Sentence Structure: A Complete Guide (With Examples & Tasks)

Parts of Speech: The Ultimate Guide for Students and Teachers

What are Parts of Speech?
ust as a skilled bricklayer must get to grips with the trowel, brick hammer, tape measure, and spirit level, the student-writer
must develop a thorough understanding of the tools of their trade too.

In English, words can be categorized according to their common syntactic function in a sentence, i.e. the job they perform.

We call these different categories Parts of Speech. Understanding the various parts of speech and how they work has several
compelling benefits for our students.

Without first acquiring a firm grasp of the various parts of speech, students will struggle to fully comprehend how language
works. This is essential not only for the development of their reading comprehension but their writing skills too.

Parts of speech are the core building blocks of grammar. To understand how a language works at a sentence and a whole-
text level, we must first master parts of speech.
In English, we can identify eight of these individual parts of speech, and these will provide the focus for our Complete
Guide to Parts of Speech.

NOUNS

Often the first word that a child speaks will be a noun, for example, Mum, Dad, cow, dog, etc.

Nouns are naming words, and, as most school kids can recite, they are the names of people, places, and things. But,
what isn’t as widely understood by many of our students is that nouns can be further classified into more specific
categories. 

These categories are:

1. Common Nouns
2. Proper Nouns
3. Concrete Nouns
4. Abstract Nouns
5. Collective Nouns
 6. Countable Nouns
7. Uncountable Nouns

All nouns can be classified as either common or proper.

Common Nouns
Common nouns are the general names of people, places, and things. They are groups or classes on their own, rather than
specific types of people, places, or things such as we find in proper nouns.

Common nouns can be further classified as abstract or concrete – more on this shortly!

Some examples of common nouns include:

People: teacher, author, engineer, artist, singer.

Places: country, city, town, house, garden.

Things: language, trophy, magazine, movie, book.

Proper Nouns
Proper nouns are the specific names for people, places, and things. Unlike common nouns, which are always lowercase,
proper nouns are capitalized. This makes them easy to identify in a text.

Where possible, using proper nouns in place of common nouns helps bring precision to a student’s writing.

Some examples of proper nouns include:

People: Mrs Casey, J.K. Rowling, Nikola Tesla, Pablo Picasso, Billie Eilish.

Places: Australia, San Francisco, Llandovery, The White House, Gardens of Versailles.

Things: Bulgarian, The World Cup, Rolling Stone, The Lion King, The Hunger Games.

Nouns Teaching Activity: Common vs Proper Nouns

 Provide students with books suitable for their current reading level.
 Instruct students to go through a page or two and identify all the nouns.
 Ask students to sort these nouns into two lists according to whether they are common nouns or proper nouns.

As mentioned, all common and proper nouns can be further classified as either concrete or abstract.

Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is any noun that can be experienced through one of the five senses. In other words, if you can see, smell,
hear, taste, or touch it, then it’s a concrete noun.

Some examples of concrete nouns include:

 Platypus
 Perfume
 Tune
 Lemon
 Tornado

Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns refer to those things that can’t be experienced or identified through the five senses.

They are not physical things we can perceive but, instead, intangible concepts and ideas, qualities and states.
Some examples of abstract nouns include:

 Freedom
 Courage
 Beauty
 Wellbeing
 Love

Nouns Teaching Activity: Concrete Vs. Abstract Nouns

 Provide students with a book suitable for their current reading level.
 Instruct students to go through a page or two and identify all the nouns (the lists from Practice Activity #1 may be
suitable).
 This time, ask students to sort these nouns into two lists according to whether they are concrete or abstract nouns.

Collective Nouns
A collective noun is the name of a group of people or things. That is, a collective noun always refers to more than one of
something.

Some examples of collective nouns include:

People: a board of directors, a team of football players, a cast of actors, a band of musicians, a class of students.

Places: a range of mountains, a suite of rooms, a union of states, a chain of islands.

Things: a bale of hay, a constellation of stars, a bag of sweets, a school of fish, a flock of seagulls.
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are nouns that refer to things that can be counted. They come in two flavors: singular and plural.

In their singular form, countable nouns are often preceded by the article, e.g. a, an, or, the.

In their plural form, countable nouns are often preceded by a number. They can also be used in conjunction with quantifiers
such as a few and many.

Singular Plural

a driver two drivers

the house the houses

Some examples of an apple a few apples countable

nouns include:
dog dogs
COUNTABLE
NOUNS EXAMPLES
Uncountable Nouns
Also known as mass nouns, uncountable nouns are, as their name suggests, impossible to count. Abstract ideas such
as bravery and compassion are uncountable, as are things like liquid and bread.

These types of nouns are always treated in the singular and usually do not have a plural form. 

They can stand alone or be used in conjunction with words and phrases such as any, some, a little, a lot of, and much.
Some examples of uncountable nouns include:

Advice

Money

Baggage

Danger

Warmth

Milk

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS EXAMPLES
Nouns Teaching Activity: How many can you list?

 Organize students into small groups to work collaboratively.

 Challenge students to list as many countable and uncountable nouns as they can in ten minutes.
 To make things more challenging, stipulate that there must be an uncountable noun and a countable noun to gain a
point.
  The winning group is the one that scores the most points.

VERBS
Without a verb, there is no sentence! Verbs are the words we use to represent both internal and external actions or
states of being. Without a verb, nothing happens.

There are many different types of verbs. Here, we will look at five important verb forms organised according to the jobs
they perform:

1. Dynamic Verbs
2. Stative Verbs
3. Transitive Verbs
4. Intransitive Verbs
5. Auxiliary Verbs

Each verb can be classified as being either an action or a stative verb.

Dynamic Verbs
Dynamic or action verbs describe the physical activity performed by the subject of a sentence. This type of verb is usually
the first we learn as children. 

For example, run, hit, throw, hide, eat, sleep, watch, write, etc. are all dynamic verbs, as is any action performed by the
body.

Let’s see a few examples in sentences:

 I jogged around the track three times.

 She will dance as if her life depends on it.
 She took a candy from the bag, unwrapped it, and popped it into her mouth.

If a verb doesn’t describe a physical activity, then it is a stative verb.

Stative Verbs
Stative verbs refer to states of being, conditions, or mental processes. Generally, we can classify stative verbs into four
types:

 Senses
 Emotions/Thoughts
 Being
 Possession

Some examples of stative verbs include: 

Senses: hurt, see, smell, taste, hear, etc.

Emotions: love, doubt, desire, remember, believe, etc.

Being: be, have, require, involve, contain, etc.

Possession: want, include, own, have, belong, etc.

Here are some stative verbs at work in sentences:

 That is one thing we can agree on.

 I remember my first day at school like it was yesterday.
 The university requires students to score at least 80%.
 She has only three remaining.

Sometimes verbs can fit into more than one category, e.g., be, have, look, see, e.g.,

 She looks beautiful. (Stative)

 I look through the telescope. (Dynamic)

Each action or stative verb can also be further classified as transitive or intransitive.

Transitive Verbs
A transitive verb takes a direct object after it. The object is the noun, noun phrase, or pronoun that has something done to it
by the subject of the sentence.

We see this in the most straightforward English sentences, i.e., the Subject-Verb-Object or SVO sentence. 

Here are two examples to illustrate. Note: the subject of each sentence is underlined, and the transitive verbs are in bold.

 The teacher answered the student’s questions.

 She studies languages at university.
 My friend loves cabbage.

Most sentences in English employ transitive verbs.

Intransitive Verbs
An intransitive verb does not take a direct object after it. It is important to note that only nouns, noun phrases, and pronouns
can be classed as direct objects. 

Here are some examples of intransitive verbs – notice how none of these sentences has direct objects after their verbs.

 Jane’s health improved.
 The car ran smoothly.
 The school opens at 9 o’clock.

Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs, also known as ‘helping’ verbs, work with other verbs to affect the meaning of a sentence. They do this by
combining with a main verb to alter the sentence’s tense, mood, or voice.

Auxiliary verbs will frequently use not in the negative.

There are relatively few auxiliary verbs in English. Here is a list of the main ones:

 be (am, are, is, was, were, being)

 can
 could
 do (did, does, doing)
 have (had, has, having)
 may
 might
 must
 shall
 should
 will
 would
Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs (in bold) in action alongside a main verb (underlined).

 She is working as hard as she can.

 You must not eat dinner until after five o’clock.
 The parents may come to the graduation ceremony.

The Subject-Auxiliary Inversion Test

To test whether or not a verb is an auxiliary verb, you can use the Subject-Auxiliary Inversion Test.

1. Take the sentence, e.g:

She is working as hard as she can.

2. Now, invert the subject and the suspected auxiliary verb to see if it creates a question.

Is she working as hard as she can?

