico), recipient of the
1982 Rómulo Gallegos Prize, covers a wide swath of history, from
pre-Columbian times to the Tlatelolco massacre in 1968, in which
the protagonist dies. Noticias del Imperio (1987; News from the Em-
pire) is based on the reign of Maximilian and Carlota (1864–1867)
and, as a work that reconstructs history through multiple points of
view, has some of the characteristics of the new historical novel.
Fernando del Paso has also published a volume of poetry, Sonetos
del amor y de lo diario (1958; Sonnets of Love and the Everyday),
and the novel Linda 67: historia de un crimen (1995; Linda 67: The
Story of a Crime).

PASOS, JOAQUÍN (Nicaragua, 1914–1947). Poet. He was an im-


portant figure in the avant-garde movement in Nicaragua, although
some of his most significant work did not appear until after his death.
His poetry is humorous, playful, and imaginative. He wrote about the
indigenous people of Nicaragua and also about foreign countries and
travel, without ever having left his homeland. The devastation of two
world wars is also reflected in his verse, and one of his best-known
pieces, “Canto de la guerra de las cosas” (1943; “Song of the War on
Things”), is often compared to The Waste Land (1922) by T. S. Eliot
(1888–1965). His writing for the theater includes his collaboration
with José Coronel Urtecho on La chinfonía burguesa (1939; The
Bourgeois Chinphony).

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358 • PAVLOVSKY, EDUARDO

PAVLOVSKY, EDUARDO (Argentina, 1933– ). Dramatist. Trained


as a doctor and psychiatrist, he began writing for the theater in the
1960s. He was one of the first in Latin America to write psychodra-
mas and became a significant contributor to the avant-garde theater
in Argentina of the 1960s and 1970s. He has published extensively
on psychodramas, psychoanalysis and the theater, and psychotherapy
for children. His work for the stage includes La espera trágica (1962;
The Tragic Wait), Somos (1962; We Are), Camellos sin anteojos
(1963; Camels Without Glasses), El robot (1966; The Robot), La
cacería (1969; The Hunt), La mueca (1970; The Grimace), Último
match (1971; Last Match), El señor Galíndez (1973; Mr. Galindez),
Telarañas (1976; Spider Webs), El señor Laforgue (1983; Mr.
Laforgue), Potestad (1985; Authority), Pablo (1987; Paul), Voces
(1990; Voices), and La muerte de Marguerite Durás (2000; The
Death of Marguerite Duras).

PAYNO, MANUEL (Mexico, 1810–1894). Novelist. After José


Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, he was the first major Mexican
novelist of the 19th century. His fiction shows some of the charac-
teristics of romanticism, costumbrismo, and the historical novel
and was published in serial form in literary magazines, a trend he
initiated in Mexico. His three principal works are El fistol del diablo
(1845–1846; The Devil’s Tiepin), a fantastic adventure story; El
hombre de la situación (1861; The Man of the Moment), a historical
tale set in colonial times; and Los bandidos del Río Frío (1889–1891;
The Bandits from Rio Frio), a long, rambling work set in the first half
of the 19th century. Payno also published a collection of short stories,
Tardes nubladas (1871; Overcast Afternoons).

PAYRÓ, ROBERTO JORGE (Argentina, 1867–1928). Novelist,


short story writer, dramatist, and journalist. Payró’s writing em-
braces a wide range of subjects and genres. He produced accounts
of his travels and historical novels (part of a project to tell national
history through fiction) and was an influential writer for the theater
in his day who contributed to the popularity of the sainete through
his comic writing. He is most remembered, however, for three works
in a picaresque vein. El casamiento de Laucho (1906; Laucha’s
Marriage) is the story of a character whose unscrupulous marriage

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PAZ, OCTAVIO • 359

and journey through society is used to convey the ills of turn-of-the-


century Argentina. Pago Chico (1908; Pago Chico) is a collection of
stories about rogues in a rural setting that reveals the corruption and
pecadilloes of the inhabitants of a small town. Finally, in Divertidas
aventuras del nieto de Juan Moreira (1910; The Amusing Adven-
tures of Juan Moreira’s Grandson), the picaresque is linked to gau-
cho literature to argue the need for a progressive Argentina to move
on from its past. See also ANDERSON IMBERT, ENRIQUE.

PAZ, OCTAVIO (Mexico, 1914–1998). Poet and essayist. A pro-


lific writer and one of Mexico’s most influential 20th-century
voices, whose contributions to literature were recognized by the
Miguel de Cervantes Prize in 1981 and the Nobel Prize for
Literature in 1990. Octavio Paz was associated with numerous
literary journals throughout his life, including Taller (founded
1938), Plural (1971–1976), and Vuelta (founded 1976), some of
them important vehicles of expression for his generation and later.
Paz’s collections of essays have ranged widely. In Laberinto de
la soledad (1950; The Labyrinth of Solitude), he addressed the
question of Mexicanness, to which he returned in Posdata (1970;
The Other Mexico: Critique of the Pyramid). Although some of
his ideas are now somewhat outdated, Laberinto has been highly
influential and is a classic text.
He first developed his approach to poetry and poetics in El arco y
la lira: el poema, la revelación poética, poesía e historia (1956; The
Bow and the Lyre: The Poem, Poetic Revelation, Poetry and History)
and took up these themes again in later publications, notably Las
peras del olmo (1958; Pears from the Elm Tree), Cuadrivio (1965;
Quadrivium), Los signos en rotación (1965; Signs in Rotation), Cor-
riente alterna (1967; Alternating Current), and Los hijos del limo: del
romanticismo a la vanguardia (1974; Children of the Mire: Modern
Poetry from Romanticism to the Avant-Garde). Paz has also written
on anthropology in Claude Lévi-Strauss o el nuevo festín de Esopo
(1967; Claude Lévi-Strauss: An Introduction) and on art in Marcel
Duchamp o el castillo de la pureza (1968; Marcel Duchamp or the
Castle of Purity). Among his later major publications was Sor Juana
Inés de la Cruz o las trampos de la fe (1982; Sor Juana Inés de la
Cruz or the Traps of Faith).

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360 • PAZ, OCTAVIO

Octavio Paz’s first two books of poetry, Luna silvestre (1933;


Wild Moon) and Raíz del hombre (1937; The Root of Man), al-
ready showed his intellectual rigor and lyrical abilities. His writing
matured during the 1940s in the context of travel and periods of
residence away from home: in the Yucatán (1937), at the Second
International Congress of Antifascist Writers in Spain (1937), in the
United States (1943–1945), and in Paris after he joined the Mexican
diplomatic service in 1945. His first major collection of poetry,
Libertad bajo palabra (Freedom on Parole), was published in 1949
and would appear again later in several revised editions (1960,
1968, 1975, 1988). This collection shows the influence of English
and French poetry and also Paz’s emerging interest in history and
Mexicanness, which found its first significant expression in 1950
in El laberinto de la soledad. Such themes are explored poetically
with more intensity in the prose poems of ¿Aguila o sol? (1951;
Eagle or Sun) and, above all, in Piedra de sol (1957; Sun Stone), a
meditation on time and history framed in relation to the celebrated
Aztec stone calendar now on display in the National Museum of
Anthropology in Mexico City.
Shortly after the publication of Piedra de sol, Paz was named
Mexican ambassador to India, where he remained until he resigned
in 1968 to protest the Tlatelolco massacre. His encounters with
Asia are represented in the collection Ladera este (1969; East Slope),
which shows his absorption with the East and his fascination with
otherness and the differences between Eastern and Western cultures.
At about the same time, he published Blanco (1967; Blanco) and
Discos visuales (1968; Visual Disks), both explorations of systems
of rotating signs in life, nature, and culture obtained in part by the
form of publication. Blanco was printed on a single scroll that could
be folded and unfolded to create a single or several poems. Discos
visuales consisted of four poems printed on four paper disks, with
artwork by Vicente Rojo (1932– ). These publications were trends
Paz continued in his later verse, often working with other authors,
such as in Renga (1972; Renga: A Chain of Poems) and Hijos del
aire/Airborn (1979), a Spanish/English collaboration with the British
poet Charles Tomlinson. See also GARRO, ELENA; JUARROZ,
ROBERTO; MUTIS, ÁLVARO; PACHECO, JOSÉ EMILIO.

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PEIXOTO, INÁCIO JOSÉ DE ALVARENGA • 361

PEIXOTO, AFRÂNIO (Brazil, 1876–1947). Novelist and short story


writer. Trained in medicine, Peixoto had a career in politics and edu-
cation. In Leipzig, he published Rosa Mística (1900; Mystical Rose),
a poetic drama in the style of symbolism. In the years that followed,
he traveled to Europe and concentrated on medicine, returning to
literature after a trip to Egypt, when he wrote his first novel Esfinge
(1911; Sphynx), which met with great success. Maria Bonita (1914;
Mary the Lovely) was followed by his best-known novel, Fruta de
Mato (1920; Fruit of the Forest), set in the backlands and based on
folkloric motifs. Less successful were novels such as Uma Mulher
Como as Outras (1928; A Woman Like the Others), set in an urban
environment. Peixoto, who knew and studied the work of Sigmund
Freud (1856–1939), wrote psychological novels that explored mostly
female characters. Embracing the values of the land and regionalism,
he strongly opposed the budding Brazilian modernism, and for that
reason he was ignored by the critics. Other novels and collections of
short stories include Sinhazinha (1929; Little Mistress), Parábolas
(1920; Parabolas), and Amor Sagrado e Amor Profano (1942; Sacred
Love and Profane Love). Peixoto was also a philologist and literary
critic, publishing essays on Luís de Camões (ca. 1524–1580) and his-
tories of literature such as Panorama da Literatura Brasileira (1940;
Panorama of Brazilian Literature). See also MATTOS E GUERRA,
GREGÓRIO DE.

PEIXOTO, INÁCIO JOSÉ DE ALVARENGA (Brazil, 1744?–


1793). Poet. After initial studies in Brazil, Alvarenga Peixoto trav-
eled to Portugal and obtained a degree in law from the University of
Coimbra, where he met and befriended the poet Basílio da Gama.
Back in Brazil, he married the poet Barbara Heliodora (1758–1819)
and held a number of public posts, including judge and senator. After
retiring from public office, Alvarenga Peixoto went into agriculture
and mining. His poetry based on love themes is considered one of
the best examples of arcadianism, as seen in his Obras Poéticas
(1865; Poetic Works). Along with other landowners, some of whom
were poets, such as Cláudio Manoel da Costa and Tomás Antônio
Gonzaga, he participated in the 1789 political insurrection against
the Portuguese crown known as the Inconfidência Mineira (Minas

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362 • PELLEGRINI, ALDO

Conspiracy) and was arrested, tried, and condemned to hard labor in


a prison in Angola, where he died.

PELLEGRINI, ALDO (Argentina, 1903–1973). Poet. In 1926, he


was one of the first to introduce surrealism to Argentina, just two
years after the first Surrealist Manifesto appeared in Paris. His
poetry included El muro secreto (1949; The Secret Wall), La valija
de fuego (1952; Suitcase of Fire), Construcción de la desconstruc-
ción (1957; Construction from Deconstruction), and Distribución del
silencio (1966; Distribution of Silence). Pellegrini was also an art
critic and wrote for the theater. His Antología de la poesía surrea-
lista (1961; Anthology of Surrealist Poetry) was a significant text for
the dissemination of avant-garde poetry in Latin America. See also
MADARIAGA, FRANCISCO; MOLINA, ENRIQUE.

PELLICER, CARLOS (Mexico, 1899–1977). Poet. Although linked


to Los Contemporáneos, his association with the group was
minimal, and he had much wider connections. He was primarily a
visual poet, who was drawn to art and wrote a number of poems to
painters. He was head of the government’s Department of Fine Arts
and Museums for a term. The landscape figures significantly in his
work, although with a certain tropical flare, the result of his travels
in the Far East and South America. He also wrote on pre-Columbian
and religious themes and was a fervent Catholic, while also adhering
to a left-wing philosophy in politics. His collections of poetry were
Colores en el mar y otros poemas (1921; Colors in the Sea and Other
Poems), Piedra de sacrificios (1924; Sacrificial Stone), 6, 7 poemas
(1924; 6, 7 Poems), Hora y 20 (1927; An Hour and 20), Camino
(1929; Pathway), Hora de junio (1937; June Time), Exágonos (1941;
Hexagons), Recinto y otras imágenes (1941; Enclosure and Other
Images), Subordinaciones (1949; Subordinations), Práctica de vuelo
(1956; Flying Practice), Cuerdas, percusión y aliento (1976; Strings,
Percussion and Wind), Reincidencias (1978; Re-occurrences), and
Cosillas para el nacimiento (1977; Little Pieces for the Christmas
Creche). See also TORRES BODET, JAIME.

PENA, LUÍS CARLOS MARTINS (Brazil, 1815–1848). Chronicler


and dramatist. Born in Rio to family of humble means, Martins Pena

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PERALTA LAGOS, JOSÉ MARÍA • 363

was orphaned at a young age. He went on to study commerce and


also attended the Academy of Fine Arts, studying drawing, music,
and theater. He taught himself French and Italian and began to write
for the stage at a young age. In 1838, O Juiz de Paz na Roça (1842;
The Justice of the Peace in the Country), a picaresque comedy that
chastised the venality of priests, judges, and society in general, was
performed by the theater company of João Caetano (1808–1863), the
most famous actor and impresario of his time. The play’s success
earned Martins Pena the support of Caetano and Domingos Gon-
çalves de Magalhães, who were trying to create a Brazilian national
theater. That same year, Martins Pena also obtained a government
position, and in 1847 he was named attaché to the Brazilian embassy
in London. However, he contracted tuberculosis there and died in
Lisbon on his way back to Brazil.
Martins Pena is credited with introducing the comedy of manners
into Brazilian theater with great success, satirizing both country and
urban types in plays such as Os Três Médicos (1845; The Three
Physicians), O Diletante (1845; The Dilettante), O Judas em Sábado
de Aleluia (1846; Judas on Easter Saturday), Os Irmãos das Almas
(1847; The Alms Brothers), and O Noviço (1853; The Novice), some
of which are still performed. Although later he attempted more seri-
ous dramatic pieces, he was less successful than in the satirical and
farcical genres. He was also an active chronicler of theater life in
the period. Martins Pena has been hailed as the Brazilian Molière,
and his talent for precise observation of social types and situations,
particularly for recreating popular speech, secured him an important
place in Brazilian theater. His reviews and chronicles are gathered in
Folhetins: A Semana Lírica (1965; Feuilletons: The Lyrical Week).
In total, he wrote 28 plays, which are all included in the two-volume
Teatro de Martins Pena (1956; Theater of Martins Pena). See also
AZEVEDO, ARTUR NABANTINO GONÇALVES.

PERALTA LAGOS, JOSÉ MARÍA (El Salvador, 1873–1944).


Novelist and dramatist. Writing in the realist trends of costum-
brismo and naturalismo, his prose works contributed to the emer-
gence of a Salvadoran national literature at the beginning of the 20th
century. The books Burla burlando (1923; Mocking the Mocker) and
Brochazos (1925; Brushstrokes) are both collections of sketches of

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364 • PERALTA Y BARNUEVO, PEDRO DE

Salvadoran life and people. Doctor Gonorreitigorrea (1933; Doctor


Gonorreitigorrea) is a short novel that takes a satirical look at Sal-
vadoran society, and La muerte de la tórtola (1933; Death of the
Turtledove) is a costumbrista novel. His contribution to the theater
is represented by Candidato (1931; Candidate), a satirical represen-
tation of the 1930–1931 presidential campaign that would have such
disastrous consequences for the country.

PERALTA Y BARNUEVO, PEDRO DE (Peru, 1663–1743). Poet


and dramatist. He was a luminary of colonial Peru, proficient in
several languages, adept at the sciences, and the author of more than
50 books. As a poet, he is remembered mainly for his contribution
to the epic poetry of colonial Latin America, Lima fundada, o con-
quista del Perú (1732; The Foundation of Lima, or the Conquest of
Peru), an erudite composition that exalts the virtues of the Spanish
conquistador Francisco Pizarro (ca. 1471 or 1476–1541). He wrote
the dramas Triunfos de amor y poder (1711; Triumphs of Love
and Power), Afectos vencen finezas (1720; Affectation Conquers
Courtesy), and La Rodoguna (date unknown; Rodogune), as well as
several short pieces (loas and entremeses) to accompany them. La
Rodoguna was adapted from a work by the French dramatist Pierre
Corneille (1606–1684). Other influences were the French author of
comedies Molière (1622–1673) and the Spanish dramatist Pedro Cal-
derón de la Barca (1600–1681). See also THEATER.

PEREDA VALDÉS, ILDEFONSO (Uruguay, 1899–1996). Poet. His


first two collections were La casa iluminada (1929; The Illuminated
House) and El libro de la colegiala (1921; The Schoolgirl’s Book). In
two subsequent collections, La guitarra de los negros (1926; Black
Guitar) and Raza negra (1929; Black Race), he turned to themes
drawn from black history and culture, which dominated his writing
thereafter in a series of books on folklore and history, among them
El negro rioplatense y otros ensayos (1937; Black River Plate and
Other Essays), Línea de color (1938; Color Line), Negros esclavos
y negros libres (1941; Black Slaves and Free Blacks), El cancionero
popular uruguayo (1947; The Uruguayan Popular Songbook), and El
negro en el Uruguay, pasado y presente (1965; Blacks in Uruguay,
Past and Present).

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PERI ROSSI, CRISTINA • 365

PÉREZ ROSALES, VICENTE (Chile, 1807–1886). Autobiographer.


Although he also wrote in other genres, Pérez Rosales is remem-
bered mainly for his Recuerdos del pasado (1882; Recollections of
the Past), an autobiography that still retains a readership. It is a rich
work of costumbrismo, focused primarily on the author himself and
the life he encountered on his many travels and adventures, including
periods of time he lived in Europe and California.

PERI ROSSI, CRISTINA (Uruguay, 1941– ). Novelist, poet, and


short story writer. She is one of Latin America’s most significant
women writers. With two early collections of short stories, Vi-
viendo (1963; Living) and Los museos abandonados (1968; The
Abandoned Museums), Peri Rossi already began to explore some
of themes that would become important to her work, including
gender and lesbianism, the enclosed and oppressive world of
women, cultural decline, revolution, and fantastic literature. Her
first novel, El libro de mis primos (1969; My Cousins’ Book), is
an experimental novel, with many shifts in voices, perspectives,
and forms, which offers an acute satire of economic, social, and
political intitutions. Like Indicios pánicos (1970; Panic Signs),
a miscellaneous collection of short pieces that followed, it also
foreshadows the collapse of Uruguayan society and the military
dictatorship that began in 1973. Her first volume of poetry, Evohé
(1971; Evohe: Erotic Poems), caused a considerable stir for its
celebration of the female body.
In 1972, Peri Rossi moved to Spain to escape political persecu-
tion. She has continued to publish regularly and is the author of
more than 37 books. The problems of living in exile appeared in
Descripción de un naufragio (1975; Description of a Shipwreck) and
Diáspora (1976; Diaspora) and are a recurring theme of much of her
subsequent writing. In two collections of short stories, La tarde del
dinosaurio (1976; Afternoon of the Dinosaur) and La rebelión de
los niños (1980; Revolt of the Children), she contrasts the attitudes
and perspectives of children and adults. In 1983, she published El
museo de los esfuerzos inútiles (The Museum of Useless Efforts), a
collection, like Indicios pánicos, of miscellaneous short pieces, some
of them with a journalistic flavor. Una pasión prohibida (1986; A
Forbidden Passion) has a similar content.

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366 • PERIODICALS

One of Peri Rossi’s best-known works is her novel La nave de los


locos (1984; Ship of Fools), a highly experimental text that sustains
her earlier focus on themes such as authoritarianism, gender, and dif-
ferent sexualities. The novel presents many of the elements to which
she returns in her subsequent fiction, albeit without the same degree
of experimentation, such as in the novels Solitario de amor (1988;
Solitaire of Love), La última noche de Dostoievski (1992; Dosto-
evsky’s Last Night), and El amor es una droga dura (1999; Love Is
an Addiction) and in the short story collections Cosmoagonías (1994;
Cosmic Agonies), Desastres íntimas (1997; Intimate Disasters), Te
adoro y otros relatos (1999; I Adore You and Other Stories), and
Por fin solos (1994; Alone at Last). Among her more recent books of
poetry are Estado de exilio (2003; State of Exile) and Mi casa es la
escritura (2006; Writing Is My Home).

PERIODICALS. See JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS,


AND PERIODICALS.

PERLONGHER, NÉSTOR (Argentina, 1949–1992). Poet. He was


a student activist and one of the founders of the movement for
recognition of rights for homosexuals in Argentina. His poetry is
neo-baroque, characterized by excess, although he used the term
neobarroso by which, with a play on words, he wished to refer to a
style newly muddied (barroso) by the River Plate, at the mouth of
which Buenos Aires is located. He published six books of poetry:
Austria-Hungría (1980; Austria-Hungary), Alambres (1980; Fences),
Hule (1989; Rubber), Parque Lezama (1990; Lezama Park), Aguas
aéreas (1992; Aerial Waters), and El chorreo de las iluminaciones
(1992; The Gushing of the Lights). In 1982, he went to São Paulo,
Brazil, where he worked as an anthropologist, teaching and resear-
ching in the field of sexuality.

PERÓN, JUAN DOMINGO (1895–1974). A colonel in the army,


he was elected president of Argentina on three occasions, for two
consecutive terms between 1946 and 1955, before being ousted and
going into exile, and for part of a third term between 1973 and 1974,
which ended with his death from illness. His populism had a lasting

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PERU • 367

impact on the politics of Argentina and contributed to some of the


divisions that plagued the country during the second half of the 20th
century. Both his life and the political doctrine of Peronism have left
their mark on Argentinean literature in the work of authors such as
Julio Cortázar, Tomás Eloy Martínez, and David Viñas. See also
COSSA, ROBERTO; DUARTE DE PERÓN, EVA; JAURETCHE,
ARTURO; MARECHAL, LEOPOLDO; PEYROU, MANUEL.

PERU. Although the Incas had a system of knotted strings, known as a


quipu, used both to tally numbers and as a mnemonic aid to historical
narrative, writing was not introduced to the country until the con-
quest. The story of the conquest and the early years of colonization,
and an account of Spanish perceptions of the land and the life and
customs of the people who inhabited it, are recorded in the chroni-
cles of Pedro de Cieza de León and Agustín de Zarate. The history
of preconquest Peru and the plight of its peoples after subjugation to
the Spanish are told by a mestizo, the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, and
the Indian Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala.
As the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru, Lima was also the po-
litical and cultural center of Spanish South America for much of the
colonial period and had a thriving literature, especially in drama, epic
poetry, and baroque verse. Diego de Hojeda, Juan de Espinosa
Medrano, Juan del Valle y Caviedes, and Pedro de Peralta y Bar-
nuevo were its luminaries. The brilliance of literary viceregal Lima
did not continue into the 19th century after independence, however.
A glimpse into life in the postindependence period is given by the
traveler Flora Tristán. Costumbrismo was introduced to Peru with
Felipe Pardo y Aliaga’s 1840 El espejo de mi tierra (Mirror of My
Land), but the most acclaimed prose writer of the 19th century was
Ricardo Palma, who gave a historical turn to costumbrismo with
his tradiciones on colonial life. A more serious tone began to appear
in prose after the disastrous loss of territory to Chile in the War of
the Pacific (1879–1883). Its political implications are reflected in
the essays of Manual González Prada and, in fiction, in the turn to
realism of the later novels of Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera and
one of the first examples of Peruvian indigenismo, Clorinda Matto
de Turner’s Aves sin nido (1889; Torn from the Nest).

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368 • PERU

Although neo-classicism and romanticism in poetry are repre-


sented respectively by Felipe Pardo y Aliaga and Manuel González
Prada, major figures in Peruvian poetry did not appear until the ad-
vent of modernismo and the work of José Santos Chocano and José
María Egurén. Early in the new century, however, there were fur-
ther aesthetic and political changes that heralded the advent of some
of Peru’s most important writers. Abraham Valdelomar, Ventura
García Calderón, Clemente Palma, and Enrique López Albújar
were transitional writers, but by the 1920s the literary avant-garde
and political challenges from the Left were already in the wind. The
political writings of Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre and José Carlos
Mariátegui, and the founding of the Alianza Popular Revolucionaria
Americana (APRA; American Popular Revolutionary Alliance) and
the Peruvian Communist Party, with which they were associated,
respectively, resonated throughout the 20th century. The politics
of the time are reflected in some of the writings of Magda Portal,
and the full impact of the avant-garde is represented by a group of
notable poets: Alberto Hidalgo, Emilio Adolfo Westphalen, Car-
los Oquendo de Amat, César Moro, and César Vallejo, the last
considered a major figure in Latin American poetry in general. By
the 1940s and 1950s, the work of Martín Adán, Javier Sologuren,
Carlos Germán Belli, and Blanca Varela, one of Peru’s most sig-
nificant women poets, had begun to appear and to sustain the level
of achievement obtained by the preceding generation. In the second
half of the 20th century other accomplished poets, such as Antonio
Cisneros and Carmen Ollé, emerged, continuing the tradition.
In fiction, the first half of the 20th century was marked by social
criticism and regionalism in Enrique López Albújar and José Diez
Canseco and, above all, by indigenismo in Ciro Alegría’s landmark
novel El mundo es ancho y ajeno (1941; Broad and Alien Is the
World) and the early fiction of José María Arguedas. In the later
work of Arguedas and the stories of Julio Ramón Ribeyro, there is
already an anticipation of the new novel and boom, which reached
fruition in Peru in Mario Vargas Llosa, the country’s most widely
recognized author and recipient of the 2010 Nobel Prize for Litera-
ture. Manuel Scorza and Alfredo Bryce Echenique are of the same
generation. They also represent the same divide in Peru that separates
José María Arguedas from Mario Vargas Llosa, the former focused
internally on the majority mestizo and indigenous cultures, the latter

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PERU • 369

turned more toward Europe and the Europeanized cultures of middle-


and upper-class Peru. In addition to these fiction writers, there is a
cluster of others who have contributed to broadening the range of
the recent novel: Isaac Goldemberg has written about the Perevian
Jewish community, the work of Carlos Reynoso has focused on the
urban cultures of Lima, and Jaime Bayly’s novels deal with ques-
tions of sexuality and gender.
Peru has produced several distinguished essayists and literary
critics, among whom two of the most prominent are Luis Alberto
Sánchez and Julio Ortega. As most historians recognize, however,
Peruvian theater, notwithstanding its long history, has not achieved
the same heights or had the same consistency as the country’s 20th-
century poetry and prose. The evidence from chroniclers such as
the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega suggests that theater figured in Incan
culture, a point endorsed in some discussions by the existence of
the Quechuan drama Ollantay. Whatever the case, Spanish theater
took root quickly in Peru, and the performance of autos to celebrate
both religious and secular occasions was soon established. The first
theater was built in Lima in 1594, and the city became a center for
the performing arts in colonial times rivaled in the New World only
by Mexico City. The plays performed were mainly in the European
tradition, some written by Peruvian dramatists, of which the most
celebrated was Pedro de Peralta y Barnuevo. A more Peruvian theater
did not emerge until the mid-19th century, when costumbrismo was
introduced to the stage by Felipe Pardo y Aliaga, and romanticism
was the dominant feature of plays by Ricardo Palma. The title of
founder of the Peruvian theater is usually given, however, to Manuel
Ascensio Segura, who wrote 13 plays, mainly about middle-class
Peru.
After Segura’s death in 1871, the theater went into decline. Per-
formances of comedies of manners dominated the stage for several
decades. There were a number of dramatists and several prominent
writers, such as Clorinda Matto de Turner and José Santos Chocano,
wrote for the stage, but the next dramatist of consequence, Sebastián
Salazar Bondy, did not emerge until the 1940s. At the same time,
the theater began to receive government support for the funding of
companies and national prizes. Yet Salazar Bondy was in some ways
unique, both for the quality and number of his plays. Other drama-
tists, such as Enrique Solari Swayne, although they wrote successful

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370 • PETIT, MAGDALENA

plays, were far from prolific, and the theater continued to suffer from
a lack of writers dedicated to the genre.
By the 1970s, the theater had become more stable, and among the
predominant writers were Grégor Díaz, Julio Ortega, and Alonso
Alegría. Moreover, during the 1980s and 1990s two new phenomena
emerged: collective theater and teatro de guerrilla (guerrilla theater).
The former, also called “third theater,” dispensed with traditional
formal structures in favor of an alternative way of approaching audi-
ences. The language of performance might be Quechua, Aymara, or
Spanish. Performances were in public spaces and addressed issues of
social concern of particular interest to the collectives who presented
them. One of the most succesful among many collectives is Cuatro-
tablas, first formed in the mid-1970s. Guerrilla theater was similarly
organized. It featured song, dance, and mime, and was developed
especially by militant radical groups such as Sendero Luminoso
(Shining Path) as a form of propaganda. Thus, in a country where
traditional forms of modern theater had often struggled to survive,
new models have taken shape to replace them. See also ACOSTA,
JOSÉ DE; ARIELISMO; CASA DE LAS AMÉRICAS; CRE-
ACIONISMO; DRAGÚN, OSVALDO; ENTREMÉS; GORRITI,
JUANA MANUELA; INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS; JAIMES
FREYRE, RICARDO; JOURNALS; MAGIC REALISM; MARÍN
CAÑAS, JOSÉ; MEXICO; MIGUEL DE CERVANTES PRIZE;
NEO-BAROQUE; OÑA, PERDO DE; THEATER OF THE AB-
SURD; WOMEN.

PETIT, MAGDALENA (Chile, 1903–1968). Novelist. She wrote


biographical-historical novels: Don Diego de Portales (1938; Don
Diego de Portales), Los Picheira (1939; The Picheiras), Caleuche
(1946; Caleuche), and Un hombre en el Universo (1951; A Man in
the Universe). Her most successful work, however, was La Quintrala
(1932; La Quintrala), a novelized biography of Catalina de los Ríos
y Lísperguer (1604–1665), whose treatment of her tenants and lovers
in colonial Chile made her notorious as an enduring symbol of female
cruelty. Petit also wrote literary criticism and theater for children.

PEYROU, MANUEL (Argentina, 1902–1974). Novelist and short


story writer. He is celebrated most for his contributions both to crime

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PICCHIA, PAULO MENOTTI DEL • 371

fiction in the cerebral English tradition and to fantastic literature in


novels and short stories. His novels include El estruendo de las rosas
(1948; Thunder of Roses: A Detective Novel) and El Hijo Rechazado
(1969; The Rejected Son), and among his collections of short stories
are La espada dormida (1944; The Sleeping Sword), La noche repe-
tida (1953; The Repeated Night), El árbol de Judas (1961; The Judas
Tree), and Marea de fervor (1967; Tide of Fervor). He also wrote an
anti-Peronist trilogy: Las leyes de juegos (1960; Rules of the Game),
Acto y ceniza (1963; Act and Ashes), and Se vuelven contra nosotros
(1966; They Turned Against Us).

PICARESQUE NOVEL. The genre originated in 16th-century Spain


and conventionally features the humorous story of a low-class
rogue who relies on his wits to survive in society and whose eventful
journey through life is a source of social satire and criticism. José
Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi’s 1816 El periquillo sarniento (The
Mangy Parrot), written on the eve of Mexican independence, is
Spanish America’s most celebrated picaresque novel. Other colonial
authors whose work has picaresque elements include Alonso Carrió
de la Vandera (Colombia) and Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora
(Mexico). More recent writers who have returned to the genre in-
clude Manuel Antônio de Almeida, Fernando Sabino, Luís Carlos
Martins Pena, and Ariano Vilar Suassuna (Brazil), José Rubén
Romero (Mexico), Manuel Mujica Láinez and Roberto Jorge
Payró (Argentina), and Daniel Barros Grez and Manuel Rojas
(Chile).

PICCHIA, PAULO MENOTTI DEL (Brazil, 1892–1988). Poet and


novelist. A major voice in Brazilian modernism, Menotti del Pic-
chia studied and practiced law while he also turned to poetry. His
first book, Poemas do Vício e da Virtude (1913; Poems of Vice and
Virtue), was influenced by parnassianism. Juca Mulato (1917; Joe
Mulatto), a book of poems based on the backland and Afro-Brazilian
motifs and written in a vivid, straightforward language with romantic
overtones, met with considerable success. He used a similar style in
Moisés, Poema Bíblico (1917; Moses, Biblical Poem), As Máscaras
(1917; The Masks), and A Angústia de D. João (1925; The Anguish
of Don Juan). After Del Picchia met Mário de Andrade and Oswald

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372 • PICÓN SALAS, MARIANO

de Andrade, he enthusiastically participated in the Week of Mod-


ern Art and became one of the staunchest supporters of modernist
tendencies. Later on, together with Plínio Salgado and Cassiano
Ricardo, he founded the more nationalist modernist tendency known
as “verdeamarelismo” (green-yellowism) and wrote the manifesto “O
Curupira e o Carão” (1927; “The Curupira Being and the Big-Faced
Monster”). He also collaborated on the “Manifesto do Verdeam-
arelismo ou da Escola da Anta” (1929; “Green-Yellow Manifesto
or of the School of the Tapir”). In this period, he published the free
verse rhapsody República dos Estados Unidos do Brasil (1928;
Republic of the United States of Brazil). Menotti del Picchia was
criticized for his colorful, witty language, which appeared to be too
popular for the taste of some modernists, but his later Poemas Tran-
sitorios (1947; Transitory Poems) display a more personal voice. He
also wrote the science fiction novels A República 3000 (1930; The
3000 Republic), Kalum, O Sangrento (1936; Kalum, the Bloody),
and Kamunká (1938; Kamunka), and the erotic novel Salomé (1940;
Salomé). Menotti del Picchia outlived most of his fellow modernists
and received many prizes and honors. See also RICARDO LEITE,
CASSIANO.

PICÓN SALAS, MARIANO (Venezuela, 1901–1965). Essayist and


cultural critic. After spending much of his younger life in exile in
Chile during the dictatorship in Venezuela of Juan Vicente Gómez
(1908–1935), he became an important figure in the foundation of
Venezuelan cultural institutions, and his writings on literature and
culture, both in Venezuela and Spanish America at large, were wi-
dely read in his day. His writings show the influence of arielismo. De
la conquista a la independencia: tres siglos de historia cultural his-
panoamericana (1944; A Cultural History of Spanish America: From
Conquest to Independence) is particularly noteworthy. He also wrote
biographies of notable Venezuelans and the autobiographical books
Viaje al amanecer (1943; Journey to the Dawn), Regreso de tres
mundos (1959; Return from Three Worlds), and Las nieves de an-
taño: pequeña añoranza de Mérida (1958; The Snows of Yesteryear:
A Little Longing for Mérida), as well as several novels: Buscando el
camino (1920; Looking for the Road), Odisea en tierra firme (1931;

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PIGNATARI, DÉCIO • 373

Odyssey on the Mainland), Registro de huéspedes (1934; Hotel


Register), and Los tratos de noche (1955; Dealings at Night).

PIGLIA, RICARDO (Argentina, 1941– ). Novelist, short story writer,


and critic. Writing literature about literature and combining literary
and critical practices in the same text, his work belongs in the tradi-
tion of Jorge Luis Borges. Piglia first won wide attention with Res-
piración artificial (1980; Artificial Respiration), a novel written in
Argentina during the 1976–1983 dictatorship that uses coded writing
to reflect the contemporary situation and deflect official attention. It
combines elements of philosophy, the literary and cultural history
of Argentina, and crime and political writing. His next novel, La
ciudad ausente (1992; The Absent City), based on aspects of the life
and work of Macedonio Fernández, gives an apocalyptic view of
Buenos Aires. It served as the basis for an opera by Gerardo Gandini
(Argentina 1936– ) with a libretto by Piglia. Plata quemada (1997;
Money to Burn), the novel that followed, is the story of a botched
bank robbery, representing a new direction in Piglia’s fiction,
although he already had a history as an editor of crime fiction of the
hard-boiled variety. The novel was made into a film with the same
title in 2000.
Piglia’s first collection of short stories, La invasión (1967; The In-
vasion), received a Casa de las Américas prize under the title Jaula-
rio (Cages) and introduced many of the themes developed in his later
fiction, including his literary alter ego Emilio Renzi, who has figured
in several subsequent works. Among his other collections of short
stories are Nombre falso (1975; Assumed Name), Prisión perpetua
(1988; Perpetual Prison), and Cuentos morales (1995; Moral Tales).
His critical essays include Formas breves (1999; Brief Forms), Dic-
cionario de la novela de Macedonio Fernández (2000; Dictionary of
the Novel of Macedonio Fernández), and El último lector (2005; The
Last Reader). See also MARECHAL, LEOPOLDO.

PIGNATARI, DÉCIO (Brazil, 1927– ). Poet, essayist, and translator.


Born in the state of São Paulo of Italian descent, Pignatari published
his first poems in Revista Brasileira de Poesia (Brazilian Poetry
Review), associated with the Generation of ’45. His first book of
poetry was O Carrosel (1950; The Carrousel). In 1952, he joined the

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374 • PIÑÓN, NÉLIDA

brothers Augusto de Campos and Haroldo de Campos as editors


of the journal Noigandres, in which they began publishing Brazilian
concrete poetry for the first time. Pignatari is considered, with the
de Campos brothers, one of the founders of this avant-garde trend,
theorized in the book Teoria da Poesia Concreta (1965; Theory of
Concrete Poetry), coauthored by all three. In 1954, after receiving
his law degree, Pignatari left for Europe, where he came into con-
tact with a number of avant-garde artists and poets, among whom
were Pierre Boulez (1925– ), John Cage (1912–1922), and Eugen
Gomringer (1925– ). He remained in Europe until 1956, and his liter-
ary and intellectual exchanges were crucial for the development of
concrete poetry.
In the years that followed, Pignatari devoted himself to promoting
and defending concrete poetry through exhibitions, lectures, and the
poems he published in a variety of journals. Much of his work was
inspired not only by the materiality of language, but also by a dia-
logue with the mass media—he read and translated Marshall McLu-
han (1911–1980)—and was published first in a variety of journals.
Pignatari explored more the communication and technological aspect
of poems, perhaps due to his own work in advertising and commu-
nications as a professor and designer. He also became involved in
politics, wrote a soccer column for a national daily, became an aca-
demic, and even starred in a film. His poems, scattered in journals,
were published eventually as Poesia Pois É Poesia 1950/1975 (1977;
Poetry, That’s It, Poetry), Poesia Pois É Poesia e Po&tc 1976/1986
(1986; Poetry, That’s It, Poetry and Po&tc). Other works include O
Rosto da Memória (1986; The Face of Memory), Panteros (1992;
Panteros), Errâncias (2000; Wanderings), and Céu de Lona (2003;
Canvas Sky).

PIÑON, NÉLIDA (Brazil, 1937– ). Novelist. The child of Galician


immigrants to Brazil, Piñon was born in Rio and grew up amid Por-
tuguese, Spanish, and Galician immigrants. When she was 10, her
family moved back to the countryside, where she became fascinated
with the rural way of life, particularly traditional storytellers, which
would influence her own narrative works. Piñon studied journalism
and was the first woman to be elected president of the Brazilian
Academy of Letters (see ACADEMIAS). In her first novel, Guia-
Mapa de Gabriel Arcanjo (1961; Map/Guide of Gabriel Archangel),

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PITOL, SERGIO • 375

the protagonist discusses such topics as sin, love, and religious doc-
trine. During the years of the Brazilian military regime (1964–1984),
Piñon became famous for her erotic novels such as A Casa de Paixão
(1972; The House of Passion) and Força do Destino (1977; The
Force of Destiny). However, she has been acclaimed worldwide for
A República dos Sonhos (1984; The Republic of Dreams), an epic
narrative about the travails of a family from Galicia that emigrates to
Brazil. This 700-page novel, which Piñon struggled to finish in time
to celebrate the arrival of democracy in Brazil, takes the form of a
conversation between a grandfather and a granddaughter attempting
to preserve their memory and is largely based on Piñon’s own fam-
ily story. Piñon has received numerous national and international
awards, including the prestigious Juan Rulfo (Mexico) and Príncipe
de Asturias (Spain) prizes. Her other works include Tempo das Fru-
tas (1966; The Time of Fruits), Fundador (1969; Founder), Sala de
Armas (1973; Armory), Tebas do Meu Coração (1974; Thebes of
My Heart), O Calor das Coisas (1980; The Heat of Things), and A
Doce Canção de Caetana (1987; Caetana’s Sweet Song). See also
PRADO, ADÉLIA.

PITOL, SERGIO (Mexico, 1933– ). Novelist and short story writer.


He is somewhat more cosmopolitan than other Mexican authors,
with less emphasis on Mexico in his work, a consequence perhaps
of his travels and periods of residence abroad. He has translated
extensively from Polish and English, including the work of Witold
Gombrowicz (1904–1969), Joseph Conrad (1857–1924), and Henry
James (1843–1916). The publication of his own work began with
short stories: Tiempo cercado (1959; Time Surrounded), El infierno
de todos (1964; Hell for All), and Los climas (1966; The Climates).
His first novel was El tañido de una flauta (1972; The Sound of a
Flute), followed by Juegos florales (1983; Floral Games). His third
novel, El desfile del amor (1984; Love Parade), is set in 1973, but
tells a story from 1942, when Mexico entered World War II on the
side of the Allies. The novel is the first of a triptych which is central
to Pitol’s work and features some of the prominent features of his
fiction: monstruous female characters, bizarre plots, and embedded
narratives. Domar a la divina garza (1988; Taming the Peacock),
the second of the sequence, features stories within stories: a novelist

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376 • PIZARNIK, ALEJANDRA

in contemporary Mexico writes about a demented man, who tells a


family whose home he has invaded about his meeting in Istanbul 25
years earlier with a crazy female anthropologist, who narrates a fecal
propitiation ceremony practised by a group of Mexican Indians. The
third part of the triptych is La vida conyugal (1991; Conjugal Life),
the story of a woman’s affairs and the attempts by her lovers, which
repeatedly misfire, to murder her unfaithful husband. Other works of
fiction include Asimetría (1980; Asymmetry), Cementerio de todos
(1982; Cemetery for Everyone), La casa de la tribu (1989; Tribal
House), Cuerpo presente (1990; Present and Correct), El relato vene-
ciano de Billie Upward (1992; The Venetian Story of Billie Upward),
El viaje (2000; The Journey), and El mago de Viena (2005; The Ma-
gician of Vienna). Pitol is also the author of El arte de la fuga (1996;
The Art of the Fugue), a book about travels, friendships, and other
experiences, and Pasión por la trama (1998; Passion for the Plot), in
which he has collected some of his essays on literature. In 2005 he
received the Miguel de Cervantes Prize.

PIZARNIK, ALEJANDRA (Argentina, 1936–1972). Poet. She


emphasizes the importance and substantiality of words in poetry and
often disregards standard verse arrangements and punctuation. Since
her suicide in 1972, much of her writing has been read in relation to
her death, one of her constant themes. She published seven books of
poetry. The first, La tierra más ajena (1955; The Most Alien Land),
already showed the influence of surrealism that is apparent in
much of her work. This was followed by two collections, La última
inocencia (1956; The Last Innocence), in which poetry appears as
a form of escape, and Las aventuras perdidas (1958; Lost Adven-
tures), about the attractions of childhood. Images of night and death
figure in both books.
For four years (1960–1964), she lived in France, where she pro-
duced a number of translations from French, among them works by
Yves Bonnefoy (1923– ) and Marguerite Duras (1914–1996). From
her time in France there also came three more books of poetry: Árbol
de Diana (1962; Diana’s Tree), Los trabajos y las noches (1965;
Travails and Nights), and Extracción de la piedra de locura (1968;
Extraction from the Stone of Madness), as well as La condesa san-
grienta (1971; The Bloody Countess), a book inspired by the story

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PLA, JOSEFINA • 377

of the infamous Hungarian countess Elizabeth Bathory (1560–1614),


who was reputed to have tortured and murdered hundreds of young
women. Pizarnik’s last volume of poetry was El infierno musical
(1971; Musical Hell). A number of years after she died, her unpub-
lished writings were collected and edited by Olga Orozco and Ana
Becciú in Textos de sombra y últimos poemas (1982; Texts from the
Shadows and Last Poems), which included a play and a short novel.

PLA, JOSEFINA (Paraguay, 1909–1999). Poet, dramatist, short story


writer, and cultural critic. Although born in the Canary Islands, she
adopted Paraguay through marriage and became a prominent figure
in Paraguayan culture, whose influence was felt by younger genera-
tions. She is considered to have been a mentor to the country’s most
important 20th-cenury writer, Augusto Roa Bastos. Her first volume
of poetry was El precio de los sueños (1935; The Price of Dreams),
a collection of mainly romantic love poems, which, like much of her
early work in general, shows the influence of Spanish literature. Af-
ter her first collection of verse, several others followed in which the
survival of love after the death of a beloved is a prominent theme, an
effect of the loss of her husband in 1937: La raíz y la aurora (1960;
The Root and the Dawn), Rostros en el agua (1963; Faces in the
Water), Invención de la muerte (1965; Invention of Death), El polvo
enamorado (1968; Enamored Dust), Antología poética (1978; Poetic
Anthology), Follaje del tiempo (1981; Foliage of Time), and Tiempo
y tiniebla (1892; Time and Darkness). Her meditations on death also
extend to deaths suffered in time of war, such as her elegy Los treinta
mil ausentes (1985; Thirty Thousand Absentees), for those who died
in the Chaco War (1932–1935), and Alguien muere en San Onofre de
Cuaramí (1984; Someone Is Dying in San Ofre de Cuaramí), a novel
written in collaboration with Ángel Pérez Pardella, set at the time of
Paraguay’s war with Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay (1865–1870).
Pla’s short stories include the collections La mano en la tierra
(1963; The Hand in the Earth), El espejo en el canasto (1981; The
Mirror in the Basket), and La pierna de Severina (1983; Severina’s
Leg) and feature strong women, tragedy, and extensive use of re-
gional Pararguayan dialects. Her theater was written mainly in col-
laboration with others. Among her most successful plays are Aquí no
pasa nada (1942; Nothing Happening Here), a comedy of manners;

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378 • PODESTÁ, JOSÉ J.

Historia de un número (1948; Story of a Number), the biography of


a prisoner; and Fiesta en el río (1977; Celebration in the River), the
story of an unmarried mother in a medieval town and the punishment
that awaits her. Aside from her literary writing, Josefina Pla has also
produced a large number of books on a wide variety of topics relat-
ing to Paraguayan history and culture, including El grabado en el
Paraguay (1962; The Engraving in Paraguay), Arte moderno en el
Paraguay (1962; Modern Art in Paraguay), Cuatro siglos de teatro
en el Paraguay (1966; Four Centuries of Theater in Paraguay), His-
toria de la cultura paraguaya (1968; History of Paraguayan Culture),
and El barroco hispano guaraní (1975; Hispano-Guaraní Baroque).

PODESTÁ, JOSÉ J. (Uruguay, 1858–1936). A comic actor whose


adaptation of Eduardo Gutiérrez’s novel Juan Moreira first
brought the figure of the gaucho to the stage in Argentina. See also
GAUCHO LITERATURE; THEATER.

PODESTÁ, MANUEL T. (Argentina, 1853–1920). Novelist. He was


an admirer of the French novelist Emile Zola (1840–1902) and fol-
lowed the social determinism of naturalism. His best-known work
was Irresponsable (1889; Irresponsible).

POESIA MARGINAL. Portuguese for “marginal poetry,” this term


refers in a wide sense to the series of poetic and artistic practices
that accompanied the counterculture Tropicália movement in Brazil
of the 1960s and 1970s, led by the pop musicians Caetano Veloso
and Gilberto Gil (1942– ). Among the attitudes and practices of
this trend are the interaction with popular music and media; the use
of alternative channels of publication and distribution (such as the
sale of mimeographed books by the authors themselves in bars and
cafés); the depiction of the vulgar or physical aspects of life with an
eye to provocation; and, on the part of women, the frank exploration
of sexuality. Among the poets associated with this trend are Glauco
Mattoso, Leila Miccolis (1947– ), Ana Cristina César, Paulo Le-
minski, and Francisco Alvim. See also AZEVEDO, CARLITO.

POLETTI, SYRIA (Argentina, 1921–1991). Short story writer and


novelist. Born in Italy, Poletti emigrated to Argentina in 1943. Her

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POMPÉIA, RAUL D’ÁVILA • 379

collections of short stories include Línea de fuego (1964; Line of


Fire) and Historias en rojo (1967; Sensational Tales), published
at the same time that her short stories were beginning to appear in
anthologies along with those by celebrated Argentinean writers.
Poletti’s two novels are Gente conmigo (1962; People with Me) and
Extraño oficio (1971; Strange Profession). Among the constants of
her writing are a concern for the plight of Italian immigrants in Ar-
gentina, the representation of a child’s point of view, the presence of
an older woman or grandmother figure, and the need to overcome
a physical handicap, characteristics that might all be considered
autobiographical. In addition to her writing for adults, Poletti also
produced works of children’s literature, and her books in this field
include El rey que prohibió los globos (1966; The King Who Banned
Balloons), Reportajes supersónicos (1972; Supersonic Reports), El
juguete misterioso (1977; The Mysterious Toy), El misterio de las
valijas verdes (1978; The Mystery of the Green Suitcases), Mari-
onetas de aserrín (1980; Sawdust Puppets), and El monito Bam-Bin
(1981; Bam-Bin the Little Monkey).

POMPÉIA, RAUL D’ÁVILA (Brazil, 1863–1895). Novelist. Born


near Rio, Pompéia attended school in Rio and later studied law in
São Paulo, where he was politically involved in republican and
abolitionist causes. He held a variety of positions, from mythology
professor to director of the National Library. Pompéia’s first novel,
Uma Tragédia no Amazonas (1880; A Tragedy in the Amazon), is
a tale of lawlessness and violence in that remote region of Brazil,
revealing the restless personality that led Pompéia into literary
conflicts with other poets such as Olavo Bilac and eventually to
his suicide. While still a student, he frequented bohemian circles
and published the prose poems Canções sem Metro (1881; Songs
Without Meter), influenced by parnassianism and symbolism. His
best-known work is O Ateneu (1888; The Atheneum), a coming-of-
age novel inspired by his own negative experiences in an all-boys
boarding school. O Ateneu has been noted both for its psychological
exploration of teenage feelings and its artistic writing. For this he
has been linked with naturalism, but tinted by specifically Brazil-
ian traits such as social pessimism, explicit sexuality, and social
determinism.

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380 • PONIATOWSKA, ELENA

PONIATOWSKA, ELENA (Mexico, 1932– ). Novelist and journal-


ist. She is descended from Polish and Mexican aristocracy, a prolific
writer, and one of Mexico and Latin America’s foremost women
writers. As a prominent political activist and public intellectual, she
intervenes often on questions relating to the status of women and
indigenous peoples, the handicapped, dissidents, and the poor in
Mexico. One of the most prestigious awards she has received is the
National Prize for Journalism, given to her in 1979. It not only af-
firmed her status as a journalist, the first woman in Mexico to be so
honored, but also acknowledged that much of her literary work has
its origin in her journalism or in her application of the methods of
journalism. One of her earliest books was a collection of interviews,
Palabras cruzadas (1961; Crossed Words), undertaken for newspa-
per publication. Subsequent interviews have appeared in other books
under the title Todo México (All Mexico), the first in 1990, and sev-
eral of Poniatowska’s more literary books owe much to methodolo-
gies acquired as a journalist.
The book that first gave her literary prominence was Hasta no
verte, Jesús mío (1969; Here’s To You, Jesusa!), the life of the farm
worker Jesusa Palancares. It is set in part against the background of
the Mexican Revolution and based on taped interviews, and was the
first of several historical accounts derived from reportage that estab-
lished her reputation as a significant contributor to the testimonio.
La noche de Tlatelolco (1971; Massacre in Mexico) is a narrative of
the Tlatelolco massacre, similarly drawn from oral and documen-
tary accounts. It won her the prestigious Xavier Villaurrutia Prize,
which she declined in protest against the government. Nada, nadie:
las voces del temblor (1988; Nothing, Nobody: The Voices of the
Mexico City Earthquake) is a collective testimonial account of the
earthquake that struck Mexico City in 1985. Other historical accounts
include Luz y luna, las lunitas (1994; Light and Moon, Little Moons),
a collection of five texts mainly about women; Las soldaderas (1999;
Female Soldiers), about women who were camp followers or fought
in the Mexican Revolution; and Amanecer en el Zócalo: los 50 días
que confrontaron a México (2007; Dawn in the Zocalo: 50 Days
Confronted by Mexico), about the 2006 elections in Mexico.
Poniatowska’s earliest fiction was Lilus Kikus (1967; Likus Kikus
and Other Stories) and De noche vienes (1989; You Come at Night),

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PORTAL, MAGDA • 381

two overlapping collections of short stories, some autobiographical.


La Flor de Lis (1988; Flower of the Lily) also has autobiographical
elements. Other novels include Querido Diego (1978; Dear Diego),
an epistolary novella consisting of fictional letters written to the
Mexican painter Diego Rivera by his former lover, a Russian painter
named Angelina Beloff; Tinísima (1991; Tinisima), based on the life
of the celebrated Italian photographer Tina Modotti; La piel del cielo
(2001; The Skin of the Sky), the story of a man searching for answers
in science; and El tren pasa primero (2006; The Train Passes First),
which won the 2007 Rómulo Gallegos Prize, about a Mexican rail-
way worker and his struggle for justice, set against the Mexican rail-
way strikes of 1958 and 1959. As in Poniatowska’s other books, there
is a combination in these of testimonial and fictionalized biography.

POPOL VUH. An important repository of pre-Columbian traditions of


the Quiché Maya in Guatemala, this document contains stories from
the mythic period of creation to the time of the Spanish conquest. It
was first written down in an alphabetic version between 1554 and
1558 and survived through a copy and translation into Spanish made
by the Dominican friar Francisco Ximénez between 1701 and 1703.
See also GALICH, MANUEL.

PORTAL, MAGDA (Peru, 1903–1989). Poet. She was a political


activist and one of the founding members of the Peruvian branch of
the Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (APRA; American
Popular Revolutionary Alliance) under Víctor Raúl Haya de la
Torre. She wrote and published very widely in Latin America on
political issues, especially women’s rights. Her first published col-
lection of poetry was Una esperanza i el mar (1927; A Hope and the
Sea), a sombre collection about solitude and images of the sea. The
sea has an equally strong presence in her next collection, Costa sur
(1945; South Coast), but also contains a section derived directly from
her political militancy. In Constancia del ser (1965; Proof of Being),
she republished a selection of her earlier poems along with some new
compositions, which are a testimony to her experiences and to having
lived. Her fiction amounts to a collection of short stories, El derecho
de matar (1926; The Right to Kill), cowritten with her partner, the
poet Serafín Delmar, and a novel, La trampa (1965). The former is

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382 • PORZECANSKI, TERESA

a rather bleak series of narratives of violence and poverty set mainly


outside Peru; the latter is a semiautobiographical narrative and an
attempted vindication of a political colleague imprisoned for murder.

PORZECANSKI, TERESA (Uruguay, 1945– ). Novelist and short


story writer. A teacher and researcher in anthropology and social
work, she has published a number of books in her field. Several
of her literary works were written during the 1973–1985 miliary
regime in Uruguay and reflect the atmosphere of those times. She
often represents the mix of cultures in Montevideo in her fiction,
notably the Jewish experience, but the urban world described is dark
and sombre. Her collections of short stories include El acertijo y
otros cuentos (1967; The Riddle and Other Stories), Construcciones
(1979; Constructions), Ciudad impune (1986; Invulnerable City),
and La respiración es una fragua (1989; Breathing Is a Forge). Her
novels are Invención de los soles (1982; Invention of the Suns),
Mesías en Montevideo (1989; Messiah in Montevideo), Perfumes
de Cartago (1994; Perfumes of Carthage), La piel del alma (1996,
The Skin of the Soul), and Una novela erótica (2000; An Erotic
Novel). Porzecanski has also published one book of poems, Intacto
el corazón (1976; The Heart Intact).

POSITIVISM. The term was coined by French philosopher Auguste


Comte (1798–1857) to designate a belief that knowledge derives
from what the senses experience and that metaphysical speculation
is ineffective. Adherence to this line of thought in Latin America led
to an advocacy of the social benefits of science and technology and
the emergence of regimes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
founded on the concepts of order and progress. Writers who reflect
these beliefs include Federico Gamboa in Mexico, Augusto dos
Anjos, Tobias Barreto de Meneses, and Sílvio Romero in Brazil,
Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera and José Ingenieros in Argen-
tina, and José Victorino Lastarria in Chile. Arielismo represented
a contrary point of view by positing the spiritual nature of Latin
American culture. See also NERVO, AMADO; REYES, ALFONSO;
TAMAYO, FRANZ; VERÍSSIMO DIAS DE MATOS, JOSÉ.

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POST-BOOM • 383

POSSE, ABEL (Argentina, 1934– ). Novelist. A diplomat by pro-


fession, he has received considerable criticism both for continuing
to represent Argentina during the 1976–1983 military regime and
for his apparent fascination with Nazism. His first two novels are
about Latin Americans living abroad. Los bogavantes (1970; The
Crew) is set in 1960s Paris, and La boca del tigre (1971; Mouth
of the Tiger) in the former Soviet Union. Three of his subsequent
novels are historical works in the manner of the new historical
novel: Daimón (1978; Daimon) follows the Spanish colonial project
across the centuries, based on the story of the colonial rebel Lope de
Aguirre, a narrative also taken up by Miguel Otera Silva and Arturo
Uslar Pietri; Los perros del paraíso (1983; The Dogs of Paradise)
is a recipient of the 1987 Rómulo Gallegos Prize, set in the time of
Christopher Columbus, but with ample use of anachronism and the
collapsing of different events into one; and El largo atardecer del
caminante (1992; The Long Twilight of the Wanderer) is a creative
retelling of the experiences of Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca. Other
novels are set in Argentina: Momento de morir (1979; Moment of
Dying) and Reina de la Plata (1988; Queen of the River Plate) take
place in Buenos Aires; Los demonios ocultos (1987; The Hidden De-
mons) and El viajero de Agartha (1989; Traveler from Agartha) are
both concerned with Nazism and its presence in Argentina; La pasión
según Eva (1994; The Passion According to Eva) is a biographical
novel of Eva Duarte de Perón told from the perspective of the time
shortly before her death; and El inquietante día de la vida (2001; The
Disturbing Day of Life) represents a return to Argentina in the 19th
century. Finally, Los cuadernos Praga (1998; The Prague Journals)
is a story based on the life of Ernest “Che” Guevara (1928–1967).

POST-BOOM. As the prefix suggests, post-boom refers to both the


writers and the trends in fiction that followed the boom, beginning
in the mid-1970s. There was not a sudden shift, but rather a transition
from one to the other that also encompassed the major boom authors,
whose productive years were far from over. In contrast to earlier
trends, post-boom writing is inclined to focus more on immediate
political and social realities. It was formally less experimental, and
its authors often made connections with elements of mass culture

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384 • PRADO, ADÉLIA

such as music, film, and popular literature. History also figured


significantly, a factor that contributed to the emergence of the new
historical novel. Among its prominent authors were Isabel Allende
and Antonio Skármeta (Chile); Rodrigo Fresán, Mempo Giardi-
nelli, Tomás Eloy Martínez, Osvaldo Soriano, and Luisa Valen-
zuela (Argentina); and Carlos Fuentes, Elena Poniatowska, and
Gustavo Sainz (Mexico), a group that includes several important
women writers.

PRADO, ADÉLIA (Brazil, 1935– ). Poet and novelist. Prado began


to write poetry as a result of her mother’s death when she was 15.
After attending teachers college in her native Minas Gerais, Prado
worked as a teacher, married a bank employee, and had five children.
She later returned to university and received a degree in philosophy.
She came into the literary limelight when her then-unpublished book
Bagagem (1976; Baggage) was enthusiastically read by Carlos
Drummond de Andrade, who recommended its publication, even
though it contained a poem, “Com Licença Poética” (“With Poetic
License”), that parodied Drummond’s famous “Poem of Seven
Faces.” Numerous literary figures, including Carlos Drummond de
Andrade, Clarice Lispector, and Nélida Piñon, attended the launch
of Bagagem. Prado’s next poetry book, O Coração Disparado (1978;
The Shot Heart), received the Jabuti Prize. Soltem os Cachorros
(1979: Let the Dogs Loose) was her first prose effort.
Her poetry, following the example of Manuel Bandeira, deals
with the joys and sorrows of everyday life; her connection with the
small town of Divinópolis, a city of 200,000, where she grew up and
continues to live; and her Catholic faith. Among the themes she ex-
plores from a religious perspective are death, love, sex, jealousy, and
the body. Prado’s literary success forced her to abandon her teaching
career. She then attended conferences and gave readings in Brazil
and abroad. Other later poetry books by Prado are Terra de Santa
Cruz (1981; Land of Santa Cruz), O Pelicano (1987; The Pelican),
and A Faca no Peito (1988; The Knife in the Chest). She then suf-
fered writer’s block for several years, until she published O Homem
da Mano Seca (1994; The Man with the Dry Hand). Many of her
texts have been adapted for the stage. Recent works include Oráculos

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PRIETO, GUILLERMO • 385

de Maio (1999; Oracles of May), and her fiction is collected in the


volume Prosa Reunida (1999; Collected Prose). See also WOMEN.

PRADO, PAULO (Brazil, 1869–1943). Essayist. Born into a well-to-


do family in São Paulo, Prado received a law degree and spent many
years living and studying in Europe. Back in Brazil, he generously
and enthusiastically supported the Week of Modern Art in 1922.
Prado is remembered mainly for his important essay Retrato do
Brasil (1934; Portrait of Brazil), which attempts to define the Brazil-
ian national character. This pessimistic and influential essay, sub-
titled “Essay on Brazilian Sadness,” presents lust, greed, and sadness
as the defining traits of the three races (Amerindian, African, and
European) that constituted Brazil.

PRADO, PEDRO (Chile, 1886–1951). Novelist and poet. His aes-


thetic sensibilities made him one of the most significant prose writers
of modernismo. His earliest publications were poetry written in free
verse, such as Flores de cardo (1908; Flowers of the Thistle), and
poetic prose, including La casa abandonada (1912; The Abandoned
House), El llamado del mundo (1913; Called from the World), and
Los pájaros errantes (1915; The Wandering Birds). His first novel,
La reina de Rapa Nui (1914; The Queen of Rapa Nui), is a fictional
tour de force based on the history of Easter Island, a place never
visited by the author. Alsino (1920; Alsino), likely his best novel, is
an allegorical retelling of the myth of Icarus, with links to José En-
rique Rodó and arielismo, focused on rural poverty in Chile. Un juez
rural (1924; Country Judge: A Novel of Chile), the story of a man
who becomes a judge without the benefit of having studied the law,
is thought to have been inspired by the author’s own experiences. In
poetry, Prado represents a movement away from modernismo. This
tendency, and some of his best verses, particularly his sonnets, may
be found in Viejos poemas inéditos (1949; Old Unpublished Poems).

PRIETO, GUILLERMO (Mexico, 1818–1897). Poet, essayist, and


dramatist. A popular writer in his day, he was hailed as “the national
poet” and is considered one of the founders of Mexican national lit-
erature. His Musa callejera (1883; Street Muse) is a collection of hu-
morous verses in the manner of costumbrismo, and in his Romancero

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386 • PUGA, MARÍA LUISA

nacional (1885; National Ballads) he wrote verse stories from popular


history and the time of the war of independence. More of his poetry
is collected in Poesías escogidas (1877; Selected Poems) and Versos
inéditos (1879; Unpublished Verses). He also wrote several pieces
for the theater, and his prose works include books on his travels and
an anthology of his newspaper writings on everyday life in the city.

PUGA, MARÍA LUISA (Mexico, 1944–2004). Novelist and short


story writer. She published 10 novels and four collections of short
stories, as well as essays, chronicles, collected interviews, and
works of children’s literature. Among the books for which she is
best known are the novel Las posibilidades del odio (1978; The Pos-
sibilities of Hatred), set in Kenya, where the author had traveled, and
Pánico o peligro (1987; Panic or Danger), a coming-of-age story set
at the time of the Tlatelolco massacre. See also WOMEN.

PUIG, MANUEL (Argentina, 1932–1990). Novelist. He is custom-


arily associated with the post-boom generation of Latin American
writers. From an early age he was an enthusiastic lover of cinema,
which had considerable effect on his life and work. His writing is
characterized by an ability to create the different registers of the
spoken language, such as voices on the telephone, dialogue, collo-
quial speech, and interior monologues, and to include different kinds
of writing in his narratives, such as personal diaries, letters, formal
reports, or newspaper clippings, often without the benefit of media-
tion by a narrative voice. Popular culture, in the form of soap operas,
films, song lyrics, and pulp fiction, figures significantly in his work
both as a structural resource and as the sources on which characters
model their feelings and expectations. Some of his major themes are
male and female stereotypes, sexual identity, the cultural psychology
of individuals, and national politics. Many of these elements already
appeared in Puig’s first two novels and were developed further in
subsequent works.
La traición de Rita Hayworth (1968; Betrayed by Rita Hayworth)
deals with the interaction of the worlds of fiction and reality, and
Boquitas pintadas (1969; Heartbreak Tango) also portrays popular
culture as a source of escapism from the stultifying environment of
everyday life. The Buenos Aires Affair (1973; The Buenos Aires Af-

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QORPO-SANTO, PSEUDONYM OF JOSÉ JOAQUIM DE CAMPOS LEÃO • 387

fair) is a story of frustrated love, modeled on a detective story, that


also shows Puig’s extraordinary use of language. El beso de la mujer
araña (1976; Kiss of the Spider Woman), perhaps Puig’s best-known
novel, is the story of a revolutionary and a homosexual who share
a cell in a Buenos Aires prison. Much of the narrative is developed
through dialogue into which accounts of several films are intercut.
Film also figures in Puig’s last novel, Cae la noche tropical (1988;
Tropical Night Falling), a novel about two elderly Argentinean
women who have retired to Rio de Janeiro but remain fascinated
by the life going on around them. Other novels are Pubis angelical
(1979; Angelic Pubis), Maldición eterna a quien lea estas páginas
(1980; Eternal Curse on the Reader of These Pages), and Sangre de
amor correspondido (1982; Blood of Requited Love), all intensely
psychological narratives. Puig also wrote for the theater and the
cinema. He adapted El beso de la mujer araña for the stage in 1983
and later turned it into a screenplay, from which a highly successful
film was made by Héctor Babenco in 1985. The same novel was
also the source of a Broadway musical in 1993. See also SABINO,
FERNANDO.

– Q –

QORPO-SANTO, pseudonym of JOSÉ JOAQUIM DE CAMPOS


LEÃO (Brazil, 1829–1883). Dramatist. A teacher and commercial
agent in the south of Brazil, de Campos Leão adopted the pseudonym
Qorpo-Santo, a capricious spelling of “corpo santo” (holy body),
because he believed himself to be a saint. Although he wrote poetry
that anticipates Brazilian modernism, his main contributions were
his unconventional plays, which have been seen as forerunners of the
theater of the absurd for their use of space, mixture of reality and
illusion, and satirical intent. There is controversy over his alleged
mental illness; he was deemed insane, but this diagnosis was later
questioned. He founded a print shop in Porto Alegre to aid in the dis-
tribution of his works, including Enciclopédia (1877; Encyclopedia),
which includes the texts of his plays Mateus, Mateusa (1866; Mateus,
Mateusa), As Relações Naturais (1866; Natural Relations), and Eu
sou Vida, Eu Não sou Morte (1866; I Am Life, I Am Not Death).

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388 • QUEIRÓS, DINAH SILVEIRA DE

Qorpo-Santo’s plays were not staged in his lifetime, and he was long
forgotten after his death, until his rediscovery by theater critics in
1966. He was the first Brazilian dramatist to portray homosexuals.

QUEIRÓS, DINAH SILVEIRA DE (Brazil, 1911–1982). Journal-


ist, novelist, and short story writer. Born in São Paulo, Silveira de
Queirós published her first short story, “Pecado” (1938; “Sin”) at
age 17, and in 1939 the novel Floradas na Serra (Blossomings on
the Hill), to this day a best seller. The novel, set in the sanatoriums
for tuberculosis patients in Campos do Jordão (São Paulo), deals
with issues of health and illness, hope and disillusion. Her novella A
Sereia Verde (1941; The Green Mermaid) was published for the first
time in Revista do Brasil (Review of Brazil). Her novel Margarita
La Rocque: A Ilha dos Demônios (1949; Margarida La Rocque: The
Island of Demons) is based on autobiographical experiences, and
thanks to its powerful style brought her much recognition as a fore-
runner of fantastic literature. Silveira de Queirós also wrote crime
fiction, children’s literature, and newspaper columns, as well as
historical novels such as A Muralha (1954; The Wall), set in colo-
nial Brazil. See also ROSA, JOÃO GUIMARÃES; WOMEN.

QUEIRÓS, RAQUEL DE (Brazil, 1910–2003). Novelist, dramatist,


translator, and short prose writer. The first woman admitted to
the Brazilian Academy of Letters (see ACADEMIAS), Raquel de
Queirós (formerly spelled Rachel de Queiroz) is considered by some
to be Brazil’s greatest female writer. Born and raised in the North-
east, her work remains deeply rooted in the plight of the inhabitants
of that region and its traditions. After publishing short prose pieces
in local papers (see CHRONICLE), her first novel, O Quinze (1930;
Nineteen Fifteen), a story of love and survival in the Northeast dur-
ing the 1915 drought, made her famous throughout Brazil. Queirós
joined the Communist Party and was a militant Trotskyite, for which
she was arrested. During this period, she also published João Miguel
(1932; João Miguel), Caminho de Pedras (1937; Stone Path), and As
Três Marias (1939; The Three Marys), novels of social criticism set
against political polarizations of the Estado Novo of Getúlio Vargas
(1882–1954) and influenced by the popular speech style of A Baga-
ceira (1928; The Sugar Cane Worker) by José Américo de Almeida

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QUINTANA, MÁRIO • 389

(1887–1980). In the next three decades, while living in Rio’s Ilha do


Governador, Queirós focused mostly on journalism and published
short prose pieces based on life in the Northeast. Her political lean-
ings also went from leftist libertarianism to a traditional conserva-
tism, and she embarked on a defense of local values, for which she is
seen as a representative of regionalism.
Works from this period include A Donzela e a Moura Torta (1948;
The Damsel and the Cross-Eyed Moorish Woman), 100 Crônicas
Escolhidas (1958; One Hundred Selected Chronicles), O Brasileiro
Perplexo (1963; The Perplexed Brazilian), O Caçador de Tatu (1967;
The Armadillo Hunter), and As Menininhas e Outras Crônicas (1976;
The Little Girls and Other Chronicles). She published two more nov-
els, Dôra, Doralina (1975; Dôra, Doralina), a psychological portrait
with elements of the Northeast, and O Galo de Ouro (1985; The
Golden Cock), a working-class tale of Afro-Brazilian types set in
Rio, published originally in 1950 as a serial, but completely rewrit-
ten for the book edition. Her plays, Lampião (1953; Lampião) and
A Beata Maria do Egito (1958; Saint Mary of Egypt), and the novel
Memorial de Maria Moura (1992), later turned into a TV series,
feature strong female characters in stories of banditry and fanaticism
set in the Northeast. Queirós was also an active translator, with more
than 40 translated books to her credit. See also AMADO, JORGE;
MACHADO, ANÍBAL; RIBEIRO, JOÃO UBALDO; THEATER.

QUINTANA, MÁRIO (Brazil, 1906–1994). Poet. Born in Alegrete


(Rio Grande do Sul), Quintana established himself in Porto Alegre
as a journalist and translated Marcel Proust (1871–1922), Virginia
Woolf (1882–1941), Voltaire (1694–1778), and Charles Morgan
(1894–1958), among others. His poetic debut came relatively late,
with Rua dos Cata-Ventos (1940; Street of the Weathervanes), fol-
lowed by Canções (1946; Songs) and Sapato Florido (1948; Flowery
Shoe). His poetry does not follow the paths opened by Brazilian
modernism, leaning instead toward a more traditional and nostalgic
idiom. Perhaps for this reason he has been ignored by some critics.
His themes focus on the simple aspects of everyday life, introspec-
tion, existential issues, and self-analysis. Many poems are reflections
on his own life in Porto Alegre. Espelho Mágico (1948; Magic Mir-
ror) and O Aprendiz de Feiticeiro (1950; The Magician’s Apprentice)

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390 • QUIROGA, HORACIO

are volumes of prose poems. Other works include Apontamentos de


História Sobrenatural (1976; Notes on Supernatural History) and the
volumes of short prose pieces, A Vaca e o Hipogrifo (1977; The Cow
and the Hippogryph) and Caderno H (1973; Notebook H). Among
his last books are Nova Antologia Poética (1981; New Selected
Poems), containing a number of unpublished poems; Batalhão das
Letras (1997; The Army of Letters), a poem for children based on the
alphabet; and Água (2001; Water), a trilingual (Portuguese/Spanish/
English) collection of texts on the subject of water, inspired by the
Brazilian landscape.

QUIROGA, HORACIO (Uruguay, 1878–1937). Short story writer.


He is credited with having laid the foundation for the modern short
story in Latin America. His life was notoriously tragic and ended in
suicide when he learned he had cancer. Much of his adult life was
spent in Argentina, part of it in the remote Chaco region and Mis-
iones, where his stories are often set. Although associated early with
modernismo, he developed a more realistic, spare style of writing
that shows the influence of Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849). His sto-
ries are in the vein of fantastic literature, with themes that include
the confrontation with death and the struggle for survival against
nature. He wrote more than 200 stories, most published in newspa-
pers or magazines before they were collected in books. Among the
best-known collections are Cuentos de amor, de locura y de muerte
(1917; The Decapitated Chicken and Other Stories), Cuentos de
la selva (1918; South American Jungle Tales), El salvaje (1920;
The Savage), Anaconda (1921; Anaconda), El desierto (1924; The
Desert), and Los desterrados (1925; The Exiles and Other Stories).
Quiroga was widely read and admired by later writers such as Julio
Cortázar and Gabriel García Márquez. See also RODRÍGUEZ
MONEGAL, EMIR; STORNI, ALFONSINA; VAZ FERREIRA,
MARÍA EUGENIA.

– R –

RABASA, EMILIO (Mexico, 1856–1930). Novelist. An eminent legal


expert, he wrote a number of significant books on Mexico, constitu-

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RAMA, ÁNGEL • 391

tional law, and history, and devoted only a few years of his life to
literature. His four novels, in the style of 19th-century realism, form
a cycle based on contemporary social and political life represented
through the experiences of a single protagonist, Juanito Quiñones. In
La bola (1887; The Revolution), he participates in an uprising after
experiencing disappointment in love. La gran ciencia (1887; The
Great Science) draws him into the world of politics. El cuarto poder
(1888; The Fourth Estate) sees him in the capital and involved in
journalism. Finally, in Moneda falsa (1888; Counterfeit Coin), disil-
lusioned by the falsehood of life in the capital, Quiñones returns to
the country.

RABINAL ACHÍ (THE DANCE OF THE TRUMPET). A precon-


quest dance-drama from Guatemala written in Quiché, telling the
story of the sacrifice of a Quiché lord. The first version in Spanish
was completed by Luis Cardoza y Aragón in 1930 from a version
in French. See also THEATER IN QUECHUA.

RADRIGÁN, JUAN (Chile, 1937– ). Dramatist. Writing in a man-


ner that has often been compared with the styles of Samuel Beckett
(1906–1989) and Arthur Miller (1915–2005), Radrigán’s theater
has remained focused on social marginality in the context of dic-
tatorship Chile (1973–1990) ever since his first play, Testimonio
de las muertes de Sabina (1979; Witness to Sabina’s Deaths). His
characters are often prostitutes, the destitute and homeless, and the
proletariat. Among his best-received plays are Hechos consumados
(1981; Accomplished Facts) and El toro por las astas (1982; The
Bull by the Horns). Other works include Los olvidados (1982; The
Forgotten), La felicidad de los García (1983; The Happiness of the
Garcias), La contienda humana (1988; The Human Struggle), Isabel
desenterrada en Isabel (1989; Isabel Disenterred in Isabel), Islas de
porfiado amor (1993; Islands of Stubborn Love), El loco y la triste
(1993; The Madman and the Sad Woman), and El encuentramiento
(1996; The Encounter).

RAMA, ÁNGEL (Uruguay, 1926–1983). Critic and essayist. He was


a prominent writer whose work contributed significantly to the de-
velopment of ideas about the formation of literature and culture in

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392 • RAMÍREZ, SERGIO

Latin America since the 19th century. Although he began his career
as a writer in fiction, he soon turned to journalism and was active in
the Uruguayan periodical Marcha. He was forced into exile by the
1973 military coup in Uruguay and subsequently lived in Venezuela,
the United States, and Europe. He died in the Madrid air disaster.
Among Rama’s early works are two studies on modernismo and
Rubén Darío, Los poetas modernistas en el mercado económico
(1968; Modernist Poets in the Economic Market) and Rubén Darío y
el modernismo: circunstancia socioeconómica de un arte americano
(1970; Rubén Darío and Modernism: The Socioeconomic Circum-
stance of an American Art). In these he considered literature in its
broad social context, a trend he continued to develop in subsequent
writings: Las máscaras democráticas del modernismo (1973; The
Democratic Masks of Modernism), Los gauchipolíticos rioplatenses
(1976; Gaucho Politicians of the River Plate), and Transculturación
narrativa en América Latina (1982; Narrative Transculturation in
Latin America). Of two further books that appeared posthumously,
Literatura y clase social (1984; Literature and Social Class) and La
ciudad letrada (1984; The Lettered City), the latter, a study of the
role of discourse and the lettered class in the foundation and growth
of Latin American cities, has been particularly influential. See also
TRABA, MARTA.

RAMÍREZ, SERGIO (Nicaragua, 1942– ). Novelist, short story


writer, and essayist. He is Nicaragua’s most important prose writer.
As a member of a group of 12 prominent Nicaraguan civilians, in
1977 he endorsed the Sandinista bid to overthrow Anastasio Somoza
(1967–1979). He was part of the 1979 Government of National Re-
construction and served as vice president of Nicaragua, 1985–1990.
His early works of fiction, such as the stories in Charles Atlas
también muere (1976; Charles Atlas Also Dies); ¿Te dio miedo la
sangre? (1983; To Bury Our Fathers), a novel that tells the history
of Nicaragua under Somoza; or Castigo divino (1988; Divine Pun-
ishment), a novel representing the hypocrisy of bourgeois life in the
1930s city of León in Nicaragua, are concerned with the history and
politics of Nicaraguan society. Without abandoning this focus, he has
broadened it in subsequent works.

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RAMOS, GRACILIANO • 393

One of his most recent novels, El cielo llora por mí (2008; Heaven
Weeps for Me), for example, is a work of crime fiction. Ramírez’s
other novels include Tiempo de fulgor (1970; Time of Brightness),
Un baile de máscara (1995; Masked Ball), Margarita, está linda la
mar (1998; Margarita, How Beautiful the Sea), Sombra nada más
(2002; Nothing But Shadow), and Mil y una muertes (2004; A Thou-
sand and One Deaths). His other collections of short stories are Cata-
lina y Catalina (2001; Catalina and Catalina); El reino animal (2006;
The Animal Kingdom), which takes some unusual looks at the world
of animals; and Juego perfecto (2008; Perfect Game), which draws
on sport motifs. He has published two testimonios: La marca del
zorro (1989; Mark of Zorro), a conversation with a comandante in
the Sandinista army, and Adiós muchachos (1999; Farewell, Boys),
a retrospective on the revolution 20 years later. He is also an active
journalist and has published more than a dozen books of essays,
among which one of the most significant is El pensamiernto vivo de
Sandino (1984; The Living Thought of Sandino).

RAMOS, GRACILIANO (Brazil, 1892–1953). Novelist and short


story writer. In his memoir Infância (1945; Childhood), Ramos
recalls a somewhat unhappy childhood spent in his native Alagoas
and Pernambuco, Northeastern Brazil. His father was a stern, hard-
working cattle rancher who eventually purchased a store in Palmeira
dos Índios, where the family settled. A self-educated man, Ramos
decided to move to Rio to work as a journalist, but returned to Pal-
meira dos Índios when he learned that bubonic plague had killed
several family members. Ramos prospered in business there, got
married, and was elected mayor in 1927. During this period, he also
taught languages and contributed to newspapers, while working on
his first novel, Caetés (1933; The Caeté Indians), written in the style
of naturalism.
While convalescing from an illness, Ramos finished his novel São
Bernardo (1934; São Bernardo), the first person narrative of a rough
landowner, Paulo Honório, which secured Ramos a reputation as one
of Brazil’s most important novelists. Two more novels, Angústia
(1936; Anguish) and Vidas Secas (1938; Barren Lives), complete
a trilogy that recounts the plight of the poverty-stricken inhabitants

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394 • RAMOS, NUNO

of Northeastern Brazil. Barren Lives was adapted for the screen in


1963. From 1930 to 1936, when Ramos lived in Maceió working as a
public servant, he met and befriended important writers in the style of
regionalism, such as José Lins do Rego, Raquel de Queirós, Jorge
Amado, and Aníbal Machado, with whom he collectively wrote the
book Brandão Entre o Mar e o Amor (1942; Brandão Between the
Sea and Love).
In 1936, facing vague political accusations, Ramos was arrested
and jailed, suffering physical abuse and humiliations, as retold in his
four-volume Memórias do Cárcere (1953; Prison Memoirs), which
go beyond a personal narrative to constitute a true denunciation of
the evils of the Estado Novo (1937–1945). Released in 1937, Ramos
settled in Rio de Janeiro, where he continued publishing novels,
children’s books, and short stories, among which are Dois Dedos
(1945; Two Fingers), Histórias Incompletas (1946; Incomplete
Stories), Insônia (1947; Insomnia), A Terra dos Meninos Pelados
(1939; The Land of the Hairless Children), and Histórias de Alexan-
dre (1944; Stories by Alexander). In 1945, Ramos joined the Com-
munist Party, and he traveled to Soviet bloc countries in 1952 as
president of the Brazilian Writers’ Association, a trip remembered in
his book Viagem (1954; Voyage). Upon his return, he became very
ill, was operated on, and died less than a year later. Other nonfiction
books include Linhas Tortas (1962; Crooked Lines) and Viventes
das Alagoas (1962; Inhabitants of Alagoas). After Machado de
Assis, Ramos was considered Brazil’s greatest novelist due to the
regional themes he adopted and the objective and unadorned style
that became his signature. See also RIBEIRO, JOÃO UBALDO;
SANTIAGO, SILVIANO.

RAMOS, NUNO (Brazil, 1960– ). Short prose and short story writer.
Before turning to writing, Ramos had a successful career as a visual
artist. He became known as one of Brazil’s most creative contempo-
rary prose writers with the publication of Cujo (1993; Whose) and
Pão do Corvo (2001; Crow Bread), the first a book of aphorisms or
short reflections and second consisting of mini-stories, or microtales.
Both works focus on objects and are written in an abstract style.

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REALISM • 395

RAMOS SUCRE, JOSÉ ANTONIO (Venezuela, 1890–1930). Poet.


An erudite figure, competent in several languages, and teacher of
history, geography, and classical languages. He suffered from men-
tal illnesses and took his own life after several earlier unsuccessful
attempts. His entire work consists of collections of prose and prose
poems, some of which were first published in newspapers and peri-
odicals: Trizas de papel (1921; Shreds of Paper), Sobre las huellas de
Humboldt (1923; In the Footsteps of Humboldt), La torre de Timón
(1925; The Tower of Timón), Las formas del fuego (1929; Forms of
Fire), and El cielo de esmalte (1929; The Enamel Sky). His writing
has been considered a foreshadowing of Jorge Luis Borges and of
surrealism in Latin America.

RAZNOVICH, DIANA (Argentina, 1945– ). Dramatist. Her plays


present reality from unexpected angles and have elements of the
theater of the absurd. Four of her plays have been published in bi-
lingual editions: Defiant Acts/Actos desafiantes (2002): Desconcierto
(1981; Disconcerted), Jardín de otoño (1983; Inner Garden), Casa
Matrix (1991; MaTRIX, Inc.), and De atrás para adelante (1995;
Rear Entry). See also THEATER; WOMEN.

REALISM. In contrast to romanticism, which offered a view of the


world mediated by the senses, advocates of realism sought a more
objective description of everyday life and focused in particular on
the newly emerging middle class. Realism was established in Eu-
rope in the first half of the 19th century, notably through the work
of the French novelist Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850), but did not
gain ground in Latin America until after 1850. In the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, it coincided with other forms of realism such
as costumbrismo, naturalism, and criollismo. The major realist
novelists in Spanish America include Rafael Delgado and Emilio
Rabasa in Mexico; Joaquín García Monge in Costa Rica; Soledad
Acosta de Samper and Tomás Carrasquilla in Colombia; Enrique
Amorin and Eduardo Acevedo Díaz in Uruguay; Roberto Arlt in
Argentina; and Alberto Blest Gana, Marta Brunet, Vicente Grez,
Luis Orrego Luco, and Manuel Rojas in Chile. Realism in the the-
ater is associated with a number of dramatists, including Mauricio

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396 • REBELO, MARQUES, PSEUDONYM OF EDI DIAS DA CRUZ

Rosencof and Florencio Sánchez (Uruguay) and Carlos Somgigli-


ana (Argentina).
Realism in Brazil flourished approximately between 1870 and
1900, influenced philosophically and aesthetically by social and sci-
entific notions of progress in vogue at the time. In poetry, it assumed
the form of parnassianism and symbolism, whereas in prose it found
expression in naturalism. Prominent authors include Júlia Lopes de
Almeida, Manuel Antônio de Almeida, and Afonso Henriques
de Lima Barreta in the novel and Nelson Rodrigues in theater.
See also ASSIS, JOAQUIM MARIA MACHADO DE; AZUELA,
MARIANO; CAMPO, ÁNGEL DE; CASTELLANOS, ROSARIO;
COELHO NETO, HENRIQUE MAXIMIANO; DONOSO, JOSÉ;
ECUADOR; EL SALVADOR; GÁLVEZ, MANUEL; GRUPO DE
BOEDO; GRUPO DE FLORIDA; GRUPO DE GUAYAQUIL;
INDIGENISMO; MACHADO, DIONÉLIO; NEO-INDIGENISMO;
PORTILLO Y ROJAS, JOSÉ; REGIONALISM; WOMEN.

REBELO, MARQUES, pseudonym of EDI DIAS DA CRUZ (Bra-


zil, 1907–1973). Novelist and short story writer. Although Marques
Rebelo began as a poet, he soon switched to fiction, portraying his
experience in the army in his book of short stories, Óscarina (1931;
Óscarina), which he wrote while convalescing from a military injury.
Through the use of both irony and empathy, Marques Rebelo de-
picted the social and psychological drama of working-class people on
the north side of Rio de Janeiro: adventurous women, lower echelon
bureaucrats, drifters, samba musicians, and city dwellers. He de-
nounced inequality and representing colloquial speech, for example
in Marafa (1935; A Rake’s Life). Rebelo continues a tradition of ur-
ban narrative begun by Manuel Antônio de Almeida and continued
by Afonso Henriques de Lima Barreto. Some of his introspective
work, including Três Caminhos (1933; Three Roads) and Estela Me
Abriu a Porta (1942; Estela Answered the Door), is also based on the
author’s childhood memories. The world of radio stations inspired A
Estrela Sobe (1938; The Star Rises). The trilogy O Espelho Partido
(The Broken Mirror), encompassing O Trapicheiro (1959; The Sugar
Mill Worker), A Mudança (1962; The Move), and A Guerra Está em
Nós (1968; War Is Within Us), portrays life during Getúlio Vargas’s

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REGIONALISM • 397

Estado Novo (1937–1945) through the diary of a fictitional writer


from Rio. See also FONSECA, RUBEM.

REBOLLEDO, EFRÉN (Mexico, 1877–1929). Poet. He was an active


member of groups formed around the publication of literary journals,
notably Revista Moderna and Pegaso, which he founded in 1917 in
collaboration with Ramón López Velarde and others. His poetry
reflects the fin de siècle in its parnassianism and the eroticism of
some of his verses. It also benefited from his travels in Europe and a
seven-year residence in Japan. His poetry collections include Cuar-
zos (1902; Quartzes), Hilo de corales (1904; Thread of Coral), Estela
(1907; Wake), Joyeles (1907; Jewels), Rimas japonesas (1907 and
1917; Japanese Rhymes), and Libro de loco amor (1919; Book of
Mad Love). Caro Victrix (1916; Flesh Triumphant), a late collection
of erotic poetry, is the book on which much of Rebolledo’s reputation
depends. He also wrote several prose books, including impressions of
his travels and his life in Japan.

REGIONALISM. Regionalism in Brazilian literature is reflected in the


influence that the language and culture of the various regions of the
country have exerted on the literature. It is apparent specifically in
the representation of particularities of the spoken language and local
habits and customs that resulted from populating Brazil’s large and
varied territory at different stages of the country’s history and the iso-
lation in which in some regions remained, favoring the development
of typical regional traits. Critics trace the origins of literary regional-
ism to romanticism in writers like José de Alencar, whose novel O
Guarani (1857; The Guarani) depicted the life of the backlands man
as more authentically Brazilian than the life and customs of the Euro-
peanized court in Rio de Janeiro. Other romantic authors in this vein
include Bernardo de Guimarães and Alfredo d’Escragnolle, Vis-
conde de Taunay, who wrote works with typically romantic plots,
but against the backdrop of a particular region. In the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, the folklorist Valdomiro Silveira (1873–1941)
authored short stories that reflected the customs and language of the
state of São Paulo.
In the 20th century, the focus shifted to regional language and por-
trayal of regional motifs as constitutive elements of the literary text,

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398 • REGO CAVALCANTI, JOSÉ LINS DO

with a radical transformation to more universalized concerns under


the artistry of writers such as João Guimarães Rosa, Henrique
Maximiano Coelho Neto, Gilberto Freyre (who organized the First
Regionalist Congress in 1926 and published a Regionalist Manifesto
in 1952), Jorge de Lima, Osman Lins, Aníbal Machado, Afrânio
Peixoto, Raquel de Ramos Queirós, Graciliano Ramos, José Lins
do Rego Cavalcanti, Erico Veríssimo, and João Ubaldo Ribeiro.
Regionalism in Spanish America has characteristics similar to
those in the work of Brazilian regionalists, but was not a formally
constituted movement. It includes writers such as José López Por-
tillo y Rojas (Mexico), Tomás Carrasquilla and Manuel Mejía
Vallejo (Colombia), and Volodia Teitelboim (Chile), whose nar-
ratives generally represented the life and traditions of rural regions.
Regionalism is also associated in Spanish America with criollismo,
mundonovismo, naturalism, realism, and the novel of the land.

REGO CAVALCANTI, JOSÉ LINS DO (Brazil, 1901–1957). Nov-


elist. Born on his grandfather’s sugar plantation in Paraíba, José Lins
do Rego attended local boarding schools and then enrolled in law
school in Recife. There he also began writing for newspapers and
magazines and met some of the major intellectuals associated with
regionalism, in particular Gilberto Freyre, who greatly encouraged
his literary efforts in that vein. During a period in Maceió, he also
befriended Jorge de Lima and Graciliano Ramos, and in 1935, he
moved to Rio de Janeiro, where he led an active literary life.
Menino de Engenho (1932, Plantation Boy) was Lins do Rego’s
first and widely acclaimed novel, based on his childhood experience
of growing up on a plantation. It was followed by several others that
came to form his “Sugar Cane Cycle.” Together they recount a saga
that begins with Carlos de Mello’s childhood in Plantation Boy,
continues with his school days in Doidinho (1933; Doidinho), and
ends with his early adulthood between the city and the sugar planta-
tion in Bangüê (1934; Bangüê). O Moleque Ricardo (1935; Black
Boy Richard) and Usina (1936; The Sugar Refinery) portray the fate
of less fortunate companions of Carlos’s childhood and the periodic
droughts that plague the region. Fogo Morto (1943; Dead Fire), Lins
do Rego’s masterpiece, depicts the waning of the economy and way
of life of the plantations. Many details in these novels were drawn

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RENDÓN, VÍCTOR MANUEL • 399

from life, as his memoir Meus Verdes Anos (1956, My Tender Years)
later confirmed.
Lins do Rego claimed that his writing was spontaneous and in-
stinctive and was inspired by the itinerant singers and storytellers of
the Northeast, where he set his next cycle of novels. Pedra Bonita
(1938; Wondrous Rock) is a tragic tale of religious fanaticism, and
Cangaceiros (1953; The Bandits) depicts the phenomenon of rural
banditry that plagued that region in the early 20th century. Other
works include Pureza (1937; Pureza), Riacho Doce (1939; Fresh-
water Creek), Água-Mãe (1941; The Water Mother), and Eurídice
(1947; Eurydice). Although not all of these are set in the Northeast
or in the past, the composition still exploits the techniques of the
memoir and uses other oral devices that recall Lins do Rego’s ear-
lier novels. In collaboration with Jorge Amado, Graciliano Ramos,
Aníbal Machado, and Raquel de Queirós, he also contributed to
the second part of Brandão Entre o Mar e o Amor (1942; Brandão
Between the Sea and Love).

REIN, MERCEDES (Uruguay, 1931–2007). Dramatist, novelist,


short story writer, and critic. Her most successful play, written with
Jorge Curi, was El herrero y la muerte (1981; Ballad of the Black-
smith), based on the legend of a gaucho and his encounter with
Death. Other work for the theater includes Entre gallos y medias-
noches (1987; Between the Roosters and Midnights) and Juana de
Asbaje (1993; Juana de Asbaje), the latter on the life of Sor Juana
Inés de la Cruz. Among her works of fiction are Zoologismos (1967;
Zoologisms), Casa vacía (1984; Empty House), and Marea negra
(1996; Black Tide). The first two contain elements of fantasy and
magic. The third is the last in a trilogy concerned with the economic
decline of Uruguay since the 1960s. See also WOMEN.

RENDÓN, VÍCTOR MANUEL (Ecuador, 1859–1940). Dramatist.


Although he lived much of his life in France and wrote some of his
work in French, he is nonetheless credited with having renovated
Ecuadorian theater by steering it away from romanticism toward a
more realistic view of society and by revising how the sainete had
hitherto been known in Ecuador. His plays were published together
in 1937. The best known of these is Salus populi (Health of the

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400 • RENGIFO, CÉSAR

People), about the 19th-century president of Ecuador Gabriel García


Moreno (1861–1865, 1869–1875). Other titles include Cuadro he-
roico (Heroic Picture), Madrinas de guerra (Godmothers of War),
Hoy, ayer y mañana (Today, Yesterday and Tomorrow), El aus-
entismo (Absenteeism), Almas hermosas (Beautiful Souls), and Las
tres Victorias (The Three Victorias).

RENGIFO, CÉSAR (Venezuela, 1905–1985). Dramatist. He is con-


sidered the founder of modern theater in Venezuela and was the
author of a large number of prize-winning plays, among them Por
qué canta el pueblo (1938; Why the People Sing), La sonata del
alba (1948; Dawn Sonata), Harapos de esta noche (1948; Shreds
of Tonight), El vendaval amarillo (1952; The Yellow Storm), Un
tal Ezequiel Zamora (1956; A Certain Ezequiel Zamora), La fiesta
de los moribundos (1966; The Feast of the Dying), El raudal de los
muertos cansados (1969; The Flood of Tired Dead), Las torres y
el viento (1969; The Towers and the Wind), and Volcanes sobre el
Mapocho (1974; Volcanoes on the Mapocho). Rengifo’s plays cover
a wide range of topics, but often focus on history and politics, social
issues, and class, especially the plight of the underdog. He was also
a celebrated painter and among the influences on his work, some of
which surface in his drama, was the work of the Mexican muralist
Diego Rivera (1886–1957).

REVUELTAS, JOSÉ (Mexico, 1914–1976). Novelist and essayist.


As a member of the Mexican Communist Party, he was active in a
number of Marxist-Leninist groups. However, he often found himself
in difficulties because he was not always able to tow the party line.
Moreover, his lifelong political activism resulted in imprisonment,
including detention for the “intellectual authorship” of the student
movement suppressed by the Tlatelolco massacre in 1968. His
political writings include Ensayo sobre un proletariado sin cabeza
(1962; Essay on a Leaderless Proletariat), and some of his best pieces
are collected in México 68: juventud y revolución (1978; Mexico 68:
Youth and Revolution). His politics are also a significant source of
his literary work.
Revueltas was very drawn to the theater and wrote five plays,
as well as several screenplays. He is known mainly for his fiction,

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REYES, ALFONSO • 401

however. His first collection of short stories, Dios en la tierra (1944;


God on Earth), is framed by two stories about the religious uprising
in Mexico known as the Cristero War (1927–1929) and shows its
brutality. The content of the two collections that followed, Dormir en
tierra (1960; To Sleep on the Ground) and Material de sueños (1974;
The Stuff of Dreams), is repetitive, in that both include some of the
same stories, but the two books are thematically different. The former
deals with civil strife in Mexico; the latter is more concerned with
identifying what lies beneath the surface of appearances and seeing
into the darkness below.
Revueltas’s novels, on which his literary reputation principally
stands, are better known than his short stories. They depart from the
social realism that preceded him and are sombre works. Los muros
de agua (1941; Walls of Water) shows the influence of Russian real-
ism and is concerned with the time he spent in prison at Islas Marías.
El luto humano (1943; The Stone Knife), the author’s best-known
work, is a peasant novel dealing with 20th-century Mexican history
and has some of the characteristics of the novel of the Mexican
Revolution. This was followed by Los días terrenales (1949; Days
on Earth), about internal conflicts within the Communist Party. Then
came En algún valle de lágrimas (1956; In Some Vale of Tears), a
critique of bourgeois materialism represented through the figure of a
cruel and inhuman landowner. The next novel, Los motivos de Caín
(1957; Cain’s Motives), a critique of American imperialism set in
part during the Korean War (1950–1953), is one of the author’s most
politically orthodox novels. In Los errores (1964; Errors), however,
he returned to his difficulties with the political Left and the problems
of dogmatism. Finally, in El apando (1969; The Isolation Cell), the
theme of imprisonment resurfaced as Revueltas fictionalized the time
he spent in the prison of Lecumberri.

REYES, ALFONSO (Mexico, 1889–1959). Essayist and poet. A


prolific and very prominent literary figure in his day, much admired
for his erudition, stylistic grace, and contributions to cultural life in
Mexico. His work has since attracted considerable critical attention,
although little popular following, perhaps on account of his erudition.
As a member of the Mexican diplomatic service, he also acquired
some prominence in the literary circles of the countries to which he

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402 • REYES, JOSÉ TRINIDAD

was appointed, notably France, Spain, and Argentina. In general,


he held a humanist’s perspective on the world and an exalted view
of culture that associated him with arielismo rather than with 19th-
century positivism.
Reyes’s essays were collected in books on theory and criticism of
classical, European, and Mexican literatures, including Cuestiones
estéticas (1911; Questions of Aesthetics), El paisaje en la poesía
mexicana del siglo XIX (1911; The Landscape in 19th-Century
Mexican Poetry), and Influencia artúrica en la literatura castellana
(1938; Arthurian Influence in Spanish Literature). In his essays he
often advocated the location of Mexico and its traditions within uni-
versal culture, and one of his most frequently cited books is Visión
de Anahuac (1917; Vision of Anahuac), an evocation of preconquest
Mexico. As a translator, he produced versions from both English and
French authors, but achieved his greatest success with Ilíada (1951),
a translation of Homer’s Iliad. Reyes’s creative work includes both
prose and poetry, but he has not obtained a lasting reputation in either
genre. Of the 20 or so books of poetry he published during his life,
the best known is Ifigenia cruel (1924; Cruel Iphigenia), a dramatic
retelling of the classical story of Iphigenia.

REYES, JOSÉ TRINIDAD (Honduras, 1797–1855). Writer and


composer. A Franciscan friar and prominent cultural figure in the
first half of the 19th century, he is credited with having promoted
the cultural development of Honduras during the period after in-
dependence. He wrote school textbooks, poetry, and music and is
considered the country’s first dramatist on account of his series of
pastorelas, or Nativity plays, for which he also wrote the music. See
also THEATER; VALLE, JOSÉ CECILIO DEL.

REYLES, CARLOS (Uruguay, 1868–1938). Novelist. Although


he came from a wealthy landowning family, he spent his fortune
by 1929 on high living and agricultural enterprises and lived his
last years in poverty. He produced novels, short stories, and essays
throughout his life, but is remembered mainly as a novelist, the first
Uruguayan to become widely recognized as such. His first attempt,
Por la vida (1888; For Life), was not very successful and was greatly
surpassed by Beba (1894; Beba), a novel about Uruguayan ranch life

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RIBEIRO, DARCY • 403

that, like several of the author’s later works, adhered to naturalism.


La raza de Caín (1900; Cain’s Race) gave full expression to his anti-
intellectualism and the use of unsympathetic characters as his main
device. In later novels, Reyles maintained his readership, but rarely
changed his narrative strategies. In El terruño (1916; Plot of Land),
he took up the theme of ranch life again, and in El embrujo de Sevilla
(1922; Castanets), he drew upon his earlier life for inspiration. One
of his best novels, also one of his last, was El gaucho Florido (1932;
The Gaucho Florido), a story of the changing world of the gaucho.

RIBEIRO, DARCY (Brazil, 1922–1997). Novelist and essayist. Born


in Minas Gerais, Ribeiro studied social sciences and had a passion for
ethnography. He spent 10 years living in indigenous villages, mar-
ried an Indian woman, and published studies on native Brazilians.
He was involved in education and politics, and the 1964 military
coup forced him to flee to Uruguay. In exile, Ribeiro wrote a study
of unequal social development in the Americas, As Américas e a
Civilização (1970; The Americas and Civilization), and an essay on
national identity, Os Brasileiros: Teoria do Brasil (1972; The Bra-
zilians: Theory of Brazil), which were both later gathered under the
general title Antropologia da Civilização (1970–1997; Anthropology
of Civilization).
During the same period, he also wrote the novels Maíra, Romance
(1976; Maíra) and O Mulo (1981; The Mule), which are deeply
influenced by anthropology. Maíra, for instance, highlights the ir-
reconcilable cultural differences that set the Mairun people apart and
the unfortunate consequences of their contact with “civilization.”
O Mulo depicts the exploitative relationship between landowners
and peasants. The allegorical novel Utopia Selvagem (1982; Savage
Utopia) is a parodic, playful fable about Brazil and Latin America.
The fictional autobiography Migo (1988; My-Self), written in a self-
mocking confessional mode, reveals Ribeiro’s personal and intel-
lectual life.
Ribeiro’s writing style, particularly in his books of essays such as
Sobre o Óbvio: Ensaios Insólitos (1979; On the Obvious: Unlikely
Essays) and Aos Trancos e Barrancos: Como o Brasil Deu no que
Deu (1985; In Fits and Starts: How Brazil Came to Be), a historical
overview of Brazil from 1900 to 1980, is exuberant, sarcastic, and

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404 • RIBEIRO, JOÃO UBALDO

passionate, mirroring his flamboyant personality. His model was Gil-


berto Freyre, who achieved both literary and persuasive qualities in
his important essays on Brazilian culture. In 1976, Ribeiro returned
to Brazil and was again involved in politics. Having survived a tumor
years before, Ribeiro fell victim to cancer again in the 1990s, but
he left the hospital to finish O povo brasileiro (1995; The Brazilian
People), his final study on the anthropology of civilization.

RIBEIRO, JOÃO UBALDO (Brazil, 1941– ). Novelist and short


story writer. One of Brazil’s most innovative prose writers, João
Ubaldo Ribeiro was born on the island of Itaparica, Bahia, and grew
up in Aracajú (Sergipe) and Salvador (Bahia). A voracious reader,
as a child he would spend hours locked up in the family library. Ri-
beiro began writing for the newspapers while studying law. His first
book of short stories was Reunião (1961; Gathering). In 1962–1964,
Ribeiro lived in the United States studying public administration, but
he gave up on an academic career and returned to journalism.
Encouraged by his filmmaker friend, Glauber Rocha (1939–1981),
and Jorge Amado, Ribeiro published his first novel, Setembro Não
Tem Sentido (1968; September Makes No Sense). Two important
Brazilian narrative traditions converge in his next novel, Sargento
Getúlio (1971; Sergeant Getúlio): the traditional regionalism of
authors such as Graciliano Ramos and Raquel de Queirós and the
more universal Brazilian modernism set in the metaphysical back-
lands represented by João Guimarães Rosa. The protagonist of this
novel, the rough-and-tumble police sergeant Getúlio Santos Bezerra,
a man with 20 deaths to his name, is hired by a powerful politician to
capture and deliver a dangerous prisoner. During a journey that takes
them across miles of backlands in an old car, Getúlio narrates his life
story in a stream-of-consciousness style. Ironically, after he receives
word that the prisoner should be released, Getúlio is unable to give up
the mission and becomes an insurgent himself. Besides elaborating
on Guimarães Rosa’s figure of the rural hoodlum who philosophizes
in the midst of the arid backlands, Ribeiro also critiques the corrup-
tion and violence of the social system and contrasts the rural and the
urban, the archaic and the modern ways of life.
Ribeiro has also been acclaimed for Viva o Povo Brasileiro (1984;
An Invincible Memory), which the author himself translated into

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RIBEYRO, JULIO RAMÓN • 405

English, an account of Brazilian history from the Dutch coloniza-


tion of Rio de Janeiro in the 16th century to Getúlio Vargas’s Estado
Novo (1937–1945). The narrative, whose Portuguese title translates
literally as “Long Live the Brazilian People,” places the lowly and
oppressed people as protagonists in a saga about the formation of
Brazilian identity, hinting at the concept of miscegenation espoused
by Gilberto Freyre. Its literary style is influenced by two classical
authors from Bahia, the satirical poet Gregório de Mattos and the
Jesuit preacher Antônio Vieira.
Invited to create a novel portraying lust as a capital sin, Ribeiro
wrote A Casa dos Budas Ditosos (1999, The House of the Joyful
Buddhas), the tale, at times funny, at times shocking, of an elderly
woman on the brink of death, who reminisces about the infinite sex-
ual adventures of her life. The author claimed this was a true story he
took from an anonymous manuscript that was delivered to his door-
step. Other books by Ribeiro include Vencecavalo e o Outro Povo
(1974; Vencecavalo and the Other People), Livro de Histórias (1981;
Book of Stories), O Sorriso do Lagarto (1989; The Smile of the Liz-
ard), O Feitiço da Ilha do Pavão (1997; The Charm of the Island of
the Peacock), and Diário do Farol (2002; Diary of the Lamppost).

RIBEYRO, JULIO RAMÓN (Peru, 1929–1994). Short story writer


and novelist. Ribeyro left for Europe in 1952 and eventually settled
in Paris, where he remained, save for two short visits to Peru. In
the history of Peruvian literature, he represents the generation that
preceded Mario Vargas Llosa and Alfredo Bryce Echenique. He
wrote three novels. Crónica de San Gabriel (1960; Chronicle of San
Gabriel), the best known of the three, is the story of an adolescent
who witnesses the decline of a landowning family. Los geniecillos
dominicales (1965; The Little Weekend Geniuses) is about a group of
dissolute middle-class urban youths, and Cambio de guardia (1976;
Changing of the Guard) is concerned with a coup d’état in Peru.
Although his novels are eminently readable, Ribeyro’s reputation
rests firmly on his short stories, of which he wrote more than 80
and which earned him a considerable following, almost in spite of
himself. His stories show changes in Peru of the 1940s and 1950s
and their effects on the middle class, especially in urban settings.
His collections include Los gallinazos sin plumas (1955; Vultures

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406 • RICARDO LEITE, CASSIANO

Without Feathers), Cuentos de circunstancias (1958; Tales of Cir-


cumstances), Las botellas y los hombres (1964; Bottles and Men),
and Tres historias sublevantes (1964; Three Rebellious Stories). His
Cuentos completos (Complete Short Stories) were published in 1992.
He also published a miscellaneous collection of essays, Prosas apá-
tridas (1975; Unpatriotic Writings) and wrote eight plays. See also
THEATER; VALDELOMAR, ABRAHAM.

RICARDO LEITE, CASSIANO (Brazil, 1895–1974). Poet. The


evolution of Cassiano Ricardo’s poetry mirrors the transformations
of Brazilian poetry in the 20th century. Born in the interior of São
Paulo, he received a law degree but worked as a journalist and held
public office. Somewhat belatedly, he adhered to the trend of Brazil-
ian modernism he had once opposed. Ricardo’s early work began as
late symbolism, with Dentro da Noite (1915; Inside the Night), and
adapted the style of parnassianism in Evangelho de Pã (1917; Pan’s
Gospel), Jardim das Hespérides (1920; The Garden of the Hesperi-
ads), Atalanta: A Mentirosa de Olhos Verdes (1923; Atalanta: The
Green-Eyed Liar), and A Frauta de Pã (1925; Pan’s Flute), volumes
written in fixed forms with regular meter and rife with references to
classical mythology.
Borrões de Verde e Amarelo (1926; Green and Yellow Drafts)
and Vamos Caçar Papagaios (1926; Let’s Go Parrot Hunting) were
Ricardo’s first modernist volumes that also embraced the nationalist
ideals he would develop with Plínio Salgado and Menotti del Pic-
chia in the “Manifesto do Verdeamarelismo ou de Escola da Anta”
(1929; Manifesto of the Green-Yellow Movement of the School of
the Tapir). The goal of this nationalist trend was to construct a mod-
ern cultural identity for Brazil based on its Amerindian elements and
culminating in a contemporary multiracial and multicultural society
as a result of miscegenation. Hence, Ricardo’s most ambitious poem,
Martim Cererê (1928; Martim Cererê), resembles similar attempts
by Mário de Andrade in Macunaíma and Raúl Bopp’s Cobra
Norato. But unlike the pan-Brazilian impulse of these works, which
focused on different regions of Brazil, Ricardo’s work centered more
and more on the region of São Paulo, creating a narrative that went
from the early Indian settlements to the urban coffee affluence of
São Paulo.

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RIO, JOÃO DO, PSEUDONYM OF PAULO BARRETO • 407

Abandoning the nationalist and picturesque mode, the postwar


period inspired in Ricardo poems with a more universal appeal and
a more inner reflection. Among them are Um Dia Depois do Outro
(1947; One Day After Another), O Sangue das Horas (1943; The
Blood of the Days), and A Face Perdida (1950; The Lost Face),
which are lyrical meditations on modern daily life. O Arranha-Céu
de Vidro (1956; The Glass Skyscraper), Montanha Russa (1960;
Rollercoaster), A Difícil Manhã (1960; The Difficult Dawn), Jer-
emias sem Chorar (1964; Jeremiah Without Crying), and Os Sobre-
viventes (1971; The Survivors) focus on the Cold War atomic age and
universal concerns. Ricardo also continued his quest for innovation
by experimenting with avant-garde trends such as concrete poetry.
See also VERDEAMARELISMO.

RÍO, ANA MARÍA DEL (Chile, 1948). Novelist and short story
writer. One of Chile’s prominent contemporary women writers, Del
Río’s first works of fiction appeared toward the end of the regime
of Augusto Pinochet (1974–1990). Her writing is often subversive,
touching on subjects that remain unspoken, such as autoeroticism
and the female discovery of the body. Her collections of short stories
include Entreparéntesis (1983; Between Parentheses) and Gato por
liebre (1995; Conned). She has published two novellas, Óxido de
Cármen (1986; Carmen’s Rust) and Siete días de la señora K (1993;
Señora K’s Seven Days), and the novels De golpe, Amalia en el um-
bral (1990; Suddenly, Amalia at the Door), Tiempo que ladra (1991;
Barking Time), A tango abierto (1996; With an Open Tango), and La
esfera media del aire (1998; The Middle Sphere of the Air).

RIO, JOÃO DO, pseudonym of PAULO BARRETO (Brazil 1881–


1921). Journalist, chronicler, short story writer, and dramatist. The
son of a math professor and a mulatto woman, Barreto was educated
by his father and began writing young. An openly gay man, influ-
enced by the decadent French writer Jean Lorrain (1855–1906) and
Óscar Wilde (1854–1900), some of his short stories in collections
such as Dentro da Noite (1910; Inside the Night), A Mulher e os Es-
pelhos (1911; The Woman and the Mirrors), Rosário de Ilusão (n.d.;
Rosary of Illusion), and A Correspondência de uma Estação de Cura
(1918; Correspondence from a Sanatorium) deal with gay and sexual

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408 • RIVA PALACIO, VICENTE

themes that were taboo in his time. His cosmopolitan and refined
demeanor and his writing also reflect the aesthetics of decadence and
dandyism in vogue at the time. Barreto chose “João do Rio” as his
pen name following the example of Jean de Paris, a columnist from
the French newspaper Le Figaro. He had a number of other pseu-
donyms, including Godofredo de Alencar, who, in Crônicas e Frases
de Godofredo de Alencar (1916; Chronicles and Phrases of Godo-
fredo de Alencar), had a fictional biography of his own, much like the
heteronyms of the Portuguese writer Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935).
João do Rio was the first writer to seriously engage in social
chronicle writing for journals such as Cidade do Rio, Gazeta de
Notícias, O País, Rio-Jornal, Revista Atlântica, and A Pátria, the
last two of which he cofounded. Some of these texts were gathered
in O Momento Literário (n.d.; The Literary Moment). With greater
literary ambitions and written in an original and agile style, As Re-
ligiões do Rio (1906; The Religions of Rio), investigative journalism
about Afro-Brazilian religions, and A Alma Encantadora das Ruas
(1918; The Charming Soul of the Streets), reports on street culture,
also have value as documents charting the modernization of Rio
de Janeiro and its changing life. As a writer for the theater, Bar-
reto staged A Bela Madame Vargas (n.d.; The Beautiful Madame
Vargas) in 1912 with great success. He also founded the Brazilian
Society for Theater Authors.
His frankness about sexual taboos and ironic style earned him
many enemies and explain the controversy surrounding his death.
Some claim he died of a heart attack in a taxi when leaving the
newspaper office where he worked. Others think he died as a result
of injuries he had received earlier from a group of sailors, probably
hired by one of his enemies. His funeral was attended by more than
100,000 people. Recently he has inspired documentary films and
literary soirées in the city he helped immortalize in his chronicles.

RIVA PALACIO, VICENTE (Mexico, 1832–1896). Novelist.


Although he trained as a lawyer, he enlisted in the war against the
French intervention (1862–1867) and rose to the rank of general. He
tried his hand at theater and poetry, but found his forte in the novel.
His first was Calvario y Tabor (1868; Calvary and Tabor), based

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RIVERA, ANDRÉS • 409

on his military experiences. Thereafter, he turned to the historical


novel, becoming one of the first in Mexico to write in the genre, so-
metimes known as the colonial novel in Mexico. For the most part,
he located his stories in the colonial period, but not without taking
some liberties, notwithstanding his generally careful documentation.
In the space of three years he wrote five more novels: Martín Ga-
ratuza (1868; Martin Garatuza), Monja y casada, virgen y mártir
(1886; Nun and Wife, Virgin and Martyr), Las dos emparedadas
(1869; Two Walled Up Women), Los piratas del Golfo (1869; Pirates
of the Gulf), La vuelta de los muertos (1870; Return of the Dead),
and Memorias de un impostor, D. Guillén de Lampart, rey de México
(1872; Memoirs of an Imposter, Don Guillen de Lampart, King of
Mexico), which is considered to be one of the sources of the fictional
character Zorro. During the same period he also wrote a series of
short stories noted for their humor, published posthumously as Cuen-
tos del general (Tales by the General). His other writings include a
collection of poems, Flores del alma (1875; Flowers of the Soul), pu-
blished under the pseudonym Rosa Espino, and a history of Mexico.

RIVERA, ANDRÉS (Argentina, 1928– ). Novelist. Born Marcos Ri-


bak, the son of immigrant parents, he was once a textile worker. His
first novels, El precio (1957; The Price), Los que no mueren (1959;
Those Who Don’t Die), Sol de sábado (1962; Saturday’s Sun), and
Cita (1965; Appointment), were written within the context of his
membership of the Argentinean Communist Party, which he joined
in 1945 and from which he was expelled in 1964, and are highly
political. In 1972, he published a collection of short stories, Ajustes
de cuentas (Settling the Score), in the tradition of crime fiction,
based on works by the Americans Dashiell Hammett (1894–1961)
and Raymond Chandler (1888–1959). He then published nothing for
10 years, until the appearance of the novel Una lectura de la historia
(1982; A Reading of History), in which he revealed a style free of the
political didacticism that had characterized his earlier work.
Rivera’s subsequent work has gained enormously in popularity,
with the publication of a string of novels, among which are La revo-
lución es un sueño eterno (1987; Revolution Is an Eternal Dream),
Los vencedores no dudan (1989; Winners Have No Doubts), El
amigo de Baudelaire (1991; Baudelaire’s Friend), La sierva (1992;

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410 • RIVERA, JOSÉ EUSTASIO

The Servant), El verdugo en el umbral (1994; Executioner on the


Threshold), El profundo sur (1999; Deep South), Tierra de exilio
(2000; Land of Exile), Hay que matar (2001; A Need to Kill), El
manco Paz (2003; One-Armed Paz), Cría de asesinos (2004; Brood
of Assassins), and Esto por ahora (2005; No More for Now). Sev-
eral of his novels are historical, exhibiting some of the elements of
the new historical novel, notably El farmer (1996; The Farmer),
Rivera’s most popular work, which describes the former dictator
Juan Manuel Rosas living in exile in England. Like some of his
compatriots, Rivera turns to the past as a way to draw attention to the
violence of his own time.

RIVERA, JOSÉ EUSTASIO (Colombia, 1888–1928). Novelist. He


would initially have liked to have made his name as a poet and pub-
lished Tierra de promisión (1921; Promised Land), a collection of
55 sonnets, with some touches of modernismo about them, describ-
ing the different regions of Colombia. He is remembered, however,
for his second book, the novel La vorágine (1924; The Vortex), one
of the classics of Latin American literature. Although the work may
be read as a denunciation of the treatment of rubber workers, it is,
above all, a landmark novel of the land in which previous romantic
representations are set aside and the jungle is shown to be a force
of nature.

ROA BASTOS, AUGUSTO (Paraguay, 1917–2005). Novelist and


short story writer. Although he lived much of his life in exile, he
was Paraguay’s most important writer of the 20th century and is a
significant figure of Latin American literature. He had begun his
literary career as a dramatist, but turned to fiction after 1947 when
he first left Paraguay, remaining in exile thereafter to escape the re-
gime of Alfredo Stroessner (1954–1989). His first collection of short
stories was El trueno entre las hojas (1953; Thunder Among the
Leaves), in which he covered 100 years of Paraguayan history and
addressed the social concerns that are central to his work as a whole.
Other collections appeared at intervals throughout his life. Notable
among them are El baldío (1966; The Vacant Lot), Madera quemada
(1967; Burnt Wood), and Morencia (1971; Dying). Roa Bastos is
best known, however, for two dictator novels, Hijo de hombre

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ROBLEDO, HERNÁN • 411

(1960; Son of Man) and Yo, el supremo (1974; I, the Supreme), both
concerned with Paraguayan history. The former is centered on resis-
tance to dictatorship from the mid-19th century to the conflict with
Bolivia known as the Chaco War (1932–1935), which the author
experienced in his youth. The theme of resistance relates the novel to
indigenismo, and the style of writing has some of the characteristics
of magic realism.
Yo, el supremo, one of the major works of 20th-century Latin
American fiction, focuses on the life of José Gaspar Rodríguez de
Francia (1766–1840), who ruled Paraguay from 1814 until 1840.
The novel has a particularly complex narrative structure. It appears
as a compilation of a large amount of historical documents, some-
times presented in the manner of modern history, including footnotes
and clarifications. Much of the text is ostensibly dictated by Francia
himself to his secretary Patiño, who also intervenes in the presen-
tation of materials, such that the true version of events is obscured
and the exact nature of Francia’s rule and the history of Paraguay
remains ambiguous. The neo-baroque style of the novel thus serves
the purpose of exemplifying the constant rewriting of history and the
difficulty of obtaining an objective view of it, characteristics it has
in common with the Latin American new historical novel. After this
major work, Roa Bastos published several other novels, including Vi-
gilia del admirante (1992; The Admiral’s Vigil), about Christopher
Columbus; El fiscal (1993; The Prosecutor); Contravida (1994;
Counterlife); and Madama Sui (1995; Madam Sui), the story of a
Japanese admirer of Eva Duarte de Perón. He was unable to reach
the same heights achieved in his more celebrated novel, however. See
also PLA, JOSEFINA.

ROBLEDO, HERNÁN (Nicaragua, 1892–1969). Novelist and dra-


matist. Of his dozen novels, the first two, Sangre en el trópico (1930;
Blood in the Tropics) and Los estrangulados (1933; Strangulated),
both about American intervention in Nicaragua, were the most suc-
cessful. He also wrote two narratives of the Mexican Revolution:
La mascota de Pancho Villa (1934; Pancho Villa’s Mascot) and
Obregón, Toral y la madre Conchita (1935; Obregón, Toral, and
Mother Conchita). As a dramatist, he introduced costumbrismo to
the theater in Nicaragua, La rosa del paraíso (1920; The Rose of

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412 • RODÓ, JOSÉ ENRIQUE

Paradise) being his most acclaimed work in that vein. He also wrote
political dramas, such as Pájaros del norte (1982; Birds from the
North), about the U.S. intervention. Other plays include El milagro
(1921; The Miracle), La señorita que arrojó el antifaz (1928; The
Woman Who Tore off the Mask), and a set of three dramas, all from
1946: La cruz de ceniza (Cross of Ashes), La niña soledad (Solitude
Child), and Muñecos de barro (Mud Puppets).

RODÓ, JOSÉ ENRIQUE (Uruguay, 1871–1917). Essayist. He was


also a journalist, university professor, and politician who was twice
elected to Congress in Uruguay. He was widely known in his time,
and his writings, which are frequently republished, continue to at-
tract readers and critics. This is especially true of two of his earliest
essays: Rubén Darío (1899; Rubén Darío) and Ariel (1900; Ariel).
The first is a critique of Prosas profanas by the Nicaraguan poet
Rubén Darío, which influenced the direction taken by both the
poet’s future work and modernismo. Ariel, however, has obtained
a wider and more enduring continental recognition. Borrowing
from Shakespeare’s The Tempest, Rodó represents Prospero as a
professor lecturing to his students about the nature of America. He
identifies Latin America with values represented by the spirit Ariel
from Shakespeare’s play and Mediterranean cultural traditions, in
contrast to North American utilitarianism and materialism. Rodó’s
essay, the source of arielismo, has continued to resonate in dis-
cussions of the development of Latin American cultural identity,
although the figure of Ariel has in some contexts been displaced by
Caliban as a more representative symbol of the continent. Other es-
says by Rodó include the collections Motivos de Proteo (1909; The
Motives of Proteus), a discussion of change and the evolution of the
human personality, and El mirador de Próspero (1913; Prospero’s
Observatory), essays on historical and literary topics. See also
BOTELHO GONSÁLVEZ, RAÚL; RODRÍGUEZ MONEGAL,
EMIR; VAZ FERREIRA, MARÍA EUGENIA; ZORRILLA DE
SAN MARTÍN, JUAN.

RODRIGUES, NELSON (Brazil, 1912–1980). Dramatist and jour-


nalist. Considered the most prominent Brazilian playwright of the
20th century, Rodrigues was born in Recife, where his father was a

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RODRIGUES, NELSON • 413

journalist. Due to political problems, the family moved to Rio when


Rodrigues was young, eventually relocating from the lower-middle-
class Zona Norte to the more affluent Zona Sul when Rodrigues
was a teenager. His experience growing up in these neighborhoods
would be crucial for the characters he developed later in his plays.
Rodrigues began writing with success in the family newspaper when
he was 14, but in 1929 his brother, a graphic artist, was shot by a
woman whose divorce was exposed in the paper, and his father died
shortly after as a result of the shock. Rodrigues was then forced to
take on a number of different jobs and was diagnosed with tubercu-
losis, a disease he fought on and off for the rest of his life.
His first play, A Mulher sem Pecado (1948; The Woman With-
out Sin), received mixed reviews when performed in 1939, but his
second and perhaps most famous piece, Vestido de Noiva (1944;
The Wedding Dress), was a resounding success when it was staged
in 1943. In this play, considered by many a watershed in Brazilian
theater, the author explored the psychology of a car accident victim
by dividing the stage into three parts that represented the character’s
memories, the actual events, and the delusions she suffered while
on the operating table. Rodrigues’s next play, Album de Família
(1946; Family Album), a story of incest, rape, and murder plaguing
a family, was banned from the stage for some 20 years. Nelson
Rodrigues wrote a total of 17 plays, which critics have divided into
psychological plays, mythical plays, and Rio tragedies. Anjo Negro
(1948; Black Angel) and A Senhora dos Afogados (1956; The Lady
of the Drowned), a tale of incest and murder by drowning, belong
to the second category. A Falecida (1956; The Deceased Woman),
Boca de Ouro (1960; Gold Mouth), O Beijo no Asfalto (1961; The
Kiss on the Asphalt), Bonitinha, mas Ordinária (1965; Pretty But
Vulgar), and Toda Nudez Será Castigada (1966; All Nudity Will
Be Punished) are all Rio tragedies, and some were adapted for the
screen. Rodrigues’s theater insistently explores sexual taboos such as
adultery, incest, and homosexuality, and he deliberately saw himself
as exposing the darker side of human nature in the style of realism,
although his narratives are often nonlinear. He also introduced the
use of the vernacular on the stage and focused on the lives of the or-
dinary, lower-middle-class people of Rio, elevating their obsessions
to tragic heights.

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414 • RODRÍGUEZ ALCALÁ, HUGO

His unabashed treatment of moral degradation alienated Rodrigues


from bourgeois conservatives. Ironically, critics see him as a conser-
vative who, longing for a past order, supported the military regime
that took power in 1964 and vehemently fought communism while
still protesting against censorship and maintaining contacts with
left-wing intellectuals. After his death, commemorative stagings of
his plays and the publication of his Teatro Completo (1981–1989;
Complete Theater) in four volumes helped seal his reputation as one
of Brazil’s greatest dramatists.

RODRÍGUEZ ALCALÁ, HUGO (Paraguay, 1917– 2007). Critic.


Among his more than 50 books there is some poetry, including the
collections Estampas de la guerra (1937; Scenes from the War),
based on his experiences in the Chaco War (1932–1935); La dicha
apenas dicha (1968; Happiness Hardly Spoken); and El canto del
aljibe (1973; Song of the Well), as well as at least two volumes of
stories: Relatos del norte y del sur (1983; Tales from the North and
the South) and El ojo del bosque (1985; Eye of the Forest). After
teaching for 40 years in North American universities, however, he
is best known for his books on literature and culture, among which
are El arte de Juan Rulfo (1965; The Art of Juan Rulfo), Historia de
la literatura paraguaya (1970; History of Paraguayan Literature),
La incógnita de Paraguay y otros ensayos (1987; The Mystery of
Paraguay and Other Essays), and Poetas y prosistas pararuayos y
otros breves ensayos (1988; Paraguayan Poets and Prose Writers and
Other Short Essays).

RODRÍGUEZ FREYLE, JUAN (Colombia, ca. 1566–ca. 1640).


Chronicler. He was the author of a chronicle known as El Carnero,
a book that according to its original (very long) title purports to be a
history of the founding of Colombia (formerly known as New Gra-
nada) and the foundation of its capital, Santa Fe de Bogotá. However,
with the exception of its opening chapters, rather than being a history
of conquest and colonization, it is a collection of stories about the
social and bureaucratic life of the city. The unlikely title El Carnero,
of which the meaning is uncertain, possibly comes from the author’s
nickname. The book was probably written between 1636 and 1638,
but was not published until 1859.

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ROJAS, ÁNGEL FELICÍSIMO • 415

RODRÍGUEZ MONEGAL, EMIR (Uruguay, 1921–1985). Critic.


He was among the 20th-century’s most notable critics and promoters
of Latin American literature and a prolific writer. His involvement
in literary and cultural journals included the Uruguayan publication
Marcha, to which he contributed for almost 15 years. More impor-
tant, he founded Mundo Nuevo, a journal he also edited for two years
in Paris (1966–1968) and made into a significant vehicle for the
dissemination and publicizing of the boom writers, a term he is said
to have coined. As a critic, he wrote on Pablo Neruda, Jorge Luis
Borges, Eduardo Acevedo Díaz, Andrés Bello, Enrique Rodó,
Mário de Andrade, and Horacio Quiroga, among others. His major
books include José Enrique Rodó en el novecientos (1950; Enrique
Rodó in the 1900s), Las raíces de Horacio Quiroga (1961; Hora-
cio Quiroga’s Roots), Eduardo Acevedo Díaz, dos versiones de un
mismo tema (1963; Eduardo Acevedo Díaz: Two Versions of a Sin-
gle Theme), Literatura uruguaya de medio siglo (1966; Uruguayan
Literature at Mid-Century), El otro Andrés Bello (1969; The Other
Andrés Bello), and Jorge Luis Borges: A Literary Biography (1978).

ROFFÉ, REINA (Argentina, 1951– ). Novelist. Writing from a


feminist perspective, the themes of lesbianism and female sexuality,
women in society, and the politics of Argentina figure prominently
in her novels. The first of these was Llamado al Puf (1973; Called to
Puf), followed by Monte de Venus (1976; Mount of Venus), which
was banned by the military government; La rompiente (1987; The
Breaker); and El cielo dividido (1996; The Divided Sky), which
narrates the endeavors of a woman to reestablish her life in Buenos
Aires after a period of exile in the United States. She has written a
book on Juan Rulfo, Juan Rulfo: autobiografía armada (1973; Juan
Rulfo: An Assembled Autobiography), and one of her more recent
works of fiction is a collection of short stories, Aves exóticas: cinco
cuentos con mujeres raras (2004; Exotic Birds: Five Stories with
Rare Women), in which she continues to explore the condition of
women in a patriarchal society.

ROJAS, ÁNGEL FELICÍSIMO (Ecuador, 1909–2003). Novelist.


His fiction is set mainly in southern Ecuador and may be associ-
ated with indigenismo because of his treatment of Native American

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416 • ROJAS, GONZALO

themes, albeit without the episodes of violence characteristic of much


of the writing in that trend. His first novel was Banca (1938; Bench),
the autobiographical tale of a young student learning about life. It
was followed by Un idilio bobo (1948; A Foolish Idyll), a collec-
tion of short stories, several of which have indigenous themes. His
most significant work of fiction, however, was El éxodo de Yangana
(1949; Exodus from Yangana), a story of the migration of an entire
community into the jungle after the death of a white man. Rojas also
wrote many essays on Ecuadorian literature and culture, notably La
novela ecuatoriana (1948; The Ecuadorian Novel).

ROJAS, GONZALO (Chile, 1917– ). Poet. He is a prolific writer,


the author of about 60 books, and one of Chile’s most significant
contemporary poets. After a flirtation with surrealism during the
period 1938–1943, he adopted a more independent position, although
that trend has continued to figure in his aesthetics. His first book, La
miseria del hombre (1948; The Miseries of Man), was an austere col-
lection, marked by the author’s political militancy. Contra la muerte
(1965; Against Death), his second volume, did not appear until al-
most 20 years later. By that time, he had begun to move in literary
and university circles and to represent Chile diplomatically. His asso-
ciation with the government of Salvador Allende (1970–1973) forced
him into exile in 1973, however. Denied the possibility of holding a
university appointment in Chile, Rojas taught at universities in Eu-
rope, Venezuela, and the United States, before returning to his own
country in 1994. By then he was an established literary personality.
Rojas’s reputation and firm following were first acquired with
Oscuro (1977; Dark), and he has published steadily ever since. He
also adopted the practice of making each new book he published a
combination of old and new poems, a process he saw as a gradual
movement toward unity in his work. At the same time, he ordered the
poems into three main categories, the spiritual, love and sexuality,
and the world around him, although these divisions are not observed
absolutely. Of the many books of poetry that Rojas has published in
the last 30 years, the following are some of the most representative:
Del relámpago (1981; Lightning), 50 poemas (1982; 50 Poems), El
alumbrado (1986; Lighting), Materia de testamento (1988; Testa-
mentary Matter), Esquizotexto y otros poemas (1988; Schizotext

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ROJAS, RICARDO • 417

and Other Poems), Desocupado lector (1990; Idle Reader), Las her-
mosas: poesías de amor (1992; The Beautiful: Love Poems), Cinco
Visiones (1992; Five Visions), Diálogo con Ovidio (1999; Dialogue
with Ovid), ¿Qué se ama cuando se ama? (2000; What Is Loved
When You Love?), Velocities of the Possible (2000), and Requiem
de la mariposa (2001; Requiem for a Butterfly).

ROJAS, MANUEL (Chile, 1896–1973). Novelist and short story


writer. He was born in Buenos Aires and spent his early life between
Argentina and Chile. In his youth he was drawn to the anarchist
politics of the day and earned his living at jobs that led him to travel
widely in Argentina and Chile and to become familiar with working-
class life. Although his first literary successes were in poetry, he is
best known for his fiction, for which he drew on his own life experi-
ences, writing in a style that made him a significant figure in Latin
American realism. His first works of fiction were three collections
of short stories: Hombres del sur (1926; Men from the South), El
delincuente (1929; The Delinquent), and Travesía (1934; Crossing),
which consisted mainly of versions of his own experiences or stories
he had heard.
Although Rojas republished his stories in various anthologies
along with a few new texts, he then abandoned the genre in favor
of the novel. Lanchas en la bahía (1932; Barges in the Bay), a
short coming-of-age narrative set in Valparaíso, was his first. La
ciudad de los Césares (1938; City of the Caesars), a longer work,
came next. Rojas’s best-known work, Hijo de ladrón (1951; Born
Guilty), appeared over 10 years later. In this novel he began a cycle
of works in the manner of the picaresque tradition, centered on the
autobiography of Aniceto Hevía, the author’s literary alter ego. The
cycle includes Mejor que el vino (1958; Better Than Wine), Punta
de rieles (1960; Railway Points), Sombras contra el muro (1964;
Shadows Against the Wall), and La vida oscura radiante (1971; The
Dark Shining Life). It features a large cast of characters and is set in
the working world of the 1920s.

ROJAS, RICARDO (Argentina, 1882–1957). Essayist, poet, and


dramatist. Although he contributed to several genres, his greatest
impact came from his essays, which made him a prominent public

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418 • ROKHA, PABLO DE

intellectual during the first half of the 20th century. In volumes such
as El alma española (1908; The Spanish Soul), La restauración na-
cionalista (1909; The Nationalist Restoration), and La argentinidad:
ensayo histórico sobre nuestra conciencia nacional en la gesta de la
emancipación 1810–1816 (1910; Argentineanness: Historical Essay
on Our National Consciousness During the Movement for Freedom,
1810–1816), he proposed an idea of the nation that incorporated
Argentina’s indigenous people and the country’s colonial past. His
advocacy of national values is also expressed in biographies of
prominent Argentineans, notably his life of the liberator José de
San Martín (1778–1850), El santo de la espada (1933; San Martín,
Knight of the Andes), and his life of Domingo Faustino Sarmiento,
El profeta de la pampa (1945; Prophet of the Pampas). Rojas also
wrote on literature, and his works include La literatura argentina:
ensayo filosófico sobre la evolución de la cultura en la Plata (4
vols., 1917–1922; Argentinean Literature: Philosophical Essay on
the Evolution of Culture on the River Plate), one of the first attempts
at a systematic history of literature in Argentina.

ROKHA, PABLO DE (Chile, 1894–1968). Poet. Born Carlos Ignacio


Díaz Loyola, he was a controversial, not to say eccentric, figure,
whose relationship with cultural institutions was generally prob-
lematic and who maintained an ongoing feud with several of his
contemporaries. Of these, the most celebrated was Pablo Neruda,
whom Rokha accused of plagiarism and excoriated on various occa-
sions, most notably in the two-volume Neruda y yo (1955; Neruda
and Me). Rokha’s first book, Versos de infancia (1916; Childhood
Verses), still showed some of the characteristics of romanticism,
but also some of the author’s anarchist leanings. His first major
work was Los gemidos (1922; Moans), a long prose poem that
showed him to be one of the first Latin American authors to have
assimilated the avant-garde and surrealism. It represented a break
with tradition and was not well received, perhaps for that reason,
although Rokha would go on to write more than 30 more books of
poetry. He wrote mainly in response to what was happening in his
own life and the world around him, and most of his poetry was self-
published and distributed.

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ROMANTICISM • 419

Cosmogonía (1925; Cosmogony), a book about the author’s per-


sonal dilemmas, was followed by others that had a more political
outlook. Rokha joined the Communist Party in 1932 and remained
a member until he was expelled in 1940. Escritura de Raimundo
Contreras (1929; Writing by Raimundo Contreras) is about the life
of a peasant. Jesucristo (1933; Jesus Christ) and Moisés (1937; Mo-
ses) focus on the epic hero and social compromise. Imprecación a la
bestia fascista (1937; Curse on the Fascist Beast) and Cinco cantos
rojos (1938; Five Red Songs) are both works of socialist realism, the
second in praise of prominent figures from the Soviet Union. Several
books are a response to World War II. Morfología del espanto (1942;
Morphology of Terror) is a search for a way out from the violence
of war and history; Canto al ejército rojo (1944; Song for the Red
Army) was written in praise of Soviet resistance to the German in-
vasion; and Los poemas continentales (1945; Continental Poems) is
dedicated to the American fight against the Axis powers. Rokha’s
remaining books of poetry include Fuego negro (1951; Black Fire),
written on the occasion of the death of his wife, and Canto de fuego
a China Popular (1963; Song of Fire to the People’s Republic of
China) and China roja (1964; Red China), both written after a visit
to China in 1962–1963.
In addition to his poetry, Rokha also published several prose
works, among which were a book of travels, Carta magna del conti-
nente (1949; Continental Magna Carta) and others on life and culture:
Idioma del mundo (1958; Language of the World), Genio del pueblo
(1960; Genius of the People), Estilo de masas (1965; Style of the
Masses), and Epopeya de las bebidas y comidas de Chile (1965; Epic
of Chilean Food and Drink). He died by his own hand a few months
after one of his sons also committed suicide.

ROMANTICISM. Although a complex aesthetic and political move-


ment in its origins in Europe, romanticism became established in
Latin America in a somewhat diluted form through French and
Spanish influence toward the end of the first half of the 19th century,
by which time the movement had already declined in Europe. Ro-
manticism in Latin America endured well into the second half of the
century and coincided while still at its height with the early stages

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420 • ROMANTICISM

of realism. The debates about literary form, which marked some of


romanticism’s early passage in Europe, were of lesser significance
in Latin America, where an increased sensibility toward nature and
human relations and an awakening sense of nationalism in the newly
independent republics were among the principal characteristics.
The sentimental novel, modeled on European counterparts, be-
came an especially appropriate vehicle through which to convey both
a romantic sensibility and the problems experienced by the fledgling
societies of the continent. Its most prominent examples include
Amalia (1851; Amalia), by José Mármol from Argentina; María
(1867; María: A South American Romance) by Jorge Isaacs from
Colombia; Iracema (1865; Iracema), by José de Alencar; A Escrava
Isaura (1875; The Slave Isaura), by Bernardo Joaquim de Silva
Guimarães, and A Moreninha (1844; The Dark Girl), by Joaquim
Manuel de Macedo, from Brazil; Clemencia (1869; Clemencia), by
the Mexican Ignacio Manuel Altamirano; and Cumandá (1879;
Cumandá), by the Ecuadorian Juan León Mera. The emergence
of a sense of nation was also fostered by a recourse to history, such
as in the tradiciones of Ricardo Palma (Peru), the history of Brazil
by Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, and the historical novel by
Vicente López Fidel (Argentina). Similar objectives were expressed
through confrontations with the primitive worlds of nature and the
native peoples of the Americas in verse narratives such as El gaucho
Martín Fierro (1872; The Gaucho Martín Fierro), by the Argen-
tinean José Hernández; the indianist epics Os Timbiras (1857; The
Timbiras) and I-Juca Pirama (1851; I-Juca Pirama), by the Brazilian
Antônio Gonçalves Dias; and Tabaré (1888; Tabaré: An Indian
Legend of Uruguay), by the Uruguayan Juan Zorilla de San Mar-
tín, which are among some of Latin America’s foundational texts.
Although romantic lyric verse had some notable exponents, such
as Manuel José Othón (Mexico), José Batres Montúfar (Guate-
mala), Casimiro José Marques de Abreu, Manuel Antônio Álva-
res de Azevedo, Domingos José Gonçalves de Magalhães (Brazil),
and Esteban Echeverría (Argentina), the lyric had less impact. A
more profound revolution in poetry would come later, first through
modernismo and then through the avant-garde in Spanish America
and through parnassianism, symbolism, and Brazilian modernism
in Brazil. See also ACEVEDO DÍAZ, EDUARDO; ACUÑA DE FI-

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ROMERO, JOSÉ RUBÉN • 421

GUEROA, FRANCISCO; ASSIS, JOAQUIM MARIA MACHADO


DE; AZEVEDO, ALUÍSIO; CABELLO DE CARBONERA, MER-
CEDES; CHILE; CHOCANO, JOSÉ SANTOS; CORREIA, RAI-
MUNDO; DARÍO, RUBÉN; EL SALVADOR; EPIC POETRY;
GAMERO, LUCILA; INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS; NÚÑEZ,
RAFAEL; OLIVEIRA, ALBERTO DE; PARAGUAY; PAYNO,
MANUEL; REGIONALISM; RENDÓN, VÍCTOR MANUEL;
ROKHA, PABLO DE; ROMERO, SÍLVIO; SILVA, JOSÉ ASUN-
CIÓN; SOUSA, JOÃO DA CRUZ E; SOUSÂNDRADE, JOAQUIM
DE; URBINA, LUIS G.; WOMEN.