3. Can it take ‘not’ in the negative form?

She is not working as hard as she can.

4. If the answer to both of these questions is yes, you have an auxiliary verb. If not, you have a full verb.

Verbs Teaching Activity: Identify the Verbs

 Provide students with books suitable for their current reading level.
 Instruct students to go through an appropriate text length (e.g., paragraph, page, etc.) and compile a list of verbs.
 In groups, students should then discuss and categorize each verb according to whether they think they are dynamic or
stative, transitive or intransitive, and/or auxiliary verbs.
ADJECTIVES
The job of an adjective is to modify a noun or a pronoun. It does this by describing, quantifying, or identifying the
noun or pronoun. Adjectives help to make writing more interesting and specific. Usually, the adjective is placed
before the word it modifies.

As with other parts of speech, not all adjectives are the same. There are many different types of adjectives and, in this
article, we will look at:

1. Descriptive Adjectives
2. Degrees of Adjectives
3. Quantitative Adjectives
4. Demonstrative Adjectives
5. Possessive Adjectives
6. Interrogative Adjectives
7. Proper Adjectives
8. Articles
Descriptive Adjectives
Descriptive adjectives are what most students think of first when asked what an adjective is. Descriptive adjectives tell us
something about the quality of the noun or pronoun in question. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to
as qualitative adjectives.

Some examples of this type of adjective include:

 beautiful
 enormous
 impressive
 golden
 hard-working

In sentences, they look like this:

 The pumpkin was enormous.

 It was an impressive feat of athleticism I ever saw.
 Undoubtedly, this was an exquisite vase.
 She faced some tough competition.

Degrees of Adjectives 
Descriptive adjectives have three degrees to express varying degrees of intensity and to compare one thing to another. These
degrees are referred to as positive, comparative, and superlative.

The positive degree is the regular form of the descriptive adjective when no comparison is being made, e.g., strong.

The comparative degree is used to compare two people, places, or things, e.g., stronger.

There are several ways to form the comparative, methods include:

  Adding more or less before the adjective
 Adding -er to the end of one
syllable Positive Comparative Superlative adjectives
 For two- syllable adjectives
ending in y, beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
change the y to
an i and add - er to the end.

The superlative degr delicious less delicious least delicious ee is typically used

when comparing three or more things to
denote the upper or near nearer nearest lowermost limit of a
quality, e.g., strongest.
happy happier happiest
There are several ways to form the
superlative, including:
bad worse worst
 Adding most o r least before the
adjective
 Adding -est to the end of one syllable adjectives
 For two-syllable adjectives ending in y, change the y to an i and add -est to the end.

There are also some irregular adjectives of degree that follow no discernible pattern that must be learned off by students,
e.g., good – better – best.

Let’s take a look at these degrees of adjectives in their different forms.

Let’s take a quick look at some sample sentences:

Positive
  It was a beautiful example of kindness. 

Comparative

 The red is nice, but the green is prettier.

Superlative

 This mango is the most delicious fruit I have ever tastiest. 

Quantitative Adjectives
Quantitive adjectives provide information about how many or how much of the noun or pronoun.

Some quantitive adjectives include:

 She only ate half of her sandwich.

 This is my first time here.
 I would like three slices, please.
 There isn’t a single good reason to go.
 There aren’t many places like it.
 It’s too much of a good thing.
 I gave her a whole box of them.

Demonstrative Adjectives
A demonstrative adjective identifies or emphasizes a noun’s place in time or space. The most common demonstrative
adjectives are this, that, these, and those.

Here are some examples of demonstrative adjectives in use:

 This boat is mine.
  That car belongs to her.
 These shoes clash with my dress.
 Those people are from Canada.

Possessive Adjectives
Possessive adjectives show ownership, and they are sometimes confused with possessive pronouns.

The most common possessive adjectives are my, your, his, her, our, and their.

Students need to be careful not to confuse these with possessive pronouns such as mine, yours, his (same in both
contexts), hers, ours, and theirs.

Here are some examples of possessive adjectives in sentences:

 My favorite food is sushi.

 I would like to read your book when you have finished it.
 I believe her car is the red one.
 This is their way of doing things.
 Our work here is done.

Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives ask questions, and, in common with many types of adjectives, they are always followed by a noun.
Basically, these are the question words we use to start questions. Be careful however, interrogative adjectives modify nouns.
If the word after the question word is a verb, then you have an interrogative adverb on hand.

Some examples of interrogative adjectives include what, which, and whose.

Let’s take a look at these in action:

 What drink would you like?

  Which car should we take?
 Whose shoes are these?

Please note: Whose can also fit into the possessive adjective category too.

Proper Adjectives
We can think of proper adjectives as the adjective form of proper nouns – remember those? They were the specific names of
people, places, and things and need to be capitalized.

Let’s take the proper noun for the place America. If we wanted to make an adjective out of this proper noun to describe
something, say, a car we would get ‘American car’.

Let’s take a look at another few examples:

 Joe enjoyed his cup of Ethiopian coffee.

 My favorite plays are Shakespearean tragedies.
 No doubt about it, Fender guitars are some of the best in the world.
 The Mona Lisa is a fine example of Renaissance art.

Articles
Though it may come as a surprise to some, articles are also adjectives as, like all adjectives, they modify nouns. Articles
help us determine a noun’s specification. 

For example, ‘a’ and ‘an’ are used in front of an unspecific noun, while ‘the’ is used when referring to a specific noun.

Let’s see some articles as adjectives in action!

 You will find an apple inside the cupboard.

 This is a car.
 The recipe is a family secret.
Adjectives Teaching Activity: Types of Adjective Tally

 Choose a suitable book and assign an appropriate number of pages or length of a chapter for students to work with.

Adjective Types Tally

Descriptive

Comparative

Superlative

Quantitative

Demonstrative

Possessive

Interrogative

Proper

Articles
  Students work their way through each page, tallying up the number of each type of adjective they can identify using a
table like the one below:

 Note how degrees of adjective has been split into comparative and superlative. The positive forms will take care of in
the descriptive category.
 You may wish to adapt this table to exclude the easier categories to identify, such as articles and demonstrative, for
example.

ADVERBS

Traditionally, adverbs are defined as those words that modify verbs, but they do so much more than that. They can
be used not only to describe how verbs are performed but also to modify adjectives, other adverbs, clauses,
prepositions, or entire sentences.

With such a broad range of tasks at the feet of the humble adverb, it would be impossible to cover every possibility in this
article alone. However, there are five main types of adverbs our students should familiarize themselves with. These are:

1. Adverbs of Manner
 2. Adverbs of Time
3. Adverbs of Frequency
4. Adverbs of Place
5. Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner describe how or the way in which something happens or is done. This type of adverb is often the first
type taught to students. Many of these end with -ly. Some common examples include happily, quickly, sadly, slowly,
and fast.

Here are a few taster sentences employing adverbs of manner:

 She cooks Chinese food well.

 The children played happily together.
 The students worked diligently on their projects.
 Her mother taught her to cross the road carefully.
 The date went badly.

Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time indicate when something happens. Common adverbs of time
include before, now, then, after, already, immediately, and soon.

Here are some sentences employing adverbs of time:

 I go to school early on Wednesdays.
 She would like to finish her studies eventually.
 Recently, Sarah moved to Bulgaria.
 I have already finished my homework.
 They have been missing training lately.
Adverbs of Frequency
While adverbs of time deal with when something happens, adverbs of frequency are concerned with how often something
happens. Common adverbs of frequency include always, frequently, sometimes, seldom, and never.

Here’s what they look like in sentences:

 Harry usually goes to bed around ten.

 Rachel rarely eats breakfast in the morning.
 Often, I’ll go home straight after school.
 I occasionally have ketchup on my pizza.
 She seldom goes out with her friends.

Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of place, as the name suggests, describe where something happens or where it is. They can refer to position,
distance, or direction. Some common adverbs of place include above, below, beside, inside, and anywhere.

Check out some examples in the sentences below:

 Underneath the bridge, there lived a troll.

 There were pizzerias everywhere in the city.
 We walked around the park in the pouring rain.
 If the door is open, then go inside.
 When I am older, I would like to live nearby.

Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of degree express the degree to which or how much of something is done. They can also be used to describe levels
of intensity. Some common adverbs of degree include barely, little, lots, completely, and entirely.

Here are some adverbs of degree at work in sentences:

  I hardly noticed her when she walked into the room.
 The little girl had almost finished her homework.
 The job was completely finished.
 I was so delighted to hear the good news.
 Jack was totally delighted to see Diane after all these years.

Adverb Teaching Activity: The Adverb Generator

 Organize students into small groups to work collaboratively.