ROMERO, ELVIO (Paraguay, 1926–2004). Poet. Political conditions


in Paraguay forced him into exile in 1947. He lived in Argentina for
the rest of his life, although he remained spiritually attached to his
native land and is considered one of his country’s most important
20th-century poets. His early works, Días roturados (1948; Plowed
Days), Resoles áridos (1950; Dry Heat Hazes), and El sol bajo las
raíces (1956; The Sun Beneath the Roots), showed his social and po-
litical militancy. De cara al corazón (1961; Facing the Heart) and Un
relámpago herido (1967; A Wounded Streak of Lightning) are both
about love. In El libro de la migración (1966; Book of Migration)
and Los valles imaginarios (1985; Imaginary Valleys), he narrated
popular Guaraní legends. Later books include Esta guitarra dura
(1967; This Hard Guitar), Los innombrables (1970; The Unmention-
able), and Destierro y atardecer (1975; Exile and Evening). El poeta
y sus encrucijadas (1991; The Poet and His Dilemmas), one of his
last books, received Paraguay’s National Prize for Literature the year
the prize was inaugurated.

ROMERO, JOSÉ RUBÉN (Mexico, 1890–1952). Novelist. He was


an unsuccessful poet who turned to fiction in later life. His first
prose work, Apuntes de un lugareño (1932; Notes of a Villager), was
prompted by nostalgia while serving as Mexican consul in Barcelona.
On his return to Mexico he published El pueblo inocente (1934; The
Innocent Town) and Desbandada (1934; Route), both set in rural
Mexico against the background of the Mexican Revolution. In his
next novel, Mi caballo, mi perro y mi rifle (1936; My Horse, My
Dog, and My Rifle), the autobiographical dimension of his writing

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422 • ROMERO, MARIELA

is associated more fully with the picaresque and the novel of the
Mexican Revolution through the story of a soldier whose experi-
ences follow the rise and fall of the revolutionary movement. The pi-
caresque tradition is also a feature of Romero’s best-known novel, La
vida inútil de Pito Pérez (1938; The Futile Life of Pito Pérez), based
on a real-life person whose antics serve to expose the foibles of a
small town and its inhabitants. Other novels include Anticipación de
la muerte (1939; Anticipation of Death), a humorous view of death,
and Rosenda (1946; Rosenda). Romero also penned a commentary
on his own writing, Breve historia de mis libros (1942; Short History
of My Books).

ROMERO, MARIELA (Venezuela, 1949– ). Dramatist. She is one


among a group of women writing for the theater who have contrib-
uted to maintaining the vitality of the contemporary genre in Venezu-
ela. Her first play was Algo alrededor del espejo (1966; Something
Around the Mirror). Since then she has written El juego (1978; The
Game), a feminist work with two female characters, Ana I and Ana
II, two manifestations, perhaps, of the same person; El inevitable
destino de Rosa de la noche (1980; The Inevitable Fate of Rosa of
the Night), about prostitution and street people; El vendedor (1981;
The Salesman), a play on games; Esperando al italiano (1988; Wait-
ing for the Italian), on male–female relationships; and Las risas de
nuestras medusas (1992; The Smiles of Our Medusas). Romero also
writes for television.

ROMERO, SÍLVIO (Brazil, 1851–1914). Critic, essayist, and poet.


Born in Sergipe, Romero studied law in Recife, where he came in
contact with Tobias Barreto and his positivist School of Recife.
His first book of poetry, Cantos do Fim do Século (1878; Songs of
the End of the Century), was an infelicitous attempt at producing a
“scientific poetry” in accordance with the principles of positivism
he espoused. With respect to criticism, he attacked romantic poetry
through a series of articles that were later gathered in A Literatura
Brasileira e a Crítica Moderna (1880; Brazilian Literature and
Modern Criticism). After receiving his degree, he became a federal
representative and eventually moved to Rio, where he taught and

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RÓMULO GALLEGOS PRIZE • 423

wrote extensively, especially for the press, engaging in famous de-


bates in which he always defended the superiority of Barreto and his
positivist tendencies. Although criticized nowadays for his dismis-
sive views of authors such as Castro Alves and Machado de Assis,
expressed in Machado de Assis (1897; Machado de Assis), Romero
had the merit of attempting to apply objective and “logical” methods
to literary study, as seen in Da Crítica e Sua Exata Definição (1909;
Of Criticism and Its Exact Definition). He produced a number of im-
portant and original studies on various aspects of Brazilian culture:
A Filosofia no Brasil (1878; Philosophy in Brazil), Estudos Sobre a
Poesia Popular do Brasil (1888; Studies on the Popular Poetry of
Brazil), and Etnografia Brasileira (1888; Brazilian Ethnography).
These studies all anticipated Romero’s best-known work, the two-
volume História da Literatura Brasileira (1888; History of Brazil-
ian Literature), in which, unlike previous authors, he consciously
adopted a nationalist and positivist lens and attempted to explain the
evolution of literature through extraliterary sociological factors, par-
ticularly miscegenation, foreshadowing the work of intellectuals such
as Gilberto Freyre. Romero was also one of the founding members
of the Brazilian Academy of Letters (see ACADEMIAS). Though
critics now fault Romero for his excessive commitment to the posi-
tivist ideology and his lack of appreciation of style and aesthetics, he
remains a key figure in understanding the transition from romanti-
cism to 20th-century Brazilian culture. See also VERÍSSIMO DIAS
DE MATOS, JOSÉ.

RÓMULO GALLEGOS PRIZE. First awarded in 1967, this prize


was named for Rómulo Gallegos, one of Venezuela’s most cel-
ebrated novelists and a former president of the country. It was first
open to novels written in Spanish by Latin Americans, but may now
be awarded to any novel written in Spanish regardless of the place of
origin of the author. Latin American recipients include Mario Var-
gas Llosa (1967), Gabriel García Márquez (1972), Carlos Fuentes
(1977), Fernando del Paso (1982), Abel Posse (1987), Manuel Me-
jía Vallejo (1989), Arturo Uslar Pietri (1991), Mempo Giardinelli
(1993), Ángeles Mastretta (1997), Fernando Vallejo (2003), Elena
Poniatowska (2007), and William Ospina (2009).

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424 • ROSA, JOÃO GUIMARÃES

ROSA, JOÃO GUIMARÃES (Brazil, 1908–1967). Novelist and


short story writer. Guimarães Rosa was born and raised in a small
town in the rural interior of Minas Gerais, a region of cowboys and
storytellers that inspired many of his literary works. He studied medi-
cine in Belo Horizonte, and after receiving his degree in 1930 worked
as a physician in rural areas of Minas Gerais. At this time he had
already begun to write and publish short stories, for which he won
prizes. Guimarães Rosa had a penchant for languages from an early
age, and he taught himself Russian and German. In 1934, he applied
for the Brazilian Foreign Service and became a career diplomat. He
won a prize in 1936 for Magma (Magma), a poetry volume he never
published, and he began writing his collection of stories Sagarana
(1946; Sagarana), based on childhood memories of life on the cattle
ranches of Minas Gerais. Posted to Hamburg in 1938, he was cap-
tured and sent to prison in Baden-Baden in 1942. He was liberated
a few months later with other diplomats. Upon his return to South
America, he completely rewrote Sagarana, which he then published
in 1946, with great success. Nevertheless, Guimarães Rosa did not
become well known in the literary world until later. In the following
years he served as a diplomat in South America and Europe.
Com o Vaqueiro Mariano (1952; With the Cowboy Mariano), a
poetic account of his encounter with a cowboy from the Pantanal
region, anticipates the idiosyncratic prose of Guimarães Rosa’s no-
vellas Corpo de Baile (1956; Corps de Ballet)—later divided into
Manuelzão e Miguilim (1964; Big Manuel and Little Manuel), No
Urubuquaquá, no Pinhém (1965; In Urubuquaquá, in Pinhém), and
Noites do Sertão (1965; Nights in the Backlands)—and of his only
but greatly acclaimed novel, Grande Sertão: Veredas (1956; The
Devil to Pay in the Backlands). These two works, published within
months of each other, attracted great critical attention and forever
secured his literary reputation. In the seven novellas of Corpo de
Baile, Guimarães Rosa introduces characters and literary language
that he would later refine in Grande Sertão: Veredas. The characters
of Corpo de Baile, inspired by typical inhabitants of the backlands,
cross from one novella to another like dancers in a ballet; hence the
title of the collection. Guimarães Rosa also created a unique, innova-
tive language inspired by the folk speech of the Brazilian backlands,
but using literary devices such as rhyme, onomatopoeia, alliteration,

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ROSAS, JUAN MANUEL • 425

metaphor, and metonymy, and, among other innovations, he intro-


duced magical events and narratives within narratives.
Grande Sertão: Veredas, considered Guimarães Rosa’s master-
piece and one of the most important books of Brazilian literature, has
been compared by some to Joyce’s Finnegans Wake for its peculiar
and inventive use of language and its mythical and poetic qualities.
It is a metaphysical tale of the fight between good and evil as em-
bodied in the character of Riobaldo, a hoodlum cowboy who roams
the backlands trying to deny the existence of the devil, with whom
he made a pact when he attempted to kill another man. His memories
and reflections assume metaphysical levels and the form of an exis-
tential drama when he declares, for instance, that the backlands are
the size of the world and a place where everything is simultaneously
certain and uncertain.
Along the same lines and in the language created for Grande
Sertão: Veredas, Primeiras Estórias (1962; First Stories) is a collec-
tion of short stories in which spatio-temporal limits are transgressed.
The characters in this collection (children, madmen, and simple
folk) are involved in miraculous events that defy logic. Among
other works, Tutaméia (Terceiras Estórias) (1967; Tutaméia) is a
collection of very short enigmatic tales, and O Mistério dos M M M
(1962, The Mystery of the M M M) was written in collaboration with
Viriato Correia and Dinah Silveira de Queirós. Guimarães Rosa,
considered one of the icons of Brazilian modernism, died of a heart
attack three days after he was admitted into the Brazilian Academy of
Letters (see ACADEMIAS). See also RIBEIRO, JOÃO UBALDO.

ROSAS, JUAN MANUEL (1793–1877). An Argentinean caudillo,


or strongman, he ruled postindependence Argentina as governor of
Buenos Aires province between 1829 until 1852. He was a populist
dictator who ruled from a position of strength and intimidation and
by the elimination of his opponents. He left an enduring mark on the
country, and his life and times have become the subject of numerous
works of literature by authors such as Esteban Echeverría, Man-
uel Gálvez, Griselda Gambaro, Eduardo Gutiérrez, Domingo
Faustino Sarmiento, and Andrés Rivera. See also CIVILIZA-
TION AND BARBARISM; LÓPEZ, VICENTE FIDEL; MÁRMOL,
JOSÉ; MOLINA, ENRIQUE.

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426 • ROSENCOF, MAURICIO

ROSENCOF, MAURICIO (Uruguay, 1933– ). Dramatist and nov-


elist. One of the most significant dramatists to emerge in Uruguay
since Florencio Sánchez, he broke with established trends in real-
ism and naturalism. His theater dramatized socially marginalized
settings and he combined elements of dream and reality in the de-
velopment of themes of self-deception and evasion. El gran Tuleque
(1961; The Great Tuleque) was one of the first dramatizations of
la murga, a popular form of musical theater in Uruguay associated
with carnival. Las ranas (1962; The Frogs) is about life in a shanty
town; La calesita rebelde (1964; The Rebellious Carousel) is a play
for children; and Los caballos (1966; The Horses) is concerned with
sugarcane workers in northern Uruguay.
Rosencof’s involvement with the Tupamaros urban guerrillas led
to his arrest in 1972 and imprisonment; he was released in 1985 un-
der a general amnesty after the collapse of the dictatorship. While
in prison, Rosencof wrote a number of plays, including El combate
en el estable (1985; Fight in the Stable), El saco de Antonio (1985;
Antonio’s Jacket), Y nuestros caballos serán blancos (1985; And
Our Horses Will Be White), El gran bonete (1986; The Big Cap),
and El hijo que espera (1986; The Waiting Son). The first play
he wrote after his release was El regreso del gran Tuleque (1987;
Return of the Great Tuleque). Since then, he has also turned to fic-
tion. He has written an account of his time in prison, Memorias del
calabozo (1990; Memories of the Dungeon), and several novels that
draw in part on his experience of prison and torture. They include
El bataraz (1999; The Rooster), Las cartas que no llegaron (2000;
The Letters That Never Came), El enviado del fuego (2004; Sent
from the Fire), El barrio era una fiesta (2005; The Barrio Was a
Holiday), and Una góndola ancló en la esquina (2007; A Gondola
Tied up at the Corner).

ROZENMACHER, GERMÁN (Argentina, 1936–1970). Dramatist


and short story writer. His writing springs in part from feelings of
discrimination as a Jew and the consequences of his affiliation with
Peronism. He published two collections of short stories: Cabecita
negra (1962; Black Head) and Los ojos del tigre (1967; The Tiger’s
Eyes). His work for the theater includes the plays Réquiem para un
viernes a la noche (1964; Requiem for a Friday Night); Lazarillo

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RUIZ DE ALARCÓN, JUAN • 427

de Tormes (1971; Lazarillo de Tormes), an adaptation for the stage


of the 16th-century Spanish novel of the same title; El caballero de
Indias (1982; Knight of the Indies); and El avión negro (1970; The
Black Plane), written in collaboration with Roberto Cossa, Carlos
Somigliana, and Ricardo Talesnik.

RUBIÃO, MURILO (Brazil, 1916–1991). Short story writer. Born


in Minas Gerais, where he lived most of his life, Rubião received a
degree in law, but devoted himself to journalism. In 1966, he founded
the well-known literary journal Suplemento Literário do Minas
Gerais, which he directed until 1969. Rubião is known for his pains-
taking approach to writing: in every place the mot juste and precise
turn of phrase combine with the plot to produce the fantastic and
the unusual that characterize his work. Rubião is also a painstaking
revisionist, often changing major aspects of his works before repub-
lishing them. His collections of short stories include O Ex-Mágico
(1947; The Ex Magician), A Estrela Vermelha (1953; The Red Star),
Os Dragões e Outros Contos (1965; Dragons and Other Stories), O
Pirotécnico Zacarias (1974; The Pyrotechnician Zachary), and O
Convidado (1974; The Guest). An uncommon writer in Brazilian
literature, Rubião’s fantastic fiction, in which the absurd is inserted
into “normal” reality, also exhibits a political concern for the mas-
sification of contemporary life. His texts therefore always work on a
literal and a larger allegorical level.

RUIZ DE ALARCÓN, JUAN (Mexico, 1581?–1639). Dramatist.


He was born in colonial Mexico but emigrated to Spain in 1600.
Although successful and one of a group of popular playwrights in
his day, he was always considered a foreigner and was the butt of
his contemporaries’ humor on account of his physical deformity. His
plays were published in two volumes, eight plays in 1628 and twelve
in 1634. However, they were all written some time before they were
published, because he abandoned the theater after receiving a court
appointment in 1626. His theater contains frequent reference to his
native land, but is commonly read in the context of 17th-century
Spanish drama, whose dramatic conventions and themes he generally
adopted. The distinctive feature of his plays is their satirical or moral-
istic content, presented through a character afflicted with a particular

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428 • RULFO, JUAN

moral flaw. His most celebrated play is La verdad sospechosa (1594;


Truth Can’t Be Trusted, or the Liar), about the misadventures of a
habitual liar. Other well-known titles are Las paredes oyen (Walls
Have Ears) and La cueva de Salamanca (The Cave in Salamanca).
He is also celebrated for his influence on later French and Spanish
dramatists. See also JIMÉNEZ RUEDA, JULIO.

RULFO, JUAN (Mexico, 1917–1986). Novelist and short story writer.


Although he ranks among the most highly acclaimed writers of the
20th century in Latin America, Rulfo’s reputation rests on the two
works that amount to almost his entire literary output, a collection of
short stories, El llano en llamas (1953; The Burning Plain and Other
Stories), and the novel Pedro Páramo (1955; Pedro Páramo). The
novel and several of the short stories are set in the mythical town of
Comala against the background of the Mexican Revolution and other
civil conflicts of the first half of the 20th century, which suffices
to locate Rulfo’s writing in the general context of the novel of the
Mexican Revolution, although his writing focuses much more on
the cultural and social contexts and the psychology of the characters
than on a narrative of military or political events. Comala is a cruel,
infernal place of violence and corruption, whose inhabitants struggle
to survive in an oppressive world controlled by landowners and po-
litical bosses. Pedro Páramo is told by Juan Preciado, sent back to
Comala by his dying mother to discover the paradise of her youth,
but the town to which he returns is the world of the dead, from whom
he learns the story of its past. Rulfo’s two books were highly innova-
tive works for the time, and the mythic dimensions of his novel fore-
shadow magic realism. Rulfo was also an accomplished photogra-
pher, whose images of rural, indigenous Mexico often complement
the world represented in his fiction. The Juan Rulfo Prize for literature
was created in his honor in 1991, and the first recipient was Nicanor
Parra (Chile). See also FUENTES, CARLOS; ROFFÉ, REINA.

– S –

SABAT ERCASTY, CARLOS (Uruguay, 1887–1982). Poet. During


a period of over 60 years, between 1917 and 1982, he published more

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SÁBATO, ERNESTO • 429

than 60 books. Although the influence of modernismo is apparent in


his early work, he subsequently followed his own path, but was par-
ticularly influenced by the European world of the classics, the Ori-
ent, and Hinduism. He is said to have had some influence on Pablo
Neruda, but did not achieve the latter’s success. Among his many
books are several eulogies of notable persons, including Vidas (1923;
Lives), Himno a Rodó y oda a Martí (1938; Hymn to Rodó and Ode
to Martí), Oda a Luis Salguero (1940; Ode to Luis Salguero), Himno
universal a Roosevelt (1946; Universal Hymn to Roosevelt), Himno
a Artigas (1946; Hymn to Artigas), Oda a Eduardo Fabini (1947;
Ode to Eduardo Fabini), and Libro de José Martí (1953; Book of
José Martí).

SÁBATO, ERNESTO (Argentina, 1911– ). Essayist and novelist.


Sábato was trained as a scientist and earned a doctorate in physics
before becoming disillusioned with science. Both his essays and nov-
els dwell on the conflicts of reason and logic with intuition and the
irrational. Although he has not developed a philosophical system of
his own, his work shows the influence of European existentialism.
In collections of essays such as Uno y el universo (1945; One and the
Universe) and Hombres y engranajes (1951; Men and Gears), he has
written on topics that reflect humanity’s decline through dependence
on science and technology. He has also written about Argentina
in El otro rostro del peronismo (1956; The Other Face Peronism),
Tango: discusión y clave (1963; Tango: Discussion and Key), and
La cultura en la encrucijada nacional (1973; Culture at the National
Crossroads). In El escritor y sus fantasmas (1963; The Writer and
His Ghosts), he considered the art and ethics of writing. After the
1976–1983 military dictatorship in Argentina, Sábato headed the
commission charged with investigating atrocities committed by the
regime. The commission’s report, Nunca más (Never Again), ap-
peared in 1984.
Sábato’s three novels are intense and at times perplexing psy-
chological studies, explorations of the self undertaken through the
representation of characters who find themselves in intensely stress-
ful conditions. The first, El túnel (1948; The Tunnel), is a confes-
sional novel in the tradition of Notes from Underground (1864) by
the Russian author Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–1881) and novels by

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430 • SABINES, JAIME

the French existentialist writers Jean Paul Sartre (1905–1980) and


Albert Camus (1913–1960). It is the memoir of a man who narrates
the events that led him to murder the woman he loved. Sobre héroes
y tumbas (1961; On Heroes and Tombs), Sábato’s second novel,
also has at its center a perplexing tale of love, set in the context of
the decline of an Argentinean family, the social unrest of the 1950s,
and a world of irrational violence. Abbadón el exterminador (1974;
The Angel of Darkness), Sábato’s third novel, is an equally uncon-
ventional work, fragmented by all manner of extended discussions
on different topics, that conveys a disturbing vision of the present. It
has no clear plot, unless it is the attempt of a writer, Sábato himself,
to write in spite of the distraction from the voices that surround him,
including those of characters from his previous work.

SABINES, JAIME (Mexico, 1926–1999). Poet. A writer who had


little association with the literary circles of his day, he nevertheless
gained an extraordinary following by becoming known primarily
through the open and approachable style of his poetry. For the most
part, he wrote on everyday themes: a walk along a street or across a
park; family ties; a scene in a bar; and common feelings such as a fear
of death, frustration at illness, or the expression of love. His books in-
clude Horal (1950; Hourly), La señal (1951; The Signal), Adán y Eva
(1952; Adam and Eve), Tarumba (1956; Tarumba: The Selected Po-
ems of Jaime Sabines), Diario semanario y poemas en prosa (1961;
Weekly Diary and Prose Poems), Maltiempo (1972; Bad Times), and
Algo sobre la muerte del mayor Sabines (1973; Something About the
Death of Major Sabines).

SABINO, FERNANDO (Brazil, 1923–2004). Novelist and chronicler.


An extremely prolific writer, Sabino attended school in his native
Minas Gerais and began writing for newspapers while he studied law.
He published his first book of short stories, Os Grilos Não Cantam
Mais (1941; Crickets No Longer Sing), encouraged by writers such
as Mário de Andrade, whom he later befriended. Sabino valued
his friendships with other writers, such as Carlos Drummond de
Andrade, Vinícius de Moraes, and especially Clarice Lispector. In
1946, he moved to New York and began to send columns to dailies
and magazines in Brazil, a practice he continued when he returned

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SAÉNZ, JAIME • 431

home in 1948. Some of these texts relating his experiences in the


United States were published in A Cidade Vazia (1950; The Empty
City). Other books of chronicles include O Homem Nu (1960; The
Naked Man), A Companheira de Viagem (1965; The Female Travel
Companion), A Inglesa Deslumbrada (1967; The Dazzled English-
woman), Gente I e Gente II (1975; People I and People II), A Mulher
do Vizinho (1975; The Neighbor’s Wife), Deixa o Alfredo Falar!
(1976; Let Alfredo Speak!), and O Encontro das Águas (1977; The
Meeting of the Waters).
While in New York, he also began work on passages that would
become his best-known novel, O Encontro Marcado (1956; A Time
To Meet), a semiautobiographical coming-of-age novel that reflected
the existential drama of Sabino’s generation. This novel was a break-
through for its portrayal of urban life, in contrast with a tradition of
literature inspired by rural settings. Sabino also published the no-
vella collections A Marca (1944; The Mark) and A Vida Real (1952;
The Real Life); according to the author, the latter was inspired by
“emotions lived in dreams.” Other notable books include O Grande
Mentecapto (1979; The Great Fool), a picaresque novel based on
a simple character called Viramundo, and A Faca de Dois Gumes
(1985; The Double-Edged Sword), a trilogy of novellas that revisit
classic themes and genres, which became required reading in schools.
With Rubem Braga, Sabino founded several publishing houses
that were instrumental in disseminating the work of contemporary
authors from Brazil and Latin America, including Manuel Puig,
Mario Vargas Llosa, and Gabriel García Márquez. He was also
active in film as producer, director, and reviewer. Sabino, who died
of cancer, requested the following inscription for his grave: “Here
lies Fernando Sabino, who was born a man and died a child.”

SAÉNZ, JAIME (Bolivia, 1921–1986). Poet and novelist. Alcoholism,


public scandals, his open bisexuality, and sympathy for Nazism made
him a figure of considerable notoriety. He wrote in a very individual,
often hermetic style, in a manner close to surrealism, such that his
metaphors are not always easy to penetrate. His poetry includes El
escalpelo (1955; The Scalpel), Muerte por el tacto (1957; Death by
Touch), Aniversario de una visión (1960; Anniversary of a Vision),
Visitante profundo (1964; Profound Visitor), El frío (1967; The

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432 • SAER, JUAN JOSÉ

Cold), Recorrer esta distancia (1973; Covering this Distance), and


Bruchner: las tinieblas (1978; Bruchner: Darkness). In two of his last
books, La noche (1984; The Night) and La piedra imán (1989; Lode-
stone), the latter published posthumously, he described the terrifying
world of an alcoholic crisis. As a novelist, he produced two success-
ful works: Felipe Delgado (1979; Felipe Delgado), the memoirs of
an alcoholic set in the social underbelly of La Paz, and Los cuartos
(1985; Rooms), the story of an old woman’s search for a place to live
in the poor districts of the Bolivian capital. Another work of fiction
by Saénz, a volume of short stories, Vidas y muertes (1986; Lives and
Deaths), was published posthumously.

SAER, JUAN JOSÉ (Argentina, 1957–2005). Novelist and short story


writer. Although he lived in France after 1968, where he worked as
a university professor, he is considered one of Argentina’s most im-
portant 20th-century prose writers. His fiction is characterized by its
predominant focus on a single area of Argentina, the littoral of the
Paraná River in the Province of Santa Fe. En la zona (1960; In the
Zone), a collection of short stories, in which he introduced some of
the narrative strategies and many of the characters who would figure
later in his writing, is thus the point of departure for a fictional world
developed in subsequent collections of short stories and novels. In
this respect, his fiction is comparable to that of Juan Carlos Onetti
or the American William Faulkner (1897–1962). Another significant
influence was the French new novel, notably by Alain Robbe-Grillet
(1922–2008) and Nathalie Sarraute (1900–1999), from whom he
drew elements such as chronological fragmentation, a focus on the
untellability of stories, and a questioning of the reality of events. He
often narrates events in parallel time-space dimensions, allowing him
to combine different narratives about the same characters in the same
text, a technique that echoes aspects of the writing of earlier Argen-
tineans such as Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortázar.
Other collections of short stories include Palo y hueso (1965;
Stick and Bone); Unidad de lugar (1967; Unity of Place); Cicatrices
(1969; Scars), a set of four stories connected by a single crime, which
first drew major critical attention to Saer’s work; La mayor (1976;
“A” Major); and Lugar (2000; Place). The author of a dozen novels,
he often took a particular genre, such as crime fiction, or the work

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SAHAGÚN, BERNARDINO DE • 433

of a particular author, such as Marcel Proust (1871–1922) or James


Joyce (1882–1941), as a point of departure for his own writing. His
novels include Responso (1964; Prayer for the Dead); La vuelta
completa (1966; Complete Turn); El limonero real (1974; The Royal
Lemon Tree), about the cyclical return of events during a day in the
life of the main character; Nadie nada nunca (1980; Nobody Noth-
ing Never); Glosa (1986; Gloss); La ocasión (1988; The Event), set
in the pampas; Lo imborrable (1993; Indelible); La pesquisa (1994;
The Investigation), a crime novel; Las nubes (1997; The Clouds);
and La grande (2005; The Great One). His best-known work of fic-
tion is the new historical novel El entenado (1983; The Witness), an
old man’s recollections of a period of captivity as a boy during the
early colonial period, when he witnessed the ritual cannibalism of his
captors. It has several of the hallmarks of Saer’s fiction, notably the
ambiguous role of literature and narrative as the means of preserving
a disappeared reality.
Although fiction is the main source of Saer’s literary reputation,
he also wrote poetry and published two collections of verse, both
under the same ironic title, El arte de narrar (1977 and 2000; The
Art of Narrating), containing, respectively, work for 1960–1975 and
1960–1987. Saer’s essays about literature in general, writing, and
his own work were published as Juan José Saer por Juan José Saer
(1986; Juan José Saer by Juan José Saer), Una literatura sin atribu-
tos (1986; A Literature Without Attributes), El río sin orillas (1991;
The River Without Banks), and El concepto de ficción (1997; The
Concept of Fiction).

SAHAGÚN, BERNARDINO DE (Mexico, 1499–1590). Chronicler.


He was a Franciscan friar who was sent as a missionary to Mexico
in 1529 and remained there for the rest of his life. He wrote in Span-
ish and Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, and was the author of
a number of religious texts, linguistic works, and a history of the
Franciscan Order in Mexico. He is most celebrated, however, for his
chronicle Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España (General
History of the Things of New Spain), also known as the Florentine
Codex. First completed in Nahuatl in 1569 and later prepared in a
Nahuatl/Spanish version, it is one of the richest sources on life in
Aztec Mexico.

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434 • SAINETE

SAINETE. A short, one-act play, originating in Spain in the mid-18th


century. Like the entremés, which it replaced, a sainete was a comic
or farcical presentation of scenes from low-life and often performed
between the acts or at the end of another, longer play. In Argentina,
where it evolved into the grotesco criollo and was also known as the
sainete orillero (river-bank sainete, referring to the location of Bue-
nos Aires on the River Plate), it became an important part of popular
theater of the late 19th and 20th centuries, which featured scenes
from the life of the gaucho and the lives of immigrants and the urban
poor by playwrights such as Francisco Defilippis Novoa, Carlos
Maggi, Roberto Payró, Florencio Sanchez, Nemesio Trejo, and
Alberto Vacarezza. In Ecuador, Víctor Manuel Rendón also
adapted the sainete to stage a realistic view of the world. See also
MOOCK, ARMANDO; VENEZUELA.

SAINZ, GUSTAVO (Mexico, 1940– ). Novelist. He is one of Mexico’s


most prominent contemporary novelists. He is commonly related to
the post-boom and has published 18 novels to date. His early fic-
tion is associated with the literary movement in Mexico known as la
onda. Gazapo (1965; Gazapo), his first novel, uses the tape recorder
as a narrative device to alter perceptions of time and space. It is con-
cerned with youth counterculture in Mexico City, was very popular,
and has been widely translated. Culture and language are also sig-
nificant elements of later works, including Obsesivos días circulares
(1969; Obsessive Circular Days), about young urban intellectuals, set
in a private high school owned by a gangster. Several of his subse-
quent novels often combine different perspectives or different social
worlds. La princesa del Palacio de Hierro (1974; The Princess of the
Iron Palace) is a story of the collision between generations that sets
tradition and the modern urban world against each other and is told
through the experiences of a department store salesclerk who repre-
sents the urban middle class. Compadre Lobo (1977; Bubby Lobo)
is a coming-of-age novel set in a working-class neighborhood that
contrasts the world of art with the real world through the experiences
of a young man who aspires to become a painter.
Fantasmas aztecas (1982; Aztec Ghosts) is a more historical
work, set during the excavation of the Great Temple in the center
of Mexico City, that juxtaposes different times and cultures. Paseo

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SALARRUÉ • 435

en trapecio (1985; Ride on a Trapeze) describes the changing feel-


ings of its narrator on a journey from New Mexico to Mexico City.
Muchacho en llamas (1988; Boy in Flames) is an account of a year
in the life of a young writer at work on his first novel. A la salud
de la serpiente (1991; To the Serpent’s Health) takes the Tlatelolco
massacre as its main event and tells it from a double perspective,
that of a participant and that of a distant observer. Retablo de in-
moderaciones y heresiarcas (1992; Altarpiece of Immoderation and
Heretics) uses elements of the neo-baroque to reconsider colonial
Mexico and tells the story of a young man accused of heresy. Sainz’s
more recent works include A troche y moche (2002; Helter-Skelter)
and El juego de las sensaciones elementales (2006; The Play of
Elementary Sensations).

SALARRUÉ (El Salvador, 1899–1975). Novelist and short story


writer. Although born Salvador Arrué Salazar, he is generally known
by the pseudonym Salarrué. His first novel, El Cristo negro (1926;
The Black Christ), is set in colonial times and draws on the legend
of the Black Christ of Esquipulas, a figure still venerated in Central
America. Salarrué uses the icon to explore the nature of good and
evil, a theme to which he frequently returned, often to invert con-
ventional standards. Other novels followed, but his first is likely his
best. In El señor de la burbuja (1927; Lord of the Bubble), the author
presented his religious beliefs. La sed de Sling Bader (1971; Sling
Baber’s Thirst) is an adventure story for children, and Catleya Luna
(1974; Catleya Luna) examines the occult.
His novels aside, Salarrué’s reputation also owes much to his short
stories, in which he pursued two quite different tendencies. In some
of his collections, O’Yarkandal (1929; O’Yarkandal), Retomando el
Uluán (1932; Returning to Uluán), and Eso y más (1940; That and
More), he wrote about alternative worlds and the fantastic in a style
that anticipates aspects of magic realism, although it likely derives
from his lifelong belief in theosophy. In other collections of stories,
notably Cuentos de barro (1933; Tales of Clay); Cuentos de cipotes
(1945; Kids’ Tales), which are notable for their representation of
the language and situation of children; Trasmallo (1954; Net); and
La espada y otras narraciones (1960; The Sword and Other Tales),
he wrote about the lives of people from the region of El Salvador he

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436 • SALAZAR BONDY, SEBASTIÁN

knew best, in a style more associated with criollismo and costum-


brismo.

SALAZAR BONDY, SEBASTIÁN (Peru, 1924–1965). Poet, drama-


tist, short story writer, and essayist. His short life and his interest in
several genres are perhaps among the reasons that his work is not
more widely celebrated, although his importance in Peru has been
acknowledged by compatriots such as Mario Vargas Llosa. Salazar
Bondy’s poetry is generally simple and direct, an unruffled explo-
ration of the people and places of his own world. His first books
of poetry—Rótulo de la esfinge (1943; Sign of the Sphinx), Voz
desde la vigilia (1944; A Voice from the Vigil), and Cuaderno de
la persona oscura (1946; The Dark Person’s Notebook)—are from
the period before he left for Argentina in 1947. Máscara del que
duerme (1949; Mask of the Sleeper), Tres confesiones (1950; Three
Confessions), Pantomimas (1950; Pantomimes), and Los ojos del
pródigo (1951; Eyes of the Prodigal) are from his time in Buenos
Aires. Several more collections of poetry were published during the
few years before his death: Confidencia en voz alta (1960; A Secret
Spoken Aloud), Vida de Ximena (1960; Life of Ximena), Conducta
sentimental (1963; Sentimental Behavior), Cuadernillo de Oriente
(1963; Little Notebook from the Orient), and El tacto de la araña
(1965; The Spider’s Touch).
Although Salazar Bondy had already written at least one play
for the theater before he left for Argentina, a political allegorical
farce, Amor, gran laberinto (1947; Love the Great Labyrinth), his
activities in relation to the stage were more intense after his return in
1952, and he was a significant figure in the rebirth of Peruvian the-
ater at mid-century. His writing for the stage includes two historical
dramas, Rodil (1952; Rodil), on the battle for independence in Peru,
and Flora Tristán (1959; Flora Tristán), about the Peruvian writer
of that name. He also wrote several realist plays—No hay isla feliz
(1954; There’s No Happy Island), En el cielo no hay petróleo (1956;
There’s No Petroleum in Heaven), Un cierto tic tac (1956; A Certain
Ticking), and Algo que quiere morir (1957; Something Wanting to
Die)—and comedies of manners: Dos viejas van por la calle (1959;
Two Old Women Go Down the Street), Ifigenia en el mercado
(1963; Iphigenia at the Market), and El fabricante de deudas (1964;

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SALOMÃO, WALY • 437

The Debt Maker). His last play, El rabdomante (1965; The Diviner),
represented a return to political allegory, with which his career in the
theater had begun.
The author’s short stories were collected in Náufragos y sobrevivi-
entes (1954; Shipwrecks and Survivors), on the monotony of life in
the lower middle class; Dios en el cafetín (1954; God in the Café);
and Pobre gente de París (1958; Poor People of Paris), about the
bohemian life of Latin American students in Paris. Of all his writings
in prose, however, the one that has had most impact is Lima la hor-
rible (1964; Lima the Horrid), an essay that dissects the state of the
Peruvian capital and criticizes its backwardness, the result of control
by an oligarchy that perpetuates the conditions of colonial times.

SALGADO, PLÍNIO (Brazil, 1895–1975). Novelist and essayist. Sal-


gado’s first novels, O Estrangeiro (1931; The Stranger), O Esperado
(1931; The Expected One), and O Cavaleiro de Itararé (1932; The
Gentleman of Itararé), present sociopolitical situations and social
types related to the urban life and history of São Paulo in the 1930s.
Salgado was initially influenced by the Week of Modern Art, but
eventually he rejected avant-garde tendencies and embraced nation-
alism instead. With Cassiano Ricardo and Menotti del Picchia, he
signed the manifesto “O Curupira e o Carão” (1927; “The Curupira
Being and the Big-Faced Monster”). He also collaborated on “Mani-
festo do Verdeamarelismo ou de Escola da Anta” (1929; “Green-
Yellow Manifesto or of the School of the Tapir”). This nationalist
tendency, named Integralismo, despite its enthusiasm for natural
forces, its appeal to indigenous civilizations, and its purported demo-
cratic aims, degenerated into a racist, exclusionary ideology. Other
works by Salgado include Discurso às Estrelas (1927: Address to the
Stars), Literatura e Política (1927; Literature and Politics), O Que
é o Integralismo (1933; Integralism), and Psicologia da Revolução
(1933; Psychology of Revolution).

SALOMÃO, WALY (Brazil, 1944–2003). Poet and lyricist. The child


of a Syrian father and a Brazilian mother, Salomão was an important
figure in the 1960s and 1970s counterculture movement known as
Tropicália. He wrote lyrics for a number of singers and musicians,
including Caetano Veloso. His first book of poetry, Me Segura que

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438 • SALVADOR, VICENTE DO

Eu Vou Dar um Troço (1972; Hold Me Because I’m Going to Have


a Fit), written while the author was in prison, is seen as the first post-
Tropicalist work. His later poetry found its roots in the baroque,
Brazilian modernism, and the Dionysiac. He also published the fol-
lowing collections: Algaravias: Câmara de Ecos (1996; Gibberish:
Echo Chamber), Lábia (1998; Labia), Tarifa de Embarque (2000;
Boarding Fee), and Mel do Melhor (2001; Honey from the Best). See
also MACHADO, DUDA.

SALVADOR, VICENTE DO (Brazil, 1564–1636?). Historian. Born


in Brazil of Portuguese ancestry, Salvador studied in Coimbra and
was an ordained priest. He held several important offices, before re-
signing them to join the order of Saint Francis. In Portugal, he began
drafting his chronicle História do Brasil (1889; History of Brazil).
Finished in 1627, but not published during do Salvador’s lifetime,
it is the first systematic attempt to record the history of Brazil, tran-
scending a mere personal narrative to include many sources, includ-
ing oral traditions.

SÁNCHEZ, FLORENCIO (Uruguay, 1875–1910). Dramatist. His


successes occurred in Argentina, where, as the author of musical
plays, sainetes, and social dramas, he figured importantly in the de-
velopment of a national theater. A political shift from the conserva-
tism of his roots in his native Uruguay to sympathy with the anarchist
movements of the early 20th century in South America also led him
to dramatize situations representing the conditions of the poor and
marginalized. His first triumph was Canillita (1902; The Newspaper
Boy), a starkly realistic drama about newspaper vendors in the Ar-
gentinean city of Rosario. In the context of a rapidly modernizing so-
ciety, his theater often portrays conflicts between the traditional and
the new. M’hijo el dotor (1903; My Son the Lawyer) is about a young
man who resists the morality of his parents’ generation; La gringa
(1904; The Immigrant Girl) presents a story of the change in social
attitudes brought by immigrants; and Barranco abajo (1905; Down-
hill) shows the tragedy of an aging farmer in the new Argentina. By
1903, Sánchez was already ill with the tuberculosis that would even-
tually cost him his life, but he continued to write at a steady pace, and
the titles of some of his plays are sufficient to suggest the realism of

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SANTIAGO, SILVIANO • 439

his work: La gente pobre (1904; Poor People), En familia (1905; In


the Family), El conventillo (1906; The Tenement), El desalojo (1906;
The Eviction), and Moneda falsa (1907; Counterfeit Coin). See also
ROSENCOF, MAURICIO.

SÁNCHEZ, LUIS ALBERTO (Peru, 1900–1994). Critic and essay-


ist. He was a distinguished educator and politician, and the author
of more than 100 books on a wide range of subjects, including the
literature, history, society, and culture of Peru and Latin America.
Some of his writings show the influence of arielismo. As a literary
historian, his La literatura peruana (1928–1936; Peruvian Litera-
ture) and La literatura americana (1937; American Literature) are
standard works that were published in several expanded editions.
He wrote a number of fictionalized biographies, including Haya de
la Torre, o el político (1934; Haya de la Torre, or The Politician),
Garcilaso Inca de la Vega, primer criollo (1939; Garcilaso de la
Vega, the First Creole), and Valdivia el fundador (1941; Valdivia
the Founder). Among other essays are Lima y don Ricardo Palma
(1927; Lima and Ricardo Palma), América, novela sin novelistas
(1933; America, a Novel Without Novelists), and Vida y pasión de
la cultura en América (1935; The Life and Passion of Culture in
America).

SANTIAGO, SILVIANO (Brazil, 1936– ). Critic and novelist. Born


in Minas, Santiago studied first in Brazil, then in France, and taught
at various universities in the United States. Based on readings of
early chronicles, he developed a theory of Brazilian culture as highly
metaphorical. He also viewed Brazilian modernism as rereading
tradition in the classics. His books of literary criticism include Uma
Literatura nos Trópicos (1978; A Literature in the Tropics), Vale
Quanto Pesa (1982; Worth Its Weight), and Nas Malhas da Letra
(1989; In the Mesh of the Letter). As a creative writer, Santiago won
the Jabuti Prize for the novel Em Liberdade (1981; In Freedom), a
fictional diary of Graciliano Ramos, in which the author attempted
a portrait of Brazil in the 1930s. His Stella Manhattan (1985; Stella
Manhattan) is a story of a sex and political scandal set in New York
among the Brazilian exile community and centered around a young
gay Brazilian.

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440 • SARLO, BEATRIZ

SARLO, BEATRIZ (Argentina, 1942– ). Critic and essayist. One


of Argentina’s most prominent public intellectuals, she has written
on many aspects of literature, urban life, journalism and the mass
media, and cinema and mass culture. In 1978 she founded, and still
edits, Punto de Vista, one of Argentina’s major cultural periodicals.
Her books include Una modernidad periférica: Buenos Aires 1920 y
1930 (1988; A Peripheral Modernity: Buenos Aires 1920 and 1930),
Jorge Luis Borges: A Writer on the Edge (1993), Escenas de la
vida posmoderna: intelectuales, arte y videocultura en la Argentina
(1994; Scenes from Postmodern Life), Instantáneas: medios, ciu-
dad y costumbres en el fin de siglo (1996; Snapshots: Media, City,
and Customs at the End of the Century), and La máquina cultural:
maestras, traductores y vanguardistas (1998; The Culture Machine:
Teachers, Translators and Members of the Avant-Garde).

SARMIENTO, DOMINGO FAUSTINO (Argentina, 1811–1888).


Essayist. He was president of Argentina from 1868 until 1874 and
figures among the country’s most important 19th-century writers,
politicians, and educators. As a liberal affiliated with the Unitarian
faction, much of his early life is defined by opposition to the dictator
Juan Manuel Rosas and his party, for which he endured extended
periods of exile. Although much of this time was spent in Chile, he
also traveled widely in Latin America, Europe, and North America
and developed considerable admiration for the United States. He
wrote extensively throughout his life and was the author of travel-
ogues, memoirs, biographies, political essays, and pamphlets. His
literary reputation is founded above all on Civilización y barbarie:
vida de Juan Facundo Quiroga, y aspecto físico, costumbres, y
hábitos de la República Argentina (1845; Facundo: Civilization and
Barbarism), written during one of his periods of exile in Chile. This
book, usually referred to as Facundo, is a complex work. At its core
is a biography of the historical figure Juan Facundo Quiroga, but
the story of his life also serves as an indictment of the dictator Juan
Manuel Rosas and government by caudillos, or chieftains. It is also
an account of life and customs in Argentina and a commentary on the
plight of the country, examined through the lens of the opposition be-
tween civilization and barbarism. See also ANDERSON IMBERT,
ENRIQUE; DICTATOR NOVEL; ROJAS, RICARDO.

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SCLIAR, MOACYR • 441

SCHMIDHUBER DE LA MORA, GUILLERMO (Mexico, 1943– ).


Dramatist. His plays have been widely translated and performed.
Many are taken from history, such as Por las tierras de Colón (1987;
In the Lands of Columbus) or, as was Los herederos de Segismundo
(1980; The Heirs of Segismund), from art or literature. He often uses
metatheatrical structures such as the play within the play. Other titles
include Los héroes inútiles (1979; The Useless Heroes) and Obitu-
ario (1993; Obituary). Schmidhuber is also a widely published critic
of Mexican theater.

SCHMIDT, AUGUSTO FREDERICO (Brazil, 1906–1965). Poet.


Raised in Switzerland, he abandoned his formal studies for a career
in business. He also wrote for the press and served as a diplomat.
Schmidt reacted negatively to the Week of Modern Art and the
renovations it proposed. He is seen as a representative of the sec-
ond phase of Brazilian modernism, with a poetry that explores
the themes of mortality and loss. For some time he was part of the
group of Catholic poets gathered around the journal Festa. His first
book, Canto do Brasileiro Augusto Frederico Schmidt (1928; Song
of the Brazilian Augusto Frederico Schmidt), rejected the folkloric
nationalism of some brands of modernism in Brazil; the second one,
Cantos do Liberto A.F.S. (1929; Song of the Liberated A.F.S.), sug-
gests moral perspectives. After Navio Perdido (1929; Lost Boat),
Pássaro Cego (1930; Blind Bird) introduced the sonnet in free verse.
Desaparição da Amada (1931; Disappearance of the Beloved), Can-
tos Iniciais (1931; Initial Songs), and Canto da Noite (1934; Song
of the Night) depict gloomy atmospheres and a sense of loss. Later
work, despite Schmidt’s repetitious and exuberant style, constitutes a
return to a poetry of introspection and concern for religion, especially
Mar Desconhecido (1942; Unknown Sea), according to some his best
work. His Poesias Completas 1928–1955 (1956; Collected Poems
1928–1955) collected all previous works, including Novos Poemas
(New Poems) and Meditação Sobre o Mistério da Ressurreição
(Meditation on the Mystery of Resurrection).

SCLIAR, MOACYR (Brazil, 1937– ). Novelist and short story writer.


Scliar was born in the south of Brazil of Jewish ancestry. His par-
ents had emigrated from Russia to Brazil and settled in a tight-knit

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442 • SCORZA, MANUEL

community where storytelling was a habit. Scliar grew up listening


to tales of exile and immigration, all of which influenced his writing,
characterized by a lightly ironic, unadorned style and noted for its use
of the fantastic and imaginary and his exploration of Jewish themes.
He studied medicine and specialized in public health. His first collec-
tion of stories, Histórias de Médico em Formação (1962; Stories of
a Physician in Training), was based on his experiences as a medical
student, and medicine has also inspired other works in different ways.
Scliar’s next book, O Carnaval dos Animais (1968; The Carnival of
Animals), was a success throughout the country. Since then, he has
published more than 80 books. These include A Guerra do Bom Fim
(1972; The War of Bom Fim), Os Deuses de Raquel (1975; Rachel’s
Gods), A Balada do Falso Messias (1976; The Ballad of the False
Messiah), Os Mistérios de Porto Alegre (1976; The Mysteries of
Porto Alegre), O Ciclo das Águas (1976; The Cycle of the Waters),
Histórias de Terra Trêmula (1977; Stories of the Trembling Earth),
Mês de Cães Danados (1977; Month of Damned Dogs), O Anão no
Televisor (1979; The Midget in the TV Set), A Massagista Japonesa
(1984; The Japanese Masseuse), O Olho Enigmático (1986; The Enig-
matic Eye), A Orelha de Van Gogh (1989; Van Gogh’s Ear), Sonhos
Tropicais (1992; Tropical Dreams), A Majestade do Xingu (1997; The
Majesty of the Xingu), A Mulher Que Escreveu a Bíblia (1999; The
Woman Who Wrote the Bible), and Os Leopardos de Kafka (2000;
Kafka’s Leopards). O Centauro no Jardim (1980; The Centaur in the
Garden) is considered one of the best 100 Jewish books ever written.

SCORZA, MANUEL (Peru, 1928–1983). Novelist. His fiction is writ-


ten in the vein of neo-indigenismo, using the narrative techniques
and strategies of the boom generation in a style often akin to that of
the magic realism of Gabriel García Márquez. His major achieve-
ment is “La guerra silenciosa” (The Silent War), a five-volume cycle
about peasant resistance in the Cerro del Pasco in the Andes, which
he wrote while living in Paris from 1968 to 1978. It includes the
novels Redoble por Rancas (1970; Drums for Rancas), Historia de
Garabombo el invisible (1972; History of the Invisible Garabombo),
El Cantar de Agapito Robles (1977; The Ballad of Agapito Robles),
El jinete insomne (1978; The Sleepless Horseman), and La tumba
del relámpago (1979; The Tomb of the Lightning). Scorza died in

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SELVA, SALOMÓN DE LA • 443

the Madrid air disaster and left incomplete a trilogy titled “Fuego
y cenizas” (Fire and Ashes), of which he had only published the first
volume, La danza inmóvil (1983; The Static Dance).

SEGURA, MANUEL ASCENSIO (Peru, 1805–1871). Dramatist.


Although he fought with the royalists, he became a prominent figure
in Peruvian society after independence and one of the country’s first
significant dramatists. He wrote popular comedies of manners (see
COSTUMBRISMO) in the style of neo-classicism. His best-known
works are El sargento Canuta (1839; Sargeant Canuta), a satire on
militarism, and Ña Catita (1859; Dame Catita), about a meddling old
woman characterized in the tradition of the medieval Spanish bawd.
Other titles include Las tres viudas (1862; The Three Widows) and
El santo de Panchita (1859; Panchita’s Saint), which he wrote in col-
laboration with Ricardo Palma. See also THEATER.

SELVA, SALOMÓN DE LA (Nicaragua, 1893–1959). Poet. Al-


though born in Nicaragua, he spent much of his life outside his native
country. He spent his youth in the United States and fought on the
Western Front with the British army during World War I. Indeed, his
first published poems, Tropical Town and Other Poems (1918) and
Soldiers’ Songs (1919), were written in English and drew in part on
his war experiences, as did his first volume in Spanish, El soldado
desconocido (1922; The Unknown Soldier). Expelled from Nicara-
gua for his activities as a labor union organizer, he lived first in Costa
Rica and eventually in Mexico, where he held a number of political
and diplomatic positions. His poetry is innovative and places him be-
tween the avant-garde and modernismo, but he never entirely freed
himself from the latter, even acquiring a certain neo-classical tone in
some of his writing. His major collections of verse include Oda a la
tristeza y otros poemas (1924; Ode to Sadness and Other Poems), Las
hijas de Erechteo (1933; The Daughters of Erechteion), Evocación
de Horacio (1948; Evocation of Horace), Ilustre familia (1954; Il-
lustrious Family), Tres poesías a la manera de Rubén Darío (1951;
Three Poems in the Style of Rubén Darío), Canto a la independencia
nacional de México (1955; Song for the National Independence of
Mexico), Evocación de Píndaro (1957; Evocation of Pindar), and
Alcolmixtle Nezahualcóyotl (1958; Alcolmixtle Nezahualcóyotl).

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444 • SERRANO, MARCELA

SERRANO, MARCELA (Chile, 1951– ). Novelist. Her writing has


attracted attention since the publication of her first novel, Nosotras
que nos queremos tanto (1991; We Women Who Love Each Other
So Much). As a successful author whose novels tell stories about
women, she has become one of Chile’s most prominent female
writers. Her recent titles include Para que no me olvides (1993; So
You’ll Not Forget Me), Antigua vida mía (1995; Antigua and My
Life Before), El albergue de las mujeres tristes (1997; Shelter for Sad
Women), Nuestra señora de la soledad (1999; Our Lady of Solitude),
Lo que está en mi corazón (2001; What Is in My Heart), and Hasta
siempre, mujercitas (2004; For Ever, Little Women).

SIERRA, JUSTO (Mexico, 1848–1912). Poet and essayist. He was the


son of Justo Sierra O’Reilly. His literary work was not collected
until quite late. Cuentos románticos (1896; Romantic Tales) included
narratives he had published over the years in newspapers and maga-
zines, but his poetry was not collected for publication until 1937, 25
years after his death. His work is representative of the tastes of his
time, but he is read today mainly for his historical essays and con-
tribution to the development of the concept of Mexican nationalism
and identity in texts such as Evolución política del pueblo mexicano
(1900–1902; The Political Evolution of the Mexican People). See
also GUTIÉRREZ NÁJERA, MANUEL.

SIERRA O’REILLY, JUSTO (Mexico, 1814–1861). Novelist and


historian. He was the author of a number of books on the history
of the state of Yucatán. As a novelist, he is best remembered for
his historical novel La hija del judío (1848–1850; The Jew’s
Daughter). Set in 17th-century Yucatán, it tells a story of plots and
counterplots involving the Inquisition and the colonial govern-
ment and is written in the style of Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832).
It was one of Mexico’s earliest historical novels, also known as
colonial novels, and was widely read throughout Latin America.
The author’s other works of fiction include the epistolary novel Un
año en el hospital de San Lázaro (1945; A Year in Saint Lazarus’s
Hospital) and a pirate novel, El filibustero (The Buccaneer). See
also SIERRA, JUSTO.

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SINÁN, ROGELIO • 445

SIGÜENZA Y GÓNGORA, CARLOS DE (Mexico, 1645–1700).


Novelist, poet, and essayist. A mathematician and astronomer by
profession, he published a number of scientific and poetic works.
His literary reputation rests mainly on a short novel, Infortunios de
Alonso Ramírez (1690; The Misadventures of Alonso Ramírez), in
which the protagonist tells a story of journeys and mishaps between
Asia and the Americas. Sigüenza y Góngora displays his knowledge
of the lands visited by his character, and his adaptation of the au-
tobiographical form of the picaresque novel also serves to offer a
critique of colonial society.

SILVA, JOSÉ ASUNCIÓN (Colombia, 1865–1896). Poet. The met-


rical innovations and language of Silva’s poetry make him an early
representative of modernismo, although he disdained the affilia-
tion. His preoccupation with the past, death, the life beyond, and the
mysterious also make him a late representative of romanticism. His
output was small, and much of it, including his first book, El libro
de versos (1928; Book of Verses), was published posthumously after
his suicide. He also wrote a novel, De sobremesa (1928; Around the
Table), a work in the decadent manner of Oscar Wilde (1854–1900)
that reflects his dandyism and unhappy life. See also VALENCIA,
GUILLERMO.

SINÁN, ROGELIO (Panama, 1902–1994). Poet, novelist, short story


writer, and dramatist. He was born Bernardo Domínguez Alba, but
is known almost exclusively by his pseudonym and is the most
prominent figure of 20th-century Panamanian literature. With his
first book of poems, Onda (1929; Wave), written in free verse and
characterized by unconventional forms and images, he brought the
avant-garde to Panama. Writing primarily about his native country,
he confirmed his early promise as a poet in his next books of verse:
Salonia (1933; Salonia), Incendio (1944; Fire), and Semana santa
en la niebla (1949; Holy Week in the Fog), in which he relocates
a number of biblical events to the island of Taboga, where he was
born. Sinán’s first novel, Plenilunio (1947; Full Moon), caused some
controversy when it appeared because of its focus on the dark side of
Panama City in the 1940s. La isla mágica (1979; The Magic Island),

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446 • SKÁRMETA, ANTONIO

his second novel, also set in Taboga, covers a hundred years of Pana-
manian history written in the style of magic realism.
The themes and styles of his poetry and novels are typical of
his short stories, which were published in collections at intervals
throughout his life and have been quite influential. They include A
la orilla de las estatuas maduras (1932; On the Shore of the Mature
Statues), Todo un conflicto de sangre (1946; Quite a Blood Conflict),
Dos aventuras en el Lejano Oriente (1947; Two Adventures in the
Far East), La boina roja (1961; The Red Beret), and El candelabro
de los malos ofidios y otros cuentos (1982; The Candelabra of Evil
Snakes and Other Tales). Sinán’s theater is also highly imagina-
tive and includes the musical fantasy Chiquilinga, o la gloria de ser
hormiga (1927; Chiquilinga, or the Wonder of Being an Ant) and La
cucarachita mandinga (1937; The Little Mandinga Cockroach), a
musical farce for children.

SKÁRMETA, ANTONIO (Chile, 1940– ). Novelist and short story


writer. The characteristics of Skármeta’s writing associate him with
the post-boom generation. His early reputation was established by
his short stories: El entusiasmo (1967; Enthusiasm); Desnudo el en
tejado (1969; Naked on the Roof), which won a Casa de las Améri-
cas prize; Tiro libre (1973; Free Kick); El ciclista de San Cristóbal
(1973; The Cyclist of San Cristóbal); and Novios y solitarios (1975;
Couples and Lonely People). A selection from these volumes was
published in 1991 in English translation as Watch Where the Wolf
Is Going.
Skármeta began writing novels in Berlin after leaving Chile in the
wake of the fall of the government of Salvador Allende in 1973. In
Germany, he wrote radio plays, worked on films, and began what
would become a continuing association with the German film direc-
tor Peter Lilienthal. His first novel, Soñé que la nieve ardía (1975;
I Dreamt the Snow Was Burning), is a narrative about the years of
the Salvador Allende government (1970–1973) and the coup that
brought it down, told through the misadventures of a provincial soc-
cer player who goes to Santiago to make his fortune. No pasó nada
(1980; Nothing Happened), concerned with the problems of exile,
presents the experiences of an adolescent Chilean boy in Germany.
La insurrección (1982; The Insurrection) is a history of the Nicara-

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SOLARI SWAYNE, ENRIQUE • 447

guan Revolution against the dictator Anastasio Somoza (1967–1979).


Ardiente paciencia (1985; Burning Patience) was a radio play and a
film before it became a novel. It has become better known under the
title El cartero de Neruda (Neruda’s Postman) and was the source
of a highly successful Italian film, Il Postino (1994; The Postman).
Match Ball (1989; Match Ball), with echoes of Lolita (1955) by
Vladimir Nabokov (1899–1977), is about a doctor who pursues an
adolescent tennis star.
Since returning to Chile in 1989, Skármeta has continued to pub-
lish fiction and has become a TV celebrity as host of El Show de los
Libros (The Book Show). La composición (1998; The Composition)
is an illustrated story about a boy confronted with the consequences
of living under a dictatorial regime who tries to protect his family by
changing the facts about them in a school composition. La boda del
poeta (1999; The Poet’s Wedding) and La chica del trombón (2001;
The Girl with the Trombone) are related novels that together tell a
story of immigrants to Chile in the early part of the 20th century. El
baile de la victoria (2003; The Dancer and the Thief) is about two
former convicts whose schemes for success go astray when they en-
counter a dancer named Victoria.

SOCA, SUSANA (Uruguay, 1906–1959). Poet. She published little,


most of her work being contained in two collections, En un país de
la memoria (1959; In a Country from Memory) and Noche cerrada
(1962; Dark Night), which surfaced after her death in a plane crash.
She had many international connections, was editor of the Parisian
literary journal La Licorne, and was eulogized by a number of writ-
ers, including Jorge Luis Borges, who published a sonnet to her
memory in his El hacedor.

SOLARI SWAYNE, ENRIQUE (Peru, 1915–1995). Dramatist. Al-


though his output was relatively small, it had considerable impact
on the Peruvian theater of his day. He is best known for the drama
Collacocha (1956; Collacocha), a play that examines the conflict
between human endeavor and the forces of nature in an engineering
project in the high Andes. His other plays include Pompas fúnebres
(1954; Funerals), La mazorca (1966; Corncob), and Ayax Telamonio
(1969; Ajax Telamon).

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448 • SOLOGUREN, JAVIER

SOLOGUREN, JAVIER (Peru, 1921–2004). Poet. As a publisher-


editor and as editor of several literary journals, he played an impor-
tant role in the promotion of poetic composition and its dissemination
in Peru. His own work as a poet amounts to about 20 books, among
which are El morador (1944; Inhabitant), Dédalo dormido (1949;
Daedalus Asleep), Bajo los ojos del amor (1950; Beneath the Eyes of
Love), Otoño, endechas (1959; Autumn, Laments), Estancias (1960;
Rooms), Recinto (1967; Enclosure), Surcando el aire oscuro (1970;
Plowing the Dark Air), Folios de el Enamorado y la Muerte (1980;
Folios from the Lover and Death), Jaikus escritos en un amanecer
de otoño (1986; Haikus Written in an Autumn Dawn), Catorce ver-
sos dicen (1987; Fourteen Verses Speak), and Hojas del herbolario
(1995; Leaves from the Herbarium). He collected his poetry peri-
odically in different editions of a volume titled Vida continua (1966,
1971, 1981, 1989; Continuous Life). His work is a quest for lyrical
expression, for which he drew on Spanish poets of the 16th and 17th
centuries, surrealism, and Chinese and Japanese sources. If in his
earlier collections he might be considered a poet in search of beauty,
in his later work he became more of an existentialist.

SOLÓRZANO, CARLOS (Guatemala, 1922– ). Dramatist. Although


born in Guatemala, he has lived mainly in Mexico, where many of
his plays have been written and performed. As in Los fantoches
(1958; The Puppets), one of his earlier works, in which the actors
are like marionettes, unnamed and subjected to an arbitrary universe,
Solórzano brought the themes of fate and existentialism to the Mexi-
can stage. A preoccupation with good and evil in relation to free will
and a spirit of anticlericalism are features of his writing. Among his
plays are La muerte hizo la luz (1951; Death Made the Light); Doña
Beatriz (1954; Doña Beatriz), about the Spanish conquest of Guate-
mala; El hechicero (1955; The Enchanter), set in a medieval town;
Las manos de Dios (1957; The Hands of God); El crucificado (1958;
The Crucified One), combining the Bible with Mexican folklore; El
sueño del ángel (1960; Dream of the Angel), about a cruel woman
and her guardian angel; and El zapato (1966; The Shoe). In addition
to his own plays, Solórzano has contributed an extensive body of
criticism on theater in Spanish America and many editions of plays
by other dramatists.

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SOMIGLIANA, CARLOS • 449

SOMERS, ARMONÍA (Uruguay, 1914–1994). Novelist and short


story writer. Born Armonía Etchepare, her identity and the details
of her life remained obscure for many years after her first literary
publications. In effect, Somers’s literary career began only with the
publication of her first novel in 1950 and was second to a distin-
guished career in education, as a teacher, administrator, and writer,
from which she retired in 1971 to concentrate on her fiction. This first
work, a novella, La mujer desnuda (1950; The Naked Woman), the
story of a woman searching for freedom as she reaches the age of 30,
caused considerable controversy for its open treatment of sexuality.
Erotic themes also figure in her first collection of short stories, El
derrumbamiento (1953; Collapse), which present characters trapped
in empty lives.
A second collection of stories, La calle del viento norte (1963;
Street of the North Wind), appeared 10 years later, followed by a
second novel, De miedo en miedo (1965; From One Fear to Another),
a chronologically fragmented narrative told by a man at midlife en-
gaged in an extramarital relationship and attempting to make sense
of his meaningless life. Un retrato para Dickens (1969; A Portrait
for Dickens), Somers’s third novel, which draws on Oliver Twist
(1837–1839) by Charles Dickens (1812–1870), is the story of an
orphaned adolescent’s life in a poor tenement.
Several other collections of short narratives appeared in the last
dozen years of the author’s life: Tríptico darwiniano (1982; Darwin-
ian Tryptich), Viaje al corazón del día (1986; Journey to the Heart of
the Day), La rebelión de la flor (1988; The Flower’s Rebellion), and
El hacedor de girasoles (1994; The Sunflower Maker). Her most im-
portant work of this period, however, was the novel Sólo los elefantes
encuentran mandrágora (1983; Only Elephants Find Mandrake). It is
a complex, many-layered work, at the center of which is a woman in
hospital, with a respiratory and cardiac illness, who writes memoirs
that embrace not only her own life and circumstances, but also fam-
ily history and a wide range of other topics. Like other characters in
Somers’s fictional worlds, she too searches for meaning in her life.

SOMIGLIANA, CARLOS (Argentina, 1932–1987). Dramatist.


Mainly a realist author, he collaborated with Germán Rozen-
macher, Roberto Cossa, and Ricardo Talesnik on El avión negro

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450 • SORIANO, OSVALDO

(1970; The Black Plane), and was a member of the group Teatro Ab-
ierto, for which he wrote the manifesto and to which he contributed
two plays: El nuevo mundo (1981; The New World), which relocates
the Marquis de Sade to America, and El oficial primero (1982; The
First Officer), a condemnation of civil rights abuses. His other plays
include Amarillo (1959; Yellow), set in Rome before the Christian
era, on justice and liberty, themes that figured predominantly in his
later work; Amor de ciudad grande (1959; Big City Love); La bolsa
de agua caliente (1966; The Hot Water Bottle); and El exalumno
(1978; The Alumnus). See also THEATER.

SORIANO, OSVALDO (Argentina, 1943–1997). Novelist. His writ-


ing is associated with the post-boom, gaining popularity both in
Argentina and internationally following his return to South America
in 1984 after living in exile in Paris since 1976. His novels show
an interest in popular culture, especially sport, cinema, and music,
and the influence of hard-boiled crime fiction by North American
writers such as Raymond Chandler (1888–1959). However, the vio-
lence characteristic of the genre, used to critique society and politi-
cal authoritarianism, is tempered by exaggeration, slapstick humor,
and absurdity. In his first novel, Triste, solitario y final (1973; Sad,
Lonely and Final), Soriano introduced himself and Chandler’s Philip
Marlowe on a quest to discover why the celebrated comedian Stan
Laurel had lost the favor of the Hollywood studios. His next two
novels, No habrá más penas ni olvido (1979; A Funny Dirty Little
War) and Cuarteles de invierno (1981; Winter Quarters), both writ-
ten while he was living in France, are set in a claustrophobic small
town in Argentina called Colonia Vela and portray the troubled times
of 1970s Argentina. Both were the basis for successful films.
A sus plantas rendido un león (1988; A Lion Prostrate at Your
Feet), with a title taken from a line of the Argentinean national
anthem, is a satire of the Malvinas/Falklands War (1982) between
Argentina and Great Britain. Una sombra ya pronto serás (1990;
Shadows), with a title taken this time from a popular tango, was also
the source of a film. It narrates a man’s wanderings through the pam-
pas and his encounters with others also traveling along life’s road,
a group of failed individuals who reflect their country. His last two

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SOUSA, GABRIEL SOARES DE • 451

novels were La hora sin sombra (1996; Time Without Shadow) and
El ojo de la patria (1992; Eye of the Fatherland), a humorous but
bitter analysis of society through the representation of cultural and
historical stereotypes.
Soriano also published short stories. A collection of stories about
soccer, Memorias del Míster Peregrino Fernández y otros relatos de
fútbol (1998; Memoirs of Mr. Peregrino Fernández and Other Foot-
ball Stories), was published posthumously, and some of Soriano’s
newspaper writings have been collected in Artistas, locos y crimina-
les (1983; Artists, Madmen and Criminals) and Cuentos de los años
felices (1987; Tales from the Happy Years).

SOSA, ROBERTO (Honduras, 1930– ). Poet. Since publishing Cali-


gramas (1959; Calligrams), his first book of poems, Sosa has become
the country’s most significant contemporary poet and one of the few
whose work has become known outside it. He writes about everyday
life, Honduras, social justice, and oppression, concerns that remain
even in his more recent verse, He has published eight collections, in-
cluding Muros (1966; Walls); Un mundo para todos dividido (1971;
A World Divided for All); which received a Casa de las Américas
prize; Los pobres (1979; The Difficult Days); Secreto militar (1985;
Military Secret); and Máscara suelta (1994; The Common Grief: Po-
ems). These have been collected in Poesía total: 1959–2004 (2006;
Complete Poetry), and a selection of his work appeared in English
translation in The Return of the River: The Selected Poems of Roberto
Sosa (2002).

SOUSA, GABRIEL SOARES DE (Brazil, 1540?–1591). Chronicler.


Born in Portugal, Soares de Sousa was a wealthy sugar plantation
owner and public official in Bahia. In his chronicle Tratado Descri-
tivo do Brasil em 1587 (1851; Descriptive Treatise of Brazil in 1587),
he recorded his personal observations of nature, people (including the
white, black, and indigenous populations), and the consequences of
Portuguese colonization. It is considered one of the most important
documents regarding life in Brazil in this period. Soares de Sousa
died after an unsuccessful expedition to establish mines along the
São Francisco River.

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452 • SOUSA, JOÃO DA CRUZ E

SOUSA, JOÃO DA CRUZ E (Brazil, 1861–1898). Poet. Son of a


slave and a freed slave, Cruz e Sousa was raised by his parents’
former owners and received a first-rate education. He began to write
for the press in his native state of Santa Catarina but soon left to
tour the country with a theater company. His early poetry exhibits
various influences, from late romanticism to parnassianism. Dur-
ing this period, he wrote in collaboration with Virgílio Várzea the
collection Tropos e Fantasias (1885; Tropes and Fantasies), a mix
of sentimental and antislavery poetry. A black man in a state with
a mostly white population, Cruz e Sousa suffered personally from
racial discrimination. In 1890, he moved to Rio de Janeiro, where
he joined in the formation of Brazil’s first symbolist group. In Rio
he also wrote for the press and eventually secured a modest clerical
position with the Brazilian Railroads. He also married a young black
woman, with whom he had four children, but who eventually proved
psychologically unstable.
Cruz e Sousa’s first collections of poetry in the style of symbol-
ism, Broquéis (1893; Shields) and Missal (1893; Missal), rhapsodic
prose poems and essays, were not very well received. These were the
last books he published during his lifetime. Later posthumously pub-
lished volumes include Evocações (1898; Evocations); the confes-
sional volume Faróis (1900; Beacons); and Últimos Sonetos (1905;
Last Sonnets), a volume in which he explores his poetic ascent to
the realm of Essences. Cruz e Sousa: Obra Completa (Cruz e Sousa:
Complete Works), edited by José Cândido de Andrade Muricy, ap-
peared only in 1961.
Cruz e Sousa is considered one of the greatest symbolist poets of
Brazil. His early work displayed a concern with social issues related
to the abolition of slavery. Through parnassian aesthetics, he de-
veloped and refined his poetic craft. Symbolism provided him with
some of his long-lasting themes, such as an aspiration toward truth
and a search for ideal beauty. Cruz e Sousa’s reputation is also due
to his original exploration of language, including the use of archaic
and rare words, a novel syntax, and a new and powerful hypnotic
musicality. After tragic battles against poverty, lack of recognition,
and family mental illness, Cruz e Sousa died at a relatively young
age from tuberculosis. See also GUIMARAENS, ALPHONSUS DE;
LEMINSKI, PAULO.

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SOUSÂNDRADE, JOAQUIM DE • 453

SOUSÂNDRADE (SOUSA ANDRADE), JOAQUIM DE (1833–


1902). Poet. Born in the Northeastern state of Maranhão, Sousân-
drade grew up there, but traveled widely, especially in Europe, where
he was educated, obtaining degrees in both letters and engineering in
Paris. Back in Brazil, he married and began publishing his first po-
etry, Harpas Selvagens (1857; Wild Harps), in the style of a belated
or second generation romanticism. After separating from his wife,
Sousândrade traveled again, this time through South America, and
eventually to New York. In order to send his daughter to a Catholic
school, he settled in Manhattanville in 1871, seven miles from New
York City, and collaborated with “O Novo Mundo,” a Portuguese-
language newspaper.
During these years, he wrote Guesa Errante: Poema Americano
(The Wandering Guesa: American Poem), a narrative/dramatic/epic
poem in 12 cantos, and an epilogue, which he published in several
parts in 1866, 1876, 1877, and 1884. In the introduction to one of the
cantos he wrote: “I have already heard twice that ‘O Guesa errante’
would only be read fifty years later; I was sad—the disillusion of
one who writes fifty years earlier.” The epic portrays the Guesa, a
character from Colombian mythology, making a heroic journey along
the continent that culminates in the New York Stock Exchange. “The
Wall Street Inferno,” as this episode in Canto X of Guesa is entitled,
is a critique of capitalism through a parodic portrayal of New York in
the Gilded Age. Sousândrade included news stories from newspapers
of his time in his poem as well as events and characters from the past
and present in an anarchic, polyglot montage.
Sousândrade’s work never received the attention of his contempo-
raries, and he died impoverished, selling, or as he reported, “eating”
the stones of his estate in order to survive. He was later republished
by the concrete poets Augusto de Campos and Haroldo de Cam-
pos, who argued that Sousândrade is a great unacknowledged pre-
cursor of modern poetry in his neologisms, innovative syntax, and
other verbal inventions. His literary ambitions may be seen in how he
combined his two last names into one unique-sounding word having
the same number of letters as Shakespeare’s last name. Other editions
and works by Sousândrade include Impressos (2 vols., 1868–1869;
Writings), Obras Poéticas (1874; Poetic Works), Novo Eden (1893;
New Eden), and Inéditos (1970; Unpublished Papers).

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454 • SPOTA, LUIS

SPOTA, LUIS (Mexico, 1925–1985). Novelist. He was a popular


writer, the author of more than 20 novels and well known for his
novels on political themes dealing with contemporary topics and
employing a direct, journalistic style, a reflection of his profession,
perhaps. Among his most widely read works are Murieron a mitad
de río (1948; They Died Mid-Stream), about migrants entering the
United States illegally; Las grandes aguas (1954; The Great Wa-
ters), on the construction of a dam; Casi el paraíso (1956; Almost
Paradise), the adventures of an Italian impostor; Las horas violen-
tas (1959; The Violent Hours), concerned with labor unions and
strikes; La sangre enemiga (1959; Enemy Blood), a severe critique
of the Mexican ruling class; La carcajada del gato (1964; The Cat’s
Laughter), the true-life story of a man who imprisoned his children;
La plaza (1971; The Plaza), on the 1968 student movement that cul-
minated in the Tlatelolco massacre; Palabras mayores (1975; Great
Words), about a president’s politicking to ensure the selection of his
successor; and El primer día (1977; The First Day), an ex-president’s
reaction to his loss of power at the end of his term in office. Spota
was also the author of many screenplays and was involved in the
production of several movies.

STEINER, ROLANDO (Nicaragua, 1936– ). Dramatist. He was one


of the main writers who contributed to the growth in Nicaraguan the-
ater in the period between the 1950s and 1970s. Everyday life and
history are among his predominant themes and are often related to
biblical or classical motifs. His best-known plays are Judit (1957; Ju-
dith), on the disintegration of a middle-class marriage, and La noche
de Wiwilí, about the death of the Nicaraguan revolutionary Augusto
César Sandino (1895–1934). Other titles include Antígona en el infi-
erno (1958; Antigone in Hell), La pasión de Helena (1963; Helena’s
Passion), El tercer día (1965; The Third Day), La mujer deshabitada
(1970; The Unoccupied Woman), and La agonía del poeta (1977;
Death of the Poet), on the death of Rubén Darío.

STORNI, ALFONSINA (Argentina, 1892–1938). Poet. Her simple,


direct language places her in the post-modernismo generation of
writers. She is also considered one of Latin America’s first impor-
tant feminist writers for her criticism of patriarchy and the social

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SUASSUNA, ARIANO VILAR • 455

subordination of women. Such themes are especially evident in her


first collections of poems, although her earliest work inclines to
the sentimental and melodramatic: La inquietud del rosal (1916;
The Restless Rose Garden), El dulce daño (1918; Sweet Harm), Ir-
remediablemente (1919; Without Remedy), and Languidez (1920;
Languor). The subjects addressed in later collections, Ocre (1925;
Ocher) and Mundo de siete pozos (1934; World of Seven Wells),
are broader and also show greater formal experimentation, a conse-
quence of the impact of ultraísmo and her contact with the Span-
ish literary scene of the 1930s. Her last poems, Mascarilla y trébol
(1938; Mask and Clover), a collection of 52 unrhymed sonnets on
the cycle of disintegration, regeneration, and salvation, sustain this
direction, but also anticipate her suicide, prompted by illness and
occurring the year after her friend, the writer Horacio Quiroga,
took his own life.
Although best known as a poet, Storni also wrote for the theater.
She had some early acting experiences, and through her association
with the Labardén Childrens Theater, begun in 1921, she contributed
to children’s literature by writing pieces for young performers. She
also wrote several pieces for adults: El amo del mundo (1927; Master
of the World), which was staged unsuccesfully, and La técnica de
Míster Dougall (Mister Dougal’s Technique), which she completed,
but never saw staged, as well as Dos farsas pirotécnicas (1932; Two
Pyrotechnical Farces), written after the first of her two trips to Eu-
rope. See also VAZ FERREIRA, MARÍA EUGENIA.

SUASSUNA, ARIANO VILAR (Brazil, 1927– ). Novelist and dra-


matist. Suassuna was born in Paraíba, Northeastern Brazil, where his
father was governor. When he was three, his father was assassinated,
and the family had to move around, fleeing from further potential
threats. As a result, Suassuna grew up in the backlands, where he
came into contact with itinerant musicians, poets, and storytellers,
whose forms of popular expression shaped his literary themes and
style. In 1946, while still a law student, he cofounded the Teatro do
Estudante de Pernambuco (TEP), a theater group inspired by the ex-
perimental and didactic traveling theater group “La Barraca,” created
in Spain by Federico García Lorca (1898–1936). The project also
included a popular press that published some of the plays performed.

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456 • SUASSUNA, ARIANO VILAR

In 1948, Suassuna staged his play Cantam as Harpas de Sião ou


O Desertor de Princesa (1948; The Harps of Sion Are Singing or the
Deserter from Princesa) at the TEP and also received a theater award
for Uma Mulher Vestida de Sol (1964; A Woman Dressed in Sun).
His next two plays were Auto de João da Cruz (1950; Auto of John
of the Cross) and Auto da Compadecida (1955; The Rogue’s Trial),
perhaps his most successful play and the most acclaimed Brazilian
play worldwide. This comedy, harking back to the Iberian tradition of
the auto, recounts the story of two tricksters from the backland who,
after their death, must be judged by Jesus and the Virgin Mary before
being admitted to heaven.
Besides the Catholic theater tradition, including the Spanish author
Calderón de la Barca (1600–1681) and medieval religious drama,
Suassuna’s theater blends elements from Latin comedies, the Italian
Commedia dell’Arte, and the popular Northeastern ballads known
as “literatura de cordel.” In his plays, saints and religious figures
like Jesus and the Virgin intermingle with real people, real life with
imagination, and tradition with contemporary events to create a
uniquely Brazilian theatrical form. Suassuna is a staunch defender
of the culture of Northeastern Brazil, and around it he structured a
cultural trend known as “Movimento Armorial,” whose name alludes
to coats of arms and heraldry. It gathers artists from various media to
preserve and celebrate the popular culture of that region. As inspira-
tion, Northeastern cordel ballads, in particular, embody the medieval
tradition of the epic and the carnivalesque. Other notable plays by
Suassuna include O Casamento Suspeitoso (1961; The Suspicious
Marriage), O Santo e a Porca (1964; The Holyman and the Piggy
Bank), and A Pena e a Lei (1971; The Sentence and the Law).
In 1971, Suassuna published his first novel, Romance d’A Pedra
do Reino e o Príncipe do Sangue do Vai-e-Volta (1971; Ballad of the
Kingdom’s Stone and the Prince of the Come-and-Go Blood), and a
sequel, História d’O Rei Degolado nas Caatingas do Sertão/Ao Sol
da Onça Caetana (1977; Story of the King Who Was Beheaded in
the Hills of the Backlands/Under the Sun of Caetana the Jaguar). In
these works, intended as parts of a trilogy, Suassuna attempts again
to combine the Iberian tradition of the epic, the novel of chivalry, and
the picaresque novel, setting the action in Northeast Brazil. Suas-
suna’s works have been translated into many languages, he has been

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SURREALISM • 457

the recipient of numerous prizes, and he is considered one of Brazil’s


foremost dramatists.

SUBERCASEAUX, BENJAMÍN (Chile, 1902–1973). Novelist. He


was also a popular historian. Among his best-known works are a
collection of short stories, Y al oeste limita con el mar (1937; And
to the West Is the Sea); Chile, una loca geografía (1940; Chile, a
Crazy Geography); and his historical novel, Jemmy Button (1951;
Jemmy Button), about events in Tierra del Fuego in the context of
Charles Darwin’s voyage to South America on the British navy ship
HMS Beagle. The same story is the subject of a novel by Sylvia
Iparraguirre.

SURREALISM. Originating in France under the leadership of André


Breton (1896–1966), the emergence of surrealism coincided with the
formation of modern psychology and the exploration of the libido,
dreams, and the unconscious. It spread widely and was the core of
the avant-garde. Among its characteristics were the unusual juxta-
position of images, evocation of the marvelous, exploration of the
psyche, and the representation of the world and experience in highly
subjective images and language that often made the literary work
seem opaque. Surrealism was manifested in various ways in Latin
America and did not necessarily conform to how it was initially
envisaged in France. Its greatest impact was in poetry in the work of
writers such as Mário Faustino, Pedro Kilkerry, Jorge de Lima,
João Cabral de Melo Neto, and Murilo Mendes (Brazil); Jaime
Saénz (Bolivia); César Moro (Peru); Hérib Campos Cervera
(Paraguay); and Francisco Madariaga, Enrique Molina, Aldo
Pelligrini, and Alejandra Pizarnik (Argentina). But its influence
was also felt by some notable prose writers, including Miguel Ángel
Asturias (Guatemala), Aníbal Machado (Brazil), Julio Cortázar
(Argentina), and María Luisa Bombal (Chile). See also CAR-
DOZA Y ARAGÓN, LUIS; GERBASI, VICENTE; MOLINARI,
RICARDO E.; ORTIZ DE MONTELLANO, BERNARDO; PALO-
MARES, RAMÓN; RAMOS SUCRE, JOSÉ ANTONIO; ROJAS,
GONZALO; ROKHA, PABLO DE; TREJO, OSVALDO; ULTRA-
ÍSMO; VARELA, BLANCA; WESTPHALEN, EMILIO ADOLFO;
WOMEN.

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458 • SYMBOLISM

SYMBOLISM. In contrast to realism and naturalism, which of-


fered a harsh and often uncompromising view of reality, symbol-
ism sought a more idealistic view of the world through recourse to
the spiritual, the imagination, and dreams. Symbolism originated
in France in 1866 with a manifesto by Jean Moréas (1856–1910)
and shared some of the characteristics of parnassianism, which
it followed, including the concept of art for art’s sake. The move-
ment had an important influence in Spanish America on Rubén
Darío (Nicaragua) and the development of modernismo and on
writers such as Amado Nervo (Mexico), Guillermo Valencia
(Colombia), José María Egurén (Peru), and Ricardo Jaimes
Freyre (Bolivia).
In Brazil, although some poetry related to French decadentism (a
name also given to symbolism) appeared between 1883 and 1887,
the publication of João Cruz e Sousa’s Broquéis (1893; Shields)
is considered the beginning of the movement. Symbolism held
sway in Brazil until the 1922 Week of Modern Art, and writers
often cultivated parnassianism alongside it. Although there were
some attempts at writing symbolist fiction, symbolism was chiefly
a poetic movement. Besides Cruz e Sousa, other famous symbol-
ists in Brazil are Augusto dos Anjos, Alphonsus de Guimaraens,
and Pedro Kilkerry. See also ALMEIDA, GUILHERME DE;
BANDEIRA, MANUEL; COUTO, RUI RIBEIRO; ESTRIDEN-
TISMO; FAUSTINO, MÁRIO; LISBOA, HENRIQUETA; MACH-
ADO, GILKA; MEIRELES, CECÍLIA; MORAES, VINÍCIUS DE;
OLIVEIRA, ALBERTO DE; PEIXOTO, AFRÂNIO; POMPÉIA,
RAUL D’ÁVILA; REALISM; RICARDO LEITE, CASSIANO;
ROMANTICISM; TABLADA, JOSÉ JUAN; WOMEN.

SZICHMAN, MARIO (Argentina, 1945– ). Novelist. Szichman is


known for his contributions to Jewish writing in Argentina, such
as the novel A las 20:25 la señora entró a la inmortalidad (1981;
At 8:25 Evita Became Immortal), a title that refers to the moment
when Eva Duarte de Perón died on 26 July 1952, and the short
stories in Los judíos del mar dulce (1971; Jews of the Fresh Water
Sea).

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TABOADA TERÁN, NÉSTOR • 459

– T –

TABLADA, JOSÉ JUAN (Mexico, 1871–1945). Poet. His early


poetic development took place in the context of the Belle Epoque,
late 19th-century decadentism, and the rise of modernismo. The
influence of French symbolism is evident in El florilegio (1899;
Anthology), which also reveals his iconoclastic frame of mind and
inclination to erotic exoticism, although these characteristics are
present throughout his work. A second edition of Florilegio in 1904
also showed Tablada’s growing interest in the Orient and some of the
first results of a journey he is said to have made to Japan in 1900. In
Al sol y bajo la luna (1918; In the Sun and Beneath the Moon), he
consolidated his personal style and, in Un día. . . poemas sintéticos
(1919; One Day . . . Synthetic Poems), he introduced the Japanese
haiku to Hispanic verse. His capacity for innovation was further de-
monstrated in Li-Po y otros poemas (1920; Li-Po and Other Poems),
the author’s most celebrated collection. In this book, which confirms
Tablada’s transition from modernismo to the avant-garde, he inclu-
ded several calligrammes, or picture poems, verses shaped to resem-
ble the objects described, in the style of the French poet Guillaume
Apollinaire (1880–1918).
Later collections of poems include El jarro de flores: disociacio-
nes líricas (1922; Vase of Flowers: Lyric Dissociations) and La
feria: poemas mexicanos (1928; The Fair: Mexican Poems). Tablada
also wrote a number of works in prose. Notable among them are his
writings on painting, including Hiroshigué: el pintor de la nieve y de
la lluvia, de la noche y de la luna (1914; Hiroshigué: Painter of the
Snow and the Rain, the Night and the Moon) and Historia del arte en
México (1927; History of Art in Mexico), an indication of a lifelong
interest in art that also informed his poetry. His memoirs appeared
in La feria de la vida (1937; Life’s a Fair), the first of two projected
volumes.

TABOADA TERÁN, NÉSTOR (Bolivia, 1929– ). Novelist and short


story writer. A Marxist whose political beliefs led to a period of
exile in Argentina (1972–1977) and are reflected in several books
about political movements in Latin America: Cuba, paloma de vuelo

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460 • TAIBO II, PACO IGNACIO

popular (1964; Cuba: A Dove of a Popular Flight); Chile, con el


corazón a la izquierda (1971; Chile With Its Heart on the Left); La
revolución degollada (1974; The Slaughtered Revolution); and Re-
querimiento al rey de España (1992; Petition to the King of Spain), a
review of Spain’s colonial enterprise written in the context of a visit
by Pope John Paul II to the Andes. By contrast, Taboada’s fiction is
generally more focused on Bolivia. However, he writes from an ima-
ginative perspective so that the historical novel is for him far from a
conventional retelling of the past.
His first novel, El precio de estaño (1960; The Price of Tin), is a
revisionary biography of a Bolivian tin baron. El signo escalonada
(1975; The Sign of the Step), set in the 1930s, is concerned with the
causes of the Chaco War (1932–1935) between Bolivia and Para-
guay. The sign mentioned in the title refers both to an Indian motif
and to the swastika. Manchay Puytu, al amor que quiso ocultar Dios
(1977; Manchay Puytu, the Love God Sought to Hide), set in colonial
times in the silver mining city of Potosí, deals with the mixing of
cultures as a result of the conquest. Among its sources is a story that
was also told by Ricardo Palma.
As a mestizo by birth, and knowing both Quechua and Aymara,
as well as Spanish, Taboada had direct access to popular folktales.
In Angelina Yupanki, marquesa de la conquista (1992; Angelina
Yupanki, Marchioness of the Conquest), he also explored the mix-
ing of cultures, and in Ollantay, la guerra de los dioses (1994;
Ollantay, War of the Gods), he reworked the Quechua drama Ol-
lantay, in which he introduced a relationship between the Bolivian
president Mariano Melgarejo (1864–1871) and the English queen
Victoria (1837–1901). Taboada’s collections of short stories include
Claroscuro (1948; Chiaroscuro), Germen (1950; Seed), Mientras se
oficia el escarnio (1968; While Ridicule Rules), Indios en rebelión
(1968; Indians in Revolt), and Sweet and Sexy (1977).

TAIBO II, PACO IGNACIO (Mexico, 1949– ). Novelist. Although


he has more than 50 books to his credit, including works of fiction,
history, and social commentary, he is best known as the author of
crime fiction. Beginning with Días de combate (1974; Days of Com-
bat), he has written a lengthy series featuring the hard-boiled Mexico
City detective Héctor Belascoaran, but also has novels featuring the

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TAUNAY, ALFREDO D’ESCRAGNOLLE, VISCONDE DE • 461

more cerebral kind of detective and others with a female agent as


their principal character.

TALESNIK, RICARDO (Argentina, 1935– ). Dramatist. He arrived


on the theater scene in Argentina with La fiaca (1967; Laziness), a
work in the tradition of the grotesco criollo that displays the human
condition through an alienated individual afflicted with indolence.
Talesnik’s plays are generally concerned with social or political is-
sues or personal relationships. He collaborated with Roberto Cossa,
Germán Rozenmacher, and Carlos Somigliana on El avión negro
(1970; The Black Plane). His plays include Cien veces no debo
(1970; “I Must Not . . .” One Hundred Times), Solita y sola (1972;
Lonely and Alone), Los japoneses no esperan (1973; The Japanese
Don’t Wait), Cómo ser una buena madre (1977; How to Be a Good
Mother), Casi un hombre (1979; Almost a Man), and Yo la escribo y
yo la vendo (1979; I Write It and I Sell It).

TAMAYO, FRANZ (Bolivia, 1879–1956). Poet. He had a very suc-


cessful political career that culminated in election to the presidency
of Bolivia in 1935, although a coup prevented him from taking office.
His poetry is highly regarded as a late aestheticized version of mo-
dernismo, reflecting the author’s linguistic abilities and his readings
in theosophy and the occult. The Hellenic orientation of his verse is
clearly reflected in the titles of some of his books: La Prometheida o
las Oceánidas, tragedia lírica (1917; The Prometheiad or the Ocea-
nides: A Lyric Tragedy); Nuevo Rubayat (1927; New Rubaiyat);
Scherzos (1932; Scherzos); Scopas (1939; Scopas), named for the
Greek sculptor and architect; and Epigramas griegos (1945; Greek
Epigrams). In his essay Creación de la pedagogía nacional (1910;
Creation of the National Pedagogy), he adopted a position contrary
to that of the positivism of his countryman Alcides Arguedas and
argued that all Bolivia’s ills, especially those afflicting its native
population, were the fault of the European colonizers and their de-
scendants.

TAUNAY, ALFREDO D’ESCRAGNOLLE, VISCONDE DE (Bra-


zil, 1843–1899). Novelist. Born into an aristocratic family of French
origin, Taunay participated in Brazil’s campaign against Paraguay

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462 • TEATRO ABIERTO

as a military engineer and wrote a volume of war memoirs in French,


La Retraite de Laguna (1869; The Retreat from Laguna). Although
he was a prolific author in many genres and subjects, he is best re-
membered for his novel Inocência (1889; Inocência), a tragic love
story set in the Northeastern backlands and belonging to the style of
regionalism. Written at the end of the romantic period, it is also seen
as a work of transition into naturalism.

TEATRO ABIERTO. Founded in Buenos Aires in 1981 while Ar-


gentina was still under a military regime, Teatro Abierto, or Open
Theater, was an attempt both to revive theater and to confront gov-
ernment abuse of power through metaphorical or coded performan-
ces that addressed the issues indirectly. By giving new life to the
theater and opening the way for a new generation of dramatists, it
was an important achievement by an already established group of
writers that included Roberto Cossa, Osvaldo Dragún, Griselda
Gambaro, Carlos Gorostiza, and Carlos Somigliana. The group
was dissolved in 1986, by which time the country had returned to
democracy and its purpose had been fulfilled.

TEITELBOIM, VOLODIA (Chile, 1913–2008). Novelist, critic, and


biographer. He served as leader of the Chilean Communist Party and
was elected deputy and senator during the Unidad Popular govern-
ment of Salvador Allende (1970–1973). He was not in Chile when
the government was ousted and remained in exile throughout much
of the regime of Augusto Pinochet (1974–1990), returning clandes-
tinely in 1987, an experience about which he wrote in En el páis
prohibido: sin el permiso de Pinochet (Inside the Forbidden Country:
Without Pinochet’s Permission). While living in exile he founded
the journal Araucaria de Chile, which became an important link
for Chilean exiles, and broadcast the radio program Eschucha, Chile
(Listen, Chile) twice weekly from Moscow, where he was living.
Teitelboim wrote two novels set in northern Chile that extend literary
regionalism to that part of the country: Los hijos de salitre (1952;
Children of Saltpeter) and La semilla en la arena (1957; Seed in the
Sand). The first of these, a biographical narrative about a socialist
leader, includes the massacre of nitrate workers and their families in
1906 at Santa María de Iquique, an event also commemorated in a

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TESTIMONIO • 463

widely performed popular cantata. As a literary critic, Teitelboim’s


writings include biographies of Jorge Luis Borges, Vicente Huido-
bro, Gabriela Mistral, and Pablo Neruda.

TELLES, LYGIA FAGUNDES (Brazil, 1923– ). Novelist and short


story writer. Born in São Paulo, Fagundes Telles (also spelled Lígia
Fagundes Teles) published her first book of short stories, Porão e
Sobrado (1938; Basement and Mansion), at an early age, followed by
two more collections, Praia Viva (1944; Living Beach) and O Cacto
Vermelho (1949; The Red Cactus). She enrolled in the law faculty
and began to frequent literary circles, where she met some of the
most important figures of Brazilian modernism, such as Mário de
Andrade and Oswald de Andrade, as well as the film critic Paulo
Emílio Sales Gomes (1916–1977), with whom she would later have
a relationship. Fagundes Telles participated in protests against the
Estado Novo (1937–1945). Her first novel was Ciranda de Pedra
(1954; Stone Dance Song), a drama critical of bourgeois conventions
centered on women, which was later adapted for television. Two
more short story books, Histórias do Desencontro (1958; Stories of
Missed Encounters) and O Jardim Selvagem (1965; The Wild Gar-
den), explore themes of tragedy and human frustration. As Meninas
(1973; The Girl in the Photograph), a story of friendship among
three young women, told from varying perspectives and set against
the backdrop of the military dictatorship, won a number of prizes,
as did two more collections of stories: Antes do Baile Verde (1970;
Before the Green Ball) and Seminário dos Ratos (1977; Seminary
of the Rats). Her collection Invenção e Memória (2000; Invention
and Memory) won the Jabuti Prize. Her most recent works include
a volume of previously uncollected stories, A Estrutura da Bola de
Sabão (1991; The Structure of the Soap Ball), and a novel, As Horas
Nuas (1989; The Naked Hours), which uses a fragmented narrative
and paradoxical language to delve into the contradictions of the hu-
man condition. See also HILST, HILDA.

TESTIMONIO. This term, meaning “testimony,” is used to refer to


documentary narratives, conventionally told in autobiographical
form by a witness to or participant in the events narrated. Primarily
a 20th-century phenomenon, it has come to refer to all kinds of

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464 • THEATER

testimonial narratives, although the term originally alluded to a cer-


tain type of documentary text resulting from a life story told by a
subaltern subject but written by a journalist, literary author, or social
scientist. The (auto)biography of Rigoberta Menchú (Guatemala)
and the testimonios of Elena Poniatowska (Mexico) are paradig-
matic examples of this kind of text, created from the interaction of
the oral and the written. For the different kinds of testimonio, see
Claribel Alegría, Manlio Argueta, and Roque Dalton (El Sal-
vador); Omar Cabezas (Nicaragua); Germán Castro Caycedo
(Colombia); Domitila Barrios de Chungara (Bolivia); and Jacobo
Timerman and Rodolfo Walsh (Argentina).

THEATER. Although theater differs from poetry and narrative in the


matter of performance, the history and social contexts of all genres
in Latin America have a great deal in common. During the colonial
period and a good part of the 19th century, theater in Latin America,
like poetry and narrative, was very much an extension of its Euro-
pean counterpart, adopting the same trends already popularized on
the other side of the Atlantic and often representing the same themes.
It was only as a greater sense of realism took root in the second half
of the 19th century and the early decades of the 20th, just as it was
occurring in other genres, that the particular circumstances of Latin
American societies were expressed more fully on the stage. This de-
velopment accelerated with the arrival from Europe of avant-garde
and post-avant-garde theater which, though prolonging the connec-
tion to external influences, also created an environment for greater
innovation and experiment.
At the same time, although many of Latin America’s dramatists
wrote primarily for the theater and made their name through their
connection with the stage, there are many writers who are known
principally as authors of poetry or fiction, but who also wrote theater,
sometimes, but not always, with considerable impact. This group
includes such well-known figures as Rosario Castellanos, Carlos
Fuentes, and Elena Garro in Mexico; Miguel Ángel Asturias in
Guatemala; Hilda Hilst in Brazil; Manuel Puig in Argentina;
César Vallejo and Mario Vargas Llosa in Peru; and Vicente
Huidobro in Chile. Not surprisingly, therefore, given that theater
and literature at large have many authors in common, there is much

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THEATER • 465

overlap between them with respect to their aesthetics and thematic


contents.
The concept of performance was already known to Native Ameri-
cans before the arrival of the Europeans and was an integral element
of religious and civic rituals. Pre-Columbian performances lacked
the formal structures already known as theater in Europe, but were
commonplace practices of everyday life and culture, some of whose
characteristics may be seen in Rabinal Achí, a unique dramatic text
from preconquest Guatemala. Other texts with links to indigenous
traditions include theater in Quechua and El güegüense, a popular
play from Nicaragua. The propensity for performance in Native
American cultures, when combined with the traditions of a well-
developed Spanish and Portuguese religious theater, gave the mis-
sionary priests an effective tool in the Christianization of the newly
colonized peoples. Thus, religious theater was well established in
Latin America during the 16th century with plays written in Spanish,
Portuguese, Latin, and native languages in imitation of the allegori-
cal autos and biblical tales already familiar to European audiences.
After the development of religious theater in 16th-century Brazil,
notably by Jesuit writers such as José de Anchieta, secular theater
in that country grew slowly. Manuel Botelho de Oliveira was a no-
table dramatist writing in Spanish, but theater did not become more
firmly established until the 19th century, when the removal of the
Portuguese court from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro (1808) and the later
declaration of Brazil as an independent monarchy (1822) energized
theater as a national cultural institution. Alongside the plays and op-
eras performed by visiting troupes, there were also works by Domin-
gos José Gonçalves de Magalhães, Antônio Gonçalves Dias, and
José de Alencar influenced by the new trends in romanticism; Luis
Carlos Martins Pena introduced the comedy of manners to Brazil in
the 1840s; and Qorpo-Santo’s plays in the second half of the century
anticipated the coming avant-garde.
In contrast with Brazil, secular theater in colonial Spanish America
was somewhat more successful, although it was confined to the ma-
jor cities, principally in association with the viceregal courts, where
it had the patronage and infrastructural support needed for it to func-
tion. The Spanish colonies produced some original dramatists, who
brought local issues and characters into their work. Notable writers

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466 • THEATER

included Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Fernán González de Eslava,


and Eusebio Vela in Mexico and Pedro de Peralta y Barnuevo in
Peru. At least one dramatist, the Mexican Juan Ruiz de Alarcón,
also achieved success in Spain. For the most part, however, Spanish
American theater of the colonial period was highly derivative. Its
dramatists exploited the same genres and themes known in Spain—
the familiar autos, comedias, coloquios, entremeses, and loas—and
many of the plays presented were by Spanish authors, often per-
formed by visiting companies. There were some plays written in na-
tive languages, of which the Quechuan drama Ollantay, from the late
colonial period, is the best-known example, and in the second half of
the 18th century the influence of French and Italian theater was also
beginning to be felt.
Although there had been a surge in the building of theaters in the
late 18th century in Spanish America, this did not translate after inde-
pendence into a comparable surge in the number of plays written and
produced locally. Indeed, foreign plays and productions predominated
in theaters throughout the 19th century, while the form and content
of works by local dramatists tended to follow fashions from Europe.
Among Spanish America’s most significant writers for the stage in the
early and mid-19th century were writers such as the Mexican Manuel
Eduardo de Gorostiza, Luis Vargas Tejada from Colombia, and
the Peruvians Felipe Pardo y Aliaga and Manuel Ascensio Segura,
whose comedies of manners featured middle-class, domestic crises,
often centered on marriage and generational conflicts. The movement
away from the heritage of neo-classicism, romanticism, and cos-
tumbrismo toward a more critical focus on political and social life
in Latin America would not begin until the late 19th century and not
become more fully expressed until the 20th century.
The heightened critical role undertaken by the theater in the 20th
century arises in part from pressures emerging from social change,
including a more developed sense of nationalism in each country of
Latin America; population growth and diversification through immi-
gration; alternation between authoritarian and liberal governments;
divisions in class, political ideologies, race, and ethnicities; and the
coexistence of great wealth and great poverty. At the same time, in-
fluences from outside cast theater in a new light. The avant-garde; the
work of Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956), Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936),

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THEATER • 467

and others; and the theater of the absurd, the theater of cruelty,
and total theater not only highlighted its social role, but drew atten-
tion to the nature of theater itself, the concept of performance, and the
relationship between performers and audience. These elements were
creatively assimilated by many dramatists in Latin America, who ef-
fectively gave theater a new energy in numerous centers throughout
the region. To describe briefly what has taken place in theater across
the continent during the last 100 years is a difficult task because of the
many different points of focus and activity. However, although each
national theater has its own history, briefly outlined in this dictionary
in the entry for each country, there are also certain elements common
to Latin American theater as a whole that serve to indicate the general
directions and vitality of the stage during the last century.
Popular theater flourished in Argentina in the late 19th and early
20th centuries. In the expanding city of Buenos Aires, it provided
both comic and serious entertainment for the new urban class of im-
migrants, whose life and its problems were brought to the stage in
forms such as the sainete and the grotesco criollo, which drew on
and transformed existing traditions in theater and other literary phe-
nomena such as gaucho literature. The trend in realism and social
criticism that was established endured throughout the 20th century
and was embraced by many dramatists in Argentina, including Ro-
berto Cossa, Francisco Defilippis Novoa, Armando Discépolo,
Osvaldo Dragún, Samuel Eichelbaum, Carlos Gorostiza, Carlos
Maggi, Florencio Sánchez, Mauricio Rozenmacher, Ricardo
Talesnik, Nemesio Trejo, and Alberto Vacarezza.
Similar trends developed in other major cities as realism, politics,
and social criticism also became defining elements of 20th-century
theater throughout Latin America. They are represented both in
drama and comedy by a roster of dramatists that includes Luis
G. Basurto and Jorge Ibargüengoitia (Mexico); Manuel Ga-
lich (Guatemala); Mariela Romero (Venezuela); Andrés Morris
(Honduras); Artur Nabantino Gonçalves Azevedo, Alfredo Dias
Gomes, and Gianfranceso Guarnieri (Brazil); Enrique Avellán
Ferrés, Pedro Jorge Vera, and Víctor Manuel Rendón (Ecuador);
Enrique Solari Swayne (Peru); Andrés Castillo, Ernesto Herrera,
and Mauricio Rosencof (Uruguay); and Germán Luco Cruchaga
and Juan Radrigán (Chile).

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468 • THEATER

By the 1930s, the avant-garde had appeared in Argentina and


came to the theater in the work of Roberto Arlt. In Mexico, Xavier
Villaurrutia became known for his experimentalism on the stage.
Elsewhere, Oswald de Andrade wrote experimental plays in Brazil;
in Nicaragua the avant-garde figured in the plays of José Coronel
Urtecho and Pablo Antonio Cuadra; and in Ecuador, Jorge En-
rique Adoum was a later representative of the avant-garde. By the
1930s in postrevolutionary Mexico, attention had also turned to ques-
tions of history and national identity, issues that were represented in
the work of Rodolfo Usigli and Celestino Gorostiza and continued
to resonate into the 1980s in the writing of Sergio Magaña, Vicente
Leñero, and others. A similar preoccupation with identity also fea-
tured in Brazilian theater of the 1940s and 1950s, a period associated
with Nelson Rodrigues and Ariano Vilar Suassuna, two of the
country’s foremost 20th-century dramatists.
The 1960s and 1970s were decades of cultural ferment throughout
Latin America, complicated by civil conflicts in several countries and
the militarization of government that would last into the 1980s. At
the beginning of this time, the theater enjoyed a period of expansion.
It was a moment when the avant-garde and the new waves from Eu-
rope were again felt strongly and implemented effectively, while the
promise of greater stability for the theater seemed assured through
support from governments and universities. Among the new ventures
were Teatro Libre in Argentina; Nuevo Grupo in Venezuela, which
included José Ignacio Cabrujas, Román Chalbaud, and Isaac
Chocrón, and was inspired by their compatriot, César Rengifo;
Rajatabla, also in Venezuela; Enrique Buenaventura’s success-
ful experiment in collective theater at the Teatro Experimental de
Calí in Colombia; and Augusto Boal’s Theater of the Oppressed in
Brazil. Among several outstanding dramatists, the work by Isidora
Aguirre and Egon Wolff in Chile and by the Argentinean Griselda
Gambaro is particularly noteworthy for its treatment of oppression,
poverty, and class divisions. Others who wrote against the dictatorial
regimes and their consequences include Chico Buarque (Brazil),
Mario Benedetti (Uruguay), Rodolfo Walsh (Argentina), and Ariel
Dorfman and Marco Antonio de la Parra (Chile).
The range of particular themes addressed by all these dramatists
is, of course, exceptionally wide. In addition to the many political,

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THEATER • 469

social, and domestic issues, questions of religion and existential


concerns have attracted dramatists such as Carlos Solórzano and
Maruxa Vilalta (Mexico), José de Jesús Martínez (Panama),
Francisco Tobar García (Ecuador), Leopoldo Marechal and Edu-
ardo Pavlovsky (Argentina), and Luis Alberto Heiremans (Chile).
Historical narratives figure in the works of Rolando Steiner (Nica-
ragua), Guillermo Schmidhuber de la Mora (Mexico), and David
Viñas (Argentina), among many other dramatists, notably those who
adopted the characteristics of Brechtian theater. A significant group
of authors, such as Rogelio Sinán (Panama), Carmen Lyra (Costa
Rica), Enrique Avellán Ferrés (Ecuador), Alfonsina Storni (Ar-
gentina), and Magdalena Petit (Chile), have also written theater for
children in which the range of themes is also wide and many plays
are based on fantasy worlds.
Whether by civil war in Central America or military regimes in
the South, all cultural institutions in Latin America were affected in
the second half of the 20th century, and theater was no exception.
In some situations, as in the case of Argentina’s Teatro Abierto,
founded in 1981, new projects were undertaken both to relaunch
the theater and to challenge the political status quo. As the military
regimes collapsed in the 1980s and the civil wars were ended in the
1990s, however, it was not merely a matter of picking up threads
that had been broken since the 1960s or 1970s. Not only had Latin
American societies been changed by their recent internal conflicts,
but culture itself had undergone a shift in paradigm on a global scale.
While histories and narratives of the present were being shaped and
told in new forms, new technologies were able to transform perfor-
mances and presentations in ways that had not hitherto been possible.
For the most part, Latin American theater has responded to the
challenges of the new order, and theater is thriving in the main cul-
tural centers of the region. However, it remains true that the theater
of Latin America is more vulnerable and is less known than either
its poetry or its fiction. Theater requires an economy and an infra-
structure that both poetry and fiction can circumvent. As a genre
that thrives on public performance, it is not only more rooted to a
local environment, but is also more susceptible to censorship and
control. Moreover, it has had to compete throughout the 20th century
with a series of alternative media—film, television, video—which

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470 • THEATER IN QUECHUA

in some ways are all more efficient and far-reaching means of dis-
seminating similar content. In these respects the history of theater
in Latin America has been a history of struggle, and none of its
dramatists has attained the iconic cultural status of some of its po-
ets and novelists. Nevertheless, the contemporary theater in Latin
America continues to have a significant cohort of successful writers
for the stage that includes Sabina Berman and Carmen Boullosa
in Mexico; Rosa María Britton in Panama; Fernando Bonassi in
Brazil; Gustavo Ott (Venezuela); and Ramón Griffero in Chile.
Latin American theater has also traveled beyond its borders at the
same time that it continues, within each country of the continent,
to entertain its audiences and present them with a critical image of
themselves. See also AGUILERA MALTA, DEEMTRIO; ALVES,
ANTÔNIO FREDERICO DE CASTRO; ARREOLO, JUAN JOSÉ;
BIVAR, ANTÔNIO; BOLIVIA; CALLADO, ANTÔNIO; CAR-
RILLO, HUGO; CASA DE LAS AMÉRICAS; CASSACIO, GA-
BRIEL; COELHO, PAULO; CORREA, JULIO; COSTA RICA;
CUÉLLAR, JOSÉ TOMÁS DE; DENEVI, MARCO; EL SAL-
VADOR; ELIZONDO, SALVADOR; ESPÍNOLA, FRANCISCO;
FERNANDES, MILLÔR; FERNÁNDEZ DE LIZARDI, JOSÉ
JOAQUÍN; FRANCOVICH, GUILLERMO; GALVÃO, PATRÍ-
CIA; GARCÍA PONCE, JUAN; GAVIDIA, FRANCISCO; GUL-
LAR, FERREIRA; GUTIÉRREZ, EDUARDO; HALLEY MORA,
MARIO; ICAZA, JORGE; JAIMES FREYRE, RICARDO; JIMÉ-
NEZ RUEDA, JULIO; LYRA, CARMEN; MACEDO, JOAQUIM
MANUEL DE; MARÍN CAÑAS, JOSÉ; MONTALVO, JUAN;
NALÉ ROXLO, CONRADO; NASCIMENTO, ABDIAS DO; NAT-
URALISM; ORTEGA, JULIO; OTERO SILVA, MIGUEL; PARA-
GUAY; PASOS, JOAQUÍN; PELLEGRINI, ALDO; PERALTA
LAGOS, JOSÉ MARÍA; PLA, JOSEFINA; PODESTÁ, JOSÉ J.;
PRIETO, GUILLERMO; QUEIRÓS, RAQUEL DE; REIN, MER-
CEDES; REVUELTAS, JOSÉ; RIBEYRO, JULIO RAMÓN; RIO,
JOÃO DO; RIVA PALACIO, VICENTE; VALLE Y CAVIEDES,
JUAN DEL; WOMEN; ZALAMEA, JORGE.

THEATER IN QUECHUA. The most celebrated dramatic work


written in Quechua, one of the major indigenous languages of the
Andean region of South America, is Ollantay, an anonymous 18th-

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TIMERMAN, JACOBO • 471

century piece from Peru. Two autos from the 17th century by Juan
de Espinosa Medrano also survive from the colonial period, as
well as the plays El pobre más rico (The Wealthiest Poor Man) and
Urca Paucar, both stories set in Cuzco, Peru, about a poor Incan
who sells his soul to the devil for worldly wealth but wins spiri-
tual salvation through his devotion to the Virgin. Few of the plays
written in Quechua and other native American languages, whether
for entertainment or as an instrument in the Christianization of the
Americas, have survived. Similar works from other regions include
El güegüense in Nahuatl, from Nicaragua, and Rabinal Achí in
Quiché, from Guatemala.

THEATER OF CRUELTY. This kind of theater is commonly


associated with the style of the French dramatist Antonin Artaud
(1896–1948). Although it refers to a theater characterized by the
physicality of the events portrayed, sadism or the infliction of pain is
not its primary objectives. The author sought to shock by removing
the aesthetic from the performance and causing the audience to ex-
perience the cruelty of life. Dramatists in Latin America who were
drawn to his approach include Henry Díaz Vargas (Venezuela) and
Griselda Gambaro (Argentina). See also WOMEN.

THEATER OF THE ABSURD. Derived from a group of European


dramatists that included Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), Eugène
Ionesco (1909–1994), and Jean Genet (1910–1986), the theater of
the absurd, like existentialism, focuses on life as meaningless. Its
characteristics include the presentation of situations and dialogue
that convey the arbitrariness of language and human relations. Latin
American dramatists who explored this vein in their work include
José Coronel Urtecho (Nicaragua); Andrés Morris (Honduras);
Maruxa Vilalta (Mexico); Isaac Chocrón (Venezuela); Qorpo
Santo (Brazil); Carlos Maggi (Uruguay); Griselda Gambaro,
Carlos Gorostiza, and Diana Raznovich (Argentina); and Jorge
Díaz (Peru). See also ARREOLO, JUAN JOSÉ; CHILE; CORO-
NEL URTECHO, JOSÉ; NUEVO GRUPO; WOMEN.

TIMERMAN, JACOBO (Argentina, 1923–1999). Journalist. He


was a respected and popular journalist who criticized violations of

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472 • TIZÓN, HÉCTOR

human rights in La Opinión, the newspaper he founded and editied.


Arrested for his activities in 1977 and tortured in prison, he subse-
quently wrote about his experiences in Preso sin nombre, celda sin
número (1981; Prisoner Without a Name, Cell Without a Number),
a testimonio to what he endured. It was the basis of a 1983 film. He
later wrote Israel: la guerra más larga (The Longest War: Israel in
Lebanon), on the 1982 invasion of Lebanon by Israel, and Chile: el
galope muerto (1987; Chile: Death in the South), a critique of life in
Chile under Augusto Pinochet (1974–1990). See also MARTÍNEZ,
TOMÁS ELOY.

TIZÓN, HÉCTOR (Argentina, 1929– ). Novelist and short story


writer. A lawyer and career diplomat who also made some forays into
politics, Tizón also spent eight years in exile in Spain (1976–1982).
His early writings derive from his life and experiences and the con-
texts and history of his home province of Jujuy. Since his return to
Argentina from Spain, the themes of exile and separation have fig-
ured more prominently in his work. Tizón’s first book was a collec-
tion of short stories, A un costado de los rieles (1960; On One Side
of the Tracks), which has been followed by several other collections:
El jactancioso y la bella (1972; The Braggart and the Beauty), El
traidor venerado (1978; The Venerable Traitor), and El gallo blanco
(1992; The White Rooster). His novels include Fuego en Casabindo
(1969; Fire in Casabindo), El cantar del profeta y el bandido (1972;
Ballad of the Prophet and the Bandit), Sota de bastos, caballo de
espadas (1975; Jack of Clubs, Horse of Swords), La casa y el viento
(1984; The House and the Wind), El viaje (1988; The Journey),
El hombre que llegó a un pueblo (1988; The Man who Came to a
Village), Luz de las crueles provincias (1995; Light from the Cruel
Provinces), La mujer de Strasser (1997; Strasser’s Wife), Extraño
y pálido fulgor (1999; Strange, Pale Glow), El viejo soldado (2002;
The Old Soldier), and La belleza del mundo (2004; The Beauty of the
World). He has also published a volume of memoirs, El resplandor
de la hoguera (2008; The Glare of the Bonfire).

TLATELOLCO MASSACRE. The Plaza de Tlatelolco in Mexico


City, also known as the Plaza de las Tres Culturas (Square of the
Three Cultures), was the site on 2 October 1968 of a student protest

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TOLENTINO, BRUNO • 473

that was attacked by the units of the army and police acting under
government orders. The attack resulted in numerous deaths, believed
to be between 200 and 300. The protest was the culmination of a pe-
riod of civil unrest against the policies of the administration of Gus-
tavo Díaz Ordaz (1964–1970) and has resonated in Mexican politics
and culture. It has figured both as the primary subject and as the poli-
tical background to a number of literary works in Mexico by authors
such as José García Ponce, Elena Garro, María Luisa Mendoza,
Carlos Monsiváis, Fernando del Paso, Elena Poniatowska, María
Luisa Puga, José Revueltas, Gustavo Sainz, and Luis Spota. See
also PAZ, CARLOS.

TOBAR GARCÍA, FRANCISCO (Ecuador, 1928–1997). Poet,


novelist, and dramatist. His poetry is inclined to be intellectually
introspective and includes the collections Amargo (1951; Bitter),
Canon perpetuo (1969; Perpetual Canon), Ebrio de eternidad (1992;
Drunk on Eternity), and La luz labrada (1996; Carved Light). He
wrote three novels: Pares o nones (1979; Odds or Evens), La co-
rriente era libre (1979; The Current Was Free), and El ocio incesante
(1994; Unending Idleness). As a dramatist, he wrote more than 20
plays, most performed at the Teatro Independiente, which he founded
in Quito in 1954, where he often worked as actor and director and
remained until 1970, just before his departure for Europe in search of
new horizons. Belonging to a period of experimentation on the stage
in 1960s Ecuador, his predominant themes were death, solitude, and
the human predicament, often presented in Kafkaesque terms. His
plays include La llave del abismo (1961; Key to the Abyss), La res
(1962; The Beast), Las mariposas (1962; Butterflies), Todo lo que
brilla es oro (1962; All That Glitters Is Gold), and Los ojos vacíos de
la gente (1967; The Empty Eyes of the People). See also THEATER.

TOLENTINO, BRUNO (Brazil, 1940–2007). Poet. Born into an


aristocratic family from Rio, Tolentino received a first class educa-
tion and met many of the most influential intellectuals of his time.
After the publication of his first book of poetry, Anulação & Outros
Reparos (1963; Annulment & Other Objections), he left Brazil as a
result of the military takeover (1964) and spent 30 years in Europe,
teaching literature at various universities. Upon his return to Brazil

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474 • TORRES BODET, JAIME

he published the volume of poetry As Horas de Katharina (1994;


The Hours of Katharina), which earned him the Jabuti Prize. He
also won the same prestigious prize for O Mundo Como Idéia (2002;
The World as Idea) and A Imitação do Amanhecer (2006; The Imi-
tation of Dawn), books he considered the culmination of his poetic
production and which he wrote over several decades. Even though he
is the only person to win the prize three times in the same category,
Tolentino’s poetry is not much read and has been ignored by critics
because of his rejection of modernist tenets and his embrace of tradi-
tional forms and somewhat outdated themes. As a polemicist, he had
a reputation for despising the elevation of song lyrics as poetry and
for dismissing popular musicians, such as Caetano Veloso, as seri-
ous artists. His erudition and sharp tongue also led him to engage in
intellectual battles with the creators of concrete poetry, Augusto de
Campos and Haroldo de Campos.

TORRES BODET, JAIME (Mexico, 1902–1974). Poet and novelist.


He was a member of Los Contemporáneos in Mexico and the author
of over a dozen books of poetry. One of his last, Trébol de cuatro
hojas (1958; Four-Leaf Clover), is a tribute to four other members of
the group: José Gorostiza, Bernardo Ortiz de Montellano, Carlos
Pellicer, and Xavier Villaurrutia. His early collections, showing
avant-garde influence, are represented by Fervor (1918; Fervor), El
corazón delirante (1922; The Delirious Heart), La casa (1923; The
House), and Los días (1923; The Days). His more mature work, in
which he developed a more personal style, may be found in Destierro
(1930; Exile), Cripta (1937; Crypt), and Sonetos (1949; Sonnets).
Among his themes are the identity of the self and the other, being
and nonbeing, the passage of time and the proximity of death, and
the world of dreams.
The author’s six novels were also written in the spirit of Los Con-
temporáneos and occupy a significant place in the history of 20th-
century fiction in Mexico for their use of the style and techniques that
were becoming more prevalent in Europe at that time. They include
Margarita de niebla (1927; Margaret of the Mist) and La educación
sentimental (1929; A Sentimental Education), both of which intro-
duce elements of psychological analysis, and Proserpina rescatada

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TRABA, MARTA • 475

(1931; Proserpina Redeemed), in which both mythological and pres-


ent times are combined.
In addition to a number of diplomatic and government appoint-
ments, Torres Bodet was minister of education during the presiden-
cies of Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–1946) and Adolfo López Ma-
teos (1958–1964), and he was director general of UNESCO between
1948 and 1952. He also wrote on Latin American and European
literature and produced a series of volumes of memoirs, of which the
first was Tiempo de arena (1955; Time of Sand).

TORRES-RIOSECO, ARTURO (Chile, 1897–1971). Poet and critic.


His volumes of poetry include Ausencia (1932; Absence), Mar sin
tiempo (1935; Timeless Sea), Canto a España viva (1941; Song to
the Living Spain), and Elegías (1947; Elegies), but he is remembered
most as a critic, the product of his teaching career at several univer-
sities in the United States, where he immigrated in 1918. He wrote
two books on modernismo, Precursores del modernismo (1925; Pre-
cursors of Modernismo) and Rubén Darío (1931; Rubén Darío), and
his writings on Latin American literature in general include Grandes
novelistas de la América Latina (2 vols., 1941–1943; Great Novelists
of Latin America) and La gran literatura iberoamericana (1945; The
Great Literature of Ibero-America).

TOTAL THEATER. A term used to refer to a kind of theater that


endeavors to engage the audience fully and exploits a wide range
of audio and visual effects. It is often associated with the work of
Antonin Artaud (1896–1948) in France and, in Latin America, with
Isaac Chocrón (Venezuela) and Griselda Gambaro (Mexico). See
also NUEVO GRUPO.

TRABA, MARTA (Argentina, 1930–1984). Novelist and art critic.


Although born in Argentina, she spent most of her life outside the
country. She was an outspoken opponent of political oppression
and denounced the abuse of human rights in both her criticism and
literary writings. In Colombia, she established a reputation as an
art critic and eventually acquired Colombian nationality after being
denied a residence visa for the United States. She wrote on European

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476 • TRAVEN, BRUNO

and American painters, but is best known in art criticism for her
publications on Latin America, which include El museo vacío (1958;
The Empty Museum), La pintura nueva en Latinoamérica (1961;
New Painting in Latin America), and Dos décadas vulnerables en las
artes plásticas latinoamericanas, 1950–1970 (1973; Two Vulnerable
Decades in the Plastic Arts of Latin America).
Traba’s literary output consists of a volume of poetry, Historia
natural de la alegría (1951; A Natural History of Happiness); two
books of short stories, Pasó así (1968; It Happened That Way) and
De la mañana a la noche (1986; From Morning to Night); and seven
novels. Her first novel, Ceremonias del verano (1966; Rites of Sum-
mer), about a woman who traveled from the Belgrano suburb of
Buenos Aires where she grew up in search of autonomy in a male-
dominated society, received a Casa de las Américas prize. It also in-
troduced the themes of travel and exile, which figure in other works.
In later novels, such as Conversación al sur (1981; Mothers and
Shadows) and En cualquier lugar (1984; In Any Place), Traba wrote
about fear and oppression in the countries of the Southern Cone of
South America under the dictatorships of the 1970s, in a style that
used flashbacks, multiple points of view, and interior monologue.
Her other novels are Los laberintos insolados (1967; Sunburnt Laby-
rinths), Homérica latina (1979; Latin Homerica), La jugada del sexto
día (1969; The Move on the Sixth Day), and Casa sin fin (1988;
House Without End). Traba, who married the Uruguayan writer Án-
gel Rama in 1969, died in the Madrid air disaster.

TRAVEN, BRUNO (Mexico, 1882–1969). Novelist. He was a reclu-


sive and enigmatic author who kept his private life private. Bruno
Traven was one of several pseudonyms used to cover an unknown
real name. He settled in Mexico in the 1920s where his eventual
celebrity as a writer gave him access to the cultural elite. He wrote
popular novels of social protest, originally in German, but with a wide
appeal in translation. Among his best-known novels are La rebelión
de los colgados (1936; The Rebellion of the Hanged); El tesoro de
la sierra madre (1934; The Treasure of the Sierra Madre), the basis
of a very successful Hollywood film (1948) directed by John Huston
and starring Humphrey Bogart; and La rosa blanca (1961; The White

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TREVISAN, DALTON • 477

Rose), about the abuses of multinational oil companies and also the
basis of a successful film.

TREJO, NEMESIO (Argentina, 1862–1916). Dramatist. Also a pa-


yador (gaucho troubador), he was a pioneer in the popular theater of
Buenos Aires who wrote more than 50 plays and contributed to the
formation of the sainete in Argentina. His works include La fiesta de
don Marcos (1890; Don Marcos’s Party); Los políticos (1897; The
Politicians); La esquila (1899; The Bell), his most successful piece;
Los vividores (1902; The Freeloaders); Los inquilinos (1907; The
Tenants); and Las mujeres lindas (1916; Pretty Women).

TREJO, OSVALDO (Venezuela, 1828–1996). Short story writer and


novelist. His literary reputation is based mainly on several collections
of short stories notable for their surrealism and use of the fantastic
and the absurd: Los cuatro pies (1948; The Four Feet), Cuentos de
la primera esquina (1952; First Corner Tales), Escuchando al idiota
(1969; Listening to the Fool), Aspasia tenía nombre de cometa
(1953; Aspasia Was Named for a Comet), and Depósito de seres
(1965; Warehouse of Beings). His novels were also experimental,
involving multiple points of view and verbal and typographical
play. They include También los hombres son ciudades (1962; Men
Are Cities Too); Andén lejano (1968; Distant Railway Platform), an
autobiographical narrative based on the death of the author’s mother
in 1949; and Textos de un texto con Teresa (1975; Texts of a Text
with Teresa).

TREVISAN, DALTON (Brazil, 1925– ). Short story writer. He was


born and raised in Curitiba, where he founded the literary journal
Joaquim, which circulated from 1946 to 1948. There and in popular
literature and ballad leaflets he first published the short stories of
his collections Sonata ao Luar (1945; Moonlight Sonata) and Sete
Anos de Pastor (1948; Seven Years as a Shepherd). He has excelled
in this genre, being considered by some the best contemporary short
story writer in Brazil. His stories, mostly set in his native Curitiba,
feature compulsive individuals who struggle with frustration. Trev-
isan adopts a satirical attitude that castigates bourgeois obsessions.

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478 • TRISTÁN, FLORA

Although he incorporates colloquial language and local color into his


fiction through the use of an effective literary style, his grim depic-
tions of life in a provincial city also have a wider universal appeal.
His works include Novelas Nada Exemplares (1959; Non-
Exemplary Stories), Cemitério de Elefantes (1964; Elephant Cem-
etery), A Morte na Praça (1964; Death on the Square), O Vampiro
de Curitiba (1965; The Vampire of Curitiba and Other Stories),
Desastres do Amor (1968; Disasters of Love), A Guerra Conjugal
(1969; The Marriage War), O Rei da Terra (1972; The King of the
Earth), O Pássaro de Cinco Asas (1974; The Bird with Five Wings),
A Faca no Coração (1975; The Knife in the Heart), Abismo de Rosas
(1976; Abyss of Roses), A Trombeta do Anjo Vingador (1977; The
Trumpet of the Avenging Angel), and the novel A Polaquinha (1985;
The Polish Girl). Recent, more experimental titles include Pico na
Veia (2002; A Prick in the Vein) and Capitu Son Eu (2003; Capitu
C’est Moi). Among his writings about the city of Curitiba are Guia
Histórico de Curitiba (1954; Historical Guide of Curitiba), Lamen-
tações de Curitiba (1961; Lamentations of Curitiba), and Minha
Cidade (1960; My City).

TRISTÁN, FLORA (Peru, 1803–1844). Diarist. She was a prominent


social activist and feminist. Although born in Paris and living most
of her life in France, she had aristocratic connections in Peru and
spent two years in the country (1832–1834), ostensibly to claim her
inheritance. While in the country she kept a diary, later published
as Peregrinaciones de una paria (1838 in French; 1946 in Spanish;
Wanderings of a Pariah), which offers an acerbic critique of Peruvian
society in the immediate postcolonial period. See also VARGAS
LLOSA, MARIO; WOMEN.

– U –

ULTRAÍSMO. This movement is associated in Latin America with


avant-garde Buenos Aires of the 1920s. It was formed in 1918 in
Madrid, where Jorge Luis Borges was living at the time, and also
influenced the originator of creacionismo, Vicente Huidobro, when
he was in Spain. Although it was a movement in poetry opposed

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URBINA, LUIS G. • 479

to modernismo, its characteristics were somewhat less radical


than surrealism. They included an emphasis on metaphor and the
combination of images, the elimination of ornamentalism, a simpler
language, the absence of rhyme, and reference to the modern world
and new technologies. Borges subscribed to its precepts in Fervor de
Buenos Aires (Fervor of Buenos Aires), published after his return to
Argentina in 1923, and he collaborated in the founding of the jour-
nals Prisma and Proa as vehicles for disseminating the movement’s
ideas and the writing of its members. Among other Argentineans who
adopted ultraísmo are Oliverio Girondo, Eduardo González La-
nuza, Raúl González Tuñón, Norah Lange, Leopoldo Marechal,
and Alfonsina Storni. Guillermo de Torre (1900–1971) and Ramón
Gómez de la Serna (1888–1963), although from Spain, both lived
in Buenos Aires and were associated with the movement. See also
ADÁN, MARTÍN; HIDALGO, ALBERTO.

URBINA, LUIS G. (Mexico, 1864–1934). Poet, journalist, and critic.


His first poems, harking back to romanticism, were published in
Versos (1890; Verses) and Ingenuas (1902; Ingenuous). By his next
collection, Puestas del sol (1910; Sunsets), he had entered more
fully into the mode of modernismo, to which he also adhered in
subsequent volumes: Lámparas en agonía (1914; Dying Lamps), El
glosario de la vida vulgar (1916; Glossary of the Common Life), El
corazón juglar (1920; Troubador Heart), Los últimos pájaros (1924;
The Last Birds), and El cancionero de la noche serena (1941; Songs
of the Clear Night). Considered overall, Urbina’s poetry tends to fall
between the two styles.
As a prose writer, Urbina stands out for his chronicles and writ-
ings on literature. His chronicles, many of them written during peri-
ods of residence outside Mexico, include Cuentos vividos y crónicas
soñadas (1915; Lived Stories and Dreamed Chronicles), Bajo el sol
y frente al mar, impresiones de Cuba (1916; Under the Sun and by
the Sea: Impressions of Cuba), Estampas de viaje: España en los días
de la guerra (1920; Travel Sketches: Spain During Wartime), and
Luces de España (1924; Lights of Spain). His writings on literature
provide insight into Mexico in particular and include El teatro na-
cional (1914; The National Theater), La literatura mexicana durante
la guerra de la Independencia (1917; Mexican Literature During the

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480 • URQUIZO, FRANCISCO L.

War of Independence), and La vida literaria de México (1917; Liter-


ary Life in Mexico).

URQUIZO, FRANCISCO L. (Mexico, 1891–1969). Novelist. A


general in the Mexican army, he was active in the revolution, but
left for Spain and exile after the assassination in 1920 of Venustiano
Carranza, the revolutionary leader he had supported. In 1938, he
was recalled to Mexico, reinstated in the army and promoted, and
subsequently appointed to a number of senior positions involving
the administration and development of the army. His literary career
began while he was in exile, and his first novel, Lo incognoscible
(1923; The Unknowable), was published in Madrid. His other novels
include El primer crimen (1933; The First Crime), Tropa vieja (1943;
Old Soldiers), and ¡Viva Madero! (1954; Long Live Madero!). Of
these the most significant is Tropa Vieja, which stands out among
novels of the Mexican Revolution because it narrates the revolution
from the perspective of the government through the story of a young
man who had been conscripted into the federal army before the
beginning of hostilities. Urquizo also published historical and bio-
graphical works, including Don Venustiano Carranza: el hombre, el
político, el caudillo (1935; Don Venustiano Carranza: The Man, the
Politician, the Leader), Morelos, genio militar de la Independencia
(1945; Morelos, Military Genius of the Independence), and Páginas
de la Revolución (1956; Pages from the Revolution).

URUGUAY. During colonial times, the territory now occupied by


Uruguay first formed part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and then of the
Viceroyalty of La Plata, with its capital in Buenos Aires. The fort
where Montevideo now stands was not built until the early 18th cen-
tury. Uruguayan literature therefore has few prominent antecedents
before independence, and its origins are customarily traced to Fran-
cisco Acuña de Figueroa and Bartolomé Hidalgo. While the former
represents the more urban side of cultural life, the latter is associated
with rural life and its expression in gaucho literature, which was as
prevalent in 19th-century Uruguay as it was in Argentina and had a
number of practitioners, such as Antonio Lussich. The literary texts
that gave the country its founding mythologies were products of
romanticism: the narrative verse of Juan Zorrilla de San Martín,

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URUGUAY • 481

especially the frontier story told in Tabaré (1888), and the historical
novels of Eduardo Acevedo Díaz.
The aesthetics of modernismo produced several poets whose
work has become part of the Latin American canon, including Julio
Herrera y Reissig, María Eugenia Vaz Ferreira, and Delmira
Agustini. The prose writers contemporary with them, Javier de
Viana, Carlos Reyles, and, above all, Horacio Quiroga, one of
Latin America’s most influential short story writers, were inclined to
evade the theme of the emergence of the modern state taking place
in Uruguay during the first decades of the 20th century and to locate
their narratives in the interior, continuing trends in criollismo. An
exception to this group was José Enrique Rodó, who not only was
fully engaged in the politics of the time, but whose essay Ariel (1900)
was widely read and contributed to debates on the nature of Latin
America and the direction it should follow in Western culture. Ángel
Rama is another widely read, but later, writer on Latin America and
belongs to a group of well-known Uruguayan literary critics that also
includes Alberto Zum Felde and Emir Rodríguez Monegal.
The periods following modernismo, combining elements of the
avant-garde and nationalism, produced a rich and eclectic group
of poets. Juana de Ibarbourou, Roberto Ibáñez, Sara de Ibáñez,
and Susana Soca were among the prominent figures of the first half
of the century, and Idea Vilariña and Ida Vitale made their mark
on the second half. In prose these elements were also reflected in
Francisco Espínola, Enrique Amorim, and Felisberto Hernán-
dez. The two most important novelists of the 20th century, however,
were Juan Carlos Onetti and Mario Benedetti, who is also known
for his verse. Like other prominent writers active in the last decades
of the century, both eventually wrote while in exile. By the 1960s,
the crisis of the state was already apparent, and the process through
which it passed and its consequences are well represented in the
fiction of authors such as as Cristina Peri Rossi, Carlos Martínez
Moreno, Teresa Porzecanski, and Armonía Somers. The spirit
of the times, projected onto the wider screen of the history of Latin
America as a whole, was caught in particular by Eduardo Galeano,
and the reinterpretation of history, challenging official versions of the
past, is presented in new historical novels by Tomás de Mattos and
Napoleón Baccino Ponce de León.

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482 • USIGLI, RODOLFO

In comparison with other Latin American countries, the theater


appeared late in Uruguay, a reflection of its colonial experience, the
relatively late foundation of Montevideo, and the dominant cultural
presence of Buenos Aires on the southern shore of the mouth of the
River Plate. The first wave of popularity of the theater is indebted
to the figure of the gaucho, which had already been popularized by
Bartolomé Hidalgo’s dialogues before the Uruguayan actor José Po-
destá brought the character of Juan Moreira to the stage from a novel
by the Argentinean Eduardo Gutiérrez. The success of the flood of
gaucho plays that ensued brought a boom to the theater, from which
the social realism of the country’s first major dramatist, Florencio
Sánchez, would emerge in due course, although he earned his reputa-
tion in Buenos Aires. At the same time, his contemporary, Ernesto
Herrera, staying closer to home, contributed his plays to the stages
of Montevideo.
Between 1920 and the mid-1940s, against competition from the
cinema and the dominance of companies from Buenos Aires, Uru-
guayan theater declined. With the founding of the Comedia Nacional,
it experienced a revival between the mid-1940s and mid-1970s, only
to suffer further setbacks under the dictatorial regime of 1973–1985.
During its revival, Ángel Rama and Mario Benedetti wrote for the
stage, as did Andrés Castillo, Carlos Maggi, and Mauricio Ron-
sencof, Uruguay’s most important dramatist since Florencio Sán-
chez. Although silenced during the dicatorship, he is one of a group
of dramatists, which also includes Mercedes Rein, who have writ-
ten for the theater since redemocratization. See also ARIELISMO;
CASA DE LAS AMÉRICAS; CHILDREN’S LITERATURE; CIVI-
LIZATION AND BARBARISM; DÍAZ DE GUZMÁN, RUY; FAN-
TASTIC LITERATURE; INDIANISMO; MARÍN CAÑAS, JOSÉ;
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES PRIZE; NATURALISM; THEATER
OF THE ABSURD; WOMEN.

USIGLI, RODOLFO (Mexico, 1905–1979). Dramatist. As a suc-


cessful playwright, theater historian, teacher, critic, and reviewer,
Usigli was a tireless activist on behalf of Mexican theater, in which he
came to be a dominant figure. His work was influenced by the Greek
and Roman theater, the classical theater of England and France,
and some of his European contemporaries, especially the Irish dra-

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USLAR PIETRI, ARTURO • 483

matist George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), from whom he derived


his critical focus on social issues and whose practice of writing
long polemical prologues to the editions of his plays he imitated.
Usigli’s more than 40 works written for the theater include his-
torical plays, psychological dramas, and social and political satires.
El gesticulador (1937; The Imposter), a satire on political corrup-
tion in postrevolutionary Mexico, was one of his most notable early
works and one of his best works overall. It was filmed in 1956 as El
impostor by Emilio Fernández (1904–1986). Like some of his other
early pieces, in which the staging of taboo themes was a source of
problems, the political content of the play prevented it from being
performed until 1943. Usigli’s Corona (crown) trilogy, dramatiza-
tions of three significant episodes of Mexican history, also figures
among the dramatist’s major accomplishments: Corona de fuego
(1960; Crown of Fire) is concerned with the conflict of cultures oc-
curring at the time of the conquest of Mexico by the Spanish; Corona
de luz (1963; Crown of Light) focuses on the legend of the Virgen
de Guadalupe; and Corona de sombra (written in 1943; performed in
1947; Crown of Shadow) presents a version of the French interven-
tion in Mexico and the reign of Maximilian and Carlota (1864–1867).
Contemporary politics also figured among Usigli’s themes, nota-
bly in the plays collected under the title Tres comedias impolíticas
(1933–1935; Three Impolitic Plays): Noche de estío (Summer Night),
El Presidente y el ideal (The President and the Ideal), and Estado de
secreto (Secret State). Another group of plays, with a predominantly
psychological approach, explores family life through situations such
as generational conflict or family secrets. These include El niño y
la niebla (1936; The Boy and the Mist), La familia cena en casa
(1942; The Family Dines at Home), La función de despedida (1949;
Farewell Performance), and Jano es una muchacha (1952; Janus Is a
Girl). Although not at the same level as his theater, Usigli also wrote
poetry, and he produced a successful crime novel, Ensayo de un
crimen (1944; Rehearsal for a Crime), that was the basis of a 1955
film by Luis Buñuel (1900–1983). See also HERNÁNDEZ, LUISA
JOSEFINA; MAGAÑA, SERGIO.