 Give students a worksheet containing a table divided into five columns. Each column bears a heading of one of the
different types of adverbs (manner, time, frequency, place, degree).
 Challenge each group to generate as many different examples of each adverb type and record these in the table.
 The winning group is the one with the most adverbs. As a bonus, or tiebreaker, task the students to make sentences
with some of the adverbs.

PRONOUNS
Pronouns are used in place of a specific noun used earlier in a sentence. They are helpful when the writer wants to
avoid repetitive use of a particular noun such as a name. For example, in the following sentences, the pronoun she is
used to stand for the girl’s name Mary after it is used in the first sentence. 

Mary loved traveling. She had been to France, Thailand, and Taiwan already, but her favorite place in the world was
Australia. She had never seen an animal quite as curious-looking as the duck-billed platypus.

We also see her used in place of Mary’s in the above passage. There are many different pronouns and, in this article, we’ll
take a look at:

1. Subject Pronouns
2. Object Pronouns
3. Possessive Pronouns
4. Reflexive Pronouns
5. Intensive Pronouns
6. Demonstrative Pronouns
7. Interrogative Pronouns

Subject Pronouns
Subject pronouns are the type of pronoun most of us think of when we hear the term pronoun. They operate as the subject of
a verb in a sentence. They are also known as personal pronouns.

The subject pronouns are:

 I
 You
 He
 She
 It
 We
  They
 Who

Here are a few examples of subject pronouns doing what they do best:

 Sarah and I went to the movies last Thursday night.

 That is my pet dog. It is an Irish Wolfhound.
 My friends are coming over tonight, they will be here at seven.
 We won’t all fit into the same car.
 You have done a fantastic job with your grammar homework!

Object Pronouns
Object pronouns operate as the object of a verb, or a preposition, in a sentence. They act in the same way as object nouns
but are used when it is clear what the object is.

The object pronouns are:

 Me
 You
 Him
 Her
 It
 Us
 Them
 Whom

Here are a few examples of object pronouns in sentences:

 I told you, this is a great opportunity for you.

 Give her some more time, please.
  I told her I did not want to do it.
 That is for us.
 Catherine is the girl whom I mentioned in my letter.

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns indicate ownership of a noun. For example, in the sentence:

These books are mine.

The word mine stands for my books. It’s important to note that while possessive pronouns look similar to possessive
adjectives, their function in a sentence is different.

The possessive pronouns are:

 Mine
 Yours
 His
 Hers
 Its
 Ours
 Theirs
 Whose

Let’s take a look at how these are used in sentences:

 Yours is the yellow jacket.

 I hope this ticket is mine.
 The train that leaves at midnight is theirs.
 Ours is the first house on the right.
 She is the person whose opinion I value most.
  I believe that is his.

Reflexive pronouns are used in instances where the object and the subject are the same. For example, in the sentence, she
did it herself, the words she and herself refer to the same person.

Reflexive Pronouns
The reflexive pronoun forms are:

 Myself
 Yourself
 Yourselves
 Himself
 Herself
 Itself
 Ourselves
 Themselves

Here are a few more examples of reflexive pronouns at work:

 I told myself that numerous times.

 He got himself a new computer with his wages.
 We will go there ourselves.
 You must do it yourself.
 The only thing to fear is fear itself.

Intensive Pronouns
This type of pronoun can be used to indicate emphasis. For example, when we write, I spoke to the manager herself, the
point is made that we talked to the person in charge and not someone lower down the hierarchy. 
Similar to the reflexive pronouns above, we can easily differentiate between reflexive and intensive pronouns by asking if
the pronoun is essential to the sentence’s meaning. If it isn’t, then it is used solely for emphasis, and therefore, it’s an
intensive rather than a reflexive pronoun.

Demonstrative Pronouns
Often confused with demonstrative adjectives, demonstrative pronouns can stand alone in a sentence.

When this, that, these, and those are used as demonstrative adjectives they come before the noun they modify. When these
same words are used as demonstrative pronouns, they replace a noun rather than modify it.

Here are some examples of demonstrative pronouns in sentences:

 This is delicious.
 That is the most beautiful thing I have ever seen.
 These are not mine.
 Those belong to the driver.

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to form questions. They are the typical question words that come at the start of questions,
with a question mark coming at the end. The interrogative pronouns are:

 Who
 Whom
 What
 Which
 Whose

Putting them into sentences looks like this:

  What is the name of your best friend?
 Which of these is your favourite?
 Who goes to the market with you?
 Whom do you think will win?
 Whose is that?

Pronoun Teaching Activity: Pronoun Review Table

 Provide students with a review table like the one below to revise the various pronoun forms.
 They can use this table to help them produce independent sentences.
 Once students have had a chance to familiarize themselves thoroughly with each of the different types of pronouns,
provide the students with the headings and ask them to complete a table from memory.  

Subject Object Possessive Reflexive Intensive Demonstrative Interrogative

Pronoun Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns
s

I me my myself myself this what

You you your yourself yourself that which

He him his himself himself these who

She her her herself herself those whom

It it its itself itself whose

 We us our ourselves ourselves

You you your yourselves yourselves

They them their themselves themselves

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions provide extra information showing the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another part of a
sentence. These are usually short words that come directly before nouns or pronouns, e.g., in, at, on, etc.
There are, of course, many different types of prepositions, each relating to particular types of information. In this article, we
will look at:

1. Prepositions of Time
2. Prepositions of Place
3. Prepositions of Movement
4. Prepositions of Manner
5. Prepositions of Measure
6. Preposition of Agency
7. Preposition of Possession
8. Preposition of Source
9. Phrasal Prepositions

It’s worth noting that several prepositional words make an appearance in several different categories of prepositions.

Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of time indicate when something happens. Common prepositions of time
include after, at, before, during, in, on.

Let’s see some of these at work:

 I have been here since Thursday.

 My daughter was born on the first of September.
 He went overseas during the war.
 Before you go, can you pay the bill, please?
 We will go out after work.

 WHEN TO USE EXAMPLES

in the 14th Century

When referring to:
in two years
Centuries YearsSeasonsMonthsTime of day
in Spring
in
in August
in the evening

When referring to:

DaysDatesSpecific holidays on Wednesday on the 4th December
on
on Easter Sunday

When referring to:

Some time of day exceptionsFestivals
at
at night at New Year’s

Sometimes students have difficulty knowing when to use in, on, or at. These little words are often confused. The table
below provides helpful guidance to help students use the right preposition in the right context.

Prepositions of Place
The prepositions of place, in, at, on, will be instantly recognisable as they also double as prepositions of time. Again,
students can sometimes struggle a little to select the correct one for the situation they are describing. Some guidelines can be
helpful.
  If something is contained or confined inside, we use in.
 If something is placed upon a surface, we use on.
 If something is located at a specific point, we use at.

A few example sentences will assist in illustrating these:

in

 He is in the house.
 I saw it in a magazine.
 In France, we saw many great works of art.

on

 Put it on the table.

 We sailed on the river.
 Hang that picture on the wall, please.

at

 We arrived at the airport just after 1 pm.

 I saw her at university.
 The boy stood at the window.

Prepositions of Movement
Usually used with verbs of motion, prepositions of movement indicate movement from one place to another. The most
commonly used preposition of movement is to.

Some other prepositions of movement include:

 across
  around
 down
 into
 over
 past
 through
 under
 up

Here’s how they look in some sample sentences:

 The ball rolled across the table towards me.

 We looked up into the sky.
 The children ran past the shop on their way home.
 Jackie ran down the road to greet her friend.
 She walked confidently through the curtains and out onto the stage.

Prepositions of Manner
Preposition of manner shows us how something is done or how it happens. The most common of these
are by, in, like, on, with.

Let’s take a look at how they work in sentences:

 We went to school by bus.
 During the holidays, they traveled across the Rockies on foot.
 Janet went to the airport in a taxi.
 She played soccer like a professional.
 I greeted her with a smile.
Prepositions of Measure
Prepositions of measure are used to indicate quantities and specific units of measurement. The two most common of these
are by and of.

Check out these sample sentences:

 I’m afraid we only sell that fabric by the meter.

 I will pay you by the hour.
 She only ate half of the ice cream. I ate the other half.
 A kilogram of apples is the same weight as a kilogram of feathers.

Prepositions of Agency
These prepositions indicate the causal relationship between a noun or pronoun and an action. They show the cause of
something happening. The most commonly used prepositions of agency are by and with.

Here are some examples of their use in sentences:

 The Harry Potter series was written by J.K. Rowling.

 This bowl was made by a skilled craftsman.
 His heart was filled with love.
 The glass was filled with water.

Prepositions of Possession
Prepositions of possessions indicate who or what something belongs to. The most common of these are of, to, and with.