USLAR PIETRI, ARTURO (Venezuela, 1906–2001). Short story


writer, novelist, journalist, and essayist. He was one of Venezuela’s

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484 • USLAR PIETRI, ARTURO

most prominent intellectuals of the 20th century and was active in


literature and politics, having twice been a candidate for president.
“Pizarrón” (“Blackboard”), his syndicated newspaper column on
current events, was widely read and was a feature in the Venezuelan
press for several decades. A concern with Venezuela figures very
significantly in Uslar Pietri’s many volumes of essays, such as Letras
y hombres de Venezuela (1948; Men and Letters of Venezuela), En
busca del nuevo mundo (1968; In Search of the New World), and
Raíces venezolanas (1986; Venezuelan Roots); in volumes such as
Las nubes (1951; The Clouds) and Godos, insurgentes y visionarios
(1986; Conservatives, Insurgents and Visionaries), he also sought to
describe the uniqueness of Latin America in general.
Uslar Pietri’s most significant literary work belongs to the early
part of his career. Barrabás y otros relatos (1928; Barrabas and
Other Tales) reflects the dominant styles of the time, including
modernismo and elements of the avant-garde, and establishes new
directions for the short story. Red (1936; Net) contains the author’s
best-known stories. Although it includes texts belonging to the more
traditional style of criollismo, Uslar Pietri is also credited with hav-
ing introduced the style that would lead to magic realism. In other
collections of stories, such as Treinta hombres y sus sombras (1949;
Thirty Men and Their Shadows), he retained a focus on rural themes,
but in Pasos y pasajeros (1966; Passages and Passengers) and Los
ganadores (1980; The Winners), he turned to more urban topics.
The best known of Uslar Pietri’s half dozen novels is Las lanzas
coloradas (1931; The Red Lances), a historical novel set in the early
1800s that tells a story about the struggles for power during Venezu-
ela’s war of independence. This was followed by El camino de El
Dorado (1947; The Way to El Dorado), about the exploits of Lope
de Aguirre, a subject also taken up by Miguel Otero Silva and Abel
Posse; Un retrato en la geografía (1962; Portrait in Geography);
Estación de máscaras (1964; Season of Masks); Oficio de difuntos
(1976; Office of the Dead), set in the time of the Venezuelan dictator
Juan Vicente Gómez (1908–1935); La isla de Robinson (1981; Rob-
inson’s Island), in which parallel chronologies are used to narrate the
main character’s story; and La visita en el tiempo (1990; The Visit
in Time), which features several iconic figures of Western literature
such as Hamlet and Don Juan. For the most part, these novels are

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VALDELOMAR, ABRAHAM • 485

stylistically conventional, more in the manner of the author’s journal-


ism than the dynamic, cinematographic quality he gave to Las lanzas
coloradas.

– V –

VACAREZZA, ALBERTO (Argentina, 1886–1959). Dramatist. He


was a prolific writer of sainetes and claimed to have written more
than 100, among the most popular of which were Tu cuna fue un
conventillo (1921; Your Cradle Was a Tenement), one of the longest
running plays in its time, and El conventillo de La Paloma (1929;
The La Paloma Tenement). Puns, wordplay, and use of the popular
dialects lunfardo and cocoliche, considered typical of immigrants to
Buenos Aires, were the main characteristics of his work. His other
plays include El juzgado (1904; The Court), Los villanos (1912; The
Villains), El comité (1914; The Committee), El último gaucho (1915;
The Last Gaucho), Cuando un pobre se divierte (1921; When a Poor
Man Has Fun), El cambalache de la buena suerte (1925; Pawn Shop
of Good Luck), and La vida es un sainete (1925; Life Is a Sainete).
Vacarezza also wrote popular poetry, which he often recited on the
radio, and he was the lyricist of a number of popular tangos that were
set to music by established composers and recorded by well-known
singers. See also THEATER.

VALDELOMAR, ABRAHAM (Peru, 1888–1919). Poet, novelist,


short story writer, journalist, and essayist. In addition to his career
in journalism, both as a writer and editor, he was briefly involved in
politics and held a diplomatic appointment in Italy (1913–1914). A
practitioner of several literary genres, he believed writers should be
public celebrities, and it was while on a lecture tour that he suffered
the fall that caused his premature death. Among his first publications
were a series of newspaper chronicles (1910) about his short-lived
army experiences.
Valdelomar’s novels La ciudad muerta (1910; Dead City) and La
ciudad de los tísicos (1910; City of Consumptives) were quite experi-
mental and were the first to introduce certain modern techniques to
Peru. Both were published in serial form in newspapers. Other novels

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486 • VALDIVIA, PEDRO DE

include Los ojos de Judas (The Eyes of Judas); El hipocampo de oro


(The Golden Sea Horse); and a fictionalized biography, La mariscala
(1914; The Marshall’s Wife), of Francisca Zubiaga (1803–1835),
wife of Agustín Gamarra, who was twice president of Peru between
1829 and 1841. His short stories are included in two collections,
El caballero Carmelo (1918; Carmelo the Gentleman), about daily
life in the port of Pisco, and Los hijos del sol (1921; Children of the
Sun), based on legends of the Inca Empire. He wrote two collections
of essays, Ensayo sobre la psicología del gallinazo (1917; Essay on
the Psychology of the Vulture), a no-holds-barred view of Lima said
to have influenced Julio Ramón Ribeyro, and Belmonte el trágico
(1918; The Tragic Belmonte), on bullfighting.

VALDIVIA, PEDRO DE (Chile, ca. 1500–1554). Chronicler. A


Spanish conquistador, he led the first successful Spanish expedition
into Chile in 1540 and founded Santiago in 1541. Valdivia’s letters
to Charles V of Spain, Cartas de relación de la conquista de Chile
(written 1545–1552; published 1846; Letters), constitute a chronicle
of the conquest, early settlement, and conflicts with the indigenous
population of Chile and are the foundational texts of Chilean litera-
ture. His exploits were also recorded by Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga
and in the epic poetry describing the conquest of Chile to which
Ercilla’s narrative poem gave rise.

VALENCIA, GUILLERMO (Colombia, 1873–1943). Poet. He had


a long career in politics as well as an active literary life, much of
it devoted to translation, for which his sensitivity and cultural and
linguistic knowledge made him particularly adept. His reputation as
a poet rests above all on the collection Ritos (1899; Rites), which
also appeared in an expanded edition in 1914. Valencia’s poetry
shows the influence of European parnassianism and symbolism as
well as the growing impact of Spanish American modernismo, as
represented in the work of fellow Colombian José Asunción Silva.
His themes include the role of the poet, the brevity of life, religion,
and Colombia.

VALENZUELA, LUISA (Argentina, 1938– ). Short story writer


and novelist. She has traveled widely both within and beyond

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VALENZUELA, LUISA • 487

Argentina, and has lived for extended periods in several countries,


spending 10 years (1979–1989) in the United States. Her literary
work includes several books of short stories, such as Los heréti-
cos (1967; The Heretics), Aquí pasan raras cosas (1975; Strange
Things Happen Here: Twenty-Six Short Stories and a Novel),
Cambio de armas (1982; Other Weapons), and Simetrías (1993;
Symmetries).
In these collections, as in her novels, Valenzuela takes aim at hu-
man conduct and society, sometimes with humor and often with stark
realism. She confronts the violence and state torture in Argentina of
the 1960s and 1970s, linking them at times to themes of eroticism
and sexuality, and she speaks out against all kinds of censorship,
including self-censorship. Gender and sexuality are among the com-
mon denominators of much of her fiction, and her feminist stance
has placed her among Argentina’s most prominent contemporary
women writers. The transgressive dimension of the content of her
work is equally evident in styles of writing that contest the writerly
conventions of established forms, and events are frequently narrated
in a somewhat surreal manner.
Valenzuela’s first novel Hay que sonreír (1966; Clara: Thirteen
Short Stories and a Novel) uses the changing fortunes of her protago-
nist, initially a prostitute, to reflect on the objectification of women
and the opposition between mind and body. El gato eficaz (1972;
The Effective Cat) is a novel that focuses on the opposition between
the masculine and the feminine and the cultural origin of notions of
gender. It is characterized by shifting voices, a play with masks, and
no clear chronology or fixed points from which to develop a plot. In
Cola de lagartija (1983; The Lizard’s Tale), the sources of power
and state terror are examined through a protagonist modeled on José
López Rega (1916–1989), the notorious minister of social welfare
during the presidency of Isabel Perón (1974–1976). Novela negra
con argentinos (1990; Black Novel with Argentines) is also con-
cerned with the recent dark periods of Argentinean history; Realidad
nacional desde la cama (1990; Bedside Manners) and La travesía
(2001; The Crossing) both deal with the themes of exile and return,
conditions both arising from Argentina’s most recent period of mili-
tary dictatorship (1976–1983).

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488 • VALLE, JOSÉ CECILIO DEL

VALLE, JOSÉ CECILIO DEL (Honduras, 1780–1834). He was one


of the leaders of Central American independence, first president of
the United Provinces of Central America, and one of the drafters of
its constitution. Along with José Trinidad Reyes, he had consider-
able influence on the cultural formation of Honduras during the early
years of its history as an independent country. His collected writings
were published as Obras completas (1929–1930; Complete Works).

VALLE, RAFAEL HELIODORO (Honduras, 1891–1959). Poet,


essayist, journalist, and historian. He was a well-known journalist
whose work appeared throughout the Americas in newspapers in
Buenos Aires, Lima, Mexico City, Havana, Los Angeles, and New
York. His work as a historian (he held a doctorate in history from the
National Autonomous University of Mexico) amounts to some 20
books on Mexico and Central America. Among them are Iturbide,
varón de Dios (1944; Iturbide, Man of God), Bolívar en México
(1946; Bolívar in Mexico), and Historia de las ideas contem-
poráneas en Centro-América (1960; History of Contemporary Ideas
in Central America). He also compiled a number of bibliographies,
including one on the Mexican author Manuel Ignacio Altamirano
and another on Hernán Cortés. Valle’s first book of poetry, El
rosal del ermitaño (1911; The Hermit’s Rose Garden) was strongly
influenced by modernismo, a style he also pursued in three other
collections, Como la luz del día (1913; Like the Light of Day), El
perfume de la tierra natal (1917; Scent of Home), and Ánfora se-
dienta (1922; Thirsty Amphora). He wrote lyrical verse on romantic
love, intended for public recitation, and his poems have frequently
been anthologized.

VALLE ARIZPE, ARTEMIO DE (Mexico, 1888–1961). Novelist,


short story writer, and historian. He was the most prolific of the
writers in Mexico who wrote a form of the historical novel known
as the colonial novel. In total, he published more than 70 books, all
concerned with the past and most with the viceregal period of Mexi-
can history (16th-18th centuries).
Valle Arizpe’s novels and collections of short stories include Vi-
das milagrosas (1921; Miraculous Lives), Tres nichos de un retablo
(1936; Three Niches in an Altar), Lirios de Flandes (1938; Lilies

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VALLEJO, CÉSAR • 489

from Flanders), and Cuentos del México antiguo (1939; Tales from
Old Mexico). Many of Valle’s stories were collected in a long series
of “traditions, legends and events from Viceregal Mexico” in the
style of Ricardo Palma, whom Valle greatly admired. These include
Historias de vivos y muertos (1936; Stories of the Living and the
Dead), Andanzas de Hernán Cortés y otros excesos (1940; Exploits
of Hernán Cortés and Other Excesses), Piedras viejas bajo el sol
(1952; Old Stones Under the Sun), and Inquisición y crímenes (1952;
Inquisition and Crimes).
In addition to these blends of the historical and the fictional, Valle
also produced several biographies and works of history, preferring,
of course, his favored viceregal period. Among them are El Palacio
Nacional de México (1932; The National Palace of Mexico), Histo-
ria de la ciudad de México según los relatos de sus cronistas (1939;
History of Mexico City from Tales by Its Chroniclers), La Güera Ro-
dríguez (1950; Blondie Rodríguez), and Fray Servando (1951; Fray
Servando). Historia de una vocación (1960; History of a Vocation)
was his autobiography.

VALLE Y CAVIEDES, JUAN DEL (Peru, 1645?–1697?). Poet.


Although he also wrote a few short pieces for the theater, Valle y
Caviedes is best remembered for Diente del Parnaso (first published
in 1873; The Tooth of Parnassus). This is a collection of 47 poems,
mainly satirical verses written in the baroque style of the Spanish
poet Francisco de Quevedo (1580–1645), often using vulgar lan-
guage and body humor to poke fun at doctors and their foibles.

VALLEJO, CÉSAR (Peru, 1892–1938). Poet. Although his poetic


oeuvre is relatively small, amounting to four major collections, two
of which were published posthumously, he is established as one of
Latin America’s most important poets. His first collection, Los he-
raldos negros (1918; The Black Heralds), with its direct language,
unusual imagery, and focus on the solitude of the human experience,
already presages a break from existing traditions brought about by
a crisis in established beliefs. Trilce (1922; Trilce) confirmed this
direction and the innovative dimension of Vallejo’s poetry. It is one
of the fundamental texts of the Spanish American avant-garde and
pushed at the frontiers of language at the time.

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490 • VALLEJO, FERNANDO

Shortly after the publication of Trilce, Vallejo left Peru for Eu-
rope and spent what remained of his life mainly between France and
Spain, including several weeks in the Soviet Union in 1928, after
which he joined the Spanish Communist Party. The two collections
of verse published after his death both reflect his preoccupation with
society and the future of the individual. España, aparta de mí este
cáliz (1939; Spain, Take This Cup from Me) is a set of poems written
in response to the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), in praise of those
fighting for the Republicans. In Poemas humanos (1939; Human
Poems), perhaps written over a period of time during the 1920s and
1930s and left unfinished, he reflected on the anguish felt by the in-
dividual in society. Vallejo also wrote (unsuccessfully) for the thea-
ter and produced a considerable amount of fiction and journalism.
Of all his works in prose, the novel El tungsteno (1931; Tungsten),
about mine workers in Peru, is the one that continues to be read.
See also GONZÁLEZ LEÓN, ADRIANO; GONZÁLEZ PRADA,
MANUEL; HERRERA Y REISSIG, JULIO.

VALLEJO, FERNANDO (Colombia, 1942– ). Novelist. Much of


what Vallejo has published may be considered autobiographical
fiction, not just in the sense that he writes first person narratives,
but that what he writes refers to his own life experiences. His most
celebrated work is La virgen de los sicarios (1994; Our Lady of the
Assassins), the story of a writer who returns to Medellín in Colombia
after a prolonged absence. There he forms a relationship with a male
adolescent employed as a hitman by one of the drug cartels and tries
to come to terms with the city of his past and the present. The novel
was the basis of a film made in 2000, although not by Vallejo, who
is also a filmmaker.
Before his success with this novel, Vallejo had already begun a se-
ries of autobiographical novels under the title El río del tiempo (River
of Time), of which the first to appear was Los días azules (1985; Blue
Days). Like La virgen de los sicarios, it also deals with themes of
violence, social marginality, and homosexuality. Other works include
El desbarrancadero (2001; The Precipice), about his brother’s death
from AIDS, which received the 2003 Rómulo Gallegos Prize, and
La rambla paralela (2002; The Parallel Riverbed), about his own
death. Vallejo has also written a biography (1995) of José Asunción

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VARGAS LLOSA, MARIO • 491

Silva and, reflecting his scientific training, a collection of essays, La


tautología darwinista y otros ensayos de biología (1998; Darwinian
Tautology and Other Essays on Biology).

VALLEJO, JOSÉ JOAQUÍN (Chile, 1811–1858). Journalist. He


wrote under the pseudonym “Jotabeche.” As an ardent admirer of
the Spanish costumbrista Mariano José de Larra (1809–1837), he
showed a similar ascerbic wit and satirical sense of humor in news-
paper and magazine articles noted for their succinct commentary
on everyday situations and topics from social and political life.
There have been many compilations of his writings, and he is con-
sidered one of the most important contributors to costumbrismo
in Chile.

VARELA, BLANCA (Peru, 1926–2009). Poet. Although she re-


mained out of the limelight and published only a few books of poetry
at irregular intervals, she is one of her country’s major poetic voices.
Among her themes are a strong sense of discontent, the city, identity,
and gender, expressed through intense images that have an aura of
surrealism. Her books include Ese puerto existe y otros poemas
(1959; That Port Exists and Other Poems), Luz de día (1963; Light
of Day), Valses y otras falsas confesiones (1972; Waltzes and Other
False Confessiones), Canto villano (1978; Plain Song), El libro de
barro (1993; Book of Clay), Ejercicios materiales (1994; Material
Exercises), Concierto animal (1999; Animal Concert), and El falso
teclado (2001; The Fake Keyboard). See also WOMEN.

VARGAS LLOSA, MARIO (Peru, 1936– ). Novelist. He was one of


the core authors of the boom and a source of some controversy for
incidents such as a very public argument with the Colombian writer
Gabriel García Márquez and a shift in political stance from a more
leftist position to the conservatism he espoused when he ran as an
unsuccessful candidate in the Peruvian presidential election of 1990.
A memoir of his campaign was published as El pez en el agua (1993;
A Fish in the Water: Memoir). Since his political defeat, he has lived
mainly in Europe and became a Spanish citizen in 1993, but has con-
tinued to write about Peru and Latin America. In 1994, he received
the Miguel de Cervantes Prize and in 2010 was awarded the Nobel
Prize for Literature.

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492 • VARGAS LLOSA, MARIO

Among Vargas Llosa’s earliest literary ventures was a prize-


winning collection of short stories, Los jefes (1959; The Leaders), but
it was his first novel, La ciudad y los perros (1963; The Time of the
Hero), that established his name and affirmed his ability as a gifted
storyteller. It narrates the tribulations of a group of students in the
Leoncio Prado Military Academy in Callao, Peru, which the author
attended between 1950 and 1952. As a story of authoritarianism,
institutionalized violence, and cynicism, it may be read as a micro-
cosm of Peru. The same could be said of Vargas Llosa’s next novel,
the 1967 Rómulo Gallegos Prize winner, La casa verde (1966; The
Green House), although it has a larger cast of characters and a longer
chronology and is set in a wider range of locations. Its multiple narra-
tive strands reflect the storytelling, technical virtuosity and narrative
innovations that had already appeared in La ciudad y los perros, in
which changes in time, narration, and point of view are all combined.
Conversación en La Catedral (1969; Conversation in The Cathedral)
sustains this style through a conversation between two men in a bar
called The Cathedral that opens into an exploration of the time of the
presidency of Manuel Odría (1948–1956) in Peru.
In his next two novels, Pantaleón y las visitadoras (1973; Captain
Pantoja and the Special Service) and La Tía Julia y el escribidor
(1977; Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter), Vargas Llosa adopted a
lighter, more parodic tone. The first is the story of an army officer
entrusted with providing a prostitution service for soldiers stationed
in the jungle, and the second combines elements of the author’s life
(his work at a radio station and marriage to Julia Urquidi) with the
rise and fall of a fictional scriptwriter of radio soap operas. Both
novels were the basis for somewhat unsuccessful movies. In La
guerra del fin del mundo (1981; The War of the End of the World),
Vargas Llosa turned to historical events, to a rebellion in Brazil that
had already figured in Os Sertões (1902; Rebellion in the Backlands)
by Euclides da Cunha.
The themes of rebellion and revolution also appear in Historia de
Mayta (1984; The Real life of Alejandro Mayta), which was publi-
shed at a time when Peru was itself affected by violence from the
state and the insurgent Sendero Luminoso. The author’s preoccupa-
tion with these subjects and with the relationship between the real
world and narrative continued in ¿Quién mató a Palomino Molero?

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VARGAS VILA, JOSÉ MARÍA • 493

(1986; Who Killed Palomino Molero?) and El hablador (1989; The


Storyteller). More recent novels include the dictator novel La fiesta
del chivo (2000; The Feast of the Goat), based on the life of the
Dominican strongman Rafael Leonidas Trujillo (1930–1961); El
paraíso en la otra esquina (2003; The Way to Paradise), on the sto-
ries about the feminist reformer Flora Tristán and the painter Paul
Gauguin (1848–1903); and Travesuras de la niña mala (2006; The
Bad Girl), a rewriting of Madame Bovary (1857) by Gustave Flau-
bert (1821–1880), an author who has influenced Vargas Llosa since
his early days as a writer.
In addition to fiction, Vargas Llosa has written several significant
works of criticism, notably García Márquez: historia de un deicidio
(1971; García Márquez: The Story of a Deicide) and La orgía per-
petua (1975; The Perpetual Orgy), on the French author Gustave
Flaubert. His newspaper writing and other journalism has been col-
lected in three volumes, Contra viento y marea (1983, 1986, 1990;
Against Wind and Tide), and he has published several works for the
theater, including La huida del inca (1952; The Flight of the Inca)
and La señorita de Tacna (1981; The Girl from Tacna). See also
RIBEYRO, JULIO RAMÓN; SABINO, FERNANDO; SALAZAR
BONDY, SEBASTIÁN.

VARGAS TEJADA, LUIS (Colombia, 1802–1829). Dramatist. He


wrote a series of tragedies in the classical style on Indian and political
themes, most of which have not survived. Among them is La madre
de Pausanias (Pausanias’ Mother), written in reply to the tyranny of
Simón Bolívar. Vargas Tejada’s main claim to fame, however, is his
authorship of Las convulsiones (1829; The Convulsions), a comedy
of manners with which Colombian theater is considered to have had
its beginning in the postindependence era.

VARGAS VILA, JOSÉ MARÍA (Colombia, 1860–1933). Novelist.


He was a best-selling author in his time, churning out a very large
number of pulp novels, many exploring the darker sides of life.
Some examples are Aura o las violetas (1887; Dawn, or the Violets),
Lo irreparable (1889; Irreparable), Las rosas de la tarde (1901;
Evening Roses), El cisne blanco (novela psicologica) (1917; The
White Swan: A Psychological Novel), Eleonora (novela de la vida

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494 • VARNHAGEN, FRANCISCO ADOLFO DE

artística) (1917; Eleonora: A Novel of Artistic Life), Los discípulos


de Emaús (novela de la vida intelectual) (1917; The Disciples of Em-
maus: A Novel of Intellectual Life), and María Magdalena (novela
lírica) (1917; Mary Magdalene: A Lyrical Novel).
Although a highly popular author and lionized by some, Vargas
Vila was persona non grata for others on account of his controversial
opinions and rumored crimes. In his literary style, he followed the
exotic aspects of modernismo. Philosophically, he was closer to ex-
istentialism, but his politics brought him within range of anarchism.
He was virulently anti-American and anticlerical and expressed his
views in a series of hightly polemical writings, among them: Los
providenciales (1892; The Lucky Ones), Los divinos y los humanos
(1904; The Divine and the Human), and Los césares de la decaden-
cia (1907; Decadent Caesars). One of his most widely circulated
books was La muerte del cóndor (1913, Death of the Condor), about
Eloy Alfaro, president of Peru (1906–1911). Notwithstanding his
popularity and financial success as a writer, Vargas Vila lived much
of his life in isolation and died, almost forgotten, in Barcelona.

VARNHAGEN, FRANCISCO ADOLFO DE (Brazil, 1816–1878).


Historian. Although not technically a literary writer, Varnhagen, the
son of a Portuguese mother and a German father, is mentioned in
literary histories for his role in the consolidation of national culture
under emperor Pedro II (1831–1889) through his research and histor-
ical writings, such as História Geral do Brasil (1854–1857; General
History of Brazil). He also composed a historically oriented novel,
O Descobrimento do Brasil: Crônica do Fim do Século XV (1840;
The Discovery of Brazil: Chronicle of the End of the 15th Century),
which appeared in periodical installments, and he edited the im-
portant three-volume Florilégio da Poesia Brasileira (1850–1853;
Anthology of Brazilian Poetry).

VASCONCELOS, JOSÉ (Mexico, 1882–1959). Essayist and auto-


biographer. As a prominent intellectual in postrevolutionary Mexico,
his tenure as minister of education between 1920 and 1924 had a sig-
nificant impact on the formation of Mexican cultural institutions. He
was also a prolific writer whose work continues to attract attention
and criticism. His four volumes of memoirs, Ulises criollo (1935;

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VELOSO, CAETANO • 495

A Mexican Ulysses), La tormenta (1936; The Storm), El desastre


(1938; The Disaster), and El proconsulado (1939; The Proconsul),
are notable commentaries on his life and times, and the first two in
particular are often read in the context of the novel of the Mexican
Revolution. Other writings by Vasconcelos, such as La raza cós-
mica (1925; The Cosmic Race), Indología: una interpretación de
la cultura ibero-americana (1926; Indology: An Interpretation of
Ibero-American Culture), Estética (1933; Aesthetics), and Boliva-
rismo y Monroísmo (1934; Bolivar and the Monroe Doctrine), have
figured prominently in discussions about Latin America, its people,
its politics, and its culture. La raza cósmica, especially, occupies an
important place in the history of debates about Mexican identity.

VAZ FERREIRA, MARÍA EUGENIA (Uruguay, 1875–1924). Poet.


She belonged to the same generation of Uruguayans as Enrique
Rodó, Horacio Quiroga, Julio Herrera y Reissig, and Delmira
Agustini, and was the first in a group of Latin American writers,
including Gabriela Mistral, Alfonsina Storni, and Juana de Ibar-
bourou, who established a voice for women in poetry. She wrote
metaphysical, brooding poetry that addressed the unanswerable ques-
tions about life, death, love, and hope. She published little, however.
La isla de los cánticos (1924; Island of Canticles) appeared in the
same year as her death and was followed a number of years later by
La otra isla de los cánticos (1959; The Other Island of Canticles).

VELA, EUSEBIO (Mexico, 1688–1737). Dramatist. Involved in all


aspects of production and performance, he was a notable figure of the
18th century, whose emphasis on the mechanics of staging associates
him with the baroque style of the age. He is reputed to have been
the author of a dozen plays, although only three survive: Apostolado
de las Indias y martirio de un cacique (Apostolate of the Indies and
Martyrdom of a Chieftain), Si el amor excede al arte, ni amor ni arte
a la prudencia (If Love Is Greater Than Art, Neither Love Nor Art
Are Wise), and La pérdida de España (The Loss of Spain). See also
THEATER.

VELOSO, CAETANO (Brazil, 1942– ). Musician and lyricist. One of


the main exponents of the counterculture movement Tropicália in the

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496 • VENEZUELA

1960s and 1970s, Caetano Veloso is one of Brazil’s most recognized


popular musicians. His connection to literature is mainly through
his involvement in this movement, which brought together popular
artists and erudite culture, such as concrete poetry, some of whose
devices are seen in many of the popular lyrics of the period. Veloso
published an autobiographical account of Tropicália, Verdade Tropi-
cal (1997; Tropical Truth), and a volume of his song lyrics, Letra Só
(2003; Only Lyrics). See also GULLAR, FERREIRA; SALOMÃO,
WALY; TOLENTINO, BRUNO.

VENEZUELA. The territory that constitutes Venezuela today was not


occupied by an advanced society in pre-Columbian times and was a
culturally marginalized region in the colonial era. It figures in Juan
de Castellanos’s verse chronicle, but the first major history of the
conquest and colonization was the 18th-century narrative by José
Agustín Oviedo y Baños. Yet, although Venezuela produced no
outstanding baroque writers, it was the birthplace of Simón Bolívar
and Andrés Bello, two of the most prominent figures of the inde-
pendence period, whose writings include some of Latin America’s
foundational texts. However, the devastation caused by the war
for independence and the civil wars that followed did not leave the
country in a favorable position to develop a strong literary tradition.
Costumbrismo, with its focus on local life and customs, was the
predominant trend of the last part of the 19th century, but Venezuelan
literature came into its own more strongly in the 20th century. Mod-
ernismo produced several important figures, notably Manuel Díaz
Rodríguez in prose and Rufino Blanco Fombona in poetry, while
the prose poems of José Antonio Ramos Sucre bridged the shift to
later aesthetic trends. In fiction, the most significant development in
the first half of the 20th century is marked by Rómulo Gallegos’s
1929 classic novel of the land Doña Bárbara. The foundations of a
national tradition were further consolidated in the novel, short story,
and essay by writers such as Arturo Uslar Pietri, Mariano Picón
Salas, Ramón Díaz Sánchez, and Miguel Otero Silva. Although
the avant-garde had yet to exert a strong influence, developments in
psychology are present in the novels of Teresa de la Parra and En-
rique Bernardo Núñez, and the fantastic figures in the short stories
of Julio Garmendia.

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VENEZUELA • 497

The European avant-garde is more apparent in poetry since the


1950s in the work of Juan Liscano, Vicente Gerbasi, Ramón
Palomares, and Rafael Cadenas, although, as in the rest of Latin
America, poetry since the 1980s, represented in Venezuela by Ra-
fael Arráiz Lucca, has inclined to follow the personal style of the
individual poet rather than wider aesthetic trends. The same may
be said of fiction. Venezuela produced no boom author, but fiction
flourished in the second half of the 20th century through writers such
as Guillermo Menses, Oswaldo Trejo, Salvador Garmendia, and
Adriano González León, and the wider trends in Latin American
fiction are also represented, for example, developments in the histori-
cal novel in the work of Francisco Herrera Luque.
The theater in Venezuela is also a predominantly 20th-century
phenomenon when measured in terms of its success at obtaining wide
recognition. In both the colonial period and the 19th century, there
were active theaters and dramatists, even if European drama was often
preferred. Cultural development in the first half of the 20th century
was affected by the prevailing dictatorships, to the extent that the free-
dom to stage socially critical works or to pursue new trends in theater
was curtailed. Plays in the manner of costumbrismo and criollismo
predominated often in the form of the apropósito, as the Venezuelan
version of the sainete was called. However, the 1950s brought social
and political change to the country and the introduction of trends in
the theater that had already become established elsewhere. Among
these was the influence of figures such as Bertold Brecht, Antonin
Artaud, and Constantin Stanislavski. The leading figure in the renais-
sance of Venezuelan theater at this time was César Rengifo, who had
important followers in Isaac Chocrón, José Ignacio Cabrujas, and
Román Chalbaud. A number of theatrical institutions and companies
were founded at this time, including the Nuevo Grupo (1967) and
the Fundación Rajatabla (1971). They not only fostered a high level
of activity in Venezuela, but also brought a wider reputation in the
1970s and 1980s, established through participation in international
festivals. Since then other dramatists have emerged, such as Gustavo
Ott and Mariela Romero, who represents the growing importance
of a number of female playwrights. See also CIVILIZATION AND
BARBARISM; HISTORICAL NOVEL; JOURNALS; MAGIC RE-
ALISM; NEO-CLASSICISM; THEATER OF CRUELTY.

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498 • VERA, PEDRO JORGE

VERA, PEDRO JORGE (Ecuador, 1914–1999). Dramatist, novelist,


and short story writer. Although he tried his hand at poetry, he is
better known for his contributions to other genres. As a dramatist,
he contributed to the social theater in Ecuador with plays such as
El dios de la selva (1941; God of the Jungle), Hamlet resuelve su
duda (1952; Hamlet Resolves His Doubt), and Luto eterno (1956;
Eternal Mourning). His novels include Los animales puros (1946;
Pure Animals), about intellectuals and revolutionaries in Guayaquil;
Tiempo de muñecos (1971; Time of the Puppets); El pueblo soy yo
(1975; I Am the People); and Por la plata baila el perro (1987; The
Dog Dances for Money). His greatest successes, however, were his
short stories, of which there are several collections: Un ataúd aban-
donado (1968; An Abandoned Coffin), Los mandamientos de la ley
de Dios (1972; The Commandments of God’s Law), Jesús ha vuelto
(1978; Jesus Has Returned), and ¡Ah, los militares! (1984; Ah, the
Military!). See also THEATER.

VERBITSKY, BERNARDO (Argentina, 1907–1979). Novelist.


After trying out the law and medicine, he eventually entered jour-
nalism. His first novel, Es difícil aprender a vivir (1941; Learning to
Live Is Difficult), generally set the pattern his fiction would follow:
realistically told stories of life in Argentina, often set in an urban
milieu. His novels include Una pequeña familia (1951; A Small
Family), Calles de tango (1953; Tango Streets), Un noviazgo (1957;
An Engagement to Marry), Villa miseria también es América (1957;
Shantytown Is Also America), Un hombre de papel (1966; Paper
Man), Hermana y sombra (1977; Sister and Shadow), and A pesar de
todo (1978; In Spite of It All). His fiction also includes two volumes
of short stories: Café de los angelitos (1950; Little Angel Café) and
La tierra es azul (1961; The Land Is Blue). In addition to one collec-
tion of poems, Megatón (1942; Megaton), he wrote screenplays and
books on literature, including one on the American dramatist Arthur
Miller (1915–2005), and another on Shakespeare and Cervantes.

VERDEAMARELISMO. In the context of modernist tendencies in


Brazil, Plínio Salgado, Paulo Menotti del Picchia, and Cassiano
Ricardo authored the manifesto “O Curupira e o Carão” (1927; “The
Curupira Being and the Big-Faced Monster”), in which they criti-

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VERÍSSIMO, ÉRICO • 499

cized the Week of Modern Art and founded a new art movement
called “Movimento Verde Amerelo” (Green Yellow Movement),
also known as “Verdeamarelismo” (Green-Yellowism). The move-
ment had a conservative nationalist focus and militantly promoted
antirationalist values. In reaction to Oswald de Andrade’s antrop-
ofagia, these authors and Raul Bopp drafted “Manifesto do Verde-
amarelismo ou da Escola da Anta” (1929; “Green-Yellow Manifesto
or of the School of the Tapir”), starting a polemic. Eventually, Bopp
and Ricardo dropped out and the movement degenerated into a fascist
trend known as Integralism, led by Salgado.

VERÍSSIMO, ÉRICO (Brazil, 1905–1975). Novelist and short story


writer. Born in the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, Veríssimo
worked briefly as a pharmacist before he decided on a literary career.
He first was secretary and editor for Revista do Globo for the pub-
lishing house Globo, and he translated English novels, especially by
Aldous Huxley (1894–1963) and Somerset Maugham (1874–1965),
which eventually influenced his own writing. His first novel, Cla-
rissa (1933; Clarissa), a fictional memoir in the style of Brazilian
modernism, was the first of a cycle of novels that launched his ca-
reer. Four more novels in this cycle are Caminhos Cruzados (1935;
Crossroads), Música ao Longe (1935; Music from Afar), Um Lugar
ao Sol (1936; A Place in the Sun), and Saga (1940; Saga). The short
story collections Fantoches (1932; Puppets) and As Mãos do Meu
Filho (1935; The Hands of My Son), and the novels Olhai os Lírios
do Campo (1938; Consider the Lilies of the Field), O Resto É Silên-
cio (1943; The Rest Is Silence), and Noite (1954; Night), mostly set
in the region of Rio Grande do Sul, helped consolidate his reputation
as a writer in the vein of regionalism. Invited by the government,
Veríssimo journeyed to the United States in 1941 and then published
a book of travel writing, Gato Preto em Campo de Neve (1941, Black
Cat in a Snowfield), based on his experiences. Other books describ-
ing travel in the United States, Mexico, and Israel include A Volta do
Gato Preto (1941; The Return of the Black Cat), México, História
de uma Viagem (1957; Mexico), and Israel em Abril (1970, Israel in
April).
Veríssimo’s reputation as a novelist, however, rests on his trilogy
O Tempo e o Vento (Time and the Wind), the first volume of which, O

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500 • VERÍSSIMO, LUÍS FERNANDO

Continente (1949; The Continent), was a best seller and was praised
by critics. The other volumes are O Retrato (1951; The Portrait) and
O Arquipélago (Books 1 & 2, 1961; Book 3, 1962; The Archipelago).
This epic saga tells of the settlement of southern Brazil and the con-
solidation of its patriarchal society, a work committed to the social
and the local but with universal aspirations and exhibiting a concern
with narrative time. Veríssimo later produced more universal and
psychological urban fiction inspired by recent international topics,
including O Senhor Embaixador (1965; The Ambassador), O Priso-
neiro (1967; The Prisoner), and Incidente em Antares (1972; Incident
in Antares). He also published many books of children’s literature,
the essay Brazilian Literature: An Outline (1945), and a volume of
memoirs, Solo de Clarineta: Memórias (2 vols., 1973–1976; Clarinet
Solo: Memoirs), whose title hints at Veríssimo’s lifelong passion for
music. See also VERÍSSIMO, LUIS FERNANDO.

VERÍSSIMO, LUÍS FERNANDO (Brazil, 1936– ). Novelist, journal-


ist, and short story writer. Son of Erico Veríssimo, Luis Fernando
Veríssimo first took up writing as a translator and journalist. His own
novels and short stories often rely on the creation of specific charac-
ters who reappear in several of his works. He is noted as a best seller,
prolific humorist, and writer of short prose pieces that chronicle
aspects of contemporary life in Brazil. Among his main works are
O Analista de Bagé (1981; The Analyst from Bagé), Comédias da
Vida Privada (1994; Comedies of Private Life), O Clube dos Anjos
(1998; The Club of Angels), Borges e os Orangotangos Eternos
(2000; Borges and the Eternal Orangotangos), and As Mentiras Que
os Homens Contam (2000; Lies Men Tell).

VERÍSSIMO DIAS DE MATOS, JOSÉ (Brazil, 1857–1916). Born


in the northern state of Pará, Veríssimo studied in Rio, but went
back to his home state, where he worked as a journalist and educa-
tor. He traveled to Europe and participated in literary and anthropo-
logical congresses, eventually settling in Rio, where he became a
full-time educator and critic, a cofounder of the Brazilian Academy
of Letters (see ACADEMIAS), and editor of the journal Revista
Brasileira (Brazilian Review). Veríssimo is remembered as one of
the three most important critics of his time, together with Tristão de

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VIEIRA, ANTÔNIO • 501

Alencar Araripe Júnior (1848–1911) and Sílvio Romero, who were


influenced by Hyppolite Taine (1828–1893), Ferdinand Brunetière
(1849–1908), positivism, and naturalism. Veríssimo followed a
different path, relying mostly on his own observations along with
philosophical and moral judgments, yet attempting unbiased global
appreciations. Among his sociological essays are Cenas da Vida
Amazônica (1888; Scenes of Amazonian Life), Educação Nacional
(1890; National Education), A Amazônia: Aspectos Econômicos
(1892; The Amazon: Economic Aspects), Que é Literatura? E Out-
ros Escritos (1907; What Is Literature? and Other Writings), Inter-
esses da Amazônia (1915; Interests of the Amazon), and Homens e
Coisas Estrangeiros (3 vols., 1902–1910; Foreign Men and Things).
His História da Literatura Brasileira (1916; History of Brazilian
Literature), A Literatura Nacional e os Estudos Literários (1894;
National Literature and Literary Studies), and Estudos brasileiros
(1904; Brazilian Studies) were major landmarks of Brazilian literary
history in a crucial moment of national definition.

VIANA, JAVIER DE (Uruguay, 1868–1926). Short story writer. He


was an unsuccessful landowner from a family of landowners and
made his living as a writer. His first book was a collection of short
stories, Campo (1896; The Country), which established the rural fo-
cus of much of his writing and places him within the prevailing trend
of criollismo. A novel, Gaucha (1899; Gaucha), appeared not long
after, but Viana’s reputation rests principally on his gaucho stories,
of which he published more than a dozen collections during the last
15 years of his life. These include Leña seca (1911; Dry Wood), Yu-
yos (1912; Weeds), Cardos (1919; Thistles), Abrojos (1919; Burrs),
Del campo y de la ciudad (1921; From the Country and the City),
La Biblia gaucha (1925; The Gaucho Bible), and Tardes del fogón
(1925; Evenings by the Campfire).

VIEIRA, ANTÔNIO (Brazil, 1608–1697). Orator and prose writer.


Born in Portugal, Vieira was educated in Brazil and spent his life
between the two countries, with a brief period in Rome. A brilliant
student, he soon joined the Jesuit order and became one of the most
important defenders of the Indians in Brazil and the Jews in Portugal.
He had an eventful life, often running into trouble because of the

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502 • VIEIRA, JOSÉ GERALDO

outspoken political and religious views he expressed as an orator.


Three volumes of Cartas (1735–1746; Letters) and a 16-volume
collection of Sermões (1679–1748; Sermons) are considered prime
examples of baroque rhetoric and argumentation. His works, noted
for their elegance and style in the use of the Portuguese language,
are required reading for many university students in Brazil and Por-
tugal. His Obras do Padre Antônio Vieira (1854–1858; Works of
Father Antonio Vieira) span 25 volumes. See also RIBEIRO, JOÃO
UBALDO.

VIEIRA, JOSÉ GERALDO (Brazil, 1897–1977). Novelist. Born in


the Azores, Vieira arrived in Brazil when he was three. Although
his first publication was a prose poem based on images of Greece,
O Triste Epigrama (1919; The Sad Epigram), he is noted mostly for
his psychological novels of introspection from the second phase of
Brazilian modernism. His works include A Mulher que Fugiu de
Sodoma (1931; The Woman Who Fled Sodom), Território Humano
(1936; Human Territory), A Quadragésima Porta (1943; The Forti-
eth Door), A Túnica e os Dados (1947; The Tunic and the Dice), A
Ladeira da Memória (1950; The Slope of Memory), Terreno Baldio
(1961; Waste Land), and A Mais Que Branca (1975; The More Than
White).

VILALTA, MARUXA (Mexico, 1932– ). Dramatist. Although she


began her writing career as a novelist and short story writer, it is in
theater that she has made her name. Her first play, Los desorientados
(1960; The Confused), about the egocentricity of youth, was adpated
from a novel. Un país feliz (1963; A Happy Country) deals with the
distortion of truth under dictatorships, and El 9 (1965; No. 9) is about
the mechanization of humanity. In two plays of the same period, La
última letra (1964; The Last Letter) and Cuestión de narices (1966;
A Matter of Noses), her work took a turn toward the theater of the
absurd in order to present the contradictions between what people
say and what they do. Other titles include Nada como el piso 16
(1976; Nothing Like Apt. 16); Historia de él (1978; Story of Him);
and Una mujer, dos hombres y un balazo (1981; A Women, Two
Men, and a Bullet), a collection of four one-act plays. She has written
several plays with religious themes: Una voz en el desierto: vida de

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VILLA, FRANCISCO • 503

San Jerónimo (1991; A Voice in the Wilderness: Life of Saint Je-


rome), Francisco de Asís (1992; Francis of Assisi), Jesucristo entre
nosotros (1994; Christ Among Us), and Ignacio y los jesuitas (1997;
Ignatius and the Jesuits). More recently, she has written a play on the
Mexican Revolution, 1910 (2000), and Con vista a la bahía (2007;
With a View of the Bay). See also WOMEN.

VILARIÑO, IDEA (Uruguay, 1920– ). Poet. She was one of


Uruguay’s most important poets of the 1940s and 1950s. Her
first collections, La suplicante (1945; The Supplicant) and Cielo,
cielo (1947; Heaven, Heaven), were both quite short, but already
showed the individuality of her voice, which appeared more
strongly in the collections that followed: Por aire sucio (1951;
Through Dirty Air); Nocturnos (1955; Nocturns), in which the
spareness of her writing is very evident; and Poemas de amor
(1958; Love Poems), a collection dedicated to her former husband,
Juan Carlos Onetti. Suffering and death, solitude and fear are
among her recurring themes, written in an extraordinarily econo-
mical style. Her later collections are Pobre Mundo (1966; Poor
World), Poesía (1970; Poetry), No (1980; No), Canciones (1993;
Songs), Poesía 1945–1990 (1994; Poetry 1945–1990), and Poesía
completa (2002; Complete Poems). Vilariño has written books on
Julio Herrera y Reissig and Rubén Darío, and two books on
tango: Las letras de tango (1965; Tango Lyrics) and El tango can-
tado (1981; The Sung Tango). Her verse translations of Shakes-
peare have been performed very successfully, and several of her
song lyrics are very popular. See also WOMEN.

VILLA, FRANCISCO (Mexico, 1877–1923). Known more popularly


as Pancho Villa, although his real name was José Doroteo Arango.
As a general in the revolutionary army in Mexico, he entered the
capital in triumph in 1913 with Emiliano Zapata. Two years later,
he was defeated by a rival revolutionary general, Álvaro Obregón
(1880–1928), and spent much of the last years of his life as a virtual
outlaw. His career as a revolutionary general figures significantly in
the novel of the Mexican Revolution, notably in the work of authors
such as Martín Luis Guzmán, Mariano Azuela, and Rafael F. Mu-
ñoz. See also CAMPOBELLO, NELLIE.

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504 • VILLAURRUTIA, XAVIER

VILLAURRUTIA, XAVIER (Mexico, 1903–1950). Poet and drama-


tist. As a member of Los Contemporáneos, his work is associated
with the avant-garde. Known for his epigrammatic wit and linguistic
virtuosity, his poetry is contained mainly in three collections: Refle-
jos (1926; Reflections), Nostalgia de la muerte (1938; Nostalgia for
Death), and Canto a la primavera y otros poemas (1948; Song to
Spring and Other Poems). Of these, Nostalgia de la muerte, and the
“Nocturnos” (Nocturns) included in this book, are among his most
successful poems. Villaurrutia was a very active figure in experimen-
tal theater as a director, translator, and author. He published a set
of five one-act plays under the title Autos profanos (1943; Secular
Allegories) and six three-act dramas for commercial production. His
theater shows the influence of both classical mythology, William
Shakespeare (1564–1616), and Jean Racine (1639–1699), as well
as recent European dramatists such as Jean Cocteau (1889–1963),
Antonin Artaud (1896–1948), and Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936). His
best-known play is Invitación a la muerte (1940; Invitation to Death),
a modern adaptation of Shakespeare’s Hamlet, a work that reflected
his growing preoccupation with death. He also wrote literary and
film criticism and a short novel, Dama de corazones (1928; Queen of
Hearts). The Xavier Villaurrutia Prize for literature was established
in his honor in 1955. See also BASURTO, LUIS G.; CHUMACERO,
ALÍ; TORRES BODET, JAIME.

VIÑAS, DAVID (Argentia, 1929– ). Novelist. Although a contem-


porary of the boom generation, he has not attracted the same level
of attention. His novels are often on political subjects and center
on real events as representative moments of particular periods in
Argentinean history. His first novel, Cayó sobre su rostro (1955;
He Fell on His Face), conveys the passage of power to the liberal
president Hipólito Yrigoyen in 1916. Los años despiadados (1956;
The Pitiless Years) is set in the presidency of Juan Domingo Perón.
Among the later novels, Los dueños de la tierra (1958; Owners of
the Land), deals with conflicts over land tenure in Patagonia in the
time of Yrigoyen; La semana trágica (1966; The Tragic Week) is
concerned with a period of labor conflicts in 1919, also in Yrigoyen’s
time; and Los hombres de a caballo (1967; Men on Horseback) is
a family chronicle that covers several generations of Argentinean

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VITALE, IDA • 505

history. Cuerpo a cuerpo (1979; Body to Body) is a darker novel


about a journalist exploring the life of a general. It was written in
exile in Spain, where Viñas had taken refuge from the dictatorship in
Argentina, which had claimed the lives of his two children and close
friends. The author’s more recent novels include Prontuario (1993;
File) and Tarabul, o los últimos argentinos del siglo XX (2006; Tara-
bul, or the Last Argentineans of the 20th Century).
In a historical vein similar to that developed in his novels, Viñas
has written very successfully for the theater: Sara Goldman, mujer
de teatro (1956; Sara Goldman, Woman of the Theater), Lisandro
(1972; Lysander), Túpac Amaru (1973; Tupac Amaru), and El fusi-
lamiento de Dorrego (1973; The Execution of Dorrego). He is also
the author of a number of volumes of essays on politics and literature
in Argentina, as well as of several well-received books on politics
and literature, including Literatura argentina y realidad política: de
Sarmiento a Cortázar (1970; Argentinean Literature and Political
Reality: From Sarmiento to Cortázar) and Indios, ejército y fronteras
(1982; Indians, Army, and Frontiers).

VITALE, IDA (Uruguay, 1923– ). Poet. Having lived much of her


life outside Uruguay, she is better known in Mexico and the United
States than in her own country. In contrast to many poets, she is not
inclined to develop the autobiographical in her verse. Her first three
books form a group: La luz de esta memoria (1949; The Light of This
Memory) reflects a nostalgia for the past, Palabra dada (1953; Given
Word) emphasizes solitude, and Cada uno en su noche (1960; Each
in His Night) has a somewhat elegiac mood. With Oidor andante
(1972; Walking Listener), her focus turned to the instability and in-
effectiveness of language, and she brought references to Montevideo
into her work. This was followed by Fieles (1976; Faithful), Jardín
de sílice (1980; Silicon Garden), Elegías en otoño (1982; Elegies in
Autumn), Entrecasa (1984; Around the House), and Sueños de la
constancia (1988; Dreams of Constance), all published in Mexico.
Léxico de afinidades (1994; Lexicon of Affinities) and Donde
vuela el camaleón (1996; Where the Cameleon Flies) are both col-
lections of short pieces of poetic prose, a mix of different kinds of
texts, some about everyday life, others about literary and cultural
figures, and with a highly playful tone, especially Donde vuela el

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506 • WALSH, MARÍA ELENA

camaleón. A similar variety is found in Procura de lo imposible


(1998; Acquire the Impossible), 90 poems about places, people, life,
the land, and the inability of literature to capture life. By contrast,
Reducción del infinito (2000; Reduction of the Infinite) is more re-
strained and is an interaction with the Uruguayan poet Julio Herrera
y Reissig. Among Vitale’s works published since then are De plantas
y animales: acercamientos literarios (2003; Of Plants and Animals:
Literary Approaches) and El abc de byobu (2004; Byobu’s ABC), the
latter a collection of pieces in prose that introduce a character named
Byobu. See also WOMEN.

– W –

WALSH, MARÍA ELENA (Argentina, 1930– ). Poet, short story


writer, singer/song writer. At the age of 17 she published Otoño im-
perdonable (1947; Unforgiveable Autumn), a collection of critically
acclaimed, neo-romantic poems. This was followed by Apenas viaje
(1948; Scarce Journey) and Baladas con Ángel (1952; Ballads with
Ángel), written in collaboration with Ángel Bonomini (1929–1994).
Shortly after, Walsh left Argentina for France, where she formed a
folklore singing duo with Leda Valladares (1919– ). At the same
time, she also turned to children’s literature and produced a se-
ries of books for children in the 1960s: Tutú Marambá (1960; Tutu
Maramba), El reino del revés (1963; Topsy-Turvy Land), Zoo loco
(1964; Crazy Zoo), Cuentopos de Gulubú (1966; Storytales of Gu-
lubú), and Dailán Kifki (1966; Dailan Kifki). Her stories are highly
imaginative and make ample use of nonsense and wordplay.
On her return to Argentina, she revived her singing career and
had considerable impact on the music scene. Collections of her
song lyrics appeared in Juguemos en el mundo (1970; Let’s Play in
the World) and Cancionero contra el mal de ojo (1976; Songbook
Against the Evil Eye). Her writing for children continued, acquiring
a political edge and serving to combat stereotypes with books such as
El diablo inglés (1974; The English Devil), a new look at the British
invasion of 1806; Bisa Vuela (1985), a title meaning “Bisa Flies” that
plays on the Spanish word bisabuela, meaning “great-grandmother”;
and La nube traicionera (1989; The Traiterous Cloud).

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WAST, HUGO • 507

Walsh has also written for adults. Hecho a mano (1965; Hand-
made) is a collection of love poems that focus on women; Los po-
emas (1984; The Poems) gathers together the poetry Walsh had been
writing over a period of time; Novios de antaño, 1930–1940 (1990;
Lovers of a Bygone Age) was a best seller, a look at life in a past
decade; and Desventuras en el País-Jardín-de-Infantes (1993; Mis-
adventures in Kindergarten Land) was a collection of her newspaper
articles, including many of those written during the dictatorship of
the 1970s and 1980s, when she used both her writing and her music
to combat oppression.

WALSH, RODOLFO (Argentina, 1927–1977). Journalist and short


story writer. His Operación masacre (1957; Operation Massacre), an
account of the assassination of members of the political opposition
during the presidency of Pedro Eugenio Aramburu (1955–1958),
established investigative journalism in Argentina. It was one of the
first examples of the nonfiction novel and anticipated later docu-
mentary and testimonio writing in Latin America. Walsh wrote two
other books in the same genre, ¿Quién mató a Rosendo? (1969; Who
Killed Rosendo?) and El caso Satanowsky (1973; The Satanowsky
Case), but without his earlier success. His first collection of short
stories, Variaciones en rojo (1953; Variations in Red), consisted of
three works of crime fiction. Two later volumes, Los oficios ter-
restres (1965; Terrestrial Trades) and Un kilo de oro (1967; A Kilo
of Gold), contain stories written in the manner of Julio Cortázar.
Walsh also wrote two plays, La granada (1965; The Grenade) and La
batalla (1981; The Battle), denouncing the military. He was a politi-
cally militant member of the Montoneros guerrillas and was shot and
disappeared in a police ambush in 1977. See also THEATER.

WAST, HUGO (Argentina, 1883–1962). Novelist. Born Gustavo


Martínez de Zuviría, he was a commercially successful writer who
wrote a large number of popular novels. Among the more enduring of
these are Flor de durazno (1911; Peach Blossom), La casa de los cu-
ervos (1916; House of the Crows), Valle negro (1918; Black Valley),
Desierto de piedra (1925; Stone Desert), El camino de las llamas
(1930; The Way of the Flames), Oro (1935; Gold), and 666 (1942).
He was a Catholic Nationalist, openly anti-Semitic and pro-Nazi,

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508 • WEEK OF MODERN ART

whose attitudes were reflected both in his fiction and his many es-
says. He was director of the national library for 25 years and minister
of education during the presidency of General Pedro Pablo Ramírez
(1943–1944), succeeding in introducing the teaching of religion into
what had hitherto been a secular system of education.

WEEK OF MODERN ART. The “Semana de Arte Moderna” (or


Week of Modern Art) was a series of events staged in the Munici-
pal Theater of São Paulo, Brazil, on 13, 15, and 17 February 1922,
including lectures, poetry readings, concerts, and an art exhibit.
Among the literary participants (either directly or through their texts
read at the events) were José Pereira da Graça Aranha, Ronald de
Carvalho, Paulo Menotti del Picchia, Mário de Andrade, Manuel
Bandeira, Rui Ribeiro Couto, Plínio Salgado, and Oswald de
Andrade. The events were widely covered in the papers and caused
a fair degree of public scandal among the conservative public of
São Paulo, as they evidenced the provocation typical of European
artistic avant-garde movements. Although many critics agree that
modernist works were produced in Brazil previous to the Week, it
has served as a benchmark to date the beginning of Brazilian mod-
ernism. See also ALMEIDA, GUILHERME DE; COELHO NETO,
HENRIQUE MAXIMIANO; LOBATO, JOSÉ BENTO MON-
TEIRO; MACHADO, ANTÓNIO DE ALCÂNTARA; MILLIET
DA COSTA E SILVA, SÉRGIO; PRADO, PAULO; SCHMIDT,
AUGUSTO FREDERICO; SYMBOLISM.

WESTPHALEN, EMILIO ADOLFO (Peru, 1911– 2001). Poet. Of


the same generation as César Moro and Martín Adan, Westphalen
published two collections of verse in the 1930s, Las ínsulas extrañas
(1933; Strange Islands) and Abolición de la muerte (1935; Abolition
of Death). Both were influenced by surrealism and Spanish mysti-
cism. The first, with a title taken from a line of St. John of the Cross
(1542–1591), explores the inner music of the mystic; the second
represents the pursuit of the beloved. After these two books, although
he was engaged in other activities associated with literature, such as
editing and teaching, Westphalen did not collect his own verse again
for publication until the 1980s.

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WOLFF, EGON • 509

In Otra imagen deleznable (1980; Another Insignificant Image),


he republished earlier work with some additional poems and then
published a series of more accessible, less complex books of poetry
that also included prose poems. These were Arriba bajo el cielo
(1982; Up Beneath the Sky), Máximas y mínimas de experiencia
pedestre (1982; Maxima and Minima in Pedestrian Experience),
Ha vuelto la Diosa Ambarina (1986; The Goddess Ambarina Has
Returned), Belleza de una espada clavada en la lengua (1988; The
Beauty of a Sword Piercing the Tongue), Bajo zarpas de la quimera:
poemas 1930–1988 (1991; Beneath Paws of Illusion: Poems 1930–
1991), and Falsos rituales y otras patrañas (1999; False Rituals and
Other Tall Tales).

WOLFF, EGON (Chile, 1926–). Dramatist. He is the author of about


20 plays and one of Chile’s most popular and successful com-
mercial dramatists. Social conflict is customarily at the center of
his plays, which focus on characters whose attitudes and behavior
are determined by the ideology derived from their social class.
Mansión de lechuzas (1958; Mansion of Owls) dramatizes the situ-
ation of a widow and her family challenged by Italian neighbors in
the kind of conflict that is often played out in Wolff’s theater. In
Parejas de trapo (1959; Rag Couples), the conflict between self-
serving members of the upper and middle classes is set against the
social ethics of immigrants. In Los invasores (1963; The Invaders),
a wealthy industrialist fears the invasion of his home by the home-
less, although the audience is left in doubt about whether the inva-
sion is real or imagined. In Flores de papel (1970; Paper Flowers),
an encounter between a middle-class woman and an unemployed
man off the street explores their differences and the common
ground they find through communication. Some of the political
tension in Wolff’s drama, such as Flores de papel, is marked by the
rise and fall of the Popular Unity government in Chile (1970–1973).
His other plays include El signo de Caín (1969; The Sign of Cain),
Kindergarten (1977; Kindergarden), Espejismo (1978; Illusion),
Álamos en la azotea (1981; Poplars on the Terrace), La balsa de la
Medusa (1984; The Raft of the Medusa), and Tras una puerta cer-
rada (2000; Behind a Closed Door).

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510 • WOMEN

WOMEN. The presence of women in the contemporary Latin Ameri-


can literary scene is firmly established both as writers and as subjects
of a discourse that recognizes their psychological complexity, the
diversity of their social roles, the specificity of feminine points of
view, the particularities of female bodies and desires, and the nature
of women’s experiences. Yet this has all come about mainly in the
last century. The claiming of the public sphere by women in Latin
America, as in many other regions of the world, is a relatively recent
phenomenon.
Literature in the colonial period was a territory that left little space
for women. Conventual life offered some opportunity, but there were
limitations. The environment it provided for reflection led to a body
of significant writings, such as the spiritual and biographical works
of Madre Castillo (Colombia), but it ultimately denied creativity
and intellectual freedom. As discovered by Sor Juana Inés de la
Cruz (Mexico), Latin America’s most prominent female writer of
the colonial era, the convent was no refuge from the constraints of a
patriarchal society.
During the colonial period, much of the 19th century, and the
early years of the 20th, albeit to a lesser extent, women were publicly
absent from literature as writers and present mainly through repre-
sentation in the work of male authors. This meant that women often
figured in relation to the expression of male feelings and desires,
or were described stereotypically to convey notions such as beauty,
innocence, or maternity. In the romantic novel, such as Clemencia
(1869; Clemencia) by Ignacio Manuel Altamirano (Mexico) or
Cumandá, o un drama entre salvajes (1879; Cumandá, or a Drama
Among Savages) by Juan León Mera (Ecuador), women were
cast in highly symbolic roles in narratives intended to illustrate the
nation’s struggle toward an ordered society in control of the elements
that constitute it, in which the female characters are often represen-
tative of the perils facing the nation itself. In naturalist fiction, such
as Santa (1903; Santa) by Federico Gamboa (Mexico) or Historia
de arrabal (1922; Suburban Story) by Manuel Gálvez (Argentina),
stories of women forced into prostitution serve to dramatize the
corrupting influences of the new urban environments and growing
industrialization at the beginning of the 20th century.

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WOMEN • 511

Nevertheless, by the late 19th century women were acquiring a


more prominent profile in literary circles. In her early fiction, Mer-
cedes Cabello de Carbonera (Peru) followed the conventions of
romanticism, but became more socially critical in later works. Júlia
Lopes de Almeida (Brazil) and Soledad Acosta de Samper (Co-
lombia) were more inclined to realism, and both narrated the lives of
everyday women in their fiction. Whether through literary journals
or salons, Acosta de Samper and Juana Manuela Gorriti (Argen-
tina) fostered the literary and intellectual life of both sexes and, in
this regard, anticipated the work of Victoria Ocampo (Argentina),
who was celebrated for such activities in the mid-20th century. The
promotion of women writers, in addition to her proto-feminism,
also figured in the engagement with literature by Clorinda Matto
de Turner (Peru), although she is best known for her classic novel
Aves sin nido (1889; Torn from the Nest), one of the founding texts
of indigenismo.
The first half of the 20th century saw the appearance of a number
of significant women poets. Of these, the most celebrated is Gabriela
Mistral (Chile) who, in 1945, became Latin America’s first Nobel
laureate and is the only Latin American woman to have been honored
with the award to date. In Brazil, Gilka Machado wrote erotic poetry
in the styles established by parnassianism and symbolism and was
considered the greatest woman poet of Brazil in her age, before fall-
ing into oblivion. In Spanish America, Delmira Agustini and Juana
de Ibarborou, both from Uruguay, and Alfonsina Storni from Ar-
gentina, inherited the style of modernismo and fashioned it to their
own aesthetic needs and the predominantly lyrical tone employed to
convey their feelings and experiences. As a group, they are in some
respects pioneers, writers who claimed the legitimacy of women
as poets for the generations that followed them in the avant-garde
and post-avant-garde periods. Among some of their notable succes-
sors are Claribel Alegría and Claudia Lars (El Salvador); Norah
Lange and Alejandra Pizarnik (Argentina); Blanca Varela (Peru);
Cecília Meireles, Adélia Prado, and Ana Cristina César (Brazil);
and Idea Vilariño and Ida Vitale (Uruguay), whose poetry embod-
ies the perspective of their identity as women and embraces themes
that range widely, from the personal to the social, from politics to
philosophy.

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512 • WOMEN

Though women have distinguished themselves in poetry, the im-


pact of feminism and what is commonly known as the “women’s
movement” has perhaps been felt more strongly in prose, given its
higher circulation in both national and international markets. The
Brazilian novelist, journalist, and political activist Patrícia Galvão,
also known as Pagu, wrote fiction such as Parque Industrial (1933;
Industrial Park), a tale of class oppression in São Paulo influenced
by avant-garde vocabularies. Narratives of the female subject were
undertaken in a variety of modes in the mid-20th century. The writ-
ing of Marta Brunet (Chile), in novels such as Humo hacia el sur
(1946; Smoke in the South), is related to criollismo, realism, and
naturalism, whereas María Luisa Bombal, in La última niebla
(1935; The Final Mist), uses the techniques of surrealism. Yet, like
others of their generation, both authors are equally concerned in their
works with verisimilitude in the psychological portrayal of female
characters, the conflict between interior worlds and society, female
sexuality, and the expectations placed on women by a patriarchal so-
ciety. These are among the issues explored by Marta Lynch (Argen-
tina) in her novels of female desire and politics and best represented
in La señora Ordoñez (1967; Mrs. Ordoñez), or by the Brazilians
Lygia Fagundes Telles and Clarice Lispector in their respective
novels, Ciranda de Pedra (1954; Stone Dance Song) and A Paixão
Segundo G.H. (1964; The Passion According to G.H.). On a different
scale, women writers of the same period also explored wider themes
of national interest, such as the rebellions that have punctuated
Mexico’s often conflicted history, such as Rosario Castellanos’s
Oficio de tinieblas (1962; The Book of Lamentations), about a 19th-
century indigenous revolt, and Elena Garro’s story of the Cristero
Wars (1926–1929), Los recuerdos del porvenir (1963; Recollection
of Things to Come). Both were ground-breaking works in their day.
Since the mid-20th century the growing strength of feminism and
the evolution of social attitudes toward women have been reflected
in Latin America in an explosive increase in the cohort of women
writers and the continuing exploration by women of themselves as
subjects and social beings. Although there were no women boom
writers, the post-boom generation includes several female authors,
whose work has been widely translated and recognized. Among the
most prominent are Isabel Allende (Chile), who won international

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WOMEN • 513

recognition with her novel La casa de los espíritus (1982; The House
of the Spirits), and Laura Esquivel (Mexico), who owes her celeb-
rity to Como agua para chocolate (1989; Like Water for Chocolate).
Both novels were international best sellers, and both tell the history
of their author’s country from the perspective of recent generations of
women, not without significant touches of magic realism. In Brazil,
Nélida Piñon produced a comparable family saga, A República dos
Sonhos (1984; The Republic of Dreams), which also became well
known beyond her own country.
Among other women whose writing has had national signifi-
cance and has become known internationally, Luisa Valenzuela
(Argentina) has examined her country’s recent history of political
violence and the problems of exile and return; Elena Poniatowska
(Mexico), using her skills as a journalist, has written testimonios
on the Mexican Revolution, the Tlatelolco massacre, and the 1985
earthquake that devastated parts of Mexico City; and Gioconda Belli
(Nicaragua) has written about the role of women in the Sandinista
Revolution (1979) in her novel La mujer habitada (1988; The Inhab-
ited Woman). The world of politics and the social structure were also
the themes of the early fiction of Cristina Peri Rossi (Uruguay), al-
though her recent work has focused more on eroticism, female sexu-
ality, and lesbianism. Others who have also explored such themes
successfully while offering a critique of the conventional expecta-
tions placed on women by society include the Chilean Diamela Eltit
and the Brazilians Hilda Hilst and Joyce Cavalcante.
Examples of nonfiction prose already cited above in connection
with works by Elena Poniatowska draw attention to testimonial
writing. One of the most celebrated examples of this genre in Latin
America, however, is that based on the experiences of the Nobel
Peace Prize winner Rigoberta Menchú (Guatemala), Me llamo
Rigoberta Menchú y así me nació la conciencia (1982; I, Rigoberta
Menchú: An Indian Woman in Guatemala). Another example is
the narrative of Domitila Barrios de Chungara (Ecuador), Si me
permiten hablar: testimonio de Domitila, una mujer de las minas de
Bolivia (1978; Let Me Speak! Testimony of Domitila, a Woman of the
Bolivian Mines). Just as they have fought for their own rights and so-
cial recognition, women have also stood behind the marginalized and
the exploited, whose stories they have told to publicize their plight

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514 • WOMEN

and seek social vindication. Latin American women are also promi-
nent in the fields of journalism, cultural commentary, and literary
criticism, Beatriz Sarlo (Argentina) and Margo Glantz (Mexico)
being among those who have excelled in these areas, while others,
such as Clarice Lispector, who are best known for their fiction, have
established their reputations as journalists or as writers of chronicles.
The 20th century also witnessed the growing presence of women
in the theater as writers, directors, and entrepreneurs. In Chile, Isi-
dora Aguirre has written on many themes in drama that are a strong
indication of her social commitment, and among her best plays are
those that, like her historical drama Lautaro: epopeya del pueblo
mapuche (1982; Lautaro: Epic of the Mapuche), implement the prin-
ciples of Brechtian theater. In Mexico, Sabina Berman has also
written historical plays, and plays are a significant part of the oeuvre
of Maruxa Vilalta, who has also developed dramas on religious and
social themes. The dramatization of issues concerning women is a
particular strength of another Mexican dramatist, Luisa Josefina
Hernández. In Argentina, the most celebrated woman dramatist is
Griselda Gambaro, whose plays often employ the techniques of
the theater of the absurd and the theater of cruelty to expose the
problem of state violence in her country. Among her best-known
pieces is El campo (1967; The Camp). In Brazil, Hilda Hilst has also
written important pieces for the theater, including Rato no Muro
(Mouse in the Wall) and A Possessa (The Possessed Woman), influ-
enced by her poetry and the environment of São Paulo. Thus, as in
poetry and prose, Latin American theater has an established cohort of
distinguished women playwrights whose work not only embraces a
wide range of themes but ensures, as do the women poets and prose
writers, that issues of concern to women, and women themselves, re-
main in the forefront of contemporary literature. See also ACOSTA,
DELFINA; ACUÑA DE FIGUEROA, FRANCISCO; AGUSTÍN,
JOSÉ; AMADO, JORGE; ÁNGEL, ALBALUCÍA; BARROS, PÍA;
BOULLOSA, CARMEN; BRITTON, ROSA MARÍA; BUITRAGO,
FANNY; BULLRICH, SILVINA; CAMPOBELLO, NELLIE; CAM-
POS, JULIETA; COUTINHO, SÔNIA; CUNHA, HELENA PA-
RENTE; EICHELBAUM, SAMUEL; FERNÁNDEZ DE LIZARDI,
JOSÉ JOAQUÍN; FUTORANSKY, LUISA; GALLARDO, SARA;
GAMERO, LUCIA; GORODISCHER, ANGÉLICA; GUIDO, BEA-

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XISTO, PEDRO • 515

TRIZ; IBÁÑEZ, SARA DE; IPARRAGUIRRE, SYLVIA; LISBOA,


HENRIQUETA; LYRA, CARMEN; MASTRETTA, ÁNGELES;
MENDOZA, MARÍA LUISA; MERCADER, MARTHA; MER-
CADO, TUNUNA; NARANJO, CARMEN; OCAMPO, MARÍA
LUISA; OCAMPO, SILVINA; ODIO, EUNICE; OLLÉ, CAR-
MEN; OREAMUNO, YOLANDA; OROZCO, OLGA; PARRA,
TERESA DE LA; PARRA, VIOLETA; PETIT, MAGDALENA;
PLA, JOSEFINA; POESIA MARGINAL; POLETTI, SYRIA; POR-
TAL, MAGDA; PORZECANSKI, TERESA; POST-BOOM; PUGA,
MARÍA LUISA; QUEIRÓS, DINAH SILVEIRA DE; QUEIRÓS,
RAQUEL DE; RAZNOVICH, DIANA; REBELO, MARQUES;
RÍO, ANA MARÍA DEL; ROFFÉ, REINA; ROMERO, MARIELA;
SOCA, SUSANA; SOMERS, ARMONÍA; TRABA, MARTA;
TRISTÁN, FLORA; VAZ FERREIRA, MARÍA EUGENIA; YÁ-
ÑEZ COSSÍO, ALICIA; ZAMORA, DAISY.

WYLD OSPINA, CARLOS (Guatemala, 1891–1956). Novelist.


Although he also wrote poetry and essays, he is best known as an
accomplished novelist in the style of criollismo. Among his works
are El solar de los Gonzaga: novela de la ciudad pequeña (1924;
Ancestral Home of the Gonzagas: A Novel of the Small City), La
gringa (1936; The Foreigner), and Los lares apagados (1958; Extin-
guished Hearths).

– X –

XIMÉNEZ, FRANCISCO (Guatemala, 1666–ca. 1721). Historian.


He was a Dominican priest who wrote important early histories of
Guatemala and several studies of native languages. Among his ac-
complishements is the transcription and translation from Quiché of
the Popol Vuh, one of the most significant records of pre-Columbian
mythology from Guatemala.

XISTO, PEDRO (Brazil, 1901–1987). Poet. Born in Pernambuco,


Xisto joined Brazil’s Foreign Service and served in the Far East and
Europe. He began producing haikus in 1949 and actively promoted
Brazilian avant-garde poetry at home and abroad. Joining the

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516 • YÁÑEZ, AGUSTÍN

concrete poetry movement in the late 1950s, he published poems in


the journal Noigandres 3. He also translated many haikus.

– Y –

YÁÑEZ, AGUSTÍN (Mexico, 1904–1980). Short story writer and


novelist. In addition to his success in literature, he was a prominent
political figure, having served as governor of the state of Jalisco
(1953–1959) and later as minister of education during the presidency
of Gustavo Díaz Ordaz (1964–1970). Much of his early writing
focused on Jalisco, his native state. He wrote a number of books on
the places and people of the region: Por tierras de Nueva Galicia
(1928; Through the Lands of New Galicia), Espejismo de Juchitán
(1940; Illusions of Juchitán), Genio y figura de Guadalajara (1942;
The Genius and Form of Guadalajara), and Yahualica (1946). His
first collections of stories also emerged from his Jalisco experiences
and include Flor de juegos antiguos (1942; Garland of Traditional
Games), on childhood, and Archipiélago de mujeres (1943; Archi-
pelago of Women), a rewriting of a number of classic love stories
from European literature in a Mexican context and from the perspec-
tive of adolescence. Los sentidos al aire (1964; Feelings in the Air)
also brought a group of stories together from the same source. In La
ladera dorada (1978; The Golden Hillside), however, he developed
themes of maturity and old age, drawing on mythology, the Bible,
and European literature. Although not published until close to the
end of his life, its conception and some of its content belong to the
early period.
Yáñez’s first novel, Al filo del agua (1947; The Edge of the Storm),
was also his most successful and a landmark in Mexican literature.
It is set in a small town in Jalisco at a time immediately before
the beginning of the revolution. Not only did he bring some of the
techniques of literary modernism into his writing, such as interior
monologue and counterpoint, but he transformed the novel of the
Mexican Revolution by turning it from a novel based on the narra-
tion of events into one that focused on the stresses and traditions of
social life and the psychology of characters. In subsequent novels,
Yáñez described various regions of Mexico, but without achieving

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ZALAMEA, JORGE • 517

the same impact as in Al filo del agua. La creación (1959; Creation)


and Ojerosa y pintada (1960; Hollow-eyed and Painted) are both
set in Mexico City, the former a continuation of Al filo del agua in
the story of one of its characters whose musical career reflects the
cultural ferment of postrevolutionary Mexico. By contrast, La tierra
pródiga (1960; The Abundant Land) and Las tierras flacas (1962;
The Lean Lands) are set in rural Mexico, the west coast and the arid
interior, respectively. Both are versions of the novel of the land that
deal with the themes of tradition versus progress, chaos against order,
civilization and barbarism. In one of his last novels, Las vueltas
del tiempo (1973; The Turns of Time), he again sought to retrieve
the world of the characters of Al filo del agua. See also FUENTES,
CARLOS.

YÁÑEZ COSSÍO, ALICIA (Ecuador, 1928– ). Novelist. One of


Ecuador’s most prominent women writers, her works focus on the
socially disenfranchised and introduce strong female characters who
resist the traditional, patriarchal structures of social life in rich, hu-
morously satirical views of life in the Andes. La cofradía del mullo
del vestido de la Virgen Pipona (1985; The Potbellied Virgin), for
example, is a tale of clan and gender rivalry over the patron virgin
of an Andean town. Her other novels include Bruna, soroche y los
tíos (1973; Bruna and Her Sisters in the Sleeping City), Yo vendo
unos ojos negros (1979; I Sell Black Eyes), Más allá de las islas
(1980; Beyond the Islands), La casa del sano placer (1989; House of
Healthy Pleasure), and El Cristo feo (1995; The Ugly Christ).

– Z –

ZALAMEA, JORGE (Colombia, 1905–1969). Poet and essayist. A


member of several governments in Colombia, he went into exile
in 1948, remained faithful to his socialist ideals, and was unable to
return to his native Colombia for fear of imprisonment. His literary
production covers a wide range of genres and subjects. In his youth,
he toured with a theater company and wrote a psychoanalytic drama
for the stage, El regreso de Eva (1927; Eve’s Return), as well as a
play called El rapto de las Sabinas (1935; The Rape of the Sabine

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518 • ZAMORA, DAISY

Women). His essays cover subjects such as literature, history, and art.
His major work, however, is his poetry. El gran Burundún-Burundá
ha muerto (1952; The Great Burundun-Burunda Is Dead) and La
metamorfosis de su Excelencia (1963; His Excellency’s Metamor-
phosis) are both about tyrants and, as such, are related to the dictator
novel. The former is a satire of the presidency of Gustavo Rojas Pin-
illa (1953–1957), the latter the story of a dictator who becomes aware
of his faults and decides to reform. In El sueño de las escalinatas
(1964; Dream of the Stairways), poverty confronts colonialism in a
courtroom. Zalamea was the official Spanish translator of the work
of Saint-John Perse (1887–1975) and published a number of volumes
of his translation. His collection of poems, La poesía ignorada y
olvidada (1965; Unknown, Forgotten Poetry), received a Casa de
las Américas prize.

ZAMORA, DAISY (Nicaragua, 1950– ). Poet. Born into a wealthy


liberal family, her poetry was initially personal, but it became more
political as she identified with the Sandinista Revolution in Nica-
ragua against Anastasio Somoza (1974–1979). She served as vice
minister of culture under Ernesto Cardenal in the postrevolution-
ary government. Her poetry collections include La violenta espuma
(1982; The Violent Foam), En limpio se escribe la vida (1988; Clean
Slate), A cada quien la vida (1994; Life for Each), Fiel al corazón:
poemas de amor (2005; Faithful to the Heart: Love Poems), and
Tierra de nadie, tierra de todos (2007; No Man’s Land, Everybody’s
Land). See also WOMEN.

ZAPATA, EMILIANO (1879–1919). One of the leaders of the Mexi-


can Revolution, Emiliano Zapata fought for agrarian reform and the
improvement of conditions for indigenous people. He has acquired
legendary status since his murder by the Mexican army in 1919 and
has served as inspiration to more recent guerrilla movements, includ-
ing the Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN; Zapatista
National Liberation Army), which emerged in Chiapas in 1994.
Zapata’s military campaign, like that of Francisco Villa, was also
taken up in the novel of the Mexican Revolution by writers such as
Gregorio López y Fuentes. See also LIST ARZUBIDE, GERMÁN.

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ZAPIOLA, JOSÉ • 519

ZAPATA OLIVELLA, JUAN (Colombia, 1922–2008). Poet and


novelist. In addition to the novels Pisando el camino de ébano (1984;
Treading the Ebony Trail), Historia de un joven negro (1990; Story
of a Young Black), and Una mujer sin raíces (1991; A Woman with-
out Roots), he also produced several volumes of poetry, including
Bullanguero: poesía popular (1974; Party Time: Popular Poetry)
and Panacea: poesía liberada (1976; Panacea: Liberated Poetry), on
Afro-Colombian themes. Manuel Zapata Olivella, Juan’s brother,
was also a prominent Afro-Colombian writer.

ZAPATA OLIVELLA, MANUEL (Colombia, 1920–2004). Novel-


ist. He was a doctor by profession who also wrote studies in ethnog-
raphy, short stories, and plays, as well as the novels for which he is
best known. Much of his work focuses on social injustice, especially
in relation to Afro-Colombian communities. His early novels are
concerned with the social reality of Colombia. Tierra mojada (1947;
Wet Earth) tells the story of a conflict between landowners and the
dispossessed. La calle 10 (1960; Street 10) is set during the la violen-
cia in the aftermath of the assassination of the presidential candidate
Jorge Eliécer Gaitán (1948). En Chimá nace un santo (1964; A Saint
Is Born in Chimá), a narrative that achieved some international suc-
cess, is about religious fanaticism manifested in the conflict between
Catholicism and local beliefs. With Chambacú: corral de negros
(1963; Chambacú: Black Slum), a novel that exemplifies the connec-
tion between poverty and crime, Zapata Olivella began to write more
specifically about Afro-Colombians and would become Colombia’s
most prominent writer of African descent. His novel Changó, el gran
putas (1983; Changó the Whoremonger) is a work of epic propor-
tions that traces the history of African Americans from the 16th to the
20th centuries. Juan Zapata Olivella, Manuel’s brother, was also a
prominent Afro-Colombian writer.

ZAPIOLA, JOSÉ (Chile, 1802–1885). Musician. Zapiola’s contribu-


tion to the world of literature consists of a series of newspaper arti-
cles published between 1872 and 1876 in La Estrella de Chile, which
constitute one of Chile’s significant examples of costumbrismo. In
due course they were collected under the title Recuerdos de treinta

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520 • ZÁRATE, AGUSTÍN DE

años (Memories of Thirty Years); they offer a view of life in Chile


in the first half of the 19th century.

ZÁRATE, AGUSTÍN DE (Spain, 1514–1560). Chronicler. He is re-


membered for his chronicle Historia del descubrimiento y conquista
del Perú (1555; The Discovery and Conquest of Peru).

ZORRILLA DE SAN MARTÍN, JUAN (Uruguay, 1857–1931).


Poet. A post-romantic writer whose work is closely identified with
Uruguayan nationalism. His narrative poems La leyenda patria
(1879; Legend of the Fatherland) and Tabaré (1888; Tabaré: An In-
dian Legend of Uruguay) are both set in the history of Uruguay and
exalt the author’s perception of national values. Tabaré is a frontier
tale of captivity, love, and tragedy from the time of the conquest and
has obtained the greater recognition of the two. It is a work of 19th-
century indianismo, endeavoring to re-create the life, customs, and
language of the extinguished Charrúa people. Zorrilla de San Martín
was also the author of numerous prose works, notably La epopeya
de Artigas (1910; The Epic of Artigas), on the life and times of José
Gervasio Artigas (1764–1850), the caudillo or leader considered
Uruguay’s founding father. In contrast to the arielismo of his con-
temporary and fellow Uruguayan Enrique Rodó, Zorrilla saw the
spiritual and intellectual future of Latin America in the dissemination
of Christian idealism.

ZUM FELDE, ALBERTO (Uruguay, 1889–1976). Essayist and


critic. Born in Argentina, he grew up in Uruguay and was director
of the National Library for many years. He was influenced by arie-
lismo and became one of the country’s leading literary critics and cu-
ltural commentators. His main publications, most having to do with
Uruguay, were Crítica de la literatura uruguaya (1921; Criticism of
Uruguayan Literature), Proceso intelectual del Uruguay (1930; The
Intellectual Development of Uruguay), Reseña de la historia cultural
y literaria del Uruguay (1945; Review of the Cultural and Literary
History of Uruguay), Índices críticos de la literatura hispanoameri-
cana (2 vols., 1954 and 1959; Critical Indices of Spanish American
Literature), and La narrativa en Hispanoamérica (1964; Narrative in
Spanish America).

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ZURITA, RAÚL • 521

ZURITA, RAÚL (Chile, 1950– ). Poet. Marked by his experience of


the Augusto Pinochet dictatorship (1973–1990), including imprison-
ment and torture, Zurita has sought radical forms of expression. With
others of his generation, like Diamela Eltit, this has taken forms such
as using the city as a canvas or the body as a medium of expression,
skywriting, or writing into the landscape by inscribing texts on it
to be read from the air. He has also written concrete poetry, but
since about 1990 has generally inclined to more conventional forms
of expression. His work has shown a continuing affiliation with
Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), as is evident from some of his titles:
El sermón de la montaña (1971; The Sermon on the Mount), Áreas
verdes (1974; Green Areas), Purgatorio (1979; Purgatory), Antepa-
raíso (1982; Anteparadise), El paraíso está vacío (1984; Paradise
Is Empty), Canto a su amor desaparecido (1985; Song to Disap-
peared Love), El amor de Chile (1987; Love of Chile), La vida nueva
(1994; The New Life), Poemas militantes (2003; Militant Poems),
INRI (2004; INRI), Los países muertos (2006; The Dead Countries),
Poemas de amor (2007; Love Poems), Cinco fragmentos (2007;
Five Fragments), Las ciudades de agua (2008; Water Cities), and In
Memoriam (2008; In Memoriam).

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10_479_09_Dictionary7.indd 522 11/4/10 11:44 AM
Bibliography

General Latin American History and Criticism 529


Bibliographies, Encyclopedias, and Dictionaries 529
General History and Criticism 530
Genres: History and Criticism 531
Anthologies 535
Argentina 536
Resources: Bibliographies, Histories, Anthologies 536
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 537
Bolivia 564
Resources: Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 564
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 565
Brazil 567
Resources: Bibliographies, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 567
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 569
Chile 610
Resources: Bibliographies, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 610
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 611
Colombia 622
Resources: Bibliographies, Histories, Anthologies 622
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 623
Costa Rica 629
Resources: Histories, Anthologies 629
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 630
Ecuador 632
Resources: Bibliographies, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 632
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 632
El Salvador 636
Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 636
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 637

523

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524 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Guatemala 639
Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 639
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 640
Honduras 643
Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 643
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 644
Mexico 644
Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 644
Select Bibliographies for Specific Writers 646
Nicaragua 671
Resources: Anthologies 671
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 671
Panama 675
Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 675
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 676
Paraguay 677
Resources: Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 677
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 678
Peru 680
Resources: Bibliographies, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 680
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 681
Uruguay 695
Resources: Bibliographies, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 695
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 696
Venezuela 707
Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies 707
Select Bibliography for Specific Writers 708

INTRODUCTION

Like Latin American literature itself, writing about the literature also blos-
somed in the 20th century, especially in the second half. This is not to say
that there were no significant works of literary history or criticism before this
time, but it is important to draw attention to an increase in their quantity and
the degree of interest Latin American literature has generated during the last
60 years. Much of the growth outside Latin America has come about following
the consolidation of Latin American literature internationally as an academic
discipline. It has been fueled by several factors, namely the Latin American
diaspora; an increasing awareness of the strategic, political, and economic im-
portance of the region, notably since the later stages of the Cold War; and the

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 525

rise of what came to be known as area studies. In this context, Latin America
has also acquired greater relevance in a wide range of academic disciplines, and
the field of Latin American studies has become more prominent.
The bibliography that follows reflects that growing interest. Although it
includes some titles published earlier, particularly some classics of literary his-
tory, it consists mainly of works written during the last 30 years. The number of
books and essays in English in the bibliography indicates not only a preference
for the inclusion of publications in English, but also just how much about Latin
American literature has been published in that language and the importance
of English in international literary studies. The volume of writing about it in
other languages is also very extensive, although, aside from a few entries, the
titles listed have been confined mainly to texts published in English, Spanish,
or Portuguese.
Extensive as any bibliography of criticism in English might be, however,
it has definite limitations. The publication of Brazilian literature in English
translation lags behind that of the literature from Spanish American countries,
a reflection of the status of Portuguese as a “less frequently taught” language
in North America and elsewhere. For the same reason, criticism of Brazil-
ian literature is not as strongly represented in English as it is for some of the
Spanish-speaking countries such as Mexico, Argentina, and Chile. Whether
from Brazil or Spanish America, much of what is published about Latin
American literature, even in countries such as the United States and Britain,
especially in academic journals, is published in Spanish or Portuguese. These
are, understandably, the linguae francae of Latin American literary criticism,
and any consideration of the subject also makes it necessary to broach the vast
amount of critical work published in Latin America itself, not only about the
major authors, but above all about many whose work is relatively unknown
outside their own countries or is known principally in Latin America alone.
The first part of the bibliography is an introductory section concerned with
Latin American literature in general. A list of reference works (bibliographies,
encyclopedias, and dictionaries) is followed by general works of history and
criticism. These are followed in turn by several lists in which writings about
the different literary genres are collected, and this part of the bibliography con-
cludes with a selection of anthologies, some of which are of literature in trans-
lation. Not unexpectedly, given the comments expressed in the Introduction to
this volume, there is some variation in meaning of the term “Latin America”
used in the titles of the books collected in the introductory section. In some
titles, the term refers to Latin America in the broadest sense possible. In others,
its meaning is more restricted and may refer only to a particular region or to
the few countries that concern the book’s author. Readers who are especially
interested in Brazilian literature should also be aware that “Latin America” is

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526 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

often used synonymously with “Spanish America.” Many books that from their
titles might be expected to have a broad coverage may in fact be concerned only
with literature from Spanish-speaking America.
Among the more comprehensive undertakings in English are the three-
volume The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature (1996), edited by
Roberto González Echevarría and Enrique Pupo-Walker, and Literary Cultures
of Latin America: A Comparative History (2004), edited by Mario Valdés and
Djelal Kadir, also in three volumes. Both are the products of teams of experts
and both encompass the entire region, including the Spanish Caribbean. Of the
two, the former has a more traditional structure and is organized historically
by century, literary movement, and genre. Brazilian literature is described
separately in the third volume. The comparative history by Valdés and Kadir is
also organized chronologically, but is a much more expansive project, with a
broader cultural orientation, that encompasses language phenomena in general
and has essays on topics such as linguistics, literatures in native languages, oral
literatures, newspapers and literary journals, and popular literature, as well as
on literature understood in a more conventional sense. By contrast, Stephen
Hart’s A Companion to Latin-American Literature (2007) is less encyclopedic,
but is a handy, single-volume discussion of both Brazilian and Spanish Ameri-
can literature by periods and genres that also offers a commentary on some of
the major texts and authors and outlines the principal literary movements and
trends of the region.
Further useful single-volume works include the Encyclopedia of Latin Ameri-
can Literature (1997), edited by Verity Smith, and the Encyclopedia of Contem-
porary Latin American and Caribbean Literature, 1900–2003 (2004), edited by
Daniel Balderston and others. In comparison with Balderston’s work, Smith’s
encyclopedia includes fewer authors but has longer entries on the national litera-
tures and a variety of literary topics, as well as entries on a number of authors
and some key works. For more extended essays on some of Latin America’s
major authors, the four volumes of Latin American Writers (1989, 2002), edited
by Carlos A. Solé, are also useful. For Spanish American literature, the standard
histories in English include those by Enrique Anderson Imbert and Jean Franco,
while José Miguel Oviedo’s four-volume Historia de la literatura hispano-
americana (1995–2001) provides a more updated history in Spanish.
When consulting histories of the literary genres, movements, and periods,
it soon becomes clear how little tendency there is in Latin American criticism
to cross the boundary of the Spanish–Portuguese divide and to include writers
from both linguistic regions in the same narrative. Readers interested in the
history of Brazilian literature beyond the scope of the general studies for Latin
America already mentioned above are encouraged to consult the section for
Brazil in this bibliography.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 527

The Encyclopedia of Latin American Theater (2003), edited by Eladio


Cortés and Mirta Barrera-Marlys, covers the national theaters of both Brazil
and Spanish America, but Willis Knapp Jones’s Behind Spanish American
Footlights (1966), one of the standards of theater history, is more limited, as its
title suggests. For writing in prose, books by Georg Gugelberger on testimonio,
Sylvia Molloy on autobiography, and Peter Earle and Robert Meade on the
essay are excellent studies of those genres. Francisco Esteve Barba provides a
comprehensive survey of the history chronicle, and Beatriz Pastor provides a
detailed analysis of several chronicles. For fiction, the general studies by John
Brushwood, Donald Shaw, and Raymond Williams offer detailed surveys and
introductions to the principal authors and their works. Two volumes edited by
María Salgado, Modern Spanish American Poets (2003 and 2004), include es-
says on the life and works of a large number of poets, while books by Andrew
Bush, Mike Gonzalez and David Treece, and William Rowe cover the move-
ments and trends in Latin American poetry through consideration of the work
of some of its principal poets.
After the introductory section on Latin America in general, the remaining,
but much longer, part of this bibliography consists of a series of sections, one
for each of the national literatures included in the dictionary. Each list has two
parts: a selection of reference works, including bibliographies, dictionaries, en-
cyclopedias, histories, and anthologies, covering the national literature in ques-
tion, followed by select bibliographies for specific writers, organized alphabeti-
cally by author. These bibliographies for specific writers include both books
and articles from academic journals, some published within Latin America,
but many published in countries outside the region, notably in North America
and Europe. When selecting articles from academic journals published in Latin
America, preference was given to those having an established circulation in
North America and Europe. A few of the journals cited publish exclusively
online, and the archives of an increasing number of journals are being made
available through the same medium.
It is noteworthy that the majority of the titles in the reference sections of the
bibliographies on national literatures are in Spanish or Portuguese. Although
critics writing in English have produced histories of the national literatures of
Latin America for encyclopedias and have been interested in the literary history
of Latin America as a whole, they have not generally concerned themselves
with either writing or translating national histories. Notable exceptions are
David William Foster’s edited book on the history of Mexican literature and
James Higgins’s history of Peruvian literature. There are a number of histories
of Brazilian literature in English, either written, edited, or translated (such
as the volumes by Manuel Bandeira, Afrânio Coutinho, Isaac Goldberg, and
Claude Hulet), which are somewhat dated, but most of the standard and the

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528 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

more recent histories remain those in Portuguese by Alfredo Bosi, Antônio


Candido, Massaud Moisés, and Luciana Stegagno Picchio.
As may be concluded from the selection of titles throughout this bibliogra-
phy, many writers in English and many whose studies have been translated into
English have made particular genres, themes, authors, or facets of the world of
Latin American literature and its authors the primary focus of their work. Their
interest has yielded many studies that offer particular insight into the life, times,
and work of Latin American literary figures. Among those cited in the bibli-
ographies for specific authors, the following are both accessible and useful.
For Argentina, the studies on Jorge Luis Borges by Beatriz Sarlo and Edwin
Williamson, Steven Boldy’s book on the novels of Julio Cortázar, and Suzanne
Jill Levine’s literary biography of Manuel Puig are excellent reading. Brazil’s
Jorge Amado has been the subject of a recent essay collection edited by Keith
Brower and others, and Jason Lund and Malcolm McNee have edited a collec-
tion on Gilberto Freyre, while monographs such as those by Roberto Schwarz
on Joaquim Machado de Assis and by Marta Peixoto and Earl Fitz on Clarice
Lispector cover important ground. Chile’s two Nobel Prize–winning poets,
Gabriela Mistral and Pablo Neruda, are discussed respectively, with consider-
able insight, by Elizabeth Horan and Matilde Urrutia. The official biography of
another of Latin America’s Nobel winners, the Colombian Gabriel García Már-
quez, has been published by Gerald Martin. Richard Callan’s study of Miguel
Ángel Asturias, Guatemala’s Nobel laureate, provides detailed commentary
on the novelist’s work. It is also part of the series Twayne’s World Authors,
which includes volumes on several Latin American authors, the Paraguayan
Augusto Roa Bastos (by David William Foster) and the Chilean Isabel Al-
lende (by Linda Gould Levine) among them. For Mexico, there is an important
study by the Nobel poet and essayist Octavio Paz on Sor Juan Inés de la Cruz,
and Mexico’s most important 20th-century novelist, Carlos Fuentes, has been
studied in a very approachable work by Wendy Faris. Two of Peru’s greatest
writers, the poet César Vallejo and the novelist Mario Vargas Llosa, have been
discussed by Jean Franco and Sara Castro Klarén, respectively. Finally, the in-
ternationally recognized Uruguayan chronicler Eduardo Galeano is the subject
of a groundbreaking volume by Daniel Fischlin and Martha Nandorfy.
The books singled out for particular mention in the preceding paragraph,
as well as all the other titles included in this bibliography, whether in the
general section on Latin America or in the sections on national literatures and
their authors, may be consulted in important collections such as The Library
of Congress in Washington, D.C., and The British Library in London. They
may also be found in some of the world’s major university libraries, such as
those of the University of Texas at Austin, Yale University, the University of
Pittsburgh, or Tulane University in the United States; the University of Toronto
in Canada; or the Universities of London or Oxford in Great Britain. The li-

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 529

brary at Brown University at Providence, Rhode Island, has particularly good


holdings on Brazil. Readers seeking further bibliographical recources might
consult the International Bibliography of the Modern Language Association
of America (www.mla.org/bilbiography), the Hispanic American Periodicals
Index (HAPI) Online (www.hapi.ucla.edu), or the Handbook of Latin American
Studies (HLAS) Online (www.loc.gov/hlas), a publication of the U.S. Library
of Congress.

GENERAL LATIN AMERICAN HISTORY AND CRITICISM

Bibliographies, Encyclopedias, and Dictionaries


Agosín, Marjorie, ed. A Dream of Light & Shadow: Portraits of Latin American
Women Writers. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995.
Aira, César. Diccionario de autores latinoamericanos. Buenos Aires: Emecé,
2001.
André, María Claudia, and Eva Paulina Bueno, eds. Latin American Women
Writers: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge, 1980.
Balderston, Daniel. The Latin American Short Story: An Annotated Guide to
Anthologies and Criticism. New York: Greenwood Press, 1992.
Balderston, Daniel, Mike González, and Ana M. López, eds. Encyclopedia of
Contemporary Latin American and Caribbean Literature, 1900–2003. Lon-
don: Routledge, 2004.
Brower, Keith H. Contemporary Latin American Fiction. An Annotated Bibli-
ography. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press, 1989.
Bryant, Shasta M. Selective Bibliography of Bibliographies of Hispanic Ameri-
can Literature. 2nd ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976.
Forster, Merlin H., and K. David Jackson. Vanguardism in Latin American Lit-
erature: An Annotated Bibliographical Guide. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
Press, 1990.
Foster, David William, ed. A Dictionary of Contemporary Latin American Au-
thors. Tempe: Center for Latin American Studies, Arizona State University,
1975.
———. Handbook of Latin American Literature. 2nd ed. New York: Garland,
1992.
———. Latin American Writers on Gay and Lesbian Themes: A Bio-critical
Sourcebook. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994.
Marting, Diane E., ed. Spanish American Women Writers: A Bio-Bibliograph-
ical Source Book. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990.
Osorio, Nelson, ed. Diccionario enciclopédico de las letras de América Latina.
3 vols. Caracas: Monte Avila and Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1995.

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530 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sefamí, Jacobo, ed. Contemporary Spanish American Poets: A Bibliography of


Primary and Secondary Sources. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992.
Smith, Verity, ed. Encyclopedia of Latin American Literature. Chicago: Fitzroy
Dearborn, 1997.
Solé, Carlos A., and María Isabel Abreu, eds. Latin American Writers. 3 vols.
New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1989.
Solé, Carlos A., and Klaus Müller-Bergh, eds. Latin American Writers. Vol. 4,
Supp. 1. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2002.

General History and Criticism


Anderson Imbert, Enrique. Spanish-American Literature: A History. Detroit,
Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1963.
Bellini, Giuseppe. Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana. Madrid: Casta-
lia, 1985.
Beverley, John, and Marc Zimmerman. Literature and Politics in Central
America. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990.
Cevallos-Candau, Francisco J., Jeffrey A. Cole, Nina M. Scott, and Nicómedes
Suárez Arauz, eds. Coded Encounters: Writing, Gender and Ethnicity in
Colonial Latin America. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994.
Chang-Rodríguez, Raquel. Violencia y subversion en la prosa colonial his-
panoamericana, siglos XVI y XVII. Madrid: José Porrúa Turanzas, 1982.
Englekirk, John E., I. A. Leonard, J. T. Reid, and J. A. Crow, eds. An Outline
History of Spanish American Literature. New York: Appleton Century
Crofts, 1965.
Fernández Moreno, César, Julio Ortega, and Ivan Schulman, eds. Latin Amer-
ica in Its Literature. México, D.F.: Siglo XXI, 1971.
Foster, David William. Gay and Lesbian Themes in Latin American Writing.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991.
———. Modern Latin American literature. New York: Ungar, 1975.
Franco, Jean. The Decline and Fall of the Lettered City. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 2002.
———. An Introduction to Spanish-American Literature. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1994.
Goic, Cedomil, ed. Historia y crítica de la literatura hispanoamericana. 3 vols.
Barcelona: Editorial Crítica, 1988.
González Echevarría, Roberto. The Voice of the Masters: Writing and Author-
ity in Modern Latin American Literature. Austin: University of Texas Press,
1985.
González Echevarría, Roberto, and Enrique Pupo-Walker, eds. The Cambridge
History of Latin American Literature. 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1996.

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Hart, Stephen. A Companion to Latin-American Literature. Woodbridge, Suf-


folk: Tamesis, 2007.
Jackson, Richard L., ed. The Black Image in Latin American Literature. Albu-
querque: University of New Mexico Press, 1976.
Johnson, Julie Greer. Women in Colonial Spanish American Literature: Liter-
ary Images. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983.
Johnson, Myriam Yvonne. Latin American Women Writers: Class, Race and
Gender. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.
Jrade, Cathy. Modernismo, Modernity and the Development of Spanish Ameri-
can Literature. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998.
Kadir, Djelal. Questing Fictions: Latin America’s Family Romance. Minneapo-
lis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986.
Kaminsky, Amy. Reading the Body Politic: Feminist Criticism and Latin
American Writers. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.
Kuhnheim, Jill S. Spanish American Poetry at the End of the Twentieth Cen-
tury: Textual Disruptions. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.
Lindstrom, Naomi, and Carmelo Virgilio, eds. Woman as Myth and Metaphor
in Latin American Literature. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1985.
Martínez, Elena M. Lesbian Voices from Latin America: Breaking Ground.
New York: Garland, 1996.
Menton, Seymour. Historia verdadera del realismo mágico. México, D.F.:
Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1998.
Oviedo, José Miguel. Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana. 4 vols. Ma-
drid: Alianza, 1995–2001.
Sifuentes-Jáuregui, Ben. Transvestism, Masculinity and Latin American Litera-
ture. New York: Palgrave, 2002.
Sommer, Doris. Foundational Fictions: The National Romances of Latin
America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
Sosnowski, Saúl, ed. Lectura crítica de la literatura americana. 4 vols. Cara-
cas: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1997.
Unruh, Vicky. Latin American Vanguards: The Art of Contentious Encounters.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
Valdés, Mario, and Djelal Kadir, eds. Literary Cultures of Latin America: A
Comparative History. 3 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Genres: History and Criticism


Autobiography, Essay, Chronicle, and Testimonio
Earle, Peter G., and Robert G. Mead. Historia del ensayo hispanoamericano.
México, D.F.: Ediciones de Andrea, 1965.

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Ellis, Robert Richmond. They Dream Not of Angels but of Men: Homoeroti-
cism, Gender and Race in Latin American Autobiography. Gainesville:
University Press of Florida, 2002.
Fernández, Teodosio. Los géneros ensayísticos hispanoamericanos. Madrid:
Taurus, 1990.
Gugelberger, Georg, ed. The Real Thing: Testimonial Discourse and Latin
America. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996.
Meyer, Doris, ed. Reinterpreting the Spanish American Essay: Women Writers
of the 19th and 20th Centuries. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995.
Molloy, Sylvia. At Face Value: Autobiographical Writing in Spanish America.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Skirius, John, ed. El ensayo hispanoamericano del Siglo XX. México, D.F.:
Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1981.
Sklodowska, Elzbieta. Testimonio hispanoamericano: historia, teoría, poética.
New York: Peter Lang, 1992.
Stabb, Martin. The Dissenting Voice: The New Essay in Spanish America,
1960–1985. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.

Novel and Short Story


Alonso, Carlos J. The Spanish American Regional Novel: Modernity and Au-
tochthony. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Avelar, Idelber. The Untimely Present: Post-dictatorial Latin American Fic-
tion and the Task of Mourning. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999.
Bacarisse, Salvador, ed. Contemporary Latin American Fiction. Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1980.
Bloom, Harold, ed. Modern Latin American Fiction. New York: Chelsea
House, 1990.
Brotherston, Gordon. The Emergence of the Latin American Novel. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1979.
Brushwood, John S. Genteel Barbarism: Experiments in Analysis of
Nineteenth-Century Spanish-American Novels. Lincoln: University of Ne-
braska Press, 1981.
———. The Spanish American Novel: A Twentieth-Century Survey. Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1975.
Foster, David William, and Virginia Ramos Foster, eds. Alternate Voices in the
Contemporary Latin American Narrative. Columbia: University of Missouri
Press, 1985.
Gonzalez, Ann, and William Luis, eds. Modern Latin-American Fiction Writ-
ers. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1994.

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Kerr, Lucille. Reclaiming the Author: Figures and Fictions from Spanish
America. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991.
King, John, ed. Modern Latin American Fiction: A Survey. London: Faber &
Faber, 1987.
Lindstrom, Naomi. Early Spanish American Narrative. Austin: University of
Texas Press, 2004.
———. Twentieth Century Spanish American Fiction. Austin: University of
Texas Press, 1994.
Martin, Gerald. Journeys through the Labyrinth: Latin American Fiction in the
Twentieth Century. London: Verso, 1989.
Menton, Seymour. Latin America’s New Historical Novel. Austin: University
of Texas Press, 1993.
Shaw, Donald. The Post-Boom in Spanish American Fiction. Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1998.
Swanson, Philip. The New Novel in Latin America: Politics and Popular Cul-
ture after the Boom. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995.
———, ed. Landmarks in Modern Latin American Fiction. London York: Rout-
ledge, 1990.
Williams, Raymond L. The Columbia Guide to the Latin American Novel Since
1945. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
———. The Postmodern Novel in Latin America: Politics, Culture, and the
Crisis of Truth. New York: St Martin’s Press, 1995.
———. The Twentieth-century Spanish American Novel. Austin: University of
Texas Press, 2003.

Poetry
Bush, Andrew. The Routes of Modernity: Spanish American Poetry from the
Early Eighteenth to the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell
University Press, 2002.
Gonzalez, Mike, and David Treece. The Gathering of Voices: The Twentieth-
century Poetry of Latin America. London: Verso, 1992.
Huízar, Angélica Jiménez. Beyond the Page: Latin American Poetry from the
Calligrame to the Virtual. Bethesda, Md.: Academica Press, 2008.
Kirkpatrick, Gwen. The Dissident Legacy of Modernismo: Lugones, Herrera
y Reissig, and the Voices of Modern Spanish American Poetry. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989.
Kuhnheim, Jill S. Spanish American Poetry at the End of the Twentieth Cen-
tury: Textual Disruptions. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.
Rowe, William. Poets of Contemporary Latin America: History and the Inner
Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

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534 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Salgado, María A., ed. Modern Spanish American Poets: First Series. Detroit,
Mich.: Gale 2003.
———, ed. Modern Spanish American Poets: Second Series. Detroit, Mich.:
Gale, 2004.
Yurkievich, Saúl. Fundadores de la nueva poesía latinoamericana: Vallejo,
Huidobro, Borges, Girondo, Neruda, Paz, Lezama Lima. Barcelona: Ariel,
1984.

Theater
Albuquerque, Severino J. Violent Acts: A Study of Contemporary Latin Ameri-
can Theatre. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1991.
Cortés, Eladio, and Mirta Barrera-Marlys, eds. Encyclopedia of Latin American
Theater. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003.
De Costa, Elena. Collaborative Latin American Popular Theater: From Theory
to Form, from Text to Stage. New York: Peter Lang, 1992.
Flores, Yolanda. The Drama of Gender: Feminist Theater by Women of the
Americas. New York: Peter Lang, 2000.
Harvell, Tony A. Latin American Dramatists since 1945: A Bio-Bibliographi-
cal Guide. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003.
Jones, Willis Knapp. Behind Spanish American Footlights. Austin: University
of Texas Press, 1966.
Larson, Catherine, and Margarita Vargas, eds. Latin American Women Drama-
tists. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998.
Lyday, Leon F., and George Woodyard, eds. Dramatists in Revolt: The New
Latin American Theater. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976.
Martin, Randy. Socialist Ensembles: Theater and State in Cuba and Nicara-
gua. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994.
Suárez Radillo, Carlos Miguel. El teatro barroco hispanoamericano: ensayo
de una historia crítico-antológica. 3 vols. Madrid: Ediciones J. Porrúa
Turanzas, 1981.
———. El teatro neoclásico y costumbrista hispanoamericano: una historia
crítico-antológica. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica, Instituto de Coop-
eración Iberoamericana, 1984.
———. El teatro romántico hispanoamericano: una historia crítico-antológica.
Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica, Instituto de Cooperación Iberoameri-
cana, 1993.
Taylor, Diana. Theatre of Crisis: Drama and Politics in Latin America. Lex-
ington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991.
Taylor, Diana, and Juan Villegas, eds. Negotiating Performance: Gender,
Sexuality and Theatricality in Latin/o America. Durham, N.C.: Duke Uni-
versity Press, 1995.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 535

Versenyi, Adam. Theatre in Latin America: Religion, Politics, and Culture


from Cortés to the 1980s. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Weiss, Judith A., et al. Latin American Popular Theatre. Albuquerque: Univer-
sity of New Mexico Press, 1993.

Anthologies
Anderson Imbert, Enrique, and E. Florit, eds. Literatura hispanoamericana. 2
vols. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970.
Arciniegas, Germán, ed. The Green Continent. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1944.
Caracciolo-Trejo, E., ed. The Penguin Book of Latin American Verse. Har-
mondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971.
Castro-Klaren, Sara, Sylvia Molloy, and Beatriz Sarlo, eds. Women’s Writing
in Latin America: An Anthology. Boulder, Colo.: Lynn Rienner, 1991.
Colecchia, Francesca, and Julio Matas, eds. Selected Latin American One-Act
Plays. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973.
Dauster, Frank N., Leon Lyday, and George W. Woodyard, eds. Nueve drama-
turgos hispanomericanos. 3 vols. Ottawa: Girol Books, 1979.
Englekirk, John E., I. A. Leonard, J. T. Reid, and J. A. Crow, eds. An Anthology
of Spanish American Literature. 2 vols. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, 1968.
Fitts, Dudley, ed. Anthology of Contemporary Latin American Poetry. West-
port, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976.
Flores, Ángel, ed. Narrativa hispanoamericana. 8 vols. México, D.F.: Siglo
XXI, 1981.
Foster, David William. Twentieth-century Spanish American Literature to
1960. New York: Garland, 1997.
———, ed. Twentieth-century Spanish American Literature Since 1960. New
York: Garland, 1997.
Grünfeld, M., ed. Antología de la poesía latinoamericana de vanguardia. Ma-
drid: Hiperión, 1995.
Menton, Seymour, ed. El cuento hispanoamericano: antología crítico-histórica.
México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1964.
Neglia, Erminio G., and Luis Ordaz, eds. Repertorio selecto del teatro his-
panoamericano contemporáneo. Tempe: Center for Latin American Studies,
Arizona State University, 1981.
Oviedo, José Miguel, ed. Antología crítica del cuento hispanoamericano
(1830–1920). Madrid: Alianza, 1989.
———, ed. Antología crítica del cuento hispanoamericano del siglo XX (1920–
1980). 2 vols. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1992.

10_479_10_Bibliography1.indd 535 11/4/10 7:38 AM


536 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ripoll, Carlos, and Andrés Valespino, eds. Teatro hispanoamericano: an-


tología crítica. 2 vols. New York: Anaya, 1972–1973.
Rodríguez Monegal, Emir, ed. The Borzoi Anthology of Latin American Litera-
ture. 2 vols. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977.
Rotker, Susana, ed. Ensayistas de nuestra América. 2 vols. Buenos Aires:
Losada, 1994.
Sucre, Guillermo, ed. Antología de la poesía hispanoamericana moderna. 2
vols. Caracas: Monte Avila, 1993.

ARGENTINA

Resources: Bibliographies, Histories, Anthologies


Benedetti, Héctor Ángel, ed. Las mejores letras de tango: antología de dosci-
entas cincuenta letras, cada una con su historia. Buenos Aires: Seix Barral,
1998.
Berdia, Norberto, ed. Poesía argentina contemporánea [anthology]. Buenos
Aires: Fundacion Argentina para la Poesia, 1978.
Blanco Amores de Pagella, Ángela, ed. Iniciadores del teatro argentino [an-
thology]. Buenos Aires: Ministerio de Cultura y Educación, 1972.
Chávez, Fermín, ed. Historia y antología de la poesía gauchesca. Buenos Ai-
res: Ediciones Margus, 2004.
Fernández, Gerardo, ed. Teatro argentino contemporáneo: antología. Madrid:
Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario, 1992.
Fontanarrosa, Roberto, ed. Cuentos de fútbol argentino [anthology]. Buenos
Aires: Aguilar, Altea, Taurus, Alfaguara, 1997.
Foster, David William. Argentine Literature: A Research Guide. 2nd ed. New
York: Garland, 1982.
Gandolfo, Elvio E., and Eduardo Hojman, eds. El terror argentino: cuentos
[anthology]. Buenos Aires: Alfaguara, 2002.
Jitrik, Noé, ed. Historia critica de la literatura argentina. 11 vols. Buenos
Aires: Emecé, 1999.
Libertella, Héctor, ed. Veinticinco cuentos argentinos del siglo XX: una an-
tología definitiva. Buenos Aires: Perfil, 2002.
Marcó, Susana, ed. Antología del género chico criollo. Buenos Aires: Editorial
Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1976.
Montaldo, G., and G. Nouzeilles, eds. The Argentina Reader. Durham, N.C.:
Duke University Press, 2002.
Ordaz, Luis, ed. Breve historia del teatro argentino [anthology]. Buenos Aires:
Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1962– .

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 537

Pellettieri, Osvaldo. Cien años de teatro argentino (1886–1990): del “Moreira”


a Teatro Abierto. 2nd ed. Buenos Aires: Galerna, 1994.
Prieto, Martín. Breve historia de la literatura argentina. Buenos Aires: Agui-
lar, Altea, Taurus, Alfaguara, 2006.
Rita Gardiol, ed. The Silver Candelabra & Other Stories: A Century of Jew-
ish Argentine Literature. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Latin American Literary Review
Press, 1997.
Salvador, Nélida, ed. Lírica argentina posterior a 1950. Buenos Aires: Instituto
de Literatura Argentina “Ricardo Rojas,” Facultad de Filosofía y Letras,
Universidad de Buenos Aires, 1988.
———, ed. Novela argentina del siglo XX: estudio crítico y bibliografía. Bue-
nos Aires: Ediciones Academia del Sur, 2006.
Salvador, Nélida, et al. Revistas literarias argentinas: 1960–1990: Aporte para
una bibliografía. Buenos Aires: Fundación Inca Seguros, 1996.
Souto, Marcial, ed. La ciencia ficción en la Argentina: antología crítica. Bue-
nos Aires: EUDEBA, 1985.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


CésarAira
Contreras, Sandra. Las vueltas de César Aira. Rosario: Viterbo, 2002.

Juan Bautista Alberdi


Goodrich, Diana Sorensen. “The Wiles of Disputation: Alberdi Reads Fac-
undo.” In Sarmiento: Author of a Nation, edited by Tulio Halperín Donghi,
Iván Jaksic, Gwen Kirkpatrick, and Francine Masiello, 294–313. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1994.
O’Connell, Patrick L. “Peregrinación de luz del día: la desilusión de Juan
Bautista Alberdi.” Acta Literaria 29 (2004): 93–104.

José Álvarez (Fray Mocho)


Rodríguez Pérsico, Adriana. “Fray Mocho, un cronista de los márgenes.” In
Fronteras de la modernidad en América Latina, edited by Hermann Herling-
haus and Mabel Moraña, 111–20. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Instituto Internacional de
Literatura Iberoamericana, University of Pittsburgh, 2003.
Villanueva, Graciela. “Modalidades de la sátira en los cuentos de Fray Mocho.”
In La Satire en Amérique Latine: formes et fonctions. La Satire entre deux

10_479_10_Bibliography1.indd 537 11/4/10 7:38 AM


538 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

siècles, edited by Françoise Aubès and Florence Olivier, I: 75–83. Paris:


Sorbonne Nouvelle, 2007.

Enrique Anderson Imbert


Arancibia, Juana Alcira, ed. Homenaje a Enrique Anderson Imbert. Westmin-
ster, Calif.: Instituto Literario y Cultural Hispánico, 2001.
Hall, Nancy Abraham, and Lanin A. Gyurko, eds. Studies in Honor of Enrique
Anderson Imbert. Newark, Del.: Cuesta, 2003.

Roberto Arlt
Corral, Rose. El obsesivo circular de la ficción: asedios a Los Siete locos y
Los Lanzallamas de Roberto Arlt. México, D.F.: Colegio de México, 1992.
Flint, Jack M. The Prose Works of Roberto Arlt: A Thematic Approach. Dur-
ham, N.C.: University of Durham, 1985.
Gnutzmann, Rita. “Bibliografía de y sobre Roberto Arlt.” Chasqui: Revista de
Literatura Latinoamericana 25, no. 2 (1996): 44–62.
González, H. Arlt, política y locura. Buenos Aires: Colihue, 1996.
Martínez, V. J. The Semiotics of a Bourgeois Society: An Analysis of the Agua-
fuertes porteñas by Roberto Arlt. Potomac, Md.: Scripta Hispánica, 1991.
Pellettieri, Osvaldo, ed. Roberto Arlt: dramaturgia y teatro independiente.
Buenos Aires: Galerna; Fundación Roberto Arlt, 2000.
Zubieta, Ana Maria. El discurso narrativo arltiano, intertextualidad, grotesco
y utopía. Buenos Aires: Hachette, 1987.

Hilario Ascasubi
Sosa de Newton, Lily. Genio y figura de Hilario Ascasubi. Buenos Aires:
Eudeba, 1981.

Jorge Asís
Burgos, N. Jorge Asís: los límites del canon. Buenos Aires: Catálogos, 2001.

Adolfo Bioy Casares


Gallagher, David. “The Novels and Short Stories of Adolfo Bioy Casares.”
Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 52–53 (1975): 247–66.

10_479_10_Bibliography1.indd 538 11/4/10 7:38 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 539

García Muñoz, Gerardo. El sueño creador: Adolfo Bioy Casares, el ABC de la


invención. Chimalistac, México, D.F.: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y
las Artes, 1994.
Levine, Suzanne Jill. Guia de Adolfo Bioy Casares. Madrid: Editorial Funda-
mentos, 1982.
Navascués, Javier de. El esperpento controlado: la narrativa de Adolfo Bioy
Casares. Pamplona: Navarra University Press, 1995.
Ryden, Wendy. “Bodies in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Competing
Discourses of Reality and Representation in Bioy Casares’s The Invention of
Morel.” Atenea 21, nos. 1–2 (2001): 193–207.
Snook, Margaret L. In Search of Self: Gender and Identity in Bioy Casares’
Fantastic Fiction. New York: Peter Lang, 1998.
Tamargo, Maria Isabel. La narrativa de Bioy Casares: El texto como escritura
lectura. Madrid: Playor, 1983.

Jorge Luis Borges


Alazraki, Jaime, ed. Borges and the Kabbalah and Other Essays on His Fiction
and Poetry. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Balderston, Daniel. Out of Context: Historical Reference and the Representa-
tion of Reality in Borges. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993.
Bell-Vilada, Gene H. Borges and His Fiction: A Guide to His Mind and Art.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000.
Costa, René de. Humor in Borges. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University
Press, 2000.
Di Giovanni, Norman Thomas. The Lesson of the Master: On Borges and His
Work. New York: Continuum, 2003.
Friedman, Mary Lusky. The Emperor’s Kites; A Morphology of Borges’ Tales.
Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1987.
Frisch, Mark. You Might Be Able to Get There from Here: Reconsidering
Borges and the Postmodern. Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University
Press, 2004.
Irwin, John T. The Mystery to a Solution: Poe, Borges, and the Analytic Detec-
tive Story. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.
Jenckes, Kate. Reading Borges after Benjamin: Allegory, Afterlife, and the
Writing of History. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007.
Merrell, Floyd. Unthinking Thinking: Jorge Luis Borges, Mathematics, and the
New Physics. West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1991.
Molloy, Sylvia. Signs of Borges. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994.
Sarlo, Beatriz. Jorge Luis Borges: A Writer on the Edge. London: Verso; 1993.
Stabb, Martin S. Borges Revisited. Boston: Twayne. 1991.

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540 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Waisman, Sergio. Borges and Translation: The Irreverence of the Periphery.


Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 2005.
Williamson, Edwin. Borges: A Life. New York: Viking, 2004.

Silvina Bullrich
Balderston, Daniel. “Dos literatos del Proceso: H. Bustos Domecq y Silvina
Bullrich.” Nuevo Texto Crítico 3, no. 1 (1990): 85–93.
Stevens, James R. “Los burgueses of Silvina Bullrich: A Study of Generational
Decadence.” MACLAS: Latin American Essays 2 (1988): 35–39.
Villanueva-Collado, Alfredo. “(Homo)sexualidad y periferia en la novelística
de Marta Brunet y Silvina Bullrich.” In El descubrimiento y los desplaza-
mientos: la literatura hispanoamericana como diálogo entre centros y perif-
erias, edited by Juana Alcira Arancibia, 79–94. Westminster, Calif.: Instituto
Literario y Cultural Hispánico, 1990.

Eugenio Cambaceres
Bazán-Figueras, Patricia. Eugenio Cambaceres: precursor de la novela argen-
tina contemporánea. New York: Peter Lang, 1994.
Cymerman, Claude. Diez estudios cambacerianos acompañados de una bio-
bibliografía. Rouen: Université de Rouen, 1993.
Spicer-Escalante, Juan Pablo. “A Non-Imperial Eye/I: Europe as Contact Zone
in Eugenio Cambaceres’s Música sentimental (1884).” Brújula: Revista
Interdisciplinaria Sobre Estudios Latinoamericanos 3, no. 1 (2004): 53–68.

Estanislao del Campo


Castillo, Carolina. “Para una lectura del Fausto criollo.” Espéculo: Revista de
Estudios Literarios 23 (2003): n.p.
Ginger, Andrew. “Cultural Modernity and Atlantic Perspectives: Estanislao del
Campo’s Fausto (1866) and Its French Contemporaries.” Atlantic Studies:
Literary, Cultural, and Historical Perspectives 4, no. 1 (2007): 27–36.

Haroldo Conti
Restivo, N., and C. Sánchez. Haroldo Conti, con vida. Buenos Aires: Nueva
Imagen, 1986.
Romano, E. Haroldo Conti: Mascaró. Buenos Aires: Hachette, 1986.

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Julio Cortázar
Alazraki, Jaime, Ivar Ivask, and Joaquín Marco, eds. Julio Cortázar: The Final
Island. Norman: University of Oklahama Press, 1978.
Boldy, Steven. The Novels of Julio Cortázar. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1980.
Burgos, Fernando, ed. Los ochenta mundos de Cortázar: ensayos. Madrid:
EDI-6, 1987.
Carter, E. Dale, ed. Otro round: estudios sobre la obra de Julio Cortázar. Sac-
ramento: California State University, 1988.
Goloboff, Mario. Julio Cortázar: la biografía. Buenos Aires: Seix Barral,
1998.
Lastra, Pedro, ed. Julio Cortázar. Madrid: Taurus, 1981.
Peavler, Terry J. Julio Cortázar. Boston: Twayne, 1990.
Rodríguez-Luis, Julio. The Contemporary Praxis of the Fantastic: Borges and
Cortázar. New York: Garland; 1991.
Schmidt-Cruz, Cynthia. Mothers, Lovers, and Others: The Short Stories of
Julio Cortázar. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003.
Tcherepashenets, Nataly. Place and Displacement in the Narrative Worlds of
Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortázar. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.
Yovanovich, Gordana. Julio Cortázar’s Character Mosaic: Reading the Lon-
ger Fiction. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991.

Roberto Cossa
Bulman, Gail A. “Humor and National Catharsis in Roberto Cossa’s El saluda-
dor.” Latin American Theatre Review 36, no. 1 (2002): 5–18.
Ciria, Alberto. “Variaciones sobre la historia argentina en el teatro de Ro-
berto Cossa.” Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispanicos 18, no. 3 (1994):
445–53.
Woodyard, George. “The Theatre of Roberto Cossa: A World of Broken
Dreams.” Bucknell Review: A Scholarly Journal of Letters, Arts and Sci-
ences 40, no. 2 (1996): 94–108.

Francisco Defilipis Novoa


Pelletieri, Osvaldo. “Francisco Defilippis Novoa: Teoría y práctica de la mod-
ernización en los veinte.” Gestos: Teoria y Practica del Teatro Hispanico 5,
no. 10 (1990): 156–60.

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542 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Marco Denevi
Brant, Herbert J. “Camilo’s Closet: Sexual Camouflage in Denevi’s Rosaura
a las diez.” In Bodies and Biases: Sexualities in Hispanic Cultures and Lit-
eratures, edited by David William Foster and Roberto Reis, 203–16. Min-
neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
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BOLIVIA

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Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Alcides Arguedas
Aronna, Michael. “Pueblos enfermos”: The Discourse of Illness in the Turn-
of-the-century Spanish and Latin American Essay. Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina, 1999.
García, Gustavo V. “Raza de bronce: ¿novela de hambrientos?” Neophilologus
87, no. 4 (2003): 575–88.
Pastor, Ricardo. “Bibliography of Alcides Arguedas.” Bolivian Studies 11
(2004): 12–23.
Prada-Oropeza, R. “Presentación critica de Alcides Arguedas.” Texto Critico
1, no. 1 (1995): 217–37.

Domitila Barrios de Chungara


Canonge, Hector A. “Domitila Chungara: Self and Other.” In Beyond Indig-
enous Voices, edited by Mary H. Preuss, 23–29. Lancaster, Calif.: Laby-
rinthos, 1996.
Sanjinés C., Javier. “Beyond Testimonial Discourse: New Popular Trends in
Bolivia.” In The Real Thing: Testimonial Discourse and Latin America,
edited by Georg M. Gugelberger, 254–65. Durham, N.C.: Duke University
Press, 1996.
———. “From Domitila to ‘los relocalizados’: Testimony and Marginality in
Bolivia.” Inti: Revista de Literatura Hispánica 32–33 (1990): 138–47.

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Raúl Botelho Gonsálvez


Muñoz, Willy. “La lanza capitana: texto y contexto.” Gestos: Teoria y Prac-
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Guillermo Francovich
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Caio Fernando Abreu
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Capistrano de Abreu
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Casimiro José Marques de Abreu


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Adonias Filho
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Matias Aires Ramos da Silva de Eça


Simões, Manuel G. “Percursos do Iluminismo em Portugal: Matias Aires e o
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Bernardo Ajzenberg
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José de Alencar
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Valente, Luiz Fernando. “Alencar’s Flawed Blueprints.” In Homenagem a


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Margo Milleret and Marshall C. Eakin, 148–66. Austin, Tex.: Host, 1993.
Wassermann, Renata R. Mautner. “The Red and the White: The ‘Indian’
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Guilherme de Almeida
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Júlia Lopes de Almeida


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Manuel Antônio de Almeida


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Manuel Inácio da Silva Alvarenga


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Francisco Alvim
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Jorge Amado
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Moacir Amâncio
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José de Anchieta
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Carlos Drummond de Andrade


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José Oswald de Sousa Andrade


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João Guimarães Rosa


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Dalton Trevisan
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Caetano Veloso
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Érico Veríssimo
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Luís Fernando Veríssimo


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Antônio Vieira
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Pedro Xisto
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Resources: Bibliographies, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


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Román-Lagunas, Jorge. The Chilean Novel: A Critical Study of Secondary
Sources and a Bibliography. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1995.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Isidora Aguirre
Campo, Alicia del. “Isidora Aguirre (22 March 1919– ).” In Latin American
Dramatists: First Series, edited by Adam Versényi, 3–17. Detroit, Mich.:
Gale, 2005.
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(1991): 17–24.
Flores, Arturo C. “Teatro testimonial: Retablo de Yumbel de Isidora Aguirre.”
Hispanic Journal 12, no. 1 (1991): 123–32.
Versényi, Adam. “Social Critique and Theatrical Power in the Plays of Isidora
Aguirre.” In Latin American Women Dramatists: Theater, Texts, and Theo-
ries, edited by Catherine Larson and Margarita Vargas, 159–77. Blooming-
ton: Indiana University Press, 1998.

Fernando Alegría
Donahue, Moraima de Semprun. Figuras y contrafiguras en la poesía de Fer-
nando Alegria. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Latin American Literary Review Press, 1981.

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Guerra Cunningham, Lucía. “Historia y memoria en la narrativa de Fernando


Alegría.” Revista Chilena de Literatura 48 (1996): 23–38.

Isabel Allende
Castillo de Berchenko, Adriana, and Pablo Berchenko. La narrativa de Isabel
Allende: claves de una marginalidad. Perpignan: Centre de Recherches
Ibériques et Latin-Américaines, Université de Perpignan, 1990.
Cox, Karen Castellucci. Isabel Allende: A Critical Companion. Westport,
Conn.: Greenwood, 2003.
Davies, Lloyd. Isabel Allende: La casa de los espíritus. London: Grant & Cut-
ler, 2000.
Feal, Rosemary G., ed. Isabel Allende Today: An Anthology of Essays. Pitts-
burgh, Pa.: Latin American Literary Review, 2002.
Hart, P. Narrative Magic in the Fiction of Isabel Allende. Cranbury, N.J.: As-
sociated University Presses, 1989.
Levine, Linda Gould. Isabel Allende. New York: Twayne, 2002.
Riquelme Rojas, Sonia, ed. Critical Approaches to Isabel Allende’s Novels.
New York: Peter Lang, 1991.
Rodden, John, ed. Conversations with Isabel Allende. Austin: University of
Texas Press, 2004.

Eduardo Barrios
Davison, Ned J. Eduardo Barrios. New York: Twayne, 1970.
Walker, John. Metaphysics and Aesthetics in the Works of Eduardo Barrios.
London: Tamesis, 1983.

Pía Barros
Bell, Andrea L. “Creating Space in the Margins: Power and Identity in the
Cuentos breves of Pía Barros and Cristina Peri Rossi.” Studies in Short Fic-
tion 33, no. 3 (1996): 345–53.
Pelage, Catherine. “Pia Barros y Diamela Eltit: transgresión y literatura feme-
nina en Chile.” La palabra y el hombre 114 (2000): 59–77.
Trevizán, Liliana. “Pía Barros (1956).” In Escritoras chilenas: novela y cuento,
edited by Patricia Rubio, 579–93. Santiago: Cuarto Propio, 1999.

Alberto Blest Gana


Contreras, Alvaro. “Martín Rivas o la política del amor.” Texto Crítico 7, no.
7 (1998): 83–96.

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Gotschlich R., Guillermo. “Alberto Blest Gana y su novela histórica.” Revista


Chilena de Literatura 38 (1991): 29–58.
———. “Cien años de Durante la reconquista.” Revista Chilena de Literatura
52 (1998): 5–15.

Roberto Bolaño
Bel, Jacqueline, ed. Mémoire et désenchantement chez Juan Gelman et Roberto
Bolaño/Memoria y desencanto en Juan Gelman y Roberto Bolaño. Boulogne
sur Mer: Centre d’Études et de Recherche sur les Civilisations et les Littéra-
tures Européennes, 2007.
Corral, Will H. “Roberto Bolaño: Portrait of the Writer as Noble Savage.”
World Literature Today: A Literary Quarterly of the University of Oklahoma
80, no. 6 (2006): 47–50.
Trelles, Diego. “El lector como detective en Los detectives salvajes de Roberto
Bolaño.” Hispamérica: Revista de Literatura 34, no. 100 (2005): 141–51.

María Luisa Bombal


Agosin, M. S. Las desterradas del paraíso: protagonistas en María Luisa Bom-
bal. New York: Senda Nueva de Ediciones, 1983.
Guerra-Cunningham, L. La narrativa de María Luisa Bombal: una visión de la
existencia femenina. Madrid: Playor, 1980.
Kostopoulos-Cooperman, C. The Lyrical Vision of Maria Luisa Bombal. Lon-
don: Tamesis Books, 1988.

Marta Brunet
Balart Carmona, Carmen. Narrativa chilena femenina: Marta Brunet. Santiago
de Chile: Santillana, 1999.

Augusto D’Halmar
Molloy, Sylvia. “Of Queens and Castanets: Hispanidad, Orientalism, and
Sexual Difference.” In Queer Diasporas, edited by Cindy Patton and
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quetípicas en La pasión y muerte del cura Deusto, por Augusto D’Halmar.”
Chasqui: Revista de Literatura Latinoamericana 25, no. 1 (1996): 3–11.

Jorge Diaz
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Monleon, Jorge, ed. Jorge Diaz. Madrid: Taurus, 1967.
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José Donoso
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South Carolina Press, 1993.
Mandri, F. José Donoso’s “House of Fiction”: A Dramatic Construction of
Time and Place. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1995.
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Swanson, Philip. José Donoso: The “Boom” and Beyond. Liverpool: Francis
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Ariel Dorfman
McClennen, Sophia A. “The Diasporic Subject in Ariel Dorfman’s Heading
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Droguett Carlos
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Joaquín Edwards Bello


Jones, Julie. “The Hero as Flâneur: Edwards Bello’s Criollos en París.” Inti:
Revista de Literatura Hispánica 34–35 (1991–1992): 141–48.
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Jorge Edwards
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Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga


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Ramón Griffero
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Luis Alberto Heiremans


Peden, Margaret Sayers. “The Theater of Luis Alberto Heiremans: 1928–
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Vicente Huidobro
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Enrique Lafourcade
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José Victorino Lastarria


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Travis, Christopher M. Resisting Alienation: The Literary Work of Enrique


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Baldomero Lillo
Román-Lagunas, Jorge. “Bibliografía de y sobre Baldomero Lillo.” Revista
Chilena de Literatura 37 (1991): 141–56.

Germán Luco Cruchaga


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Gabriela Mistral
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Pablo Neruda
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versity Press, 2004.

Marco Antonio de la Parra


Thomas, Charles Philip, ed. The Theatre of Marco Antonio de la Parra: Trans-
lations and Commentary. New York: Peter Lang, 1995.

Nicanor Parra
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Violeta Parra
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Shadow: Portraits of Latin American Women Writers, edited by Marjorie
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Petit Magdalena
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Pedro Prado
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Juan Radrigán
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Gale, 2005.

Ana María del Río


Galarce, Carmen. “Ana María del Río (1948).” In Escritoras chilenas: novela
y cuento, edited by Patricia Rubio, 501–20. Santiago: Cuarto Propio, 1999.

Gonzalo Rojas
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Manuel Rojas
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Pablo de Rokha
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versitaria, 1967.
Lamberg, F. Vida y obra de Pablo de Rokha. Santiago: Zigzag, 1965.
Nómez, Naín. Pablo de Rokha y Pablo Neruda: la escritura total. Santiago and
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Marcela Serrano
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Antonio Skármeta
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huén, 1991.
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1985.
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bro de Manuel,” and “Match Ball.” Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
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Benjamín Subercaseaux
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Chilena: Creacion y Critica 11 (1987): 6–10.

Pedro de Valdivia
Cordero, María de Jesús. The Transformations of Araucania from Valdivia’s
Letters to Vivar’s Chronicle. New York: Peter Lang, 2001.

Egon Wolff
Boyd, Jennifer. “Flores de papel as Criticism: The Artist and the Tradition.”
Latin American Theatre Review 23, no. 2 (1990): 7–12.
Helsper, Norma. “The Ideology of Happy Endings: Wolff’s Mansión de Lechu-
zas.” Latin American Theatre Review 26, no. 2 (1993): 123–30.
Swanson, Philip. “Novel Theatre: Egon Wolff’s Los invasores and the Idea of
the New in Latin-American Drama.” Bulletin of Spanish Studies: Hispanic
Studies and Researches on Spain, Portugal, and Latin America 82, nos. 3–4
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Raúl Zurita
Rowe, William. “Raúl Zurita and American Space.” Indiana Journal of His-
panic Literatures 1, no. 2 (1993): 25–39.
Vela Córdova, Roberto. “Taking On the Chicago Boys: Raúl Zurita’s Poetry
as a Response to Privatization.” In Into the Mainstream: Essays on Spanish
American and Latino Literature and Culture, edited by Jorge Febles, 76–90.
Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2006.
Weintraub, Scott. “Messianism, Teleology, and Futural Justice in Raúl Zurita’s
Anteparaíso.” CR: The New Centennial Review 7, no. 3 (2007): 213–38.

COLOMBIA

Resources: Bibliographies, Histories, Anthologies


Echeverría, Rogelio. Antologia de la poesía colombiana. Bogotá: Editorial
Carlos Valencia Editores, 1992.
España Arenas, Gonzalo, et al. Narrativa de las guerras civiles colombianas
[anthology and criticism]. 5 vols. Bucaramanga: Colombia, Ediciones Uni-
versidad Industrial de Santander, 2003.
Giraldo, Luz Mary. Cuentos caníbales: antología de nuevos narradores colom-
bianos. Bogotá: Alfaguara, 2002.
Gómez Restrepo, Antonio. Historia de la literatura colombiana. 3 vols. Bo-
gotá: Litografía Villegas, 1956–1957.
González Cajiao, Fernando. Teatro colombiano contemporáneo: antología.
Madrid: Fondo de Cultura Económica, Centro de Documentación Teatral,
1992.
Jiménez, David. Antología de la poesía colombiana. Bogotá: Grupo Editorial
Norma, 2005.
———. Historia de la crítica literaria en Colombia. Bogotá: Centro Editorial
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 1992.
Orjuela, Héctor H. Bibliografía del teatro colombiano. Bogotá: Instituto Caro
y Cuervo, 1974.
Porras Collantes, Ernesto. Bibliografía de la novela en Colombia. Bogotá:
Instituto Caro y Cuervo, 1976.
Rodríguez-Arenas, Flor María. Bibliografía de la literatura colombiana del
siglo XIX. 2 vols. Buenos Aires: Stockcero, 2006.
Weiss, Judith A., ed. Colombian Theatre in the Vortex: Seven Plays. Lewis-
burg: Bucknell University Press, 2004.
Williams, Raymond L. The Colombian Novel 1844–1987. Austin: University
of Texas Press, 1991.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 623

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Soledad Acosta de Samper
Alzate, Carolina, and Montserrat Ordóñez, eds. Soledad Acosta de Samper:
escritura, género y nación en el siglo XIX. Frankfurt: Vervuert, 2005.
Ordóñez, Montserrat, ed. Soledad Acosta de Samper: una nueva lectura. Bo-
gotá: Fondo Cultural Cafetero, 1988.

Albalucía Ángel
Betancur, Adriana. “La mujer represora: análisis de los mecanismos femeninos
de represión en Misiá Señora y Estaba la pájara pinta sentada en el verde
limón de Albalucía Ángel.” Divergencias: Revista de Estudios Lingüísticos
y Literarios 5, no. 1 (2007): 61–69.
Osorio de Negret, Betty. “La narrativa de Albalucía Ángel, o la creación de
una identidad femenina.” In Literatura y diferencia: escritoras colombianas
del siglo XX, 2 vols., edited by María Mercedes Jaramillo, Betty Osorio de
Negret, and Ángela Inés Robledo, I: 372–98. Santafé de Bogotá: Uniandes,
1995.
Uribe, Graciela. “El devenir mujer en la propuesta estética de Albalucía Án-
gel.” In Literatura y cultura: narrativa colombiana del siglo XX, 3 vols.,
edited by María Mercedes Jaramillo, Betty Osorio, and Ángela I. Robledo,
III: 204–24. Bogotá: Ministerio de Cultura, 2000.

Gustavo Álvarez Gardeazábal


Williams, Raymond L., ed. Aproximaciones a Gustavo Álvarez Gardeazábal.
Bogotá: Plaza y Janés, 1977.
Zambrano, Jaime, ed. La violencia en Colombia: la ficción de Álvarez
Gardeazábal y el discurso histórico. New York: Peter Lang, 1997.

Germán Arciniegas
Cobo-Borda, Juan Gustavo. Germán Arciniegas: 90 años escribiendo: un in-
tento de bibliografía. Bogotá: Universidad Central/Instituto Colombiano de
Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe, 1990.

Enrique Buenaventura
Kronik, John W. “Enrique Buenaventura in the Context of Spanish American
Theater.” In Studies in Honor of Myron Lichtblau, edited by Fernando Bur-
gos, 185–94. Newark, Del.: Juan de la Cuesta, 2000.

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624 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sosa-Ramírez, Manuel. El Nuevo Teatro español y latinoamericano: un estudio


transatlántico: 1960–1980. Boulder, Colo.: Society of Spanish and Spanish-
American Studies, 2004.
Watson, M. “Enrique Buenaventura’s Theory of Committed Theatre.” Latin
American Theatre Review 9, no. 2 (1976): 43–48.

Fanny Buitrago
Lutes, Leasa Y. Allende, Buitrago, Luiselli: Aproximaciones teóricas al con-
cepto del “Bildungsroman” femenino. New York: Peter Lang, 2000.
Montes Garcés, Elizabeth, ed. El cuestionamiento de los mecanismos de repre-
sentación en la novelística de Fanny Buitrago. New York: Peter Lang, 1997.
Utley, Gregory. “The Development of Subjectivity in Fanny Buitrago’s Señora
de la miel.” Hispanic Journal 25, nos. 1–2 (2004): 131–43.

Eduardo Caballero Calderón


Carrillo S., German D. “El buen salvaje de Caballero Calderon.” Thesaurus:
Boletin del Instituto Caro y Cuervo 28 (1973): 195–223.
Iriarte Núñez, Helena. “Eduardo Caballero Calderón y la historia de los años
cincuenta.” In Literatura y cultura: narrativa colombiana del siglo XX,
3 vols., edited by María Mercedes Jaramillo, Betty Osorio, and Ángela I.
Robledo, I: 280–95. Bogotá: Ministerio de Cultura, 2000.
Levy, Kurt L. “Caballero Calderón: autor en busca de personaje.” In Violencia
y literatura en Colombia, edited by Jonathan Tittler, 129–37. Madrid: Orí-
genes 1989.

Tomás Carrasquilla
Levy, Kurt L. Tomás Carrasquilla. Boston: Twayne, 1980.
Mejía Duque, Jaime. Tomás Carrasquilla. Bogotá: Procultura, 1990.
Rodríguez-Arenas, Flor María, ed. Tomás Carrasquilla: nuevas aproximacio-
nes críticas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia, 2000.

Juan de Castellanos
Restrepo, Luis Fernando. Un nuevo reino imaginado: “Las elegías de varones
ilustres de Indias” de Juan de Castellanos. Bogotá: Instituto Colombiano de
Cultura Hispánica, 1999.
———, ed. Antología crítica de Juan de Castellanos: “Elegías de varones ilus-
tres de Indias.” Bogotá: Pontifica Universidad Javeriana, 2004.

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Madre Castillo
McKnight, Kathryn Joy. The Mystic of Tunja: The Writings of Madre Castillo,
1671–1742. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997.

Germán Castro Caycedo


Aristizábal, Luis H. “Germán Castro Caycedo, del periodismo a la literatura.”
Boletin Cultural y Bibliografico 27, nos. 24–25 (1990): 12–33.

Oscar Collazos
Gómez, Blanca Inés. “Oscar Collazos: novela y autobiografía.” In Literatura
y cultura: narrativa colombiana del siglo XX, 3 vols., edited by María Mer-
cedes Jaramillo, Betty Osorio, and Ángela I. Robledo, I: 641–60. Bogotá:
Ministerio de Cultura, 2000.

Santiago García
Garavito, Lucía. “Santiago García (20 December 1928– ).” In Latin American
Dramatists: First Series, edited by Adam Versényi, 167–83. Detroit, Mich.:
Gale, 2005.