Let’s take a look:

 He is the husband of my cousin.

 He is a friend of the mayor.
  This once belonged to my grandmother.
 All these lands belong to the Ministry.
 The man with the hat is waiting outside.
 The boy with the big feet tripped and fell.

Prepositions of Source
Prepositions of source indicate where something comes from or its origins. The two most common prepositions of source
are from and by. There is some crossover here with prepositions of agency.

Here are some examples:

 He comes from New Zealand.
 These oranges are from our own orchard.
 I was warmed by the heat of the fire.
 She was hugged by her husband.
 The yoghurt is of Bulgarian origin.

Phrasal Prepositions
Phrasal prepositions are also known as compound prepositions. These are phrases of two or more words that function in the
same way as prepositions. That is, they join nouns or pronouns to the rest of the sentence.

Some common phrasal prepositions are:

 According to
 For a change
 Because of
 In addition to
 In spite of
 On top of
  Rather than
 With the exception of

Students should be careful of overusing phrasal prepositions as some of them can seem clichéd. Frequently, it’s best to say
things in as few words as is necessary.

Preposition Teaching Activity: Preposition Sort

 Print out a selection of the different types of prepositions on pieces of paper.

 Organize students into smaller working groups and provide each group with a set of prepositions.
 Using the headings above as categories, challenge students to sort the prepositions into the correct groups. Note that
some prepositions will comfortably fit into more than one group.
 The winning group is the one to sort all prepositions correctly first.
 As an extension exercise, students can select a preposition from each category and write a sample sentence for it.

CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses. There are three main types of conjunction that are used to
join different parts of sentences. These are:
 1. Coordinating
2. Subordinating
3. Correlative

Coordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to join sentence components that are equal such as two words, two phrases, or two clauses. In
English, there are seven of these that can be memorized using the mnemonic FANBOYS:

 For
 And
 Nor
 But
 Or
 Yet
 So

Here are a few example sentences employing coordinating conjunctions:

 As a writer, he needed only a pen and paper.

 I would describe him as strong but lazy.
 Either we go now or not at all.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are used to introduce dependent clauses in sentences. Basically, dependent clauses are parts of
sentences that cannot stand as complete sentences on their own. 

Some of the most common subordinate conjunctions are: 

 although
  because
 if
 since
 unless
 wherever.

Let’s take a look at some example sentences:

 I will complete it by Tuesday if I have time.

 Although she likes it, she won’t buy it.
 Jack will give it to you after he finds it.

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are like shoes; they come in pairs. They work together to make sentences work. Some come
correlative conjunctions are:

 both/and
 either/or
 neither/nor
 not/but
 Not only/but also

Let’s see how some of these work together:

 If I were you, I would get either the green one or the yellow one.

 John wants neither pity nor help.
 I don’t know whether you prefer horror or romantic movies.
Conjunction Teaching Activity: Conjunction Challenge

 Organize students into Talking Pairs.

 Partner A gives Partner B an example of a conjunction.
 Partner B must state which type of conjunction it is, e.g. coordinating, subordinating, or correlative.
 Partner B must then compose a sentence that uses the conjunction correctly and tell it to Partner A.
 Partners then swap roles.

INTERJECTIONS

Interjections focus on feelings and are generally grammatically unrelated to the rest of the sentence or sentences
around them. They convey thoughts and feelings and are common in our speech. They are often followed by
exclamation marks in writing. Interjections include expressions such as:

 Aah
 Err
 Eww
  Oh
 Ouch
 Uh-Oh
 Yeah
 Whoops
 Wow

Here’s what they look like in sentences:

 Eww! That is so gross!
 Oh, I don’t know. I’ve never used one before.
 That’s very…err…generous of you, I suppose.
 Wow! That is fantastic news!
 Uh-Oh! I don’t have any more left.

Interjection Teaching Activity: Create a scenario

 Once students clearly understand what interjections are, brainstorm as a class as many as possible.
 Write a master list of interjections on the whiteboard.
 Organize students into Talking Pairs.
 Partner A suggests an interjection word or phrase to Partner B.
 Partner B must create a fictional scenario where this interjection would be used appropriately.
The Ultimate Guide to Grammar for Students and Teachers

WHAT IS GRAMMAR?
Grammar is often defined as the system or underlying structure of a language. It describes the principles that underpin the
language that, if these are understood, help us to use the language effectively to communicate precise meaning to other
speakers of the language.

Grammar as a concept covers a vast terrain that can be helpfully divided into the two subcategories of morphology, which
concerns itself with the form and structure of words, and syntax, which looks at how words are arranged into sentences.

Of course, as with so many language-related topics, things can get extremely complicated. While many teachers understand
grammar as ‘the rules’ of the language, they will also be aware that language is constantly evolving and that there are often
wide discrepancies between prescriptive ‘rules’ of grammar and the everyday spoken and written use of that language.

This ever-changing nature of living languages notwithstanding, grammar can provide a valuable practical guide for our
students to help them communicate effectively in both speech and writing.

There are lots of theoretical cul-de-sacs in grammar. While these are often fascinating neighborhoods to explore, they
frequently aren’t worth the time investment of our students at this stage.
In these articles, we’ll focus on exploring grammar from the point of view of getting the most bang for the student buck.

But, first, let’s take a look at just why grammar is worth any time investment at all.

WHY IS GRAMMAR IMPORTANT?

Here are just a few of the reasons why students should hone their understanding of grammar. Grammar helps us to:

1. Communicate Effectively

Good grammar helps us avoid miscommunication. Language is rich in ambiguity, and misunderstandings are frequent.
Applying grammatical principles to their writing enables students to control better what they express and how it is
interpreted by the reader.

2. Builds Trust and Authority

Poor use of grammar doesn’t exactly inspire the confidence of the reader. Generally, when we write, we want to form a
relationship of trust with our readers. We want them to have faith in the person behind the words. This trust helps lend
authority to the ideas expressed. Poor grammar may call the writer’s competency into question.

3. Convey Respect to the Audience

Like manners, how stringently we apply the formal principles of grammar can depend on our audience. For example, a
postcard to a friend will have a different language register than an academic essay. Understanding this is particularly
important for our students as much of their writing will, by definition, be academic in nature. Frequently, their audience will
be teachers, professors, examiners, etc.

PARTS OF SPEECH: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF GRAMMAR:

Parts of speech are the fundamental building blocks of language. It is necessary that our students first understand these
before understanding how they fit together in sentences. be sure to read our complete guide to parts of speech here.
Before beginning the complex work of verb conjugations, it is worth taking the time to review student understanding of the
parts of speech.

In English, we typically recognize eight specific parts of speech. These are:

1. The Noun: the naming words for people, places, and things, e.g. writer, Portugal, happiness.

2. The Verb: words used to describe an action, a state, or an occurrence, e.g. ran, thought, became.

3. The Adjective: words that name attributes or describe nouns, e.g. gentle, tasty, zealous.

4. The Adverb: a word that modifies or describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb
e.g. frequently, mysteriously, wisely.

5. The Pronoun: a word that stands in for a noun or noun phrase, e.g. she, that, anybody.

6. The Preposition: words that show the relationship between nouns or pronouns and other parts of a sentence,
e.g. on, for, through.

7. The Conjunction: a word that joins parts of a sentence, phrases, or other words together, e.g. and, or, although.

8. The Interjection: an abrupt remark, aside, or interruption, e.g. ouch, ahem, phew.

Most of these parts of speech can be further divided into subtypes. While we will take a closer look at some aspects of parts
of speech in this article, to get a comprehensive analysis of these important grammatical elements, check out our Ultimate
Guide to Parts of Speech here.

Practice Activity: Parts of Speech Identification

When students become proficient at recognizing the different parts of speech in a sentence, they will be well on their way to
understanding how the grammar of English operates.
To facilitate this, first, work through the different definitions and activities with the students from the article linked to
above.

Once students are ready, give them a copy of a sample text. In groups, students can work through the text, categorizing each
word according to which part of speech it is.

This will require the students to perform a close reading of the text and consider carefully the function of each word in each
sentence. Valuable practice indeed!

Verbs: Conjugations

While our guide to the parts of speech comprehensively covers each word category and its properties, some further
grammatical detail on verbs will be required to make our coverage of this complex word type complete.
There is a bit of controversy over how many tenses English has. Technically, linguists argue, there are only
two inflected tenses in English: the past and the present.

The future is not considered a true tense as there is no future tense verb ending. The future is indicated in English by using
modal auxiliaries such as will and shall often with the present term verb form.

But let’s not get too caught up in all this linguistic rigmarole. Let’s stick with the practical and useful. For all practical
purposes, there are three main tenses in English:

 The past tense

 The present tense
 The future tense

Verb tenses let us know when the action described by the verb happens. To indicate the tense a verb is in, it must be
modified or conjugated in some way. Conjugation is when we change the verb to reflect a different tense, person, number,
or mood.

We are going to examine the different tense forms later in this article, but, first, we’ll need to know what the base form of
the verb is (visible in the infinitive form) and look at the principal parts of the verb.

Verbs: The Infinitive
This form of the verb includes its most basic form preceded by to. This basic form of the verb is sometimes called the base
form. This is the form that we turn to when we are looking up the verb in a dictionary.

The full infinitive form is easily recognizable as it is the base form of the verb preceded by to. Though we are used to
thinking of to as a preposition, in this context, to is not operating as a preposition. Instead, it is serving as ‘the sign of the
infinitive’.

 Let’s take a look at a few examples.

I like to eat a late breakfast on my day off.

She is confused as she has so many options to choose from.

We decided to go home.

To Boldy Split or Not To Boldly Split an Infinitive

One rule that is commonly repeated to students is that they should never ‘split’ the infinitive. But, what exactly does it mean
to ‘split an infinitive’ and is this a hard and fast rule?

Splitting an infinitive involves placing an adverb between the to and the base form of the verb.

We can find a well-known example of a split infinitive in the tagline from the old Star Trek TV series:

To  boldly go where no man has gone before.

Here, we can see that the adverb ‘boldly’ (helpfully in bold!) is placed between the to part of the infinitive and the base
verb go. This is an example of a split infinitive and is frowned upon by the more pedantic among the teaching tribe.

The pedantic grammarian would insist on ‘to go boldly’, rather than the much more rhythmically satisfying ‘to boldly go’.
But is this really such a crime against grammar?

Traditionally, the general rule is that nothing should come between the to and the verb when using the infinitive. However,
what is acceptable, grammatically speaking, changes with time and it is now common to see infinitives split, especially in
informal writing.

A good rule of thumb is that split infinitives are okay where they are necessary for meaning or flow. Sometimes, the
convoluted structural contortions required to avoid splitting an infinitive can result in clumsy sounding sentences. Let good
taste be the ultimate judge!

THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A VERB

The principal parts of the verb are the four main verb forms that students must know in order to correctly conjugate verbs.
Our students need to know the parts of the verb to correctly form the verb tenses.

Tense refers to when the verb happened. For example, while the verb form in the sentence ‘They close the door,’ conveys
the action happening in the present tense, the sentence, ‘They closed the door,’ expresses the action in the past tense. These
forms of the verb (e.g., close and closed) are what we mean when we talk of verb tense.

As we mentioned earlier, technically there is no future tense in English, which is why we see only the present and the past
parts mentioned below. The future ‘tense’ is formed using present tense forms of the verb along with will/shall – but more
on that later!

There are four principal parts of verbs in English are:

 the present
 the past
 the present participle
 the past participle.

i. The Present
The present is the first principal part or base form of the verb. Also known as the root, it is this form of the verb we will find
listed in the dictionary.

The base is used as-is for most forms in the present tense, including first person (I, we), second person (you), and third-
person plural (they).

For example:

I dance

we dance
you dance

they dance

However, in the third-person singular (he, she, it), we add the letter -s at the end of the base. This is the only time the base
form changes in the present tense.

For example:

he dances

she dances

It dances

ii. The Past

How the past tense of a verb is formed in English will decide whether it is a regular or irregular verb. Regular verbs are
those that follow the typical pattern for the past tense as described here. Those that break with this pattern are known as
irregular verbs (e.g., went, ate, ran, etc.).

To form the past tense of regular verbs, we simply add -ed to the base form. However, if the verb ends in a silent e already,
we only need to add -d.

In contrast with the present, the past tense does not change regardless of the number or person.

For example:

I danced

you danced
she danced

he danced

it danced

we danced

they danced

iii. The Present Participle

This is often referred to as the -ing form of the verb. They function as a part of a verb phrase and always need to be
accompanied by an auxiliary verb (also known as a helping verb).

To form the present participle, you simply take the base form of the verb and add -ing.

So, for example, dance becomes dancing.

You will notice that the e at the end of dance is removed. If the word ends with a silent e, it is first removed before –ing is
added.

Present participles combine with forms of the verb to be to form the progressive tense, which describes actions that are
unfinished as yet or in progress.

For example:

I am dancing on the stage.

You are waiting for the end.

My father is watching television.
iv. The Past Participle
Past participles are formed in the same way as the past tense. That is, by adding -ed or d to the end of the verb.

While the regular form of the past participle is constructed by adding -d/-ed to the end of the base verb, however, there are
also a number of irregular past participles to consider, e.g. done, eaten, felt, gone, known, said, thought, won.

Past participles can be found at work in the past perfect tense – among other tenses. This tense is used to describe actions
that were completed before something else.

For example:

We had finished our homework before dinner.

Stephanie had travelled this road many times.

The manager closed the door but they had left already.

Practice Activity: Spot the Principal Part

This simple activity can be undertaken by students individually or in small groups and it requires little in the way of
preparation.

Provide students with copies of books suited to their reading levels. On a sheet of paper, students create a table containing
four columns. Each with a heading that corresponds to one of the principal parts of verbs, i.e. present, past, present
participle, past participle.

Students then comb through the books identifying examples of each of the four parts of the verb in use within the text. They
copy these onto their tables as examples illustrating each part.

Learning to quickly and precisely identify each part in this manner helps the student internalize how each part works; they
will then be able to use these confidently and accurately in their own writing.
PERSON
In English, we conjugate verbs depending on the grammatical person used. Each of these ‘persons’ is represented by a
pronoun. There are six of these ‘persons’ and they are:

Grammatical Person Pronouns

The First Person Singular I

Second Person Singular You

Third Person Singular He / She / It / One

First Person Plural We

Second Person Plural You

Third Person Plural They

The form of the verb used will depend on the grammatical person referred to (as well as its tense – more on this later!).

While many of the verbs will follow regular conjugation patterns, some are entirely irregular. One of the most important of
these is the verb to be:

Grammatical Person Verb To Be Negative

The First Person Singular I am I am not

 Second Person Singular You are You are not

Third Person Singular He / She / It / One is He is not

First Person Plural We are We are not  

Second Person Plural You are You are not

Third Person Plural They are They are not  

Note: Contracted forms of the verb to be are commonly used, especially in

speech: I’m, you’re, he’s, she’s, it’s, one’s, we’re, they’re.

TENSE
Now students understand the four principal parts of the verb, they will be ready to dig into the tenses in more detail.

Each of the three main tenses of the past, present, and future can be divided further into four distinct forms:

 Simple
 Continuous
 Perfect
 Perfect Continuous

Below we will take a look at each tense. We’ll begin with the present, as it contains the base form.

The Present Tense

The present tense describes a current state of being or occurrence. Adverbially, it is right now, at this very moment!

While this definition is straightforward, there’s a little more to it when considering the four different forms we mentioned.

1. The Present Simple

We use the simple present tense in two main instances:

i. When something is happening right now, or;

ii. When something happens regularly or without stop.

To form the present simple: use the base form of the verb and add -s/-es in the third person singular.

For example:

She leaves for work early in the morning.

I walk to school.
We play chess at the weekend.

To form the negative: add do/does and not in front of the base form of the verb.*

She does not leave for work early in the morning.

I do not walk to school.

We do not play chess at the weekend.

*do not and does not are often contracted to don’t and doesn’t

To form the question: put do/does in front of the sentence subject, followed by the base form of the verb.

Does she leave for work early in the morning?

Do you walk to school?

Do we play chess at the weekend?

2. The Present Continuous

This tense is used to show that an action is happening now and is ongoing. It can also indicate that the action may continue
in the future.

Also known as the present progressive, some common uses of this tense include:

            i. Describing things happening at this moment

            ii. Describing temporary situations

            iii. Referring to habitual occurrences

            iv. Future arrangements

To form the present continuous: use the verb to be followed by the present participle form.

For example:

She is leaving for work early in the morning.

I am walking to school.

We are playing chess at the weekend.

To form the negative: add not between the verb to be and the present participle.*

She is not leaving for work early in the morning.

I am not walking to school.

We are not playing chess at the weekend.

*is not and are not are often contracted to isn’t and aren’t

To form the question: invert the subject and the verb to be.

Is she leaving for work early in the morning?

Am I walking to school?

Are we playing chess at the weekend?

3. The Present Perfect
We use this tense to refer to something that:

i. happens at an indefinite time in the past, or;

ii. began in the past and continued to the present.

To form the present perfect: add have/has in front of the past participle. An important point to note is that with the present
perfect you cannot be specific about when the event happened.

For example:

She has left for work early in the morning.

I have walked to school many times before.