Gabriel García Márquez


Bell, Michael. Gabriel García Márquez: Solitude and Solidarity. London:
Macmillan, 1993.
Bell-Villada, Gene H. Gabriel García Márquez: The Man and His Work.
Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990.
———, ed. Conversations with Gabriel García Márquez. Jackson: University
Press of Mississippi, 2006.
———. Gabriel García Márquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude”: A Case-
book. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Fahy, Thomas. Gabriel García Márquez’s “Love in the Time of Cholera”: A
Reader’s Guide. New York: Continuum, 2003.
González, Nelly S. Bibliographic Guide to Gabriel García Márquez, 1992–
2002. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003.
Hart, Stephen M. Gabriel García Márquez: “Crónica de una muerte anun-
ciada.” London: Grant and Cutler, 1994.
Martin, Gerald. Gabriel García Márquez: A life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
2009.

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Oberhelman, Harley D. Gabriel García Márquez: A Study of the Short Fiction.


Boston: Twayne, 1991.
Pelayo, Rubén, ed. Gabriel García Márquez: A Critical Companion. Westport,
Conn.: Greenwood, 2001.
Penuel, Arnold M. Intertextuality in García Márquez. New York: Spanish
Literature Publications, 1994.
Sims, Robert L. The First García Márquez: A Study of His Journalistic Writing
from 1948 to 1955. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1992.
Valdés, María Elena de, ed. Approaches to Teaching García Márquez’s “One
Hundred Years of Solitude.” New York: Modern Language Association of
America, 1990.

León de Greiff
Pino del Rosario, Mari. “León de Greiff (22 July 1895–11 July 1976).” In
Modern Spanish American Poets: First Series, edited by María A. Salgado,
125–32. Detroit, Mich.: Gale, 2003.

Jorge Isaacs
Fabre-Maldonado, Niza. Americanismos, indigenismos, neologismos y cre-
ación literaria en la obra de Jorge Icaza. Ecuador: Abrapalabra, 1993.
Magnarelli, Sharon. The Lost Rib: Female Characters in the Spanish American
Novel. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1985.
McGrady, Donald. Jorge Isaacs. New York: Twayne, 1972.
Sommer, Doris, Foundational Fictions: The National Romances of Latin
America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.

Luis Carlos López


Zubiría, Ramón de. “Aproximación a Luis Carlos López.” Thesaurus: Boletín
del Instituto Caro y Cuervo 47, no. 2 (1992): 368–82.

Rafael Maya
Mejía Velilla, D. “Recordando la poesía de Rafael Maya.” Boletín de la Aca-
demia Colombiana 47, nos. 29–32 (1997): 29–32.

Manuel Mejía Vallejo


Corbatta, Jorgelina. “Recordando a Manuel Mejía Vallejo: el hombre y su
obra.” In Literatura y cultura: narrativa colombiana del siglo XX, 3 vols.,

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 627

edited by María Mercedes Jaramillo, Betty Osorio, and Ángela I. Robledo,


I: 367–83. Bogotá: Ministerio de Cultura, 2000.
Williams, Raymond L. “Manuel Mejía Vallejo (23 April 1923– ).” In Mod-
ern Latin-American Fiction Writers: First Series, edited by William Luis,
214–20. Detroit, Mich.: Gale, 1992.

Álvaro Mutis
García Aguilar, Eduardo. Celebraciones y otros fantasmas: una biografía in-
telectual de Álvaro Mutis. Bogotá: T-M Editores, 1993.
Hernández, Consuelo. Alvaro Mutis: una estética del deterioro. Caracas:
Monte Avila, 1996.
Mutis Durán, Santiago, ed. Álvaro Mutis: de lecturas y algo del mundo (1943–
1997). Barcelona: Seix Barral, 2000.
Quiroz, Fernando. El reino que estaba para mí: conversaciones con Álvaro
Mutis. Barcelona: Grupo Editorial Norma, 1993.

Rafael Núñez
Miramón, Alberto. La angustia creadora en Núñez y Pombo. Bogotá: Caro y
Cuervo, 1975.

William Ospina
Araújo Fontalvo, Orlando. “Ursúa: ficción e historia de una nueva crónica de
Indias.” Espéculo: Revista de Estudios Literarios 35 (2007): n.p.
Barreras del Rio, C. “William Ospina o el placer de la lectura.” Revista del
ateneo puertorriqueño 6, nos. 16–18 (1996): 296–313.

José Eustasio Rivera


Núñez-Faraco, Humberto. “Magical-realist Elements in José Eustasio Rivera’s
The Vortex.” In A Companion to Magical Realism, edited by Stephen M.
Hart and Wen-Chin Ouyang, 114–22. Woodbridge: Tamesis, 2005.
Ordóñez, M., ed. La vorágine: textos críticos. Bogotá: Alianza Editorial, 1987.
Peña Gutiérrez, I. Breve historia de José Eustasio Rivera. Bogotá: Ed. Magis-
terio, 1988.
Perus, Françoise. De selvas y selváticos: ficción autobiográfica y poética
narrativa en Jorge Isaacs y José Eustasio Rivera. Bogotá: Plaza & Janés,
1998.

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628 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Juan Rodríguez Freyle


Folger, Robert. “Cien años de burocracia: El carnero de Juan Rodríguez
Freyle.” Iberoromania 58 (2003): 49–61.
Hermosilla, Luis. “Los contratos narrativos en El carnero de Juan Rodríguez
Freyle.” Symposium: A Quarterly Journal in Modern Literatures 52, no. 3
(1998): 131–41.
Rodríguez-Arenas, Flor María. “Los ‘casos’ de El carnero, o la retórica en la
escritura de la historia colonial santafereña.” Revista Iberoamericana 65, no.
186 (1999): 149–69.

José Asunción Silva


Cobo Borda, Juan Gustavo, ed. Leyendo a Silva. Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cu-
ervo, 1997.
LoDato, Rosemary C. Beyond the Glitter: The Language of Gems in Moderni-
sta Writers Rubén Darío, Ramón del Valle-Inclán, and José Asunción Silva.
Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1999.

Guillermo Valencia
Espinosa, G. Guillermo Valencia. Bogotá: Procultura, 1989.
Karsen, S. Guillermo Valencia, Colombian Poet. New York: Hispanic Institute,
1951.

Fernando Vallejo
DuPouy, Steven M. “Fernando Vallejo.” In Latin American Writers on Gay
and Lesbian Themes, edited by David William Foster, 439–43. Westport,
Conn: Greenwood Press, 1994.
Fernández L’Hoeste, Héctor D. “La virgen de los sicarios o las visiones dant-
escas de Fernando Vallejo.” Hispania 83, no. 4 (2000): 757–67.
Jaramillo, María Mercedes. “Fernando Vallejo: desacralización y memoria.” In
Literatura y cultura: narrativa colombiana del siglo XX, 3 vols., edited by
María Mercedes Jaramillo, Betty Osorio, and Ángela I. Robledo, I: 407–39.
Bogotá: Ministerio de Cultura, 2000.

José María Vargas Vila


Escobar Uribe, A. El divino Vargas Vila. Bogotá: Ediciones Tercer Mundo,
1968.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 628 11/4/10 7:39 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 629

Guerrieri, Kevin G. Palabra, poder y nación: la novela moderna en Colombia


de 1896 a 1927. Ciudad Juárez: Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez;
2004.
Triviño Anzola, C. El sentido trágico de la vida en la obra de Vargas Vila.
Madrid: Ediciones de la Universidad Complutense, 1988.

Jorge Zalamea
Chehade Durán, Nayla. “Jorge Zalamea en el panorama literario colombiano.”
In Literatura y cultura: narrativa colombiana del siglo XX, 3 vols., edited by
María Mercedes Jaramillo, Betty Osorio, and Ángela I. Robledo, I: 257–79.
Bogotá: Ministerio de Cultura, 2000.

Juan Zapata Olivella


Rodríguez-Martínez, Patricia. “Juan Zapata Olivella, el ‘guerrero de lo imagi-
nario’ colombiano.” In “Chambacú, la historia la escribes tú”: ensayos
sobre cultura afrocolombiana, edited by Lucía Ortiz, 103–32. Frankfurt:
Vervuert, 2007.

Manuel Zapata Olivella


Captain-Hidalgo, Y. The Culture of Fiction in the Works of Manuel Zapata
Olivella. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1993.
Lewis, M. A. Treading the Ebony Path: Ideology and Violence in Contem-
porary Afro-Colombian Prose Fiction. Columbia: University of Missouri
Press, 1987.
Tillis, Antonio D. Manuel Zapata Olivella and the “Darkening of Latin Ameri-
can Literature.” Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2005.

COSTA RICA

Resources: Histories, Anthologies


Alfonso Chase, ed. El amor en la poesía costarricense [anthology]. San José:
Editorial Costa Rica, 2000.
Baeza Flores, Alberto. Evolución de la poesía costarricense, 1954–1977. San
José: Editorial Costa Rica, 1978.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 629 11/4/10 7:39 AM


630 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bell, Carolyn, and Patricia Fumero, eds. Drama contemporáneo costarricense,


1980–2000 [anthology]. San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica,
2000.
Bonilla, Abelardo. Historia y antología de la literatura costarricense. 2 vols.
San José: Editorial Universitaria, 1957–1961.
Duncan, Quince, et al. Historia crítica de la narrativa costarricense. San José:
Editorial Costa Rica, 1995.
Garnier, Leonor, ed. Antología femenina del ensayo costarricense. San José:
Ministerio de Cultura, Juventud y Deportes, 1976.
González, Jézer, ed. Antología del relato costarricense, 1930–1970. San José:
Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, 2000.
Menton, Seymour. El cuento costarricense. México, D.F.: Andrea, 1964.
Quesada Soto, Alvaro. La formación de la narrativa nacional costarricense.
San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, 1986.
Sandoval de Fonseca, Virginia. Resumen de literatura costarricense. San José:
Editorial Costa Rica, 1978.
Sotelo, Rogelio. Literatura costarricense: antología y biografías. San José:
Librería e Imprenta Lehmann, 1927.
Valdeperas, Jorge. Para una nueva interpretación de la literatura costarri-
cense. San José: Editorial Costa Rica, 1979.
Zúñiga Díaz, Francisco. El soneto en la poesía costarricense [anthology]. San
José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, 1979.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Quince Duncan
Martin-Ogunsola, Dellita. The Eve/Hagar Paradigm in the Fiction of Quince
Duncan. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2004.
Mosby, Dorothy E. Place, Language, and Identity in Afro-Costa Rican Litera-
ture. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003.

Carlos Luis Fallas


Rojas Pérez, Walter. Costa Rica violada: el caso de “Mamita Yunai.” San José:
Editorial Porvenir; 2006.

Manuel González Zeledón


Amoretti Hurtado, María. Magón . . . : la irresistible seducción del discurso.
San José: Perro Azul, 2002.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 630 11/4/10 7:39 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 631

Carmen Lyra
Horan, Elizabeth Rosa, ed. The Subversive Voice of Carmen Lyra: Selected
Works. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000.

José Marín Cañas


Quesada Soto, Alvaro. “Experimentación discursiva e hibridación genérica en
El infierno verde.” Revista de Filología y Lingüística de la Universidad de
Costa Rica 24, no. 1 (1998): 7–22.

Carmen Naranjo
Martínez, Luz Ivette. Carmen Naranjo y la narrativa femenina en Costa Rica.
San José: EDUCA, 1987.
Nelson, Ardis L. “Carmen Naranjo and Costa Rican Culture.” In Reinterpreting
the Spanish American Essay: Women Writers of the 19th and 20th Centuries,
edited by Doris Meyer, 177–87. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995.

Eunice Odio
Chen Sham, Jorge, ed. La palabra innumerable: Eunice Odio ante la crítica.
San José: Universidad de Costa Rica, Instituto Literario y Cultural His-
pánico, 2001.

Yolanda Oreamuno
Gold, Janet. “Feminine Space and the Discourse of Silence: Yolanda Orea-
muno, Elena Poniatowska, and Luisa Valenzuela.” In In the Feminine Mode:
Essays on Hispanic Women Writers, edited by Noël Valis and Carol Maier,
195–203. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1990.
Gold, Janet N. “Yolanda Oreamuno: The Art of Passionate Engagement.” In
Reinterpreting the Spanish American Essay: Women Writers of the 19th and
20th Centuries, edited by Doris Meyer, 157–66. Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1995.
Russotto, Márgara. “Propuestas de cultura: visiones de Costa Rica en las escri-
toras de la modernidad centroamericana (Yolanda Oreamuno, Eunice Odio,
Carmen Naranjo).” Revista Iberoamericana 71, no. 210 (2005): 177–88.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 631 11/4/10 7:39 AM


632 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

ECUADOR

Resources: Bibliographies, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Ansaldo Briones, C., ed. Antología del cuento ecuatoriano. Guayaquil: Univer-
sidad Católica Santiago de Guayaquil/Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar,
1993.
Barrera, Isaac J. Historia de la literatura ecuatoriana. Quito: Libresa, 1979.
Donoso Pareja, Miguel, ed. Antología de narradoras ecuatorianas. Quito:
Libresa, 1997.
Jaramillo, G. Indice de la narrativa ecuatoriana. Quito: Editora Nacional,
1992.
López de Martínez, Adelaida, and Gloria da Cunha-Giabbai, eds. Narradoras
ecuatorianas de hoy. San Juan: Universidad de Puerto Rico, 2000.
Luzuriaga, Gerardo. Bibliografia del teatro ecuatoriano 1900–1982. Quito:
Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, 1984.
Ribadeneira, Edmundo. La moderna novela ecuatoriana. Quito: Editorial Uni-
versitaria, 1981.
Rodríguez Castelo, Hernán, ed. Lírica ecuatoriana contemporánea. 2 vols.
Quito, Ecuador: Círculo de Lectores, 1979.
Sacoto, Antonio. La novela ecuatoriana, 1970–2000. Quito: Minsterio de Edu-
cación y Cultura, 2000.
Vallejo, Raúl. Cuento ecuatoriano de finales del siglo XX. Quito: Libresa,
1999.
Vera, Pedro Jorge. Antología de autores ecuatorianos: cuentos. Quito: Edicio-
nes Indoamericanas, 1980.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Jorge Enrique Adoum
Martínez, Pablo. “Strategies of (Re)presentation in the New Ecuadorian Novel:
Between Marx and a Naked Woman and the Aesthetics of Violence.” New
Novel Review: Nueva Novela/Nouveau Roman Review 3, no. 1 (1995):
83–106.
Martínez Arévalo, Pablo. Jorge Enrique Adoum: ideología, estética e historia
(1944–1990). Lexington: University of Kentucky, 1990.
O’Bryan-Knight, Jean. “Love, Death, and Other Complications in Jorge
Enrique Adoum’s Ciudad sin ángel.” Hispanic Journal 20, no. 2 (1999):
291–309.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 632 11/4/10 7:39 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 633

Demetrio Aguilera Malta


Fama, Anthony. Realismo mágico en la narrativa de Aguilera Malta. Madrid:
Playor, 1978.
Heise, Karl H. El grupo de Guayaquil: arte y técnica de sus novelas sociales.
Madrid: Playor, 1975.
Luzuriaga, Gerardo A. Del realismo al expresionismo: el teatro de Aguilera
Malta. Madrid: Ediciones Plaza Mayor, 1971.

Jorge Carrera Andrade


Córdova, H. Itinerario poético de Jorge Carrera Andrade. Quito: Casa de la
Cultura Ecuatoriana, 1986.
Gleaves, Robert M. “The Reaffirmation of Analogy: An Introduction to Jorge
Carrera Andrade’s Metaphoric System.” Confluencia: Revista Hispánica de
Cultura y Literatura 10, no. 1 (1994): 33–41.
Muñoz, Gabriel Trujillo. “Aurosia, the Utopian Planet: Jorge Carrera An-
drade’s Latin American Vision.” New York Review of Science Fiction 17
(2004): 4–6.
Ojeda, E. Jorge Carrera Andrade: introducción al estudio de su vida y su obra.
New York: Eliseo Torres, 1971.

José de la Cuadra
Carrión de Fierro, F. José de la Cuadra, precursor del realismo mágico. Quito:
Ediciones de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, 1993.
Robles, Humberto E. Testimonio y tendencia mítica en la obra de José de la
Cuadra. Quito: Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, 1976.
Ween, Lori. “Family Sagas of the Americas: Los sangurimas and A Thousand
Acres.” The Comparatist: Journal of the Southern Comparative Literature
Association 20 (1996): 111–25.
Wishnia, Kenneth. “Ideology, Orality and Colonization: The Translation
of José de la Cuadra’s Los sangurimas (1934).” Meta: Journal des Tra-
ducteurs/Translators’ Journal 40, no. 1 (1995): 24–30.

Nelson Estupiñán Bass


Richards, Henry J. “Mimesis of Product and Process in Nelson Estupiñán
Bass’s Senderos brillantes.” Discurso: Revista de Estudios Iberoamericanos
10, no. 1 (1992): 119–35.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 633 11/4/10 7:39 AM


634 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

———. “Nelson Estupiñán Bass and the Historico-Political Novel: From The-
ory to Praxis.” Afro-Hispanic Review 21, nos. 1–2 (2002): 144–53.

Joaquín Gallegos Lara


Pérez, G. R. “Tres narradores de la costa del Ecuador.” Revista Interamericana
de Bibliografía 20 (1970): 169–90.

Enrique Gil Gilbert


Pérez, G. R. “Tres narradores de la costa del Ecuador.” Revista Interamericana
de Bibliografía 20 (1970): 169–90.

Jorge Icaza
Chalupa, Federico. “The Ecuadorian City and Modernity: Jorge Icaza’s Quito.”
In The Image of the City in Literature, Media, and Society, edited by Will
Wright and Steven Kaplan, 149–53. Pueblo: Society for the Interdisciplinary
Study of Social Imagery, University of Southern Colorado, 2003.
Cueva, Agustín. Jorge Icaza. Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de America Latina,
1968.
Fabre-Maldonado, Niza. Americanismos, indigenismos, neologismos y cre-
ación literaria en la obra de Jorge Icaza. Ecuador: Abrapalabra, 1993.
Foote, Deborah C. “Survival of the Fittest: Animal Imagery in Jorge Icaza’s
Huasipungo and the Reader’s Perception of the Indian.” In Beyond Indig-
enous Voices, edited by Mary H. Preuss, 139–42. Lancaster, Calif.: Laby-
rinthos, 1996.
Lorente Medina, Antonio, La narrativa menor de Jorge Icaza. Valladolid,
Spain: Universidad de Valladolid, 1980.
Mafla-Bustamante, Cecilia. “A Study of the English Translation of Jorge
Icaza’s Huasipungo.” In The Knowledges of the Translator: From Literary
Interpretation to Machine Classification, edited by Malcolm Coulthard and
Patricia Anne Odber de Baubeta, 259–78. Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen, 1996.

Juan León Mera


Guevara, Darío O. Juan León Mera o el hombre de cimas. Quito: Ministerio de
Educación Pública, 1944.
Padrón, Ricardo. “Cumandá and the Cartographers: Nationalism and Form in
Juan Leon Mera.” Annals of Scholarship: An International Quarterly in the
Humanities and Social Sciences 12, nos. 3–4 (1998): 217–34.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 634 11/4/10 7:39 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 635

Sacoto, Anthony. The Indian in the Ecuadorian Novel. New York: Las Améri-
cas, 1967.
Sommer, Doris. Foundational Fictions: The National Romances of Latin
America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.

Juan Montalvo
Lander, María Fernanda. “Héroes y corruptos en Las Catilinarias de Juan Mon-
talvo.” Colorado Review of Hispanic Studies 4 (2006): 205–20.
Ochoa Penroz, Marcela. “Juan Montalvo: una reescritura del Quijote en
América.” Inti: Revista de Literatura Hispánica 46–47 (1997–1998): 57–70.

José Joaquín Olmedo


Conway, Christopher. “Gender, Empire and Revolution in La victoria de
Junín.” Hispanic Review 69, no. 3 (2001): 299–317.

Adalberto Ortiz
Cyrus, Stanley A. “Ethnic Ambivalence and Afro-Hispanic Novelists.” Afro-
Hispanic Review 21, nos. 1–2 (2002): 185–89.
Handelsman, Michael. “Las contradicciones ineludibles del ‘no-racismo’ ecua-
toriano: a propósito de Juyungo como artefacto de la diáspora afroameri-
cana.” Chasqui: Revista de Literatura Latinoamericana 27, no. 1 (1998):
79–91.

Pablo Palacio
Donoso Pareja, M., ed. Pablo Palacio: Valoración múltiple. Havana: Centro de
Investigaciones Literarias, Casa de las Américas, 1987.
Manzoni, C. El mordisco imaginario: crítica de la crítica en Pablo Palacio.
Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblos, 1994.
Martinez, E. Before the Boom: Latin American Revolutionary Novels of the
1920s. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2001.

Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco


Handelsman, Michael. “‘Baldomera’ y la tra(d)ición del órden patriarcal.” Inti:
Revista de Literatura Hispánica 40–41 (1994–1995): 195–205.
Ribadeneira, E. “La obra narrativa de Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco.” Revista
Iberoamericana 54, nos. 144–145 (1988): 763–69.

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636 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ángel Felicísimo Rojas


Calderón Chico, C. Tres maestros: Ángel F. Rojas, Adalberto Ortiz y Leopoldo
Benites Vinueza se cuentan a sí mismos. Guayaquil: Casa de la Cultura,
1991.

Pedro Jorge Vera


Martul Tobio, Luis. “La construcción del dictador populista en El pueblo soy
yo.” Revista Iberoamericana 58, no. 159 (1992): 489–500.
Robles, Isabel. “Entre la politica y la literatura: las novelas de Pedro Jorge
Vera.” Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos: Revista Mensual de Cultura His-
pánica 328 (1977): 130–43.

Alicia Yáñez Cossío


Angulo, María-Elena. “Ideologeme of ‘mestizaje’ and Search for Cultural
Identity in Bruna, soroche y los tíos by Alicia Yáñez Cossío.” Translation
Perspectives 6 (1991): 205–13.
Gladhart, Amalia. “Padding the Virgin’s Belly: Articulations of Gender and
Memory in Alicia Yáñez Cossío’s La cofradía del mullo del vestido de la
Virgen Pipona.” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 74, no. 2 (1997): 235–44.
Handelsman, Michael. “En busca de una mujer nueva: rebelión y resistencia
en Yo vendo unos ojos negros de Alicia Yáñez Cossío.” Revista Iberoameri-
cana 144–45 (1988): 893–901.
Saine, Ute Margaret. “Female Representation and Feminine Mystique in Ali-
cia Yáñez Cossío’s ‘La mujer es un mito.’” Letras Femeninas 26, nos. 1–2
(2000): 63–79.

EL SALVADOR

Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Argueta, Manlio, ed. Poesia de El Salvador [anthology]. San José: Editorial
Universitaria Centroamericana, 1983.
Escobar Galindo, David. Indice de la poesía salvadoreña. 2nd ed. San Salva-
dor: UCA Editores, 1987.
Guillén, Orlando, ed. Hombres como madrugadas: la poesía de El Salvador
[anthology]. Barcelona: Antropos, 1985.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 636 11/4/10 7:39 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 637

Jaramillo Levi, Enrique, and Leland H. Chambers. Contemporary Short Stories


from Central America. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.
Rodríguez Díaz, Rafael. Temas salvadoreños. San Salvador: UCA Editores,
1992.
Yanes, Gabriela, ed. Mirrors of War: Literature and Revolution in El Salvador.
London: Zed Books, 1985.

Select Bibliography for Specific Authors


Claribel Alegría
Aparicio, Yvette. “Reading Social Consciousness in Claribel Alegría’s Early
Poetry.” Cincinnati Romance Review 18 (1999): 1–6.
Boschetto-Sandoval, Sandra M., ed. Claribel Alegría and Central American
Literature: Critical Essays. Athens: Ohio University Center for European
Studies, 1994.
Coronel Utrecho, José. Líneas para un boceto de Claribel Alegría. Managua:
Nueva Nicaragua, 1989.
Craft, Linda J. Novels of Testimony and Resistance from Central America.
Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997.
McGowan, Marcia Phillips. “The Poetry of Claribel Alegría: A Testament of
Hope.” Latin American Literary Review 32, no. 64 (2004): 5–28.
Treacy, Mary Jane. “A Politics of the Word: Claribel Alegría’s Album familiar
and Despierta, mi bien, despierta.” Intertexts 1, no. 1 (1997): 62–77.
Velásquez, Antonio. Las novelas de Claribel Alegría: historia, sociedad, y (re)
visión de la estética literaria centroamericana. New York: Peter Lang, 2002.

Arturo Ambrogi
Burns, E. Bradford. “Una visita al pasado con Arturo Ambrogi.” Américas 35,
no. 5 (1983): 12–13.
Tinajero, Araceli. “Viajeros modernistas en Asia.” Ciberletras 4 (2001): n.p.

Manlio Argueta
Anderson, Robert K. “Manlio Argueta: A ‘Committed’ Third World Author.”
South Eastern Latin Americanist 43, nos. 1–2 (1999): 38–49.
Bencastro, Mario. “El Salvador’s Poet of Recovery.” Américas 53, no. 2
(2001): 48–51.
Chanady, Amaryll. “Excentric Positionalities: Mimicry and Changing Con-
structions of the Centre in the Americas.” In How Far Is America from

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 637 11/4/10 7:39 AM


638 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Here?, edited by Theo D’haen, Paul Giles, Djelal Kadir, and Lois Parkinson
Zamora, 233–46. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2005.
Craft, Linda J. Novels of Testimony and Resistance from Central America.
Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997.
Ibsen, Kristine. “Biblical Rhetoric and Social Justice in Un día en la vida.”
Hispanic Journal 22, no. 2 (2001): 447–53.

Roque Dalton
Aparicio, Yvette. “Literary Convention and Revolution in Roque Dalton’s Ta-
berna y otros lugares.” Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 32, nos. 1–2 (2005):
169–81.
Harlow, Barbara. “Testimonio and Survival: Roque Dalton’s Miguel Mármol.”
In The Real Thing: Testimonial Discourse and Latin America, edited by
Georg M. Gugelberger, 70–83. Durham: Duke University Press, 1996.
Lindo-Fuentes, Héctor. Remembering a Massacre in El Salvador: The Insur-
rection of 1932, Roque Dalton, and the Politics of Historical Memory. Al-
buquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007.
Seager, Dennis L. “Heteroglossia and Voice in the Poetry of Roque Dalton.”
Readerly/Writerly Texts: Essays on Literature, Literary/Textual Criticism,
and Pedagogy 3, no. 1 (1995): 179–91.

Francisco Gavidia
Brenner, Michael Gardner. “Francisco Gavidia: Foundation Stone of Salva-
dorean Culture.” In Studies in Language and Literature, edited by Charles
Nelson, 87–89. Richmond: Department of Foreign Languages, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, 1976.
Guevara, Rigoberto. “Inconformismo y reforma en la poesía de Francisco Ga-
vidia.” Crítica Hispánica 29, nos. 1–2 (2007): 151–63.

Claudia Lars
Gómez Lance, Betty Rita. “Dualidad de mundos en la poesía de Claudia Lars.”
Káñina: Revista de Artes y Letras de la Universidad de Costa Rica 5, no. 1
(1981): 77–82.
Perricone, Catherine R. “The Poetic Character of Claudia Lars.” Circulo: Re-
vista de Cultura 9 (1980): 47–55.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 638 11/4/10 7:39 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 639

Umanzor, Marta A. “El modernismo en El Salvador: la poética de Claudia


Lars.” In Delmira Agustini y el Modernismo: nuevas propuestas de género,
edited by Tina Escaja, 165–74. Rosario, Argentina: Viterbo, 2000.

Hugo Lindo
Alcides Paredes, Jorge “Una lectura bajtiniana de ¡Justicia, Señor Goberna-
dor! de Hugo Lindo.” Ixquic: Revista Hispánica Internacional de Análisis y
Creación 6 (2005): 32–46.
Miller, Elizabeth Gamble. “Retracing the Translation Process: Hugo Lindo’s
‘Only the Voice.’” Translation Review 7 (1981): 32–40.

Salarrué (pseudonym of Salvador Salazar Arrué)


Acevedo, Ramón Luis. La novela centroamericana. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico:
Editorial Universitaria, 1982.
Boland, Roy C. “Un poema de Salarrué inspirado por García Lorca.” Cultura:
Revista del Ministerio de Educación de El Salvador 68–69 (1980): 188–91.
López Vallecillos, Italo. “El realismo mágico en Cuentos de barro.” Cultura:
Revista del Ministerio de Educación de El Salvador 68–69 (1980): 183–87.
Navascués, Javier de. “Sobre conejos sandiyeros y otras zarandajas: el mi-
crocuento en Salarrué.” RILCE: Revista de Filología Hispánica 16, no. 3
(2000): 625–37.

GUATEMALA

Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Albizúrez Palma, Francisco. Grandes momentos de la literatura guatemalteca.
Guatemala: Editorial José de Pineda Ibarra, 1983.
———, and Catalina Barrios. Historia de la literatura guatemalteca. 3 vols.
Guatemala: Editorial Universitaria, 1981–1987.
Liano, Dante. Ensayos de literatura guatemalteca. Rome: Bulzoni, 1992.
López, Carlos. Diccionario bio-bibliográfico de literatos guatemaltecos.
México: Editorial Praxis, 1993.
Lorand de Olazagasti, Adelaida. El indio en la narrativa guatemalteca. San
Juan: Editorial Universitaria, 1968.
Méndez de la Vega, Luz. Flor de varia poesía: poetas humanistas. Guatemala:
Editorial José de Pineda Ibarra, 1978.

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640 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Menton, Seymour. Historia crítica de la novela guatemalteca. Guatemala:


Editorial Universitaria, 1960.
Zimmerman, Marc. Literature and Resistance in Guatemala: Textual Modes
and Cultural Politics from “El señor Presidente” to Rigoberta Menchú. 2
vols. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1995.
———, and Raúl Rojas, eds. Voices from the Silence: Guatemalan Literature
of Resistance [anthology]. Athens: Ohio University Center for International
Studies, 1998.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Rafael Arevalo Martínez
Callan, Richard J. “Archetypes in Stories by Rafael Arévalo Martínez.” Crítica
Hispánica 17, no. 2 (1995): 293–301.
Klein, Dennis A. “The Supernatural Elements in Selected Stories of Rafael
Arévalo Martínez.” Monographic Review/Revista Monografica 4 (1988):
60–68.
Liano, Dante. Rafael Arévalo Martínez, fuentes europeas, lengua y estilo.
Rome: Bulzoni, 1992.
Rosser, Harry L. “Reflections in an Equine Eye: Arévalo Martínez’ ‘Psycho-
Zoology.’” Latin American Literary Review 14, no. 28 (1986): 21–30.
Salgádo, María A. Rafael Arévalo Martínez. Boston: Twayne, 1979.

Miguel Ángel Asturias


Callan, Richard J. Miguel Ángel Asturias. New York: Twayne, 1970.
Giacoman, Helmy F., ed. Homenaje a Miguel Ángel Asturias: variaciones in-
terpretativas en torno a su obra. New York: Las Américas, 1971.
Leal, Luis. Myth and Social Realism in Miguel Ángel Asturias. Urbana: Uni-
versity of Illinois Press, 1968.
Moore, Richard E. Miguel Ángel Asturias: A Checklist of Works and Criticism.
New York: American Institute for Marxist Studies, 1979.
Preble-Niemi, Oralia, ed. Cien años de magia: ensayos críticos sobre la obra
de Miguel Ángel Asturias. Guatemala: F & G, 2006.
Prieto, René. Miguel Ángel Asturias’s Archaeology of Return. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Rodríguez, Teresita. La problemática de la identidad en El Señor Presidente de
Miguel Ángel Asturias. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989.
Royano Gutiérrez, Lourdes. Las novelas de Miguel Ángel Asturias desde la
teoría de la recepción. Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid, 1993.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 641

Luis Cardoza y Aragón


Arias, Arturo. “Consideraciones en torno al género y la génesis de Guatemala,
las líneas de su mano.” Tragaluz 2, no. 15 (1987): 24–28.
Mejía, José. “Los últimos poemas de Luis Cardoza y Aragón.” Cuadernos
Americanos 193 (1974): 185–203.
Rodríguez, Francisco. “La poética en Luis Cardoza y Aragón.” Káñina: Revista
de Artes y Letras de la Universidad de Costa Rica 23, no. 2 (1999): 37–46.
Serrata Córdova, José Eduardo. “El ensayo de Luis Cardoza y Aragón: una
escritura heterodoxa.” Remate de Males 16 (1996): 77–79.

Hugo Carrillo
Durán-Cogan, Mercedes F. “Instancias de poder en El corazón del espantapá-
jaros de Hugo Carrillo.” Gestos: Teoría y Práctica del Teatro Hispánico 11,
no. 22 (1996): 87–104.
———. “La puesta en escena como subversión en una obra de Hugo Carillo.”
Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 25, no. 1 (2000): 151–68.

Otto René Castillo


Hernandez Novas, Raul. “Otto René Castillo: la patria peregrina.” Casa de las
Americas 108 (1978): 4–10.
Iffland, James. “Ideologías de la muerte en la poesía de Otto René Castillo.”
Ideologies and Literature: Journal of Hispanic and Lusophone Discourse
Analysis 4, no. 1 (1989): 95–148.

Manuel Galich
Márceles Daconte, Eduardo. “Manuel Galich: la identidad del teatro latino-
americano.” Latin American Theatre Review 17, no. 2 (1984): 55–63.
Peña Gutiérrez, Isaísa. “Manuel Galich: entre la historia y el teatro latinoameri-
canos.” Conjunto: Revista de Teatro Latinoamericano 114–115 (1999):
3–11.
Westlake, E. J. “Performing the Nation in Manuel Galich’s El tren amarillo.”
Latin American Theatre Review 31, no. 2 (1998): 107–17.

Enrique Gómez Carrillo


Bauzá Echeverría, Nellie. Las novelas decadentistas de Enrique Gómez Car-
rillo. Madrid, Spain: Pliegos, 1999.

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642 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bujaldón de Estevez, Lila. “El modernismo, el Japón y Enrique Gómez Car-


rillo.” Revista de Literaturas Modernas 31 (2001): 53–72.
González, Aníbal. La crónica modernista hispanoamericana. Madrid: Porrúa
Turanzas, 1983.

Flavio Herrera
Felker, William. “Flavio Herrera: A Bibliography.” Revista Interamericana de
Bibliografia 28 (1978): 291–304.

Rigoberta Menchú
Beverley, John. Testimonio: On the Politics of Truth. Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press, 2004.
Carey-Webb, Allen, ed. Teaching and Testimony: Rigoberta Menchú and the
North American Classroom. Albany: State University of New York Press,
1996.
Stoll, David. Rigoberta Menchú and the Story of All Poor Guatemalans. Boul-
der, Colo: Westview, 1999.

José Milla y Vidaurre


Skinner, Lee. “Colonial (Dis)Order: Inheritance and Succession in José Milla’s
Historical Novels.” Latin American Literary Review 27, no. 54 (1999):
80–95.
Solares-Larrave, Francisco. “Crónicas, retratos y documentos: trampas a la his-
toria en Los nazarenos (1867) de José Milla y Vidaurre.” In Ilustres autores
guatemaltecos del Siglo XIX y XX, edited by Oralia Preble-Niemi and Luis
A. Jiménez, 33–49. Guatemala: Artemis Edinter, 2004.

Mario Monteforte Toledo


Rogachevsky, Jorge R. “Mario Monteforte Toledo y la problemática de identi-
dad cultural en Guatemala.” In Ilustres autores guatemaltecos del Siglo XIX
y XX, edited by Oralia Preble-Niemi and Luis A. Jiménez, 125–44. Guate-
mala: Artemis Edinter, 2004.
Rokas, Nicholas W. “Bibliografía crítica selecta de Mario Monteforte Toledo.”
Revista Interamericana de Bibliografia/Inter-American Review of Bibliog-
raphy 36 (1986): 29–38.

10_479_11_Bibliography2.indd 642 11/4/10 7:39 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 643

———. “El individuo y la sociedad en los cuentos de Mario Monteforte To-


ledo.” Abside: Revista de Cultura Mejicana 41 (1977): 242–62.

Augusto Monterroso
Campos, Marco Antonio, ed. La literatura de Augusto Monterroso. México,
D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1988.
Corral, Wilfrido H. Lector, sociedad y género en Monterroso. Xalapa: Centro
de Investigaciones Lingüístico-Literarias de la Universidad Veracruzana,
1985.
Roux de Caicedo, Lina de. Augusto Monterroso: la fábula en Monterroso,
lugar de encuentro con la verdad. Bogotá: Serie de Escritores de las Améri-
cas, 1991.
Ruffinelli, Jorge, ed. Monterroso. Xalapa: Centro de Investigaciones
Lingüístico-Literarias de la Universidad Veracruzana, 1976.

Carlos Solórzano
Andrea, P. F. de. Carlos Solorzano, bibliografia. México, D.F.: CLE, 1970.
Feliciano, Wilma. “Myth and Theatricality in Three Plays by Carlos Solór-
zano.” Latin American Theatre Review 25, no. 1 (1991): 123–33.
Richards, Katharine C. “The Mexican Existentialism of Solórzano’s Los fan-
toches.” Latin American Literary Review 9 (1976): 63–69.
Rivas, Esteban. Carlos Solórzano y el teatro hispanoamericano. México, D.F.:
Impresos Anahuac, 1970.
Rosenberg, John R. “The Ritual of Solórzano’s Las manos de Dios.” Latin
American Theatre Review 17, no. 2 (1984): 39–48.

HONDURAS

Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Argueta, Mario R. Diccionario crítico de obras literarias hondureñas. Teguci-
galpa: Guaymuras, 1993.
Cárdenas Amador, Galel, ed. Primer simposio de literatura hondureña. Tegu-
cigalpa: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, 1991.
Durón, Rómulo E. Honduras literaria. 2 vols. Tegucigalpa: Ministerio de
Educación, 1996–1999.
López Lazo, José D., ed. Voces de la literatura hondureña actual. Tegucigalpa:
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, 1994.

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644 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Martínez, José Francisco. Literatura hondureña y su proceso generacional.


Tegucigalpa: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, 1987.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Juan Ramón Molina
Alvarado, Leonel. “Sirenas, bananos y Sandino: modernismo y modernización
en Centroamérica.” Cuadernos Americanos 18 (2004): 77–96.

Roberto Sosa
Bardini, Roberto. “Roberto Sosa: poesía y política en Honduras.” Plural: Re-
vista Cultural de Excelsior 11 (1982): 13–15.
White, Steven F. “Roberto Sosa: Fabulador y creador de un nuevo bestiario.”
In La literatura centroamericana: visiones y revisiones, edited by Jorge
Román-Lagunas, 327–32. Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen.

José Cecilio del Valle


McCallister, Rick. “The Dawn of Modernity in Central America: José Cecilio
del Valle.” Journal of Hispanic Philology 18, nos. 1–3 (1993): 127–40.

Rafael Heliodoro Valle


Dorn, G.M. “Rafael Heliodoro Valle.” In Latin American Writers, edited by C.
A. Solé and M. I. Abreu, II, 721–25. New York: Scribners, 1989.

MEXICO

Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Argudín, Yolanda. Historia del teatro en México: desde los rituales prehis-
pánicos hasta el arte dramático de nuestros días. México, D.F.: Panorama
Editorial, 1985.
Argüelles, Juan Domingo, ed. Dos siglos de poesía mexicana: del XIX al fin del
milenio: una antología. México: Océano, 2001.
Brushwood, John S. Mexico in Its Novel: A Nation’s Search for Identity. Aus-
tin: University of Texas Press, 1966.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 645

Carballo, Emmanuel. Protagonistas de la literatura mexicana México. México,


D.F.: Alfaguara, 2005.
Cortés, Eladio, ed. Dictionary of Mexican Literature. Westport, Conn.: Green-
wood Press, 1992.
Díaz Ruiz, Ignacio. El cuento mexicano en el modernismo: antología. México,
D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2006.
Domínguez Michael, Christopher. Diccionario crítico de la literatura mexi-
cana: 1955–2005. México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2007.
———, ed. Antología de la narrativa mexicana del siglo XX. 2 vols. México,
D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1989–1991.
Foster, David William. Mexican Literature: A Bibliography of Secondary
Sources. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1992.
———, ed. Mexican Literature: A History. Austin: University of Texas Press,
1994.
Frischmann, Donald H. El nuevo teatro popular en México. México, D.F.:
Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1990.
Garza Cuarón, Beatriz., et al. Historia de la literatura mexicana: desde sus
orígenes hasta nuestros días. 2 vols México, D.F.: Siglo Veintiuno Editores,
1996.
González Peña, Carlos. History of Mexican Literature. Dallas: Southern Meth-
odist University Press, 1968.
Herbert H. Hoffman. Cuento mexicano index. Newport Beach: Headway Pub-
lications, 1978.
Ita, Fernando de. Teatro Mexicano contemporáneo: antología. Madrid: Socie-
dad Estatal Quinto Centenario, Fondo de Cultura Económica, and Sociedad
General de Escritores de México, 1991.
Kuri-Aldana, Mario, and Vicente Mendoza Martínez. Cancionero popular
mexicano. México: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 2001.
Lamb, Ruth Stanton. Mexican Theatre of the Twentieth Century: Bibliography
& Study. Claremont: Ocelot Press, 1975.
Langford, Walter M. The Mexican Novel Comes of Age. Notre Dame, Ind.:
University of Notre Dame Press, 1971.
Martínez, José Luis. The Modern Mexican Essay [anthology]. Toronto: Univer-
sity of Toronto Press, 1965.
Ocampo, Aurora M., ed. Diccionario de escritores mexicanos, siglo XX: desde
las generaciones del Ateneo y novelistas de la Revolución hasta nuestros
dias. 7 vols. Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1988.
Rey, Mario. Historia y muestra de la literatura infantil mexicana. México: SM
de Ediciones and Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 2000.
Rutherford, John. An Annotated Bibliography of the Novels of the Mexican
Revolution of 1910–1917. In English and Spanish. Troy, N.Y.: Whitston
Publishing Co., 1972.

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646 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Saz, Agustin del, ed. Antologia general de la poesia mexicana: siglos XVI–XX.
Barcelona: Bruguera, 1972.
Teatro mexicano del siglo XX. 5 vols. México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura
Económica, 1956.
Víctor Manuel Mendiola, Miguel Ángel Zapata and Miguel Gomes, eds. Tigre
la sed: antología de poesía mexicana contemporánea, 1950–2005. Madrid:
Hiperión, 2006.
Williams, Raymond L., and Blanca Rodríguez. La narrativa posmoderna en
México. Xalapa: Universidad Veracruzana, 2002.

Select Bibliographies for Specific Writers


José Agustín
Carter, June C. D., and Donald L. Schmidt, eds. José Agustín: Onda and Be-
yond. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1986.
Duncan, J.Ann, Voices, Visions, and a New Reality: Mexican Fiction since
1970. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1986.
Schelonka, Gregory. “Youth, Government, and the Fear of Globalization in
José Agustín’s De perfil.” In Proceedings of the 23rd Louisiana Conference
on Hispanic Languages and Literatures, edited by Alejandro Cortázar and
Christian Fernández, 181–93. Baton Rouge: Department of Foreign Lan-
guages and Literatures, Louisiana State University, 2003.
Steele, Cynthia. “Patriarchy and Apocalypse in Cerca del fuego, by José
Agustín.” Studies in Twentieth Century Literature 14, no. 1 (1990): 61–80.

Ignacio Manual Altamirano


Alba-Koch, Beatriz de. “Writing the Nation in Nineteenth-Century México,
D.F.: Liberalism, Cosmopolitanism, and Indigenismo in Altamirano.” His-
panófila 142 (2004): 101–16.
Brushwood, John S. The Romantic Novel in Mexico. Columbia: University of
Missouri Press, 1954.
Conway, Christopher. “Ignacio Altamirano and the Contradictions of Autobio-
graphical Indianism.” Latin American Literary Review 34, no. 67 (2006):
34–49.
Melgarejo Acosta, María del Pilar. “Altamirano’s Demons.” Colorado Review
of Hispanic Studies 4 (2006): 49–63.
Segre, Erica. “An Italicised Ethnicity: Memory and Renascence in the Liter-
ary Writings of Ignacio Manuel Altamirano.” Forum for Modern Language
Studies 36, no. 3 (2000): 266–78.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 647

Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc


Cortés, Rocío. “(De)mystifying Sacred Geographical Spaces in Hernando de
Alvarado Tezozomoc’s Crónica mexicana.” In Mapping Colonial Spanish
America: Places and Commonplaces of Identity, Culture, and Experience,
edited by Santa Arias and Mariselle Meléndez, 68–83. Lewisburg, Pa.:
Bucknell University Press, 2002.

Eligio Ancona
Gerassi-Navarro, Nina. Pirate Novels: Fictions of Nation Building in Spanish
America. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999.
Nevárez, Lisa “‘My Reputación Precedes Me’: La Malinche and Palimpsests of
Sacrifice, Scapegoating, and Mestizaje in Xicoténcatl and Los mártires del
Anáhuac.” Decimonónica: Journal of Nineteenth Century Hispanic Cultural
Production 1, no. 1 (2004): 67–85.
Skinner, Lee. “Martyrs of Miscegenation: Racial and National Identities in
Nineteenth-Century Mexico.” Hispanófila 132 (2001): 25–42.

Homero Aridjis
Perkowska, Magdalena. Historias híbridas: la nueva novela histórica latino-
americana (1985–2000) ante las teorías posmodernas de la historia. Madrid
and Frankfurt: Iberoamericana and Vervuert; 2008.
Stauder, Thomas, ed. ‘La luz queda en el aire’: estudios internacionales en
torno a Homero Aridjis. Frankfurt: Vervuert, 2005.

Juan José Arreola


Acker, Bertie. El cuento mexicano contemporáneo, Rulfo, Arreola y Fuentes,
temas y cosmovisión. Madrid: Playor, 1984.
Burt, John R., “This Is No Way to Run a Railroad: Arreola’s Allegorical Rail-
road and a Possible Source.” Hispania: A Journal Devoted to the Teaching
of Spanish and Portuguese 71, no. 4 (1988): 806–11.
D’Lugo, Carol Clark. “Arreola’s La feria: The Author and the Reader in the
Text.” Hispanófila 33, no. 1 (1989): 57–68.
Gilgen, Read G. “Absurdist Techniques in the Short Stories of Juan José
Arreola.” Journal of Spanish Studies: 20th Century 8 (1980): 67–77.
Herz, Theda Mary. “Continuity in Evolution: Juan José Arreola as Dramatist.”
Latin American Theatre Review 8, no. 2 (1975): 15–26.

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648 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Poot Herrera, Sara. Un giro en espiral: el proyecto literario de Juan José


Arreola. Guadalajara: Universidad de Guadalajara, 1992.
Washburn, Yulan M. Juan José Arreola. Boston: Twayne, 1983.

Mariano Azuela
Herbst, Gerhard R. Mexican Society as Seen by Mariano Azuela. New York:
Abra, 1977.
Langford, Walter M. The Mexican Novel Comes of Age. Notre Dame, Ind.:
Notre Dame University Press, 1971.
Leal, Luis. Mariano Azuela. New York: Twayne, 1971.
Parra, Max. Writing Pancho Villa’s Revolution: Rebels in the Literary Imagi-
nation of Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005.
Robe, Stanley L. Azuela and the Mexican Underdogs. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1979.
Ruffinelli, Jorge. Literatura e ideología: el primer Mariano Azuela (1896–1918).
México, D.F.: Premiá Editor, 1982.
Sommers, Joseph. After the Storm: Landmarks of the Modern Mexican Novel.
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1968.

Bernardo de Balbuena
Perelmuter, Rosa. “¿Merece la pena leer El Bernardo? Lectura y lectores del
poema épico de Bernardo de Balbuena.” Revista Iberoamericana 61, nos.
172–73 (1995): 461–66.

Toribio de Benavente (Motolinía)


Baudot, Georges. “Amerindian Image and Utopian Project: Motolinía and Mil-
lenarian Discourse.” In Amerindian Images and the Legacy of Columbus,
edited by René Jara and Nicholas Spadaccini, 375–400. Minneapolis: Uni-
versity of Minnesota Press, 1992.
Díaz Balsera, Viviana. “Erasing the Pyramid under the Cross: Motolinía’s His-
tory of the Indians of New Spain and the Construction of the Nahua Christian
Subject.” Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies 4, no. 1 (2003): 111–23.

Sabina Berman
Bixler, Jacqueline E. “Power Plays and the Mexican Crisis: The Recent Theatre
of Sabina Berman.” In Performance, pathos, política de los sexos: teatro

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postcolonial de autoras latinoamericanas, edited by Heidrun Adler and Kati


Röttger, 83–99. Frankfurt: Vervuert, 1999.
———, ed. Sediciosas seducciones: sexo, poder y palabras en el teatro de Sa-
bina Berman. Iztapalapa: Escenología, 2004.
Larson, Catherine. Games and Play in the Theater of Spanish American
Women. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 2004.
Niebylski, Dianna C. “Caught in the Middle: Ambiguous Gender and Social
Politics in Sabina Berman’s Play Entre Villa y una mujer desnuda.” Revista
de Estudios Hispánicos 39, no. 1 (2005): 153–77.

Carmen Boullosa
Dröscher, Barbara, ed. Acercamientos a Carmen Boullosa: actas del simposio
“Conjugarse en infinitivo—la escritora Carmen Boullosa.” Berlin: Frey,
1999.
Gundermann, Eva. Desafiando lo abyecto: una lectura feminista de “Mejor
desaparece” de Carmen Boullosa. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2002.
Santos, Cristina. Bending the Rules in the Quest for an Authentic Female Iden-
tity: Clarice Lispector and Carmen Boullosa. New York: Peter Lang, 2004.

Ángel de Campo
Márquez, Celina. “La estética realista en La rumba de Ángel de Campo, Mi-
crós.” Palabra y el Hombre: Revista de la Universidad Veracruzana 99
(1996): 163–73.
Olea Franco, Rafael. “Sentimentalismo e ironía en Ángel de Campo.” Litera-
tura Mexicana 16, no. 2 (2005): 29–50.

Nellie Campobello
Linhard, Tabea Alexa. Fearless Women in the Mexican Revolution and the
Spanish Civil War. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2005.
Meyer, Doris. “The Dialogics of Testimony: Autobiography as Shared Experi-
ence in Nellie Campobello’s Cartucho.” In Latin American Women’s Writ-
ing: Feminist Readings in Theory and Crisis, edited by Anny Brooksbank
Jones and Catherine Davies, 46–65. New York: Oxford University Press,
1996.
———. “Divided Against Herself: The Early Poetry of Nellie Campobello.”
Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 20, no. 2 (1986): 51–63.
Robles, Martha. La sombra fugitiva: escritoras en la cultura nacional. 2 vols.
México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1985.

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Unruh, Vicky. Performing Women and Modern Literary Culture in Latin


America: Intervening Acts. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006.

Julieta Campos
Feracho, Lesley. Linking the Americas: Race, Hybrid Discourse, and the Re-
formulation of Feminine Identity. Albany: State University of New York
Press, 2005.
Lagos-Pope, María-Inés. “Cat/Logos: The Narrator’s Confession in Julieta
Campos’ Celina o los gatos (Celina or the Cats).” In Splintering Darkness:
Latin American Women Writers in Search of Themselves, edited by Lucía
Guerra Cunningham, 31–42. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Latin American Literary Re-
view Press, 1990.
Tompkins, Cynthia M. “Intertextuality as Différance in Julieta Campos’ El
miedo de perder a Eurídice: A Symptomatic Case of Latin American Post-
modernism.” In The Postmodern in Latin and Latino American Cultural
Narratives, edited by Claudia Ferman, 153–80. New York: Garland, 1996.

Emilio Carballido
Bisset, Judith Ishmael. “Visualizing Carballido’s Orinoco: The Play in Two
Imagined Performances.” Gestos: Teoria y Practica del Teatro Hispánico
5, no. 9 (1990): 65–74.
Bixler, Jacqueline Eyring. “A Theatre of Contradictions: The Recent Works of
Emilio Carballido.” Latin American Theatre Review 18, no. 2 (1985): 57–65.
Cypess, Sandra Messinger. “I, Too, Speak: ‘Female’ Discourse in Carballido’s
Plays.” Latin American Theatre Review 18, no. 1 (1984): 45–52.
Peterson, Karen. “Existential Irony in Three Carballido Plays.” Latin American
Theatre Review 10, no. 2 (1977): 29–35.
Taylor, Diana. “Mad World, Mad Hope: Carballido’s El día que soltaron los
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Rosario Castellanos
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Palti, Elías. “Narrar lo inenarrable: literatura, nación y muerte en El fistol del
diablo de Manuel Payno.” Iberoamericana 19 (2005): 7–26.
Sandoval, Adriana. “Madres, viudas y vírgenes en Los bandidos de Río Frío.”
Literatura Mexicana 13, no. 1 (2002): 55–88.

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Octavio Paz
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Carlos Pellicer
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Sergio Pitol
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María Luisa Puga


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José Revueltas
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Slick, Sam L. José Revueltas. Boston: Twayne, 1983.

Alfonso Reyes
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José Rubén Romero


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Juan Ruiz de Alarcón


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Vargas de Luna, Javier. Las dos ciudades de Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. Puebla:
Universidad de las Américas Puebla, 2006.

Juan Rulfo
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Almagesto, 1994.
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González Boixo, José Carlos. Claves narrativas de Juan Rulfo. León: Univer-
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Jiménez de Baez, Yvette. Juan Rulfo, del páramo a la esperanza. Mexico City:
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Leal, Luis. Juan Rulfo. Boston: Twayne, 1983.
López Mena, Sergio. Los caminos de la creación en Juan Rulfo. Mexico City:
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1993.
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Hispánica, 1984.
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Jaime Sabines
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16, no. 1 (2005): 89–103.

Bernardino de Sahagún
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Schwaller, John Frederick, ed. Sahagún at 500: Essays on the Quincentenary


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Gustavo Sainz
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Guillermo Schmidhuber de la Mora


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Justo Sierra O’Reilly


Gerassi-Navarro, Nina. Pirate Novels: Fictions of Nation Building in Spanish
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Solares-Larrave, Francisco. “Texts, History and Narrative Discourse in Two
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Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora


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Luis Spota
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Revista Hispánica Moderna 47, no. 2 (1994): 421–35.

José Juan Tablada


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Paco Ignacio Taibo II


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Jaime Torres Bodet


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Rodolfo Usigli
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Literatura Hispánica 32–33 (1990–1991): 148–57.

Artemio de Valle Arizpe


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Valle-Arizpe.” Literatura Mexicana 12, no. 2 (2001): 67–96.

José Vasconcelos
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University of Texas Press, 1967.
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in Latin America. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.
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University of Texas Press, 2004.
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Maruxa Vilalta
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———. “Women and Revolution: Maruxa Vilalta’s 1910.” Latin American
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Xavier Villaurrutia
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University of North Carolina Press, 1976.
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Cultura Económica, 1976.
Paz, Octavio. Xavier Villaurrutia en persona y en obra. México, D.F.: Fondo
de Cultura Económica, 1978.
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Hieroglyphs of Desire: A Critical Study of Villaurrutia by Octavio Paz. Port
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Agustín Yáñez
Detjens, Wilma Else. Home as Creation: The Influence of Early Childhood
Experience in the Literary Creation of Gabriel García Márquez, Agustín
Yáñez and Juan Rulfo. New York: Peter Lang, 1993.
Giacoman, Helmy F., ed. Homenaje a Agustín Yáñez: variaciones interpretati-
vas en torno a su obra. New York: Las Américas, 1973.
Harris, Christopher. The Novels of Agustín Yáñez: A Critical Portrait of Mexico
in the Twentieth Century. Lewiston, N.Y.: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2000.
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Olea Franco, Rafael, ed. Agustín Yáñez: una vida literaria. Mexico: El Colegio
de México, 2007.
Young, Richard A. Agustín Yáñez y sus cuentos. London: Támesis, 1978.

NICARAGUA

Resources: Anthologies
Aldaraca, Bridget, et al, eds. Nicaragua in Revolution: the poets speak / Ni-
caragua en revolución: los poetas hablan. Minneapolis, Minn.: Marxist
Educational Press, 1980.
Antologia del cuento nicaragüense Managua. Managua: Club del Libro Nica-
ragüense, 1957.
Arellano, Jorge Eduardo. Literatura nicaragüense. Managua: Ediciones Distri-
buidora Cultural, 1997.
Obando Sancho, Víctor, et al, eds. Antología poética de la Costa Caribe de
Nicaragua. Managua: URACCAN, 1998.
Ramírez, Sergio, ed. Cuento nicaraguense [anthology]. Buenos Aires: Editorial
Nueva America, 1985.
White, Steven F., ed. Poets of Nicaragua: a Bilingual Anthology 1918–1979.
Greensboro, N.C.: Unicorn Press, 1982.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Gioconda Belli
Barbas-Rhoden, Laura. Writing Women in Central America: Gender and the
Fictionalization of History. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003.
Craft, Linda J. Novels of Testimony and Resistance from Central America.
Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997.
Dawes, Greg. Aesthetics and Revolution: Nicaraguan Poetry, 1979–1990.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.
González, Ana. “Transgressing Limits: Belli’s El taller de las mariposas.”
Ciberletras 17 (2007): n.p.
March, Kathleen. “Engendering the Political Novel: Gioconda Belli’s La mu-
jer habitada.” In Women Writers in Twentieth-Century Spain and Spanish
America, edited by Catherine Davies. Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen, 1993.
Moyano, Pilar. “The Transformation of Nation and Womanhood: Revisionist
Mythmaking in the Poetry of Nicaragua’s Gioconda Belli.” In Interventions:
Feminist Dialogues on Third World Women’s Literature and Film, edited
by Bishnupriya Ghosh and Brinda Bose, 79–95. New York: Garland, 1997.

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Richards, Timothy A. B. “Resistance and Liberation: The Mythic Voice and


Textual Authority in Belli’s La mujer habitada.” In Critical Essays on the
Literatures of Spain and Spanish America, edited by Luis T. González-del-
Valle and Julio Baena, 209–14. Boulder, Colo.: Society of Spanish and
Spanish-American Studies, 1991.
Rodríguez, Ileana. House/Garden/Nation: Space, Gender, and Ethnicity in
Post-Colonial Latin American Literatures by Women. Durham, N.C.: Duke
University Press, 1994.

Omar Cabezas
Ross, Peter. “Between Fiction and History: Omar Cabezas’s La montaña es
algo más que una inmensa estepa verde.” In War and Revolution in Hispanic
Literature, edited by Roy Boland and Alun Kenwood, 97–108. Melbourne:
Voz Hispánica, 1990.

Ernesto Cardenal
Barrow, Geoffrey R. “Divine Praises in Ernesto Cardenal.” Neophilologus 83,
no. 4 (1999): 559–75.
Borgeson, Jr, Paul W. Hacia el hombre nuevo: poesía y pensamiento de Er-
nesto Cardenal. London: Támesis, 1984.
Calabrese, Elisa, ed. Ernesto Cardenal: poeta de la liberación latinoameri-
cana. Buenos Aires: García Cambeiro, 1975.
DeHay, Terry. “The Kingdom of God on Earth: Ernesto Cardenal’s Salmos.”
In Postcolonial Literature and the Biblical Call for Justice, edited by Susan
VanZanten Gallagher, 48–59. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,
1994.
Jiménez, Luis A. “Bibliography of Criticism: Ernesto Cardenal: 1980–1992.”
Ometeca 2, no. 2 (1991): 135–39.
Kauffmann, Ruth A. “Ernesto Cardenal’s Cántico cósmico: A Vision for the
Future.” Confluencia: Revista Hispánica de Cultura y Literatura 11, no. 2
(1996): 3–18.
Olivera, Sonia Mereles. Cumbres poéticas latinoamericanas: Nicanor Parra y
Ernesto Cardenal. New York: Peter Lang, 2003.
Pring-Mill, Robert. “Cardenal’s Treatment of Amerindian Cultures in Hom-
enaje a los indios americanos.” Renaissance & Modern Studies 35 (1992):
52–74.
Urdanivia Bertarelli, Eduardo. La poesía de Ernesto Cardenal: cristianismo y
revolución. Lima: Latinoamericana Editores, 1984.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 673

José Coronel Urtecho


Arellano, Jorge Eduardo. “Bibliografía básica de José Coronel Urtecho.” En-
cuentro: Revista de la Universidad Centroamericana 9 (1976): 129–32.
Arellano, Jorge E. “La poesía de José Coronel Urtecho.” Cuadernos Hispano-
americanos: Revista Mensual de Cultura Hispánica 277–278 (1973): 307–17.
Oviedo, José Miguel. “Nicaragua: Voices in Conflict.” Review: Latin American
Literature and Arts 31 (1982): 19–25.
White, Steven F. “Translation in Nicaraguan Poetry as a Literary Weapon
against Imperialism.” Translation Perspectives 6 (1991): 165–71.

Pablo Antonio Cuadra


Chen Sham, Jorge, ed. Volver . . . a la fuente del canto: Actas del I Simposio
Internacional de Poesía Nicaragüense del Siglo XX (Homenaje a Pablo An-
tonio Cuadra). Managua: Asociación Pablo Antonio Cuadra, 2005.
Fuentes Aburto, Moisés Elías. “Pablo Antonio Cuadra y Ernesto Cardenal:
mito y épica de la nicaraguanidad.” Cuadernos Americanos 20, no. 1 (2006):
169–79.
Guardia, Gloria. “Pablo Antonio Cuadra: poeta y pensador cristiano.” Cuader-
nos Americanos 16, no. 6 (2002): 146–64.
Layera, Ramón “De la vanguardia al teatro nicaragüense actual: valoración
de Pablo Antonio Cuadra.” Revista Iberoamericana 57, no. 157 (1991):
1033–41.
Oviedo, José Miguel. “Nicaragua: Voices in Conflict.” Review: Latin American
Literature and Arts 31 (1982): 19–25.
White, Steven F. El mundo más que humano en la poesía de Pablo Antonio
Cuadra: un estudio ecocrítico. Managua: Asociación Pablo Antonio Cuadra,
2002.

Rubén Darío
Acereda, Alberto. Ruben Darío, poeta trágico: una nueva visión. Barcelona:
Teide, 1992.
Bourne, Louis. Fuerza invisible: lo divino en la poesía de Rubén Darío. Mál-
aga: Universidad de Málaga, 1999.
Ellis, Keith. Critical Approaches to Rubén Darío. Toronto: University of To-
ronto Press, 1974.
Fraser, Howard M. In the Presence of Mystery: Modernist Fiction and the Oc-
cult. Chapel Hill: Department of Romance Languagess, University of North
Carolina, 1992.

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Ingwersen, Sonya A. Light and Longing: Silva and Darío: Modernism and
Religious Heterodoxy. New York: Peter Lang, 1986.
Martínez Domingo, José María. Los espacios poéticos de Rubén Darío. New
York: Peter Lang, 1995.
Pérez, Alberto Julián. La poética de Rubén Darío: crisis post-romantica y
modelos literarios modernistas. Madrid: Orígenes, 1992.
Rama, Ángel. Rubén Darío y el Modernismo (circunstancia socioeconómica
de un arte americano). Caracas: Biblioteca de la Universidad Central de
Venezuela, 1970.
Schulman, Iván A., ed. Recreaciones: ensayos sobre la obra de Rubén Darío.
Hanover, N.H.: Ediciones del Norte, 1992.
Skryme, Raymond. Rubén Darío and the Pythagorean Tradition. Gainesville:
University Presses of Florida, 1975.
Urbina, Nicasio, ed. Miradas críticas sobre Rubén Darío. Managua: Fundación
Internacional Rubén Darío, 2005.
Watland, Charles D. Poet-Errant: A Biography of Rubén Darío. New York:
Philosophical Library, 1965.
Zavala, Iris M., ed. Rubén Darío: el modernismo. Madrid: Alianza, 1989.

Joaquín Pasos
Unruh, Vicky. “The Chinfonía burguesa: A Linguistic Manifesto of Nica-
ragua’s Avant-Garde.” Latin American Theatre Review 20, no. 2 (1987):
37–48.
White, Steven. “Breve retrato de Joaquín Pasos.” Inti: Revista de Literatura
Hispánica 21 (1985): 67–73.
Yúdice, George. “Poemas de un joven que quiso ser otro.” Inti: Revista de
Literatura Hispánica 18–19 (1983–1984): 1–25.

Sergio Ramírez
Cabrera, Enriqueta. “Sergio Ramírez: Between Reality and Fiction.” Américas
58, no. 5 (2006): 10–15.
Henighan, Stephen. “History after History’s End: Cultural Reconstruction in
Margarita, está linda la mar. In Latin American Narratives and Cultural
Identity: Selected Readings, edited by Irene Maria F. Blayer and Mark Cron-
lund Anderson, 62–74. New York: Peter Lang, 2004.
Polit-Dueñas, Gabriela. “When Politicans Construct Father-Wor(l)ds. Sergio
Ramírez’s Adiós Muchachos.” Romance Notes 44, no. 2 (2003): 163–72.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 675

Ross, Peter. “The Politician as Novelist: Sergio Ramírez’s Castigo divino.”


Antípodas: Journal of Hispanic Studies of the University of Auckland and
La Trobe University 3 (1991): 165–75.

Salomón de la Selva
Rosenstein, Roy. “Nicaraguan Poet as Wandering Jew: Salomón de la Selva
and ‘Mi primer judío.’” Latin American Literary Review 18, no. 35 (1990):
59–70.
White, Steven F. “Salomón de la Selva: poeta comprometido de la ‘otra’ van-
guardia.” Revista Iberoamericana 57, no. 157 (1991): 915–21.

Daisy Zamora
Jiménez, Luis A. “Una mirada al cuerpo en los textos poéticos de Daisy
Zamora.” In Afrodita en el trópico: erotismo y construcción del sujeto
femenino en obras de autoras centroamericanas, edited by Oralia Preble-
Niemi, 123–32. Potomac, Md.: Scripta Humanistica, 1999.
Ogden, Estrella. “La cuestión femenina en la poesía de Daisy Zamora.” In
Volver . . . a la fuente del canto: Actas del I Simposio Internacional de
Poesía Nicaragüense del Siglo XX (Homenaje a Pablo Antonio Cuadra),
edited by Jorge Chen Sham, 355–63. Managua: Asociación Pablo Antonio
Cuadra, 2005.

PANAMA

Resources: Enclyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Garcia, S. Ismael. Historia de la literatura panameña. México, D.F.: Universi-
dad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1972.
Jaramillo Levi, Enrique, ed. Poesía panameña contemporánea (1929–1979).
México, D.F.: Liberta-Sumaria, 1980.
Miró, Rodrigo. Itinerario de la poesía en Panamá (1502–1974). Panama City:
Editorial Universitaria, 1974.
———. La literatura panameña (origen y proceso). San José, Costa Rica: Im-
prenta Trejos Hermanos, 1972.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 675 11/4/10 7:40 AM


676 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Rosa María Britton
López Cruz, Humberto, ed. Rosa María Britton ante la crítica. Madrid: Ver-
bum, 2007.

Darío Herrera
Jiménez, Luis A. “Darío Herrera, poeta panameño modernista.” In Encuen-
tro con la literatura panameña, edited by Humberto López Cruz, 93–108.
Panama: Círculo de Lectura de la Universidad Católica Santa María La
Antigua, 2003.
———. “Remapping ‘modernista’ Aesthetics in Darío Herrera’s ‘Intangible.’”
Diáspora: Journal of the Annual Afro-Hispanic Literature and Culture Con-
ference 13 (2003): 62–67.

Enrique Jaramillo Levi


Aguilar, Alfredo, ed. Puertas y ventanas: acercamientos a la obra literaria de
Enrique Jaramillo Levi. San José: Editorial Universitaria Centroamericana,
1990.
Birmingham-Pokorny, Elba D., ed. Critical Perspectives in Enrique Jaramillo-
Levi’s Work: A Collection of Critical Essays. Miami, Fla.: Universal, 1996.
Hoeg, Jerry. “Enrique Jaramillo Levi Looks at Writing and Being Written in
Caracol y otros cuentos.” Diáspora: Journal of the Annual Afro-Hispanic
Literature and Culture Conference 13 (2003): 22–32.
Santiago-Stommes, Ivelisse. “Reflections of Metafiction in Duplications and
Other Stories by Enrique Jaramillo-Levi.” Diáspora: Journal of the Annual
Afro-Hispanic Literature and Culture Conference 13 (2003): 16–21.

Ricardo Miró
Espino Barahona, Erasto Antonio. “‘Patria’, de Ricardo Miró o el país como
memoria afectiva.” Espéculo: Revista de Estudios Literarios 31 (2005–
2006): n.p.
Gewecke, Frauke. “La heterogeneidad como rasgo fundamental de la moderni-
dad y del Modernismo hispanoamericanos: Las noches de Babel de Ricardo
Miró.” In La modernidad revis(it)ada: literatura y cultura latinoamericanas
de los siglos XIX y XX, edited by Inke Gunia, Katharina Niemeyer, Sabine
Schlickers, and Hans Paschen, 168–82. Berlin: Tranvía, 2000.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 676 11/4/10 7:40 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 677

Rogelio Sinán
Chen Sham, Jorge. “La vivencia de la culpa y la mostración de lo neofantástico
en ‘La boina roja’ de Rogelio Sinán.” Diáspora: Journal of the Annual Afro-
Hispanic Literature and Culture Conference 13 (2003): 45–53.
Espener, Maida Watson. “Notes on the Theme of the Black in the Literary Cre-
ation of Rogelio Sinán.” In Homenaje a Lydia Cabrera, edited by Reinaldo
Sánchez, José Antonio Madrigal, and José Sánchez-Boudy, 259–63. Miami,
Fla.: Ediciones Universal, 1978.
Jaramillo Levi, Enrique. “El Rogelio Sinán que recordará la historia.” Con-
fluencia: Revista Hispánica de Cultura y Literatura 8–9, nos. 2–1 (1993):
7–11.