We have played chess at the weekend.

To form the negative: add not between the verb has/have and the past participle.*

She has not left for work.

I have not walked to school.

We have not played chess.

*has not and have not are often contracted to hasn’t and haven’t

To form the question: Invert the subject and the verb has/have.

Has she left for work?
Have I walked to school?

Have we played chess?

4. The Present Perfect Continuous

This tense is used to speak about something that began in the past and in ongoing at the present moment. It is also
sometimes termed the present perfect progressive tense.

Adverbs such as ‘recently’ and ‘lately’ are frequently used with this tense to help indicate that though the action started in
the past, it continues in the now and, possibly, the future.

We can use the present perfect continuous to:

            i. describe an action that started in the past and continues up to the present

            ii. indicate that something happened recently

To form the present perfect continuous: combine has/have with been, followed by the present participle.

For example:

She has been leaving for work early in the morning.

I have been walking to school.

We have been playing chess at the weekend.

To form the negative: Add not between the verb has/have and the been.*

She has not been leaving for work early in the morning.

I have not been walking to school.

We have not been playing chess at the weekend.

*has not been and have not are often contracted to hasn’t been and haven’t been

To form the question: invert the subject and the verb has/have.

Has she been leaving for work early in the morning?

Have I been walking to school?

Have we been playing chess at the weekend?

The Past Tense

The past tense places events or states of being in the already happened category. Again, this tense comes in four distinct
flavors.

1. The Past Simple

The past simple is also known as the simple past, past indefinite, and the preterite. Among the uses of the past simple are to
show:

            i. a completed action in the past

            ii. a duration of time

            iii. habits in the past.

To form the past simple: add -d/-ed to the end of the base verb form (where the verb is regular).
For example:

She left for work early in the morning.

I walked to school.

We played chess at the weekend.

To form the negative: add did not in front of the base form of the verb.*

She did not leave for work early in the morning.

I did not walk to school.

We did not play chess at the weekend.

*Note: the contracted form didn’t is widely used in place of did not, especially in informal speech.

To form the question: place did in front of the sentence subject followed by the base form of the verb.

Did she leave for work early in the morning?

Did you walk to school?

Did we play chess at the weekend?

2. The Past Continuous

Sometimes called the past progressive, this tense is used to refer to an ongoing state or action that happened in the past. Two
common uses of the past continuous include to:

            i. show a longer action was interrupted

            ii. express two actions happening at the same time.

To form the past continuous: combine the past tense of the verb to be (was/were) with the verb’s present participle (-ing).

For example:

She was leaving for work early in the morning.

I was walking to school when I noticed it was raining.

We were playing chess when she rang.

To form the negative: add not between the verb to be and the present participle.*

She was not leaving for work early in the morning.

I was not walking to school when I noticed it was raining.

We were not playing chess when she rang.

*was not/were not are often contracted to wasn’t/weren’t, especially in informal speech.

To form the question: invert the subject and the verb was/were

Was she leaving for work early in the morning?

Was I walking to school when I noticed it was raining?

Were we playing chess when she rang?

3. The Past Perfect
Also known as the pluperfect, this tense is used to talk about actions that were completed before some point in the past. The
past perfect is often used to

 indicate the order of two events

 express a condition and a result

To form the past perfect: we use had before the past participle.

For example:

She had left for work before breakfast time.

I had walked to school before it started raining.

We had played chess together.

To form the negative: add not between had and the past participle.*

She had not left for work before breakfast time.

I had not walked to school before it started raining.

We had not played chess together.

*had not is often contracted to hadn’t

To form the question: invert the subject and had.

Had she left for work before breakfast time?

Had I walked to school before it started raining?

Had we played chess together?

4. The Past Perfect Continuous

Also known as the past perfect progressive, this tense shows an action that started in the past and continued up until another
point in the past. This tense is useful for showing the

            i. duration of something in the past

            ii. cause of something in the past

To form the past perfect continuous: combine had been with the present participle.

For example:

She had been leaving for work when the phone rang.

I had been walking to school for twenty minutes when it started raining.

We had been playing chess when the argument started.

To form the negative: add not between the had and the been.*

She had not been leaving for work when the phone rang.

I had not been walking to school for twenty minutes when it started raining.

We had not been playing chess when the argument started.

*had not been is often contracted to hadn’t been

To form the question: invert the subject and had.

Had she been leaving for work when the phone rang?

Had I been walking to school for twenty minutes when it started raining?

Had we been playing chess when the argument started?

The Future Tense

The future tense is generally used to refer to things or states that will happen or are expected to occur in the future. Let’s
take a look.

1. The Future Simple

There are actually two forms of this tense. Both refer to specific times in the future and, though they are sometimes used
interchangeably, they can also be used to express distinct differences in meaning. These will become apparent to the
students with practice. Note too that the second variant described below is a little more informal than the first.

The future simple is used to refer to:

i. an action or state that will begin and end in the future

ii. express a plan

iii. make a promise

iv. make a prediction

To form the  first variant  of the future simple tense: place will before the base verb form.

For example:
She will leave for work early in the morning.

I will walk to school.

We will play chess at the weekend.

To form the negative: add not in between will and the base form of the verb.*

She will not leave for work early in the morning.

I will not walk to school.

We will not play chess at the weekend.

*will not is often contracted to won’t

To form the question: invert the subject and will.

Will she leave for work early in the morning?

Will I walk to school?

Will we play chess at the weekend?

To form the  second variant  of the future simple tense: combine the verb to be with going to, followed by the base verb
form.

For example:

She is going to leave for work early in the morning.

I am going to walk to school.

We are going to play chess at the weekend.

To form the negative: add not in between the verb to be and going to.

She is not going to leave for work early in the morning.

I am not going to walk to school.

We are not going to play chess at the weekend.

To form the question: invert the subject and the verb to be.

Is she going to leave for work early in the morning?

Am I going to walk to school?

Are we going to play chess at the weekend?

2. The Future Continuous

Sometimes referred to as the future progressive, as with the future simple, the future continuous has two distinct forms.
These two forms are usually interchangeable.

The future continuous describes an action or state that will occur in the future for a specific length of time. It is often used to
refer to:

            i. an interrupted action

            ii. describe parallel actions taking place

To form the  first variant  of the future continuous tense: place will be in front of the present participle.
For example:

She will be leaving for work early in the morning.

I will be walking to school.

We will be playing chess at the weekend.

To form the negative: add not in between will and be the base form of the verb.*

She will not be leaving for work early in the morning.

I will not be walking to school.

We will not be playing chess at the weekend.

*will not is often contracted to won’t

To form the question: invert the subject and will.

Will she be leaving for work early in the morning?

Will I be walking to school?

Will we be playing chess at the weekend?

To form the  second variant  of the future continuous tense: combine the verb to be with going to be, followed by the present
participle.

For example:

She is going to be leaving for work early in the morning.

I am going to be walking to school.

We are going to be playing chess at the weekend.

To form the negative: add not in between the verb to be and going to.

She is not going to be leaving for work early in the morning.

I am not going to be walking to school.

We are not going to be playing chess at the weekend.

To form the question: invert the subject and the verb to be.

Is she going to be leaving for work early in the morning?

Am I going to be walking to school?

Are we going to be playing chess at the weekend?

3. Future Perfect
The future perfect is used to describe something that will happen before some other point in the future. Again, there are two
distinct variants of this future tense form, but they are usually interchangeable.

The future perfect is frequently used to describe:

            i. an action completed before something in the future

            ii. how something will continue up until another action in the future.

To form the  first variant  of the future perfect tense: place will have in front of the past participle.
For example:

She will have left for work by the time I get up.

By nine o’clock, I will have walked to school.

We will have played a game of chess by the time the weekend is over.

To form the negative: add not in between will and have.*

She will not have left for work by the time I get up.

By nine o’clock, I will not have walked to school.

We will not have played a game of chess by the time the weekend is over.

*will not is often contracted to won’t

To form the question: invert the subject and will.

Will she have left for work by the time I get up?

By nine o’clock, will I have walked to school?

Will we have played a game of chess by the time the weekend is over?

To form the  second variant  of the future perfect tense: combine the verb to be with going to have followed by the past
participle.

For example:

She is going to have left for work by the time I get up.

By nine o’clock, I am going to have walked to school.

We are going to have played a game of chess by the time the weekend is over.

To form the negative: add not in between to be and going to have.*

She is not going to have left for work by the time I get up.

By nine o’clock, I am not going to have walked to school.

We are not going to have played a game of chess by the time the weekend is over.

*is not  and are not are often contracted to isn’t and aren’t

To form the question: invert the subject and the verb to be.

Is she going to have left for work by the time I get up?

By nine o’clock, am I going to have walked to school?