PARAGUAY

Resources: Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Amaral, Raúl. El modernismo poético en el Paraguay (1901–1916). Asuncion:
Alcándara, 1982.
———. El romanticismo paraguayo 1860–1910. Asuncion: Alcándara, 1985.
Bareiro Saguier, Rubén, et al. Literatura guaraní del Paraguay. Asunción:
Servilibro, 2004.
Delgado, Susy, ed. 25 nombres capitales de la literatura paraguaya. Asunción:
Servilibro, 2005.
Díaz Pérez, Viriato. Literatura del Paraguay. Palma de Mallorca: Luis Ripoll,
1980.
Luis María Martínez. El trino soterrado: Paraguay, aproximación al itinerario
de su poesía social [anthology]. Asunción: Ediciones Intento, 1985–1986.
Pecci, Antonio. Teatro breve del Paraguay [anthology]. Asunción: Ediciones
NAPA, 1981.
Peiró, José Vicente. La narrativa paraguaya actual: 1980–1995. Asunción:
Uninorte, 2006.
Pérez-Maricevich, Francisco. Diccionario de la literatura paraguaya. Asun-
ción: Instituto Colorado de Cultura, 1984.
Rodríguez-Alcalá, Hugo. Historia de la literatura paraguaya. Asunción: Edi-
torial El Lector, 1999.
Suárez, Victorio V. Literatura paraguaya, 1900–2000: expresiones de los re-
presentantes contemporáneos. Asunción: Servilibro, 2001.
———. Proceso de la literatura paraguaya: perfil histórico, bibliografía y
entrevistas a los más destacados escritores paraguayos. Asunción: Criterio
Ediciones, 2006.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 677 11/4/10 7:40 AM


678 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Teresa Méndez-Faith, ed. Antología de la literatura paraguaya. Asunción: El


Lector, 2004.
———. Teatro paraguayo de ayer y de hoy. 2 vols. Asunción: Intercontinental
Editora, 2001.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Rubén Bareiro Saguier
Basson, Helene C. “The Legacy of Guaraní in the Fiction of Gabriel Casaccia,
Rubén Bareiro Saguier and Augusto Roa Bastos.” Mester 24, no. 2 (1995):
65–80.
Navarro, Felipe. “El ave de vuelo mestizo: aproximación a la poesía de Rubén
Bareiro Saguier.” Hispamérica: Revista de Literatura 17, no. 49 (1988):
101–6.
Weldt, Helene. “Cases of Ambiguity in Rubén Bareiro Saguier’s Ojo por di-
ente.” Hispanófila 36, no. 1 (1992): 41–57.

Hérib Campos Cervera


Reyes, Juan José. “Campos Cervera: escritor militante.” Discurso Literario:
Revista de Temas Hispánicos 1, no. 2 (1984): 289–93.

Gabriel Casaccia
Collmer, Robert G. “The Displaced Person in the Novels of Gabriel Casaccia.”
RE: Artes Liberales 3, no. 2 (1970): 37–46.
Feito, Francisco E. El Paraguay en la obra de Gabriel Casaccia. Buenos Aires:
Garcia Cambeiro, 1977.
Méndez-Faith, Teresa. “Exilio y estructuración espacio-temporal en la novel-
ística de Gabriel Casaccia.” Escritura: Revista de Teoría y Crítica Literarias
8, no. 16 (1983): 179–90.
Rodríguez-Alcalá, Hugo. “Introducción al estudio de la novelístíca de Gabriel
Casaccia.” Nueva Narrativa Hispanoamericana 4 (1974): 91–103.

Julio Correa
Bogado, Víctor. “Julio Correa (1890–1953), dramaturgo paraguayo compro-
metido con su realidad social.” Dramateatro Revista Digital 11 (2004): n.p.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 678 11/4/10 7:40 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 679

Ruy Díaz de Guzmán


Guérin, Miguel Alberto. “Discurso histórico y discurso ficcional en La Argen-
tina, de Ruy Díaz de Guzman.” Río de la Plata: Culturas 11–12 (1991):
67–76.
Marcos, Juan Manuel. “Ruy Díaz de Guzmán in the Context of Paraguayan
Colonial Literature.” MLN 102, no. 2 (1987): 387–92.

Josefina Plá
Larson, Catherine. Games and Play in the Theater of Spanish American
Women. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 2004.
Mateo del Pino, Ángeles. “En la piel de la mujer: un recorrido por la cuentística
de Josefina Plá.” Philologica Canariensia: Revista de Filología de la Uni-
versidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria (1994): 281–97.
Rodríguez-Alcalá, Hugo. “Josefina Plá y la poesía.” Papeles de Son Armadans
58 (1970): 19–64.
Steckbauer, Sonja M. “La ‘paraguayidad’ en la cuentística de Josefina Plá.” In
Dos orillas y un encuentro: la literatura paraguaya actual, edited by Mar
Langa Pizarro, 235–47. Alicante: Centro de Estudios Iberoamericanos Mario
Benedetti, Universidad de Alicante, 2005.

Augusto Roa Bastos


Battiliana, Carlos. Reflexiones sobre “Hijo de hombre” de Augusto Roa Bas-
tos. Frankfurt: Lang, 1979.
Bergero, Adriana J. El debate político: modernidad, poder y disidencia en Yo
el Supremo de Augusto Roa Bastos. New York: Peter Lang, 1994.
Burgos, Fernando, ed. Las voces del karaí: estudios sobre Augusto Roa Bastos.
Madrid: Edelsa-Edi 6, 1988.
Foster, David William. Augusto Roa Bastos. Boston: Twayne; 1978.
Giacoman, Helmy F. Homenaje a Augusto Roa Bastos: variaciones interpre-
tativas en torno a su obra. Long Island City: Anaya-Las Americas, 1973.
Marcos, Juan Manuel. Roa Bastos, precursor del post-boom. Mexico City:
Katún, 1983.
Sosnowski, Saúl, ed. Augusto Roa Bastos y la producción cultural americana.
Buenos Aires: Ediciones de la Flor, 1986.
Weldt-Basson, Helene Carol. Augusto Roa Bastos’s “I The Supreme”: A Dia-
logic Perspective. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1993.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 679 11/4/10 7:40 AM


680 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Elvio Romero
Peiró Barco, José Vicente. “Elvio Romero, Rubén Bareiro Saguier, Renée
Ferrer, Jacobo Rauskin: calas de la poesía paraguaya.” In Dos orillas y un
encuentro: la literatura paraguaya actual, edited by Mar Langa Pizarro,
193–210. Alicante: Centro de Estudios Iberoamericanos Mario Benedetti,
Universidad de Alicante, 2005.
Szanto, Endre Fulei. “Realidad e ilusión en los poemas de Elvio Romero.” In
Actas del simposio internacional de estudios hispánicos: Budapest, 18–19
de agosto de 1976, edited by Matyas Horanyi, 277–83. Budapest: Akademia
Kiado, 1978.

PERU

Resources: Bibliographies, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Aldrich, Earl M., Jr. The Modern Short Story in Perú. Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1966.
Bendezú, Edmundo. La novela peruana: de Olavide a Bryce. Lima: Editorial
Lumen, 1992.
Castro Urioste, José, and Roberto Ángeles. Dramaturgia Peruana [anthology].
Lima: Latinoamericana Editores, 1999.
Chang-Rodríguez, Raquel, ed. Cancionero peruano del siglo XVII. Lima: La
Católica, 1983.
Foster, David William. Peruvian Literature: A Bibliography of Secondary
Sources. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981.
García-Bedoya Maguiña, Carlos. Para una periodizacíon de la literatura pe-
ruana. Lima: Latinoamericana Editores, 1990.
González Vigil, Ricardo, ed. Poesía peruana siglo XX. 2 vols. Lima: Petroperú,
Ediciones COPÉ, 1999.
Hesse Murga, José, ed. Teatro peruano contemporáneo [anthology]. Madrid:
Aguilar 1963.
Higgins, James. A History of Peruvian Literature. Liverpool: Cairns, 1987.
———. Hitos de la poesía peruana: siglo XX. Lima: Milla Batres, 1993.
Ruiz-Ortega, Gabriel. Disidentes: muestra de la nueva narrativa peruana [an-
thology]. Lima: Revuelta Editores, 2007.
Sánchez, Luis Alberto. La literatura peruana: derrotero para una historia
cultural del Perú. 5 vols. Lima: Editorial de Ediventas, 1965.
Sologuren, Javier, ed. Antología general de la literatura peruana. México,
D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1981.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 680 11/4/10 7:40 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 681

———. Poesía del Perú: de la época precolombina al modernismo. Buenos


Aires: Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1977.
Toro Montalvo, César. Manual de literatura peruana. Lima: A.F.A. Editores,
1990.
Watson, María Isabel. El cuadro de costumbres en el Perú decimonónico.
Lima: La Católica, 1979.
Yáñez, Luis, Cuentos peruanos. 2 vols. Lima: Editorial Universo, 1972.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Martín Adán
Bendezú, Edmundo. La poética de Martín Adán. Lima, 1969.
Kinsella, John M. Tradición, modernidad y silencio: el mundo creativo de
Martín Adán. Oxford: University of Mississippi, Department of Modern
Languages, 2001.
Sobrevilla, David. “De lo barroco en el Perú de Martín Adán.” Lienzo: Revista
de la Universidad de Lima 19 (1998): 305–56.
Verani, Hugo J. “La casa de cartón de Martín Adán y el relato vanguardista
hispanoamericano.” In Actas del X Congreso de la Asociación de Hispanis-
tas. 4 vols, edited by Antonio Vilanova, IV: 1077–84. Barcelona: Promocio-
nes y Publicaciones Universitarias, 1992.
Weller, Hubert P. “The Poetry of Martín Adán.” In Romance Literary Studies:
Homage to Harvey L. Johnson, edited by Marie A. Wellington and Martha
O’Nan, 151–60. Potomac, Md.: Porrúa Turanzas, 1979.

Alonso Alegría
Luchting, Wolfgang A. “Optimism as Rite de passage? Alonso Alegría’s El
cruce sobre el Niagara.” Research Studies 47 (1979): 253–61.
Morris, Robert J. “Alonso Alegría: Dramatist and Theatrical Activist.” Latin
American Theatre Review 9, no. 2 (1976): 49–55.

Ciro Alegría
Marcone, Jorge. “Del retorno a lo natural: La serpiente de oro, la ‘novela de la
selva’ y la crítica ecológica.” Hispania: A Journal Devoted to the Teaching
of Spanish and Portuguese 81, no. 2 (1998): 299–308.
Rodriguez-Florido, Jorge J. “Bibliografía de y sobre Ciro Alegría.” Chasqui:
Revista de Literatura Latinoamericana 4, no. 3 (1975): 23–54.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 681 11/4/10 7:40 AM


682 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

———. “Ciro Alegría y el tema negra.” Afro-Hispanic Review 6, no. 1 (1987):


3–8.
Rodriguez-Peralta, Phyllis. “Ciro Alegria: Culmination of Indigenist-Region-
alism in Peru.” Journal of Spanish Studies: Twentieth Century 7 (1979):
337–52.
Vilariño de Olivieri, Matilde. La novelística de Ciro Alegría. San Juan, Puerto
Rico: Editorial Universitaria, 1980.
Zubizarreta, Armando. “Realidad y ficción en Los perros hambrientos de Ciro
Alegría.” Revista de Crítica Literaria Latinoamericana 24, no. 48 (1998):
159–72.

José María Arguedas


Columbus, Charlotte Kemper. Mythological Consciousness and the Future:
José María Arguedas. New York: Peter Lang, 1986.
Forgues, Roland, ed. Arguedas y “Los ríos profundos.” Toulouse: Presse Uni-
versitaire du Mirail, 2004.
Franco, Sergio R., ed. José María Arguedas: hacia una poética migrante. Pitts-
burgh, Pa.: Instituto Internacional de Literatura Iberoamericana, University
of Pittsburgh, 2006.
Lambright, Anne. Creating the Hybrid Intellectual: Subject, Space, and the
Feminine in the Narrative of José María Arguedas. Lewisburg, Pa.: Buck-
nell University Press, 2007.
Larco, Juan, ed. Recopilacion de textos sobre Jose Maria Arguedas. Havana:
Casa de las Americas, 1976.
Muñoz, Silverio. José María Arguedas y el mito de la salvación por la cultura.
Lima: Horizonte, 1987.
Ortega, Julio, ed. The Fox from Up Above and the Fox from Down Below.
Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000.
Rowe, William. Mito e ideología en la obra de José María Arguedas. Lima:
Instituto Nacional de Cultura, 1979.
Varona-Lacey, Gladys M. José María Arguedas: más allá del indigenismo.
Miami: Universal, 2000.

Jaime Bayly
Ruz, Robert. Contemporary Peruvian Narrative and Popular Culture: Jaime
Bayly, Iván Thays and Jorge Eduardo Benavides. Woodbridge: Tamesis,
2005.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 682 11/4/10 7:40 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 683

Belli Carlos Germán


Higgins, James. “The Poetry of Carlos Germán Belli.” Bulletin of Hispanic
Studies 47 (1970): 327–39.
Lasarte, F. “Pastoral and Counter-Pastoral: The Dynamics of Belli’s Poetic
Despair.” MLN 94, no. 2 (1979): 301–20.
Zapata, Miguel Ángel, ed. El pesapalabras: Carlos Germán Belli ante la
crítica. Lima: Tabla de Poesía Actual, 1994.

Alfredo Bryce Echenique


Duncan, Jennifer Ann. “Language as Protagonist: Tradition and Innovation in
Bryce Echenique’s Un mundo para Julius.” Forum for Modern Language
Studies 16 (1980): 120–35.
Ferreira, César. “Bryce Echenique y la novela del posboom: lectura de La
última mudanza de Felipe Carrillo.” Chasqui: Revista de Literatura Latino-
americana 22, no. 2 (1993): 34–48.
Ortega, Julio. “Alfredo Bryce Echenique y la estética de la exageración.”
Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos: Revista Mensual de Cultura Hispánica 512
(1993): 71–86.
Rodríguez-Peralta, Phyllis. “The Subjective Narration of Bryce Echenique’s
La vida exagerada de Martín Romaña.” Hispanic Journal 10, no. 2 (1989):
139–51.
Scholz, Lásló. “Realidad e irrealidad en Tantas veces Pedro de Alfredo Bryce
Echenique.” Acta Litteraria Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 33, nos.
1–4 (1991): 175–85.
Wood, David. “Bibliografía de Alfredo Bryce Echenique.” Revista Intera-
mericana de Bibliografia/Inter-American Review of Bibliography 44, no. 1
(1994): 81–108.
Zúñiga, Maximiliano E. “Las estrategias narrativas de Alfredo Bryce Eche-
nique en La vida exagerada de Martín Romaña y El hombre que hablaba de
Octavia de Cádiz.” Hispanic Journal 22, no. 1 (2001): 309–28.

Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera


Guiñazú, Cris. “La mujer en/de la vida pública en el siglo XIX: un estudio de
Blanca Sol.” Cuadernos de Aldeeu 21 (2005): 35–50.
Mathews, Cristina. “The Masquerade as Experiment: Gender and Representa-
tion in Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera’s El conspirador: autobiografía de
un hombre público.” Hispanic Review 73, no. 4 (2005): 467–89.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 683 11/4/10 7:40 AM


684 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Peluffo, Ana. “Las trampas del naturalismo en Blanca Sol: prostitutas y cos-
tureras en el paisaje urbano de Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera.” Revista de
Crítica Literaria Latinoamericana 28, no. 55 (2002): 37–52.
Voysest, Oswaldo. “Clorinda Matto and Mercedes Cabello: Reading Emile
Zola’s Naturalism in a Dissonant Voice.” Excavatio: Emile Zola and Natu-
ralism 11 (1998): 195–201.
———. “Fashion and Characterization in Mercedes Cabello’s Blanca Sol and
Emile Zola’s La Curée: Tailored Differences.” Excavatio: Emile Zola and
Naturalism 10 (1997): 112–29.

José Santos Chocano


Rodriguez-Peralta, Phyllis W. José Santos Chocano. New York: Twayne,
1970.

Grégor Díaz
Morris, Robert J. “The Theater of Grégor Díaz.” Latin American Theatre Re-
view 23, no. 1 (1989): 79–87.

Pedro de Cieza de León


León, Pedro R. Algunas observaciones sobre Pedro de Cieza de León y la
Crónica del Perú. Madrid: Gredos, 1973.
MacCormack, Sabine. “Demons, Imagination, and the Incas.” Representations
33 (1991): 121–46.
Zaro, Juan J. “Translation and Historical Stereotypes: The Case of Pedro Cieza
de León’s Crónica del Perú.” TTR: Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction:
Etudes sur le Texte et Ses Transformations 13, no. 1 (2000): 113–35.

José Diez Canseco


Cabanillas Cárdenas, Carlos F. “Ciudad y modernidad: tres versiones de Lima
en la narrativa de José Díez Canseco.” In La ciudad imaginaria, edited by
Javier de Navascués, 105–33. Frankfurt: Vervuert, 2007.
Sanchez, Luis Alberto. “Jose Diez Canseco, novelista peruano (1904–1949).”
In Homage to Irving A. Leonard: Essays on Hispanic Art, History and Lit-
erature, edited by Raquel Chang-Rodriguez, Donald A. Yates, and Robert
G. Mead, 209–17. East Lansing: Latin American Studies Center, Michigan
State University, 1977.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 684 11/4/10 7:40 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 685

José María Egurén


Areta Marigó, Gema. La poética de José María Eguren. Seville: Alfar, 1993.
Higgins, James. “The Rupture Between Poet and Society in the Work of José
María Eguren.” Kentucky Romance Quarterly 20 (1973): 59–74.
Rodríguez-Peralta, Phyllis. “The Modernism of José María Eguren.” Hispania:
A Journal Devoted to the Teaching of Spanish and Portuguese 56 (1973):
222–29.

Juan de Espinosa Medrano (El Lunarejo)


Chang-Rodríguez, Raquel. Hidden Messages: Representation and Resistance
in Andean Colonial Drama. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press,
1999.
Tamayo Rodriguez, J. Agustín. Estudios sobre Juan de Espinosa Medrano (El
Lunarejo). Lima: Ediciones Librería “Studium,” 1971.

El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega


Amador, Raysa. Aproximación histórica a los Comentarios reales. Madrid:
Pliegos, 1984.
Chang-Rodríguez, Raquel, ed. Beyond Books and Borders: Garcilaso de la
Vega and “La Florida del Inca”. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press,
2006.
Crowley, Frances G. Garcilaso de la Vega, el Inca and His Sources in “Co-
mentarios Reales de los Incas.” The Hague: Mouton, 1971.
Fernández, Christian. Inca Garcilaso: imaginación, memoria e identidad.
Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos,
2004.
Steigman, Jonathan D. “La Florida del Inca” and the Struggle for Social
Equality in Colonial Spanish America. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama
Press, 2005.
Zamora, Margarita. Language, Authority, and Indigenous History in the “Co-
mentarios reales de los Incas.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1988.

Isaac Goldemberg
Rosser, Harry L. “Being and Time in La vida a plazos de don Jacobo Lerner.”
Chasqui: Revista de Literatura Latinoamericana 17, no. 1 (1988): 43–49.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 685 11/4/10 7:40 AM


686 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Schneider, Judith Morganroth. “Cultural Meanings in Isaac Goldemberg’s


Fiction.” Folio: Essays on Foreign Languages and Literatures 17 (1987):
128–40.

Manuel González Prada


Tauzin, Isabelle. Manuel González Prada: escritor de dos mundos. Lima: Insti-
tuto Francés de Estudios Andinos, 2006.

Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala


Adorno, Rolena. New Studies of the Autograph Manuscript of Felipe Guaman
Poma de Ayala’s “Nueva corónica y buen gobierno.” Copenhagen: Museum
Tusculanum, 2003.
Bauer, Ralph. “‘EnCountering’ Colonial Latin American Indian Chronicles:
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s Hisory of the ‘New’ World.” American
Indian Quarterly 25, no. 2 (2001): 274–312.
Clavero, Dolores. “The Discourse of the Newly-Converted Christian in the
Work of the Andean Chronicler Guaman Poma de Ayala.” In Christian En-
counters with the Other, edited by John C. Hawley, 44–55. New York: New
York University Press, 1998.
García Castellón, Manuel G. Guaman Poma de Ayala, pionero de la teología
de la liberación. Madrid: Pliegos, 1992.

Alberto Hidalgo
Armand, Octavio. “Poemas conmigo: posible ámbito del yo en la poesía de
Alberto Hidalgo.” Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos: Revista Mensual de Cul-
tura Hispánica 371 (1981): 301–12.
O’Hara, Edgar. “Alberto Hidalgo, hijo del arrebato.” Revista de Crítica Liter-
aria Latinoamericana 13, no. 26 (1987): 97–113.

Diego Hojeda
Davis, Elizabeth B. “The Politics of Effacement: Diego de Hojeda’s Humble
Poetics.” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 71, no. 3 (1994): 339–57.
Pierce, Frank. “Diego de Hojeda, Religious Poet.” In Homenaje a William L.
Fichter: estudios sobre el teatro antiguo hispánico y otros ensayos, edited
by David A. Kossoff and José Amor y Vásquez, 585–99. Madrid: Castalia,
1971.

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Yorba-Gray, Galen B. “La Christiada in Its Colonial Context.” Hispania:


A Journal Devoted to the Teaching of Spanish and Portuguese 85, no. 1
(2002): 1–11.

Enrique López Albújar


Beane, Carol. “Black Character: Toward a Dialectical Presentation in Three
South American Novels.” In Voices From Under: Black Narrative in Latin
America and the Caribbean, edited by William Luis, 181–98. Westport,
Conn: Greenwood, 1984.
———. “Mestizaje: ‘civilización’ or ‘barbarie’: Prospects for Cultural Conti-
nuity in Matalaché, Pobre negro and Cumboto.” Studies in Afro-Hispanic
Literature 2–3 (1978–1979): 199–212.
Harrison, Elizabeth. “Two Reactions to the Marginal Situation: The Mulatto
in Matalaché and Las lanzas coloradas.” Afro-Hispanic Review 3, no. 2
(1984): 20–24.

José Carlos Mariátegui


Berger, Víctor, ed. Ensayos sobre Mariátegui. Lima: Biblioteca Amauta, 1987.
Castro, Juan E. de “José Carlos Mariátegui and Cultural Studies.” Ciberletras
6 (2002): n.p.
Fernández, Roberta. “José Carlos Mariátegui: A Biography in Social Context.”
In A Ricardo Gullón: sus discípulos, edited by Adelaida López de Martínez,
89–102. Erie, Pa.: Publicación de la Asociación de Licenciados y Doctores
Españoles en Estados Unidos, 1995.
Foster, David W. “A Checklist of Criticism on José Carlos Mariátegui.” Los
Ensayistas: Georgia Series on Hispanic Thought 10–11 (1981): 213–57.
Stein, William W. Dance in the Cemetery: José Carlos Mariátegui and the
Lima Scandal of 1917. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1997.
Unruh, Vicky. “Mariátegui’s Aesthetic Thought: A Critical Reading of the
Avant-Gardes.” Latin American Research Review 24, no. 3 (1989): 45–69.
Wise, David. “A Peruvian Indigenista Forum of the 1920s: José Carlos
Mariátegui’s Amauta.” Ideologies and Literature: Journal of Hispanic and
Lusophone Discourse Analysis 3, no. 13 (1980): 70–104.

Clorinda Matto de Turner


Berg, Mary G. “Role Models and Andean Identities in Clorinda Matto de
Turner’s Hima-Sumac.” In Studies in Honor of Denah Lida, edited by Mary

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G. Berg and Lanin A. Gyurko, 297–305. Potomac, Md.: Scripta Humanis-


tica, 2005.
———. “Writing for Her Life: The Essays of Clorinda Matto de Turner.” In
Reinterpreting the Spanish American Essay: Women Writers of the 19th and
20th Centuries, edited by Doris Meyer, 80–89. Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1995.
Bryan, Catherine M. “Making National Citizens: Gender, Race, and Class in
Two Works by Clorinda Matto de Turner.” Cincinnati Romance Review 15
(1996): 113–18.
Peluffo, Ana. “Why Can’t an Indian Be More Like a Man? Sentimental Bonds
in Manuel González Prada and Clorinda Matto de Turner.” Revista de Estu-
dios Hispánicos 38, no. 1 (2004): 3–21.

César Moro
Altuna, Elena. “César Moro: escritura y exilio.” Revista de Crítica Literaria
Latinoamericana 20, no. 39 (1994): 109–25.
Martos, Marco. “La poesía de César Moro.” In Encuentro Internacional de
Peruanistas: Estado de los estudios histórico-sociales sobre el Perú a fines
del siglo XX, 2 vols., II: 389–93. Lima: Universidad de Lima, 1998.
Oviedo, Jose Miguel. “Sobre la poesía de César Moro.” Lexis: Revista de Lin-
guistica y Literatura 1 (1977): 101–5.

Carmen Ollé
Hart, Stephen M. “Three Tropes of Postmodernism in Contemporary Peruvian
Poetry.” Neophilologus 89, no. 4 (2005): 575–85.
Minardi, Giovanna. “Carmen Ollé.” Hispamérica: Revista de Literatura 28,
no. 83 (1999): 55–59.
Zapata, Miguel-Ángel. “Carmen Ollé y la fisiología de la pasión.” Confluencia:
Revista Hispánica de Cultura y Literatura 12, no. 2 (1997): 181–85.

Carlos Oquendo de Amat


Monguio, Luis. “Un vanguardista peruano: Carlos Oquendo de Amat.” In Ho-
menaje a Luis Leal: estudios sobre literatura hispanoamericana, edited by
Donald W. Bleznick and Juan O. Valencia, 203–14. Madrid: Insula, 1978.
Montauban, Jannine. “La parodia en 5 metros de poemas de Carlos Oquendo de
Amat.” Cifra Nueva: Revista de Cultura 9–10 (1999): 101–11.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 689

Julio Ortega
Adler, Heidrun. “Julio Ortega’s Peruvian Inferno.” Latin American Theatre
Review 15, no. 1 (1981): 53–58.
Morris, Robert J. “The Docudrama of Julio Ortega.” In Selected Proceedings
of the Thirty-Fifth Annual Mountain Interstate Foreign Language Confer-
ence, edited by Ramón Fernández-Rubio, 255–62. Greenville, S.C.: Furman
University, 1987.
———. “The Theatre of Julio Ortega since His ‘Peruvian Hell.’” Latin Ameri-
can Theatre Review 19, no. 2 (1986): 31–37.

Clemente Palma
Castillo-Feliú, Guillermo I. “Clemente Palma’s Creative Deception.” West
Virginia University Philological Papers 30 (1984): 41–46.
Kason, Nancy M. Breaking Traditions: The Fiction of Clemente Palma. Lew-
isburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1988.
———. “The Dystopian Vision in XYZ by Clemente Palma.” Monographic
Review/Revista Monografica 3, nos. 1–2 (1987): 33–42.
———. “Elements of the Fantastic in ‘La granja blanca’ by Clemente Palma.”
In The Fantastic in World Literature and the Arts, edited by Donald E.
Morse, 115–21. Westport, Conn: Greenwood, 1987.

Ricardo Palma
Cabañas, Miguel A. “Subjectivity and Empire: Representations of Historiogra-
phy in Ricardo Palma’s Tradiciones peruanas.” Ciberletras 12 (2005): n.p.
Compton, Merlin D. “Palma’s Lima: A Record of Dark Delights.” Américas
34, no. 6 (1982): 27–31.
Flores, Ángel, and Jose Miguel Oviedo, eds. Orígenes del cuento hispano-
americano: Ricardo Palma y sus tradiciones: estudios, textos y análisis.
México, D.F.: Premia, 1979.
Morris, Robert J. “Ricardo Palma and the Contemporary Peruvian Theatre.”
Romance Notes 14 (1973): 465–68.
Ortega, Julio, ed. Tradiciones peruanas. Madrid: Unesco, 1996.
Rodríguez-Peralta, Phyllis. “Liberal Undercurrents in Palma’s Tradiciones pe-
ruanas.” Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 15, no. 2 (1981): 283–97.
Tudela, Elisa Sampson Vera. “Hearing Voices: Ricardo Palma’s Contextualiza-
tion of Colonial Peru.” In Debating World Literature, edited by Christopher
Prendergast, 214–32. London: Verso, 2004.

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Felipe Pardo y Aliaga


Cornejo Polar, Jorge. “El espejo de mi tierra y el costumbrismo en el Perú.”
In Homenaje a don Luis Monguío, edited by Jordi Aladro-Font and David
Dabaco, 145–88. Newark, Del.: Cuesta, 1997.
———. “Felipe Pardo y Aliaga: una mirada diferente.” In Encuentro Internacio-
nal de Peruanistas: Estado de los estudios histórico-sociales sobre el Perú
a fines del siglo XX, 2 vols., II: 273–83. Lima: Universidad de Lima, 1998.

Pedro Peralta y Barnuevo


Hill, Ruth. “Between Reason and Piety: Inventio and Verisimilitude in Pedro
de Peralta’s Prologue to Lima fundada (1732).” Dieciocho: Hispanic En-
lightenment 17, no. 2 (1994): 129–41.
Williams, Jerry M. “Anonymous Satire in Peralta Barnuevo’s Diálogo de los
muertos: la causa académica.” Hispanófila 108 (1993): 1–14.
———. “Creole Identity in Eighteenth-century Peru: Race and Ethnicity.” In
How Far Is America from Here?, edited by Theo D’haen, Paul Giles, Djelal
Kadir, and Lois Parkinson, 369–81. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2005.
———. “Peralta Barnuevo’s Loa para la comedia: The Tragic Reign of Luis I.”
Dieciocho: Hispanic Enlightenment 23, no. 1 (2000): 7–25.

Magda Portal
Arrington, Melvin S. “Madga Portal: Vanguard Critic.” In Reinterpreting the
Spanish American Essay: Women Writers of the 19th and 20th Centuries,
edited by Doris Meyer, 148–56. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995.
Unruh, Vicky. Performing Women and Modern Literary Culture in Latin
America: Intervening Acts. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006.

Julio Ramón Ribeyro


Bialowas Pobutsky, Aldona. “Cultural Alienation and Colonial Desire in
‘Alienación’ by Julio Ramón Ribeyro.” Romance Notes 47, no. 2 (2007):
163–70.
Luchting, Wolfgang A. “El teatro de Julio Ramón Ribeyro.” Hispamérica:
Revista de Literatura 31, no. 11 (1982): 93–100.
Patiño, Ana Mercedes. “The Versatility of the Short Story in Julio Ramón Ri-
beyro: Analyses of Three Stories: ‘While the Candle Burns,’ ‘Explanations
to a Local Policeman’ and ‘The Carousel.’” Readerly/Writerly Texts: Essays
on Literature, Literary/Textual Criticism, and Pedagogy 8, nos. 1–2 (2000):
131–51.

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Rodriguez-Peralta, Phyllis. “Counterpart and Contrast in Julio Ramón Ribey-


ro’s Two Novels.” Hispania: A Journal Devoted to the Teaching of Spanish
and Portuguese 62, no. 4 (1979): 619–25.
Vogely-Cuadros, Anita. “The Cultural Hero and the Martyr: Didactic Tools of
Julio Ramón Ribeyro.” Dactylus 8 (1987): 92–95.

Sebastián Salazar Bondy


Luchting, Wolfgang A. “Sebastián Salazar Bondy’s Last Novel.” Journal of
Spanish Studies: Twentieth Century 1 (1973): 45–63.
Morris, R. J. “The Theatre of Sebastián Salazar Bondy.” Latin American The-
atre Review 4, no. 1 (1970): 59–71.
Spitta, Silvia. “Lima the Horrible: The Cultural Politics of Theft.” PMLA:
Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 122, no. 1
(2007): 294–300.

Luis Alberto Sánchez


Mead, Robert G., Jr. Homenaje a Luis Alberto Sánchez. Madrid: Insula; 1983.

Manuel Scorza
Aldaz, Anna-Marie. The Past of the Future: The Novelistic Cycle of Manuel
Scorza. New York: Peter Lang, 1990.
Estrada, Oswaldo. “Bakhtinian Approaches to the Indigenous World of Manuel
Scorza.” Romance Notes 47, no. 2 (2007): 153–61.
Rodríguez Ortiz, Oscar. Sobre narradores y héroes: a propósito de Arenas,
Scorza y Adoum. Caracas: Monte Avila, 1980.
Schmidt, Friedhelm. “Bibliografía de y sobre Manuel Scorza: nuevas apor-
taciones.” Revista de Critica Literaria Latinoamericana 19, no. 37 (1993):
355–59.
Shaw, Bradley A. “The Indigenista Novel in Peru after Arguedas: The Case
of Manuel Scorza.” Selecta: Journal of the Pacific Northwest Council on
Foreign Languages 3 (1982): 141–47.

Manuel Ascensio Segura


Albónico, Aldo. “Costumbrismo satírico peruano: la comedia Ña Catita de
Manuel Ascensio Segura.” In Romanticismo, VI: El costumbrismo román-
tico, edited by Joaquín Alvarez Barrientos et al., 11–19. Rome: Bulzoni,
1996.

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692 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cornejo Polar, Jorge. Estudios de literatura peruana. Lima: Universidad de


Lima, 1998.

Enrique Solari Swayne


Natella, A.A. “Enrique Solari Swayne and Collacocha.” Latin American The-
atre Review 4, no. 2 (1971): 39–44.
Vidal, Hernán. “Desarrollismo, teatro y cultura nacional peruana: No hay isla
feliz de Sebastián Salazar Bondy y Collacocha de Enrique Solari Swayne.”
Gestos: Teoría y Práctica del Teatro Hispánico 3, no. 5 (1988): 53–84.

Javier Sologuren
Cabrera, Miguel. “Milenaria luz: la metáfora polisémica en la poesía de Javier
Sologuren.” Cuadernos Americanos 259, no. 2 (1985): 189–204.
Granados, Pedro. “Estancias, síntesis de imágenes aéreas en la poesía de Javier
Sologuren.” In Encuentro Internacional de Peruanistas: Estado de los estu-
dios histórico-sociales sobre el Perú a fines del siglo XX, 2 vols., II: 339–51.
Lima: Universidad de Lima, 1998.
Zapata, Miguel Ángel. “Continuidad de la voz en Javier Sologuren.” Inti: Re-
vista de Literatura Hispánica 26–27 (1987–1988): 337–54.

Flora Tristán
Busse, Erika. “Flora Tristán and Peruvian Feminists in the Twentieth Century.”
Journal of Women’s History 15, no. 3 (2003): 124–28.
Dijkstra, Sandra. “The City as Catalyst for Flora Tristán’s Vision of Social
Change.” In Women Writers and the City: Essays in Feminist Literary Criti-
cism, edited by Susan Merrill Squier. Knoxville: University of Tennessee
Press, 1984.
Sivert, Eileen Boyd. “Flora Tristán: The Joining of Essay, Journal, Autobiog-
raphy.” In The Politics of the Essay: Feminist Perspectives, edited by Ruth-
Ellen Boetcher Joeres, and Elizabeth Mittman, 57–72. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1993.

Abraham Valdelomar
Arroyo Reyes, Carlos. “Luces y sombras del incaísmo modernista peruano:
el caso de los cuentos incaicos de Abraham Valdelomar.” Cuadernos His-

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 693

panoamericanos: Revista Mensual de Cultura Hispánica 539–540 (1995):


213–24.
Goldman, Myrna. “Color Imagery in Abraham Valdelomar’s Prose Fiction.”
Romance Quarterly 29, no. 2 (1982): 143–53.
Núñez, Estuardo. “Valdelomar y los orígenes de la vanguardia.” Hispamérica:
Revista de Literatura 20, no. 60 (1991): 133–40.

Juan del Valle y Caviedes


Costigan, Lúcia Helena S. “Colonial Literature and Social Reality in Brazil and
the Viceroyalty of Peru: The Satirical Poetry of Gregório de Matos and Juan
del Valle y Caviedes.” In Coded Encounters: Writing, Gender, and Ethnic-
ity in Colonial Latin America, edited by Francisco Javier Cevallos-Candau,
Jeffrey A. Cole, Nina M. Scott, and Nicomedes Suárez-Araúz, 87–100. Am-
herst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994.
Lasarte, Pedro. “En torno al sujeto americano en la poesía de Juan del Valle
y Caviedes.” In La Chispa ‘97: Selected Proceedings, edited by Claire J.
Paolini, 233–44. New Orleans: Tulane University, 1997.
Reedy, Daniel. “Juan del Valle y Caviedes a los tres siglos: olvidado y renom-
brado.” In Encuentro Internacional de Peruanistas: Estado de los estudios
histórico-sociales sobre el Perú a fines del siglo XX, 2 vols., II: 503–12.
Lima: Universidad de Lima, 1998.

César Vallejo
Beutler, Gisela, ed. César Vallejo: Actas del Coloquio Internacional, Freie
Universität Berlin 7–9 junio 1979. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1981.
Flores, Ángel, ed. Aproximaciones a César Vallejo. Long Island City: Las
Americas, 1971.
Franco, Jean. César Vallejo: The Dialectics of Poetry and Silence. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1976.
García, Mara L., ed. Poeta de los Andes: homenaje a César Vallejo. Lima:
Marsol Ediciones; 2008.
Hart, Stephen. Religión, política y ciencia en la obra de César Vallejo. London:
Támesis, 1987.
Higgins, James. Vision del hombre y de la vida en las ultimas obras de César
Vallejo. México, D.F.: Siglo XXI, 1970.
Larrea, Juan. César Vallejo y el surrealismo. Madrid: Visor, 1976.
Neale-Silva, Eduardo. César Vallejo en su fase trílcica. Madison: University
of Wisconsin Press, 1975.

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694 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sharman, Adam, ed. The Poetry and Poetics of César Vallejo: The Four Angles
of the Circle. Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen, 1997.

Blanca Varela
Barrientos Silva, Violeta. “Física y metafísica de la poesía de Blanca Varela.”
Revista de Literatura Ajos & Zafiros 3–4 (2002): 45–57.
Bermúdez, Silvia. “Extrañamiento y escritura: Blanca Varela y sus Ejercicios
materiales.” Tesserae: Journal of Iberian and Latin American Studies 7, no.
2 (2001): 117–27.
Muñoz Carrasco, Olga. “Voz y desvelo en la poesía de Blanca Varela.” Cua-
dernos Hispanoamericanos 668 (2006): 53–59.
Valdivia Baselli, Alberto. “Blanca Varela: panorámica de una conciencia que
despierta.” Revista de Literatura Ajos & Zafiros 3–4 (2002): 15–26.

Mario Vargas Llosa


Boland, Roy Charles. Mario Vargas Llosa: Oedipus and the ‘Papa’ State: A
Study of Individual and Social Psychology in Mario Vargas Llosas Novels of
Peruvian Reality: From “La ciudad y los perros” to “Historia de Mayta.”
Madrid: Voz, 1988.
Booker, M. Keith. Vargas Llosa among the Postmodernists. Gainesville: Uni-
versity Press of Florida, 1994.
Castro-Klarén, Sara. Understanding Mario Vargas Llosa. Columbia: Univer-
sity of South Carolina Press, 1990.
Fenwick, M. J. Dependency Theory and Literary Analysis: Reflections on Var-
gas Llosa’s “The Green House.” Minneapolis, Minn.: Institute for the Study
of Ideologies & Literatures, 1981.
Giacoman, Helmy F., ed. Homenaje a Mario Vargas Llosa: variaciones inter-
pretativas en torno a su obra. Long Island City, N.Y.: Anaya-Las Americas,
1972.
Köllmann, Sabine. Vargas Llosa’s Fiction and the Demons of Politics. Bern:
Peter Lang, 2002.
Kristal, Efraín. Temptation of the Word: The Novels of Mario Vargas Llosa.
Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press, 1998.
O’Bryan-Knight, Jean. The Story of the Storyteller: “La tía Julia y el es-
cribidor,” “Historia de Mayta,” and “El hablador” by Mario Vargas Llosa.
Amsterdam: Rodopi; 1995.
Vargas de Luna, Javier, ed. Perú en el espejo de Vargas Llosa. Puebla: Univer-
sidad de las Américas Puebla, 2008.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 695

Zapata, Miguel Ángel, ed. Mario Vargas Llosa and the Persistence of Memory.
Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 2006.

Emilio Adolfo Westphalen


Bary, Leslie. “El surrealismo en Hispanoamérica y el ‘yo’ de Westphalen.”
Revista de Critica Literaria Latinoamericana 14, no. 27 (1988): 97–110.
Llera, José Antonio. “La poesía de Emilio Adolfo Westphalen.” Cuadernos
Hispanoamericanos 623 (2002): 63–75.
Rodríguez, Néstor E. “La (po)ética negativa de Emilio Adolfo Westphalen.”
Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 83, no. 3 (2006): 193–202.

Agustín de Zárate
Hampe Martínez, Teodoro. “Agustín de Zárate: precisiones en torno a la vida
y obra de un cronista indiano.” Cahiers du Monde Hispanique et Luso-
Bresilien/Caravelle 45 (1985): 21–36.

URUGUAY

Resources: Bibliographies, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Achugar, Hugo, ed. El descontento y la promesa: nueva/joven narrativa uru-
guaya [anthology]. Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce, 2008.
Benedetti, Mario. Literatura uruguaya siglo XX. Montevideo: Alfa, 1969.
Bollo, Sarah. El modernismo en el Uruguay: ensayo estilístico. Montevideo:
Universidad de la República, 1976.
Englekirk, John E., and Margaret M. Ramos. La narrativa uruguaya; estudio
crítico-bibliográfico. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
Mariño, Roberto, ed. Compendio de literatura gauchesca del Uruguay. Monte-
video: Ediciones Polifemo, 2006.
Mirza, Roger, ed. Teatro uruguayo contemporáneo: antología. Madrid: Fondo
de Cultura Económica, 1992.
Moreira, Rubinstein, ed. Poesía compartida, veinte poetas uruguayos contem-
poráneos. Montevideo: Ediciones La Urpila, 1982.
Morón, Jorge, ed. El cuento uruguayo: narradores uruguayos de hoy [anthol-
ogy]. Montevideo: Ediciones La Gotera, 2002.
Oreggioni, Alberto, ed. Diccionario de literatura uruguaya. 3 vols. Montevi-
deo: Arca, 1987–1991.

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696 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Real de Azúa, Carlos, ed. Antología del ensayo uruguayo contemporáneo. 2


vols. Montevideo: Universidad de la República, 1964.
Rela, Walter. Diccionario de escritores uruguayos. Montevideo: Editorial. de
la Plaza, 1986.
———. Historia del teatro uruguayo 1808–1968. Montevideo: Ediciones
Banda Oriental, 1969.
———. Repertorio bibliográfico del teatro uruguayo, 1816–1964. Montevideo:
Síntesis, 1965.
Rodríguez Monegal, E. Literatura uruguaya del medio siglo. Montevideo:
Alfa, 1966.
Scott, Renée, ed. Escritoras uruguayas: una antología crítica. Montevideo:
Ediciones Trilce, 2002.
Trigo, Abril. Caudillo, estado, nación: literatura, historia e ideología en el
Uruguay. Gaithersburg, Md.: Hispamérica, 1990.
Visca, Arturo Sergio, ed. Antología del cuento uruguayo. 6 vols. Montevideo:
Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 1968.
Zum Felde, Alberto. Proceso intelectual del Uruguay. 3 vols. Montevideo:
Ediciones del Nuevo Mundo, 1967.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Eduardo Acevedo Díaz
Ainsa, Fernando. “De la novela de la historia a la novela histórica: el ejemplo
de Eduardo Acevedo Díaz.” Río de la Plata: Culturas 11–12 (1991): 135–46.
Crelis Secco, Susana. “La nación uruguaya en la literatura: Eduardo Acevedo
Díaz y la creación de una nación.” Alba de América: Revista Literaria 20,
nos. 37–38 (2001): 415–24.

Delmira Agustini
Escaja, Tina, ed. Delmira Agustini y el Modernismo: nuevas propuestas de
género. Rosario: Viterbo, 2000.
James, William. Dependence, Independence, and Death: Toward a Psychobi-
ography of Delmira Agustini. New York: Peter Lang, 2009.
Stephens, Doris T. Delmira Agustini and the Quest for Transcendence. Mon-
tevideo: Geminis, 1975.
Stiefel Ayala, Marta, ed. Proceedings of the International Literature Confer-
ence: Homage to Agustini, Ibarbourou, Mistral, Storni. Calexico, Calif.:
Institute for Border Studies, San Diego State University, 1991.

10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 696 11/4/10 7:40 AM


BIBLIOGRAPHY • 697

Enrique Amorim
Mose, Kendrick E. A. Enrique Amorim: The Passion of a Uruguayan. New
York: Plaza Mayor, 1972.
Rojas, Santiago. “El gaucho en Amorim: progreso y folklore vistos desde un
ángulo social.” Romance Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1991): 85–93.
Villamil, Ana María. “Realismo y fantástico en el universo de Enrique
Amorim.” Rio de la Plata: Culturas 4–6 (1987): 319–26.

Napoleón Baccino Ponce de León


Perkowska-Alvarez, Magdalena. “A Fool’s Point of View: Parody, Laughter,
and the History of the Discovery in Maluco: la novela de los descubridores
by Napoleón Baccino Ponce de León.” In A Twice-Told Tale: Reinventing
the Encounter in Iberian/Iberian American Literature and Film, edited by
Santiago Juan-Navarro and Theodore Robert Young, 253–74. Newark: Uni-
versity of Delaware Press, 2001.
Quintana Millamoto, María Esther. “Crónicas del bufón: aproximación crítica
a Maluco, la novela de los descubridores.” Montevideo: Linardi y Risso,
2008.

Mario Benedetti
Alemany, Carmen, ed. Mario Benedetti: inventario cómplice. Alicante: Uni-
versidad de Alicante, 1998.
Fornet, Ambrosio, ed. Recopilación de textos sobre Mario Benedetti. Havana:
Casa de las Americas, 1976.
Geldrich-Leffman, Hanna. “Body and Voice: The Dialogue of Marriage in the
Short Stories of Mario Benedetti.” Chasqui: Revista de Literatura Latino-
americana 25, no. 1 (1996): 39–51.
Gregory, Stephen W. G. Humanist Ethics or Realist Aesthetics? Torture,
Interrogation and Psychotherapy in Mario Benedetti. Victoria: La Trobe
University, 1991.
Jordan, Paul R. “From Bureaucratic Alienation to Political Exile: Evolving
Views of Uruguayan Identity in the Work of Mario Benedetti.” Modern
Language Review 100, no. 2 (2005): 383–95.
Tisnado, Carmen. “Performing the Unspeakable: Defeating Censorship in Two
Stories by Mario Benedetti.” In Censorship and Cultural Regulation in the
Modern Age, edited by Beate Müller, 169–87. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2004.

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698 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Andrés Castillo
Cordones-Cook, Juanamaría. “El teatro negro uruguayo de Andrés Castillo.”
Latin American Theatre Review 29, no. 2 (1996): 85–94.

Francisco Espínola
Martinez Moreno, Carlos. “Imagen múltiple de Francisco Espínola.” Texto
Crítico 2 (1975): 123–30.
Visca, Arturo Sergio. “Francisco Espínola, narrador.” Revista Iberoamericana
58, nos. 160–161 (1992): 975–99.

Eduardo Galeano
Bell, Virginia E. “Counter-Chronicling and Alternative Mapping in Memoria
del fuego and Almanac of the Dead.” MELUS 25, nos. 3–4 (2000): 5–30.
Fischlin, Daniel, and Martha Nandorfy. Eduardo Galeano: Through the Look-
ing Glass. Montreal: Black Rose, 2002.
Lovell, W. George. “Re-Membering America: The Historical Vision of Eduar-
do Galeano.” Queen’s Quarterly 99, no. 3 (1992): 609–17.
Palaversich, Diana. “Eduardo Galeano’s Memoria del fuego as Alternative His-
tory.” Antipodas: Journal of Hispanic Studies of the University of Auckland
and La Trobe University 3 (1991): 135–50.
Saz, Sara M. “Breath, Liberty, and the Word: Eduardo Galeano’s Interpretation
of History.” SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Council on Latin
American Studies 21 (1990): 59–70.
Wilson, S. R. “Eduardo Galeano: Exile and a Silenced Montevideo.” Chasqui:
Revista de Literatura Latinoamericana 9, nos. 2–3 (1980): 30–38.

Felisberto Hernández
Camarillo, Glenis. “Lo grotesco en el cuento ‘Ursula’ de Felisberto Hernán-
dez.” Revista de Literatura Hispanoamericana 48 (2004): 82–92.
Chichester, Ana Garcia. “Metamorphosis in Two Short Stories of the Fantastic
by Virgilio Piñera and Felisberto Hernández.” Studies in Short Fiction 31,
no. 3 (1994): 385–95.
Graziano, Frank. “An Introduction to Felisberto Hernández’s Poetics.” Indiana
Journal of Hispanic Literatures 2, no. 2 (1994): 185–201.
Hernández, Ana María. “Los objetos en tres cuentos de Felisberto Hernández.”
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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 699

Merrim, Stephanie. “Felisberto Hernández’s Aesthetic of ‘lo otro’: The Writ-


ing of Indeterminacy.” Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 11, no.
3 (1987): 521–540.
Rey Beckford, Ricardo. “Felisberto Hernández o la máscara de lo cotidiano.”
Ciberletras 13 (2005): n.p.
Sicard, Alain, ed. Felisberto Hernandez ante la critica actual. Caracas: Monte
Avila, 1977.
Sucre, Natalia. “Distracting Art: Reading Shock in Felisberto Hernández’s ‘Las
Hortensias.’” Hispania: A Journal Devoted to the Teaching of Spanish and
Portuguese 86, no. 3 (2003): 482–92.

Julio Herrera y Reissig


Burt, John R. “The Presence and Meaning of Dogs in Julio Herrera y Reissig’s
Los éxtasis de la montaña (eglogánimas).” Hispanic Journal 9, no. 2 (1988):
143–47.
Ferrari, Americo. “La poesía de Julio Herrera y Reissig.” Inti: Revista de Lit-
eratura Hispánica 5–6 (1977): 62–71.
Kirkpatrick, Gwen. The Dissonant Legacy of Modernismo: Lugones, Herrera
y Reissig, and the Voices of Modern Spanish American Poetry. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989.
———. “The Limits of modernismo: Delmira Agustini and Julio Herrera y Reis-
sig.” Romance Quarterly 36, no. 3 (1989): 307–14.

Sara de Ibáñez
Sternheim, Marci. “Sara de Ibáñez: The Battle to Create.” In In the Feminine
Mode: Essays on Hispanic Women Writers, edited by Noël Valis and Carol
Maier, 54–65. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1990.
Zapata, Celia de. “Two Poets of America: Juana de Asbaje and Sara de Ibáñez.”
In Latin American Women Writers: Yesterday and Today, edited by Yvette
E. Miller and Charles M. Tatum, 115–26. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Latin American
Literary Review, 1977.

Juana de Ibarbourou
Arbeleche, Jorge. Juana de Ibarbourou. Montevideo: Arca, 1980.
Contreras Romo, María del Rocío. “El placer de la palabra o la palabra del
placer, la poesía de Juana de Ibarbourou.” Espéculo: Revista de Estudios
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700 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

San Román, Gustavo. “Expression and Silence in the Poetry of Juana de Ibar-
bourou and Idea Vilariño.” In Women Writers in Twentieth-Century Spain
and Spanish America, edited by Catherine Davies. Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen,
1993.
Stiefel Ayala, Marta, ed. Proceedings of the International Literature Confer-
ence: Homage to Agustini, Ibarbourou, Mistral, Storni. Calexico, Calif.:
Institute for Border Studies, San Diego State University, 1991.

Antonio Lussich
Bynum, B. Brant. “The Evolution of Los tres gauchos orientales.” Hispanófila
31, no. 2 (1988): 68–75.

Carlos Maggi
Gregory, Stephen. “Maids, Ruminants and Pincushions: Carlos Maggi’s Essays
on the State of Uruguay.” AUMLA: Journal of the Australasian Universities
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Quackenbush, Louis Howard. “Theatre of the Absurd, Reality, and Carlos
Maggi.” Journal of Spanish Studies: Twentieth Century 3 (1975): 61–72.

Carlos Martínez Moreno


Harrison, Brady “‘The Gringos Perfected It in Vietnam’: Torture and the
American Adviser in Claribel Alegría’s Family Album and Carlos Martínez
Moreno’s El Infierno.” Atenea 26, no. 2 (2006): 9–19.
Young, Richard. “War Is Hell: Dante in Uruguay.” In Literature and War,
edited by David Bevan, 179–92. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990.

Tomás de Mattos
González Alvarez, José Manuel. “Metaficción y espejos de la escritura en La
fragata de las máscaras de Tomás de Mattos: una mirada rioplatense.” Río
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Juan Carlos Onetti


Ainsa, Fernando. Las trampas de Onetti. Montevideo: Editorial Alfa, 1970.
Chao, Ramón. Un posible Onetti. Barcelona: Ronsel, 1994.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 701

Giacoman, Helmy F., ed. Homenaje a Juan Carlos Onetti: variaciones inter-
pretativas en torno a su obra. Long Island City, N.Y.: Anaya-Las Americas,
1974.
Jones, Yvonne P. The Formal Expression of Meaning in Juan Carlos Onetti’s
Narrative Art. Cuernavaca: Centro Intercultural de Documentacion, 1971.
Kadir, Djelal. Juan Carlos Onetti. Boston: Twayne, 1977.
Maloof, Judy. Over Her Dead Body: The Construction of Male Subjectivity in
Onetti. New York: Peter Lang, 1995.
Milián-Silveira, María C. El primer Onetti y sus contextos. Madrid: Pliegos,
1986.
Millington, Mark. Reading Onetti: Language, Narrative and the Subject. Liv-
erpool: Cairns, 1985.
Verani, Hugo J., ed. Juan Carlos Onetti. Madrid: Taurus, 1987.

Cristina Peri Rossi


Cochrane, Helena Antolin. “Androgynous Voices in the Novels of Cristina Peri
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Cosse, Rómulo, ed. Cristina Peri Rossi, papeles críticos. Montevideo: Librería
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Damlé, Amaleena. “Gender Performance in the Work of Judith Butler and
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Feal, Rosemary Geisdorfer. “Queer Theory, Sexuality, and Women’s Writing
from Latin America: The Example of Cristina Peri Rossi.” Intertexts 1, no.
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Gilmour, Nicola. “Mothers, Muses and Male Narrators: Narrative Transvestism
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Ibáñez Quintana, Nuria. “Returning to Eros: Body and Language in Cristina
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Potvin, Claudine. “Gender, Photograph, and Desire: Visual Practices in El
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San Román, Gustavo. “Fantastic Political Allegory in the Early Work of Cris-
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702 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

José J. Podestá
Navarrete, José Francisco. “Aventuras de Juan Moreira en tierras huarpes.”
In Indagaciones sobre el fin de siglo (teatro iberoamericano y argentino),
edited by Osvaldo Pellettieri, 235–40. Buenos Aires: Galerna, Fundación
Roberto Arlt, 2000.
Podestá, Guido A. “La reescritura de Juan Moreira: la política del decorum en
el teatro argentino.” Latin American Theatre Review 25, no. 1 (1991): 7–19.

Teresa Porzecanski
Flori, Mónica. “De almíbares, perfumes y sedas: la recuperación histórico-
biográfica en Perfumes de Cartago de Teresa Porzecanski.” Alba de
América: Revista Literaria 17, no. 32 (1999): 235–43.
Flori, Mónica R. “Teresa Porzecanski.” Hispamérica: Revista de Literatura 30,
no. 89 (2001): 51–61.
Sum Scott, Renée. “Desarraigo e identidad: el inmigrante judío uruguayo en La
piel del alma, de Teresa Porzecanski.” In Memoria histórica, género e inter-
disciplinariedad: los estudios culturales hispánicos en el siglo XXI, edited
by Santiago Juan-Navarro and Joan Torres-Pou, 55–63. Madrid: Biblioteca
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Horacio Quiroga
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finities, edited by Lois Davis Vines, 239–43. Iowa City: University of Iowa
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drid: Gredos, 1973.
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1976.
French, Jennifer L. “‘A Geographical Inquiry into Historical Experience’: The
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Garth, Todd S. “Horacio Quiroga’s Heroic Paradigm.” Revista Canadiense de
Estudios Hispánicos 29, no. 3 (2005): 453–68.
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Orgambide, Pedro. Horacio Quiroga: una historia de vida. Buenos Aires:


Planeta, 1994.

Ángel Rama
Barros-Lémez, Alvaro, ed. Bibliografía sumaria: Ángel Rama: 1926–1983.
College Park: Department of Spanish and Portuguese, University of Mary-
land, 1984.
D’Allemand, Patricia. Hacia una crítica cultural latinoamericana. Berkeley,
Calif.: Latinoamericana, 2003.
González, José Eduardo. “Dialectics of Archaism and Modernity: Technique
and Primitivism in Ángel Rama’s Transculturación narrativa en América
Latina.” In Primitivism and Identity in Latin America: Essays on Art, Lit-
erature, and Culture, edited by Erik Camayd-Freixas and José Eduardo
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Larre Borges, Ana Inés. “Ángel Rama: la aventura de Marcha en su destino in-
telectual.” Exégesis: Revista de la Universidad de Puerto Rico en Humacao
19, nos. 54–56 (2006): 27–33.
Moraña, Mabel, ed. Ángel Rama y los estudios latinoamericanos. Pittsburgh,
Pa.: Instituto Internacional de Literatura Iberoamericana, 1997.
Perus, Françoise. “¿Qué nos dice hoy La ciudad letrada de Ángel Rama?”
Revista Iberoamericana 71, no. 211 (2005): 363–72.

Carlos Reyles
Ghiano, Juan Carlos. “Carlos Reyles en su centenario.” Cuadernos del Idioma:
Revista de Cultura y Pensamento 3 (1970): 133–49.
Grass, Roland. “Carlos Reyles and the Impact of the Symbolist-Decadent
Novel in Spanish America.” American Hispanist 2, no. 15 (1977): 11–13.
Llambias de Azevedo, Alfonso. “Cronología de Carlos Reyles.” Cuadernos del
Idioma: Revista de Cultura y Pensamento 3 (1970): 150–54.

José Enrique Rodó


Brotherston, Gordon. “The Literary World of José Enrique Rodó (1871–
1917).” In Homenaje a Luis Alberto Sánchez, edited by Robert G. Mead Jr.,
95–103. Madrid: Insula, 1983.
Costable de Amorín, Helena. Rodó: pensador y estilista. Montevideo: Aca-
demia Nacional de Letras, 1973.
Ette, Ottmar, ed. José Enrique Rodó y su tiempo: cien años de Ariel. Frankfurt:
Vervuert, 2000.

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Montero, Oscar. “Modernismo and Homophobia: Darío and Rodó.” In Sex and
Sexuality in Latin America, edited by Daniel Balderston and Donna J. Guy,
101–17. New York: New York University Press, 1997.
Rama, Ángel. Ariel. Motivos de Proteo. Caracas: Ayacucho, 1979.
Rodríguez Monegal, Emir. “Darío and Rodó: Two Versions of the Symbolist
Dream in Spanish American Letters.” In The Symbolist Movement in the
Literature of European Languages, edited by Anna Balakian, 669–77. Bu-
dapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1982.
San Román, Gustavo. “Political Tact in José Enrique Rodó’s Ariel.” Forum for
Modern Language Studies 36, no. 3 (2000): 279–95.
van Delden, Maarten. “The Survival of the Prettiest: Transmutations of Darwin
in José Enrique Rodó’s Ariel.” In Constellation Caliban: Figurations of
a Character, edited by Nadia Lie and Theo D’haen, 145–61. Amsterdam:
Rodopi, 1997.

Emir Rodríguez Monegal


Roggiano, Alfredo A. “Emir Rodríguez Monegal o el crítico necesario.” Re-
vista Iberoamericana 52, nos. 135–136 (1986): 623–30.

Mauricio Rosencof
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Rosencof.” Hipertexto 9 (2009): 95–105.
Wasem, Marcos. “Regímenes ficcionales de Las cartas que no llegaron de
Mauricio Rosencof.” LL Journal 1, no. 2 (2006): n.p.

Carlos Sabat Ercasty


Moran, Dominic. “Veinte poemas de amor 1: Turning Point or Synthesis?”
Bulletin of Spanish Studies: Hispanic Studies and Researches on Spain,
Portugal, and Latin America 84, no. 6 (2007): 759–76.
Rama, Carlos M. “Raíces españolas del poeta uruguayo Carlos Sabat Ercasty.”
Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos: Revista Mensual de Cultura Hispánica 333
(1978): 480–90.

Florencio Sánchez
Foster, David William. “Ideological Shift in the Rural Images in Florencio
Sánchez’s Theater.” Hispanic Journal 11, no. 1 (1990): 97–106.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 705

Gabriele, John P. “The Art of the Unexpressed: Silence as Rhetorical Device


in Barranca abajo.” Monographic Review/Revista Monográfica 16 (2000):
216–27.
Giordano, Enrique. La teatralización de la obra dramática: de Florencio Sán-
chez a Roberto Arlt. México, D.F.: Premià (Red de Jonás), 1982.
Taler, Fiona. “The Role of the Victim in the Plays of Florencio Sánchez.”
FULGOR: Flinders University Languages Group Online Review 1, no. 2
(2003): 14–22.

Armonía Somers
Biron, Rebecca E. “Armonía Somers ‘El despojo’: Masculine Subjectivity
and Fantasies of Domination.” Latin American Literary Review 21, no. 42
(1993): 7–20.
Clark, Maria B. “Desirous Fiction or ‘El hombre del túnel’ by Armonía
Somers.” RLA: Romance Languages Annual 4 (1992): 404–10.
Dalmagro, María Cristina. “The Reversal of Innocence: Somers, Dickens, and
a ‘Shared Oliver.’” Dickens Studies Annual: Essays on Victorian Fiction 36
(2005): 319–30.
Niebylski, Dianna C. Humoring Resistance: Laughter and the Excessive Body
in Latin American Womens Fiction. Albany: State University of New York
Press, 2004.
Potvin, Claudine. “De-Scribing Postmodern Feminism.” In Latin American Post-
modernisms, edited by Richard A.Young, 221–37. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997.
Snook, Margaret L. “Who’s Pulling the St(r)ing? Gender and Class in Armonía
Somers’s ‘Muerte por alacrán.’” Ciberletras 13 (2005): n.p.
Sullivan, Mary-Lee. “The Imaginary Real in Three Short Stories by Armonía
Somers.” Cincinnati Romance Review 23 (2004): 165–82.

María Eugenia Vaz Ferreira


Fernandez Alonso, Maria del Rosario. “Angustia existencial en la poesía
de María Eugenia Vaz Ferreira: breve homenaje en el centenario de su
nacimiento: 1875–1924.” Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos: Revista Mensual
de Cultura Hispánica 303 (1975): 634–52.
Perricone, Catherine R. “Un acercamiento revisionista al modernismo: el caso
de María Eugenia Vaz Ferreira.” In Studies in Honor of Gilberto Paolini,
edited by Mercedes Vidal Tibbits, 423–39. Newark, Del.: Juan de la Cuesta,
1996.
Trueba Mira, Virginia. “La identidad poética de María Eugenia Vaz Ferreira.”
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706 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Javier de Viana
Garganigo, John F. Javier de Viana. New York: Twayne, 1972.

Idea Vilariño
Berry-Bravo, Judy. “Idea Vilariño’s Negation of Poetry.” Monographic Re-
view/Revista Monografica 6 (1990): 282–92.
———. “Poemas de amor de Idea Vilariño: experimento con el discurso amo-
roso.” La Torre: Revista de la Universidad de Puerto Rico 9, no. 34 (1995):
175–89.
San Román, Gustavo. “Expression and Silence in the Poetry of Juana de Ibar-
bourou and Idea Vilariño.” In Women Writers in Twentieth-Century Spain
and Spanish America, edited by Catherine Davies, 157–75. Lewiston, N.Y.:
Mellen, 1993.

Ida Vitale
Ramond, Michèle. “La noche alquímica de Ida Vitale.” Nuevo Texto Crítico 3,
no. 1 (1990): 132–52.
Villanueva, Alberto. “Notas sobre Reducción del infinito de Ida Vitale.” Hi-
pertexto 4 (2006): 148–54.
———. “Soltar el mirlo: noticia de lo imposible alcanzado por Ida Vitale.” His-
pamérica: Revista de Literatura 31, no. 91 (2002): 111–17.
Zapata, Miguel Ángel. “Ida Vitale: entre lo claro y lo conciso del poema.” Inti:
Revista de Literatura Hispánica 26–27 (1987–1988): 355–61.

Juan Zorilla de San Martín


Bente, Thomas O. “Cumandá y Tabaré: dos cumbres del indianismo romántico
hispanoamericano.” Revista Interamericana de Bibliografia/Inter-American
Review of Bibliography 41, no. 1 (1991): 15–23.
Esquer Torres, Ramón. “Juan Zorrilla de San Martín y Gustavo Adolfo Béc-
quer.” Revista de Filología Española 52 (1971): 537–61.
Frederick, Bonnie “Reading the Warning: The Reader and the Image of the
Captive Woman.” Chasqui: Revista de Literatura Latinoamericana 18, no.
2 (1989): 3–11.
San Román, Gustavo. “Negotiating Nationhood: The Repressed Desire of the
Native in Tabaré.” Forum for Modern Language Studies 29, no. 4 (1993):
300–10.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY • 707

Alberto Zum Felde


Cortazzo, Uruguay. “Crítica literaria, colonialismo e identidad en Alberto Zum
Felde.” Revue Romane 18, no. 2 (1983): 228–39.
———. “Tradición y renovación en la crítica literaria del Uruguay.” Cuadernos
Americanos 2, no. 3 (1988): 137–51.

VENEZUELA

Resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Histories, Anthologies


Aray, Edmundo. Aquí Venezuela cuenta [anthology]. Montevideo: ARCA, 1968.
———, ed. Poesía venezolana: antología esencial. Madrid: Visor Libros, 2005.
Belrose, M. La época del modernismo en Venezuela: 1988–1925. Caracas:
Monte Avila, 1996.
Bibliografía de la novela venezolana. Caracas: Universidad Central de Ven-
ezuela, 1963.
Diccionario general de la literatura venezolana. Mérida: Editorial Venezolana,
1987.
Hidalgo de Jesús, Amarilis. La novela moderna en Venezuela. New York: Peter
Lang, 1995.
Kohut, Karl, ed. Literatura venezolana hoy: historia nacional y presente ur-
bano. Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela, 2004.
———. 10 novelas venezolanas. Caracas: Monte Avila Editores, 1972.
Larrazábal Henríquez, Osvaldo, et al. Bibliografía del cuento venezolano. Ca-
racas: Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1975.
Liscano, Juan. Panorama de la literatura venezolana actual. Caracas: Alfadil,
1995.
Medina, José Ramón. Noventa años de literatura venezolana (1900–1990).
Caracas: Monte Avila Editores, 1993.
Meneses, Guillermo. Antología del cuento venezolano. Caracas: Monte Ávila
Editores, 1994.
Monasterios, Rubén. Un enfoque crítico del teatro venezolano. Caracas: Monte
Ávila Editores, 1975.
Pantin, Yolanda, and Ana Teresa Torres, eds. El hilo de la voz: antología
crítica de escritoras venezolanas del siglo XX. Caracas: Fundación Polar and
Angria Ediciones, 2003.
Picón-Salas, Mariano. Formación y proceso de la literatura venezolana. Cara-
cas: Monte Ávila, 1984.
Ramos Guédez, José Marcial. El negro en la novela venezolana. Caracas: Uni-
versidad Central de Venezuela, 1980.

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708 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rodríguez B., Orlando, ed. Teatro venezolano contemporáneo: antología. Ma-


drid: Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario and Fondo de Cultura Económica,
1991.
Salas, Alejandro, ed. Antología comentada de la poesía venezolana. Caracas:
Alfadil Ediciones, 1989.
Sambrano Urdaneta, Oscar. Contribución a una bibliografía general de la poe-
sía venezolana en el siglo XX. Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela,
1979.
Suárez Radillo, Carlos Miguel, ed. 13 autores del nuevo teatro venezolano Lar-
razábal Henríquez, Osvaldo. Caracas: Monte Ávila, 1971.

Select Bibliography for Specific Writers


Rafael Arráiz Lucca
Flores, María Antonieta. “La inevitable visión sombría.” Inti: Revista de Lit-
eratura Hispánica 37–38 (1993): 253–55.

Andrés Bello
Avila Martel, Alamiro de, ed. Estudios sobre la vida y obra de Andrés Bello.
Santiago: Editoral de la Universidad de Chile, 1973.
Jaksic, Iván. Andrés Bello: Scholarship and Nation-Building in Nineteenth-
Century Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Millares Carlo, Agustín. Bibliografía de Andrés Bello. Madrid: Fundación
Universitaria. Española, 1978.
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José Ignacio Cabrujas


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Francisco Herrera Luque


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Guillermo Meneses
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Enrique Bernardo Núñez


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Cifra Nueva: Revista de Cultura 1 (1992): 11–15.
Carrera, Gustavo Luis. “Cubagua y la fundación de la novela venezolana
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Miguel Otero Silva


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Ramón Palomares
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Revista de Literatura Hispanoamericana 36 (1998): 25–42.

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gies in Teresa de la Parra’s Influencia de la mujer en la formación del alma
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Mariano Picón Salas


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Picón-Salas.” Hispanófila 125 (1999): 23–36.
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716 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

José Antonio Ramos Sucre


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César Rengifo
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César Rengifo.” Latin American Theatre Review 5, no. 2 (1972): 51–61.

Osvaldo Trejo
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———. “Oswaldo Trejo: pautas para una propuesta de la (in)comunicación li-
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Arturo Uslar Pietri


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10_479_12_Bibliography3.indd 718 11/4/10 7:40 AM
About the Authors

Richard Young (B.A., University of London; Ph.D., University of


Alberta) is professor emeritus of Spanish and Latin American studies at
the University of Alberta, Canada, where he taught for almost 40 years.
He is the author of books on the Spanish dramatist Lope de Vega and
on the Latin American novelists Alejo Carpentier, Julio Cortázar, and
Agustín Yáñez. His publications include numerous articles on many
other Latin American authors and on aspects of Latin American culture,
as well as books in translation and bibliography. His edited volumes
include Latin American Postmodernisms (Amsterdam, 1997); Music,
Popular Culture, Identities (Amsterdam, 2002); and, in collaboration
with Stephen Hart, Contemporary Latin American Cultural Studies
(London, 2003). He was editor of Revista Canadiense de Estudios His-
pánicos from 1996 until 2003. His most recent book is Cultures of the
City (Pittsburgh, 2010), edited in collaboration with Amanda Holmes.

Odile Cisneros (B.A., Wellesley College; Ph.D., New York Univer-


sity) is associate professor in the Department of Modern Languages
and Cultural Studies and the Program in Comparative Literature at the
University of Alberta. She is the author of reviews and articles on Latin
American literature, particularly Mexican and Brazilian, in interna-
tional journals. She coedited Novas: Selected Writings of Haroldo de
Campos (Northwestern University Press, 2007). Prof. Cisneros is also
an active literary translator and has published book-length translations
of work by Régis Bonvicino, Rodrigo Rey Rosa, and Jaroslav Seifert.

719

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