Are we going to have played a game of chess by the time the weekend is over?

4. Future Perfect Continuous

Sometimes called the future perfect progressive, this tense also has two different forms which are largely interchangeable.
With this tense, we project ourselves into the future and look back at the duration of an action.

The future perfect continuous can be used to refer to:

            i. something that will continue up until a particular time in the future

            ii. the cause of something in the future

To form the  first variant  of the future perfect continuous tense: place will have been in front of the present participle.

For example:

By ten o’clock, she will have been working for an hour already.

By nine o’clock, I will have been walking to school for twenty minutes.

We will be tired because we will have been playing chess for over an hour.

To form the negative: add not in between will and have.*

By ten o’clock, she will not have been working for an hour already.

By nine o’clock, I will not have been walking to school for twenty minutes.

We won’t be tired because we will not have been playing chess for over an hour..

*will not is often contracted to won’t

To form the question: invert the subject and will.

By ten o’clock, will she have been working for an hour already?

By nine o’clock, will I have been walking to school for twenty minutes?

Will we have been playing chess for over an hour?

To form the  second variant  of the future perfect continuous tense: combine the verb to be with going to have been,
followed by the present participle.

For example:
By ten o’clock, she is going to have been working for an hour already.

By nine o’clock, I am going to have been walking to school for twenty minutes.

We will be tired because we are going to have been playing chess for over an hour.

To form the negative: add not in between the verb to be and going to have been.*

By ten o’clock, she is not going to have been working for an hour already.

By nine o’clock, I am not going to have been walking to school for twenty minutes.

We will be tired because we are not going to have been playing chess for over an hour.

To form the question: invert the subject and the verb to be.

By ten o’clock, is she going to have been working for an hour already?

By nine o’clock, am I going to have been walking to school for twenty minutes?

Are we going to have been playing chess for over an hour?

Verb Tense Practice Activities

Practice is the only way students will be able to internalize the vast array of rules and patterns that underscore how the
various verb tenses operate.

Below, you will find a selection of activities to help students develop their understanding of how the different tenses are
formed and what they are used for.

1. The Verb Tense Timeline

This is a great way for students to visualise where each tense fits chronologically on a timeline.

You can do this by marking out a timeline outline on the whiteboard as below:

Past                                                    Now                                                    Future

Print out example sentences for each of the tenses, and, as a class, students discuss where each sentence would fit relative to
each other on the timeline.

When they’ve decided on a suitable spot on the timeline, have the students stick the piece of paper in place on the
whiteboard. Continue the process until all sentences have been assigned a position.

2. Quickfire Quiz

In this fast-paced, fun activity, students are organized into competing groups, and each team has a bell or buzzer.

Present a sentence to the class, and the first team to ring their bell or buzzer has an opportunity to identify the tense. A
correctly identified tense sees a point awarded, with an incorrect answer resulting in a point deducted. The winning team is
the team with the highest number of points at the end.

This activity is easily adapted for the specific level of the students. For example, the focus could be simply on identifying
past, present, and future for younger students. For intermediate students, the focus could be on the four variants of a single
tense. Advanced students could work on identifying all 12 variants across the three tenses.

3. Tell a Tale in Another Tense

Project a picture on the board that will serve as a writing prompt. Assign each student a specific tense to tell a story based
on the image. Again, this activity is easily differentiated for the specific abilities of the class as a whole or the student as an
individual.
When students have completed their story, ask them to swap their story with a partner who has been working on a different
tense. Can the students rewrite their partner’s story in their assigned tense?

4. The Verb Lottery

This oral activity will give the students’ wrists some welcome respite. Write the names of all the verb tense variants on
pieces of paper and dump them into a suitable container.

Students then take turns picking out a piece of paper at random and forming a sentence orally in that tense. This activity can
easily be made competitive by first organizing the students into teams.

5. Snap!

This is based on the popular card game where players slap their hands down on matching upturned cards as quickly as
possible. The winner of a hand adds the cards to their pile until one of the players ends up with all the cards.

In this version of the game, the cards are matched not by color, number, or suit but by verb tenses. Students make the cards
by first writing sentences in the various verb tenses. When students see two upturned sentences that match according to
tense (e.g. present perfect continuous), they slap their hand down on the upturned cards, shout snap, and claim the cards for
their hand. This continues until one player wins the whole deck.

Now students have a good understanding of verb conjugations and how they work, it’s time to put this all together in the
form of well-structured sentences.

Punctuation rules for students and teachers: A complete guide

Punctuation is the process of using recognized symbols and protocols to turn a collection of words into a logical, structured
piece of writing to be read, and understood by a universal audience.

A COMPLETE GUIDE TO PUNCTUATION RULES FOR STUDENTS AND

TEACHERS
We use punctuation in numerous ways to meet the purpose of your task and the needs of your audience, but essentially you
are trying to achieve two outcomes.

1. To make the text easier to read by adding pauses, breaks and points of emphasis.
2. To add expression, detail and switch perspective when characters, and narrators are speaking.

This guide is designed to provide teachers and students with a common shared understanding of what punctuation is and
how to use it effectively in all genres of writing.

It has consciously been written in simple language so as teachers can use these examples directly with students.

WHAT IS PUNCTUATION AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

Punctuation refers to the set of marks that are used to regulate and clarify meaning and rhythm within a text. Punctuation
helps to make the meaning of a text clear by linking or separating words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

There are approximately 14 different marks or signs that are used in this manner in English.

HOW TO TEACH PUNCTUATION

Like grammar, native English speakers will sometimes know how to use the various punctuation marks correctly in their
own writing, but find it difficult to explain to others.

To adequately explain to students how to use punctuation correctly you’ll require a good understanding of English grammar
and be comfortable using terms such as introductory phrases, dependent and independent clauses, and coordinating and
subordinating conjunctions etc.

Simply verbally outlining the rules for using the various punctuation marks is unlikely to be the most successful approach
for teaching punctuation. Punctuation is all about context and it is best to employ written examples to explain how each
punctuation mark is correctly used.
Let’s take a look at 5 useful tips to help with the teaching of punctuation in your classroom before we deep dive into
punctuation rules with examples.

WHAT ARE THE 14 TYPES OF PUNCTUATION MARKS?

The 14 types of punctuation commonly used in English are:

 Period
 Question Mark
 Exclamation Point
 Comma
 Semicolon
 Colon
 Apostrophe
 Hyphen
 Dash
 Parentheses
 Brackets
 Quotation Marks
 Braces
 Ellipsis
5 TIPS FOR TEACHING PUNCTUATION SUCCESSFULLY
Tip 1. Teach Grammar
It’s likely your students will love grammar as much as they love homework. Given the complexity of English grammar,
understandably, this can be a hard sell. But, time spent mastering its vagaries will be time well-spent. Gaining a firm grasp
on grammar will reap rich rewards for students in terms of understanding how to use the different forms of punctuation
correctly.

It’s true too that English grammar can be an extremely broad area of study, so which areas should we focus on?

Developing a secure understanding of how to use punctuation correctly is nigh on impossible without first understanding
dependent and independent clauses, and subordinating and coordinating conjunctions. So that’s the best place to start.

Tip 2. Avoid Shortcuts

Likely, your students will have some vague understanding of how most of the punctuation marks are to be used. However,
most likely their understanding will be superficial at best.

Often, the teachers students encounter in their younger years will drip feed them information regarding punctuation use in
an easily digestible form and on a need-to-know basis. This information can often be so general as to be inaccurate.

Things like ‘use a comma when you need a short pause and a period when you need a longer one’ or ‘a period marks the
end of a thought’, may serve some purpose for beginning writers, but these explanations fail to explain adequately the
mechanics of how things work. Only grammar does this adequately.

Simplified explanations serve a limited purpose and, when writing at a higher level, student ignorance soon gets exposed.

I speak from experience, unfortunately. An esteemed college professor once commented on an undergraduate paper of mine,
“Well written and thoroughly researched. Unfortunately, the author doesn’t know a semicolon from a demisemiquaver.”
Tip 3. Employ Context
So, we’ve stressed the importance of teaching grammar as a means of communicating a clear understanding of how
punctuation works. The danger of getting carried away with technical explanations is that we end up climbing so high up on
the ladder of abstraction that we leave our students stranded clueless on the ground below.

To combat this, our punctuation and grammatical explanations should always be accompanied by solid examples from
written texts. This is an extension of the Show, Don’t Tell rule that creative writers love to abide by.

Tip 4. Stress Communication

We want our students to use punctuation and grammar accurately, but we don’t want them to become paralysed with fear
before the “tyranny of the blank page”. Balance the need for accuracy with encouragement.

The purpose of language, written or spoken, is communication. When in doubt, suggest students abandon long
grammatically complex sentences in favour of shorter, simpler sentences that are easier to punctuate correctly.

Tip 5. Proofread, Edit…

As mentioned, striving for accuracy in punctuation is a good thing to see in our students. Sometimes, however, it can
interrupt the flow of the writing process. Especially when still growing in competency. For this reason, it’s important to
stress to students that punctuation should be part of the proofreading and editing process.

As students read through their work on completion, they can revise the punctuation they have used to ensure it accurately
conveys the meaning they were attempting to express.

This way writing flow is not interrupted and writer’s block is likely avoided.

So, to review, to teach punctuation effectively:

 Ensure students have a firm understanding of the necessary rules of grammar

 Avoid using vague explanations of the rules of usage as shortcuts
  Be sure to contextualize explanations with clear examples from texts
 Stress the importance of clear communication in writing over all else
 Encourage punctuation checks as part of the editing process.

 APOSTROPHES ’

Apostrophes serve two purposes in writing.

 To shorten and link connected words in what is known as a contraction.

 To show possession or ownership of something.

APOSTROPHES USED WITHIN A CONTRACTION

The purpose of an apostrophe is to indicate where a letter, or letters have been removed from a contraction.

For example

“They’re coming our way,” screamed the general, and if we don’t move now you’ll be stuck here forever.
APOSTROPHES USED TO DEMONSTRATE OWNERSHIP
An apostrophe is also used to show possession or ownership of something. To point out to the reader that this “thing”
belongs to the subject being written about.

For Example

Gargamel was always searching for the Smurf’s hidden village ( The village belongs to the Smurfs )

Have you seen Eva’s school bag? (The bag belongs to Eva)

As Wendy turned and walked away you could almost hear Jimmy’s heart break in two. ( The heart belongs to Jimmy.)

BRACKETS ( ) [ ] { } / /
Depending upon the text type you are writing brackets will serve different purposes. Let’s take a look at some examples to
make sense of this.
ROUND BRACKETS – ALSO KNOWN AS PARENTHESES

The round bracket can be used in three ways.

Using brackets to add extra information where required.

For Example

Neil Armstrong (The first person to walk on the Moon) was introduced last.

I got my first game console (A Super Nintendo) when I was ten.

Try not to get into the habit of overusing brackets to add information as a replacement for high-quality engaging writing.
For example, we could rewrite the above example like this.

“I’’ll never forget my tenth birthday as I unwrapped my first game console, a Super Nintendo, which is exactly what I
wanted.”
Using round brackets to indicate where information has come from when you are quoting, citing or using
information directly taken from another source.

For example

“That’s one small step for man, but one giant leap for mankind.” (Neil Armstrong – 1969)

“A direct quote from a book” ( AuthorLastName, AuthorFirstname. Title. Publisher, Year. )

Using round brackets/parentheses to organize a written list.

Round brackets can be used with letters and numbers to organize lists. You can use either open or closed brackets as long as
you are consistent.

For example

Items Required

a) Fishing Line

b) Coat Hanger

c) Crepe Paper

Follow these steps

(1) Remove from packaging

(2) Insert Batteries

(3) Charge unit for 1.5 hours before use

SQUARE BRACKETS [ ]

Square brackets are used to add information to the reader that was not explicitly stated. This is very similar to the ( ) round
brackets in purpose, however square brackets indicate this information was added by someone other than the original
author. They are most commonly found within articles and non-fiction texts where an editor has made amendments.

For Example

She [Mrs. Jones] did not find it amusing

“I would have been happy with any type of dog except that one” [A poodle] she told the judge.

BRACES OR CURLY BRACKETS {

Braces or curly brackets are most commonly used in technical writing and mathematics, It is also used in written texts to
branch items into sub-categories or indicate that more than one word is being referred to.

Types of Shark

{Whale Shark, Bull Shark

The range of numbers is {2, 4, 6, 8}

SLASHES \\

Slashes are rarely seen in writing. They are used to separate dates

For Example

03/11/2021

And to represent structure on a database or within a folder structure.

For example

c:\\root folder\sub folder

BULLET POINTS
Bullet points are also frequently referred to as dot points, and they are used to create lists

For example

 Milk
 Bread
 Cheese
 Tomato
 Butter

CAPITAL LETTERS A B C D E F
Capital Letters serve a number of purposes and are a foundational skill of punctuation and writing in general.

They are used to begin a sentence.

For example

The rug was dark blue.

They are used to identify a proper noun.

For example

I asked Simon to repeat the question.

The Siberian Tiger is an endangered animal.

I ran up the hill as fast as I could.

COLONS (:)
A colon is used to inform the reader that there is more detail to follow is already written. It separates two clauses and
explains the first.

For example.

You will need the following items: Chalk, Paper, Scissors

She competed in four events: Archery, Athletics, Swimming and Gymnastics

COMMAS ,

Commas are used to separate words and force the reader to pause.

They are used to separate lists, phrases and clauses in sentences.

For example

At dinner we ate fish, carrots, potatoes, and rice.

Could you please bring a watch, phone, water, and a snack.

They are also used to pace a sentence to emphasise when to pause and clarify meaning.

For example

My heart was racing, I could feel the adrenaline flowing through my body. Soon, I felt my body become calm and I was
ready to compete.

DASHES —

Dashes are used to emphasise a longer pause or break within a sentence, often for dramatic effect.

Don’t confuse the dash ( — ) with the hyphen. ( – ) . The dash is longer

For example

After much deliberation, the final verdict was delivered. — “Not Guilty” The judge stated confidently.

ELLIPSES …
The ellipse is constructed by creating three consecutive full stops. They serve three distinct purposes.

Using ellipses to demonstrate where speech has been interrupted.

For example

“Mum, I know you told me once …”

“I must have told you a hundred times! She interrupted.

Using ellipses to demonstrate where parts of a quote have been removed. This is done to shorten up a statement and get to
the point.

For example

“Our team just didn’t have what it takes to win tonight… We played with our heads down and barely communicated.”

Finally, they are used to add dramatic effect when demonstrating a statement is incomplete. For example when someone is
left speechless, or without a response.

For example

“So where did you leave your phone?” Asked dad.

“I…, I…, I just don’t know…” I replied

EXCLAMATION MARKS !

The purpose of an exclamation mark is to demonstrate strong emotions within a sentence. They help the reader to determine
if a word is to be spoken with emphasis, anger or passion.

For example

“Go get em!” Yelled Coach

“Look out!” I screamed

“Because she loves you! You crazy fool!” her father exclaimed

Exclamation marks also emphasize single words to be stressed within a phrase.

I stuck my hand down the hole slowly and carefully. “Ouch!” i shrieked, as I withdrew it at lightning speed.

FULL STOPS .
The purpose of a full stop (also known as a period in the United States) is to end a sentence. To remind the reader to take
pause, as this sequence of the text is complete.

Dogs are loyal animals who respect their owners.

Finally, the game had came to an unceremonious end.

HYPHENS –

The hyphen – ( Not to be confused with the longer dash — ) is used to link words or break words into smaller parts.

For example to link connected words

It was the thirty–fifth time the club had won a title.

“I just love choc–chip ice cream.”

To link words at the end of a line

Emma was an African Croc-

odile. A big one.

Using hyphens to explain pronunciation

croc-o-dile

fun-da-men-tal

QUESTION MARKS ?

Question marks remind the audience that a question is being asked as opposed to a statement being made. Question marks
are only placed at the end of a sentence.

“Are you done yet?” shouted dad.

“So, what are you going to do?” asked the quiz master

Will he ever find true love?

QUOTATION MARKS & SPEECH MARKS (“ ”) (‘ ’)

Quotation marks, also known as speech marks demonstrate to the reader words or phrases that are spoken or quoted.

It doesn’t matter if you use double or single quotation marks so long as you are consistent.

Let’s look at an example of direct speech.

“No matter what you say, I have to go back for them” I explained to my commander.

‘I’ll take the big one thanks. I’m really hungry today’ I told the waiter

Quotation marks are also used to highlight slang, strange or technical words within a sentence.

For example

My boss reminded me that this was a “no-brainer” and that I shouldn’t hesitate any longer.

My little sister called me “captain stink-face” whatever that meant.

SEMICOLONS ;
Semicolons break sentences apart for a more dramatic pause than a comma. The difference between the two is that a comma
separates ideas whereas a semicolon connects ideas.

For example

We walked for hour, upon hour without seeing or hearing a single soul; then something appeared from nowhere that would
change this day forever.

This day was shaping up to be the greatest day of my life; and I was conscious to enjoy it while it lasted.

Sentence Structure: A Complete Guide (With Examples & Tasks)

WHAT IS SENTENCE STRUCTURE?

When we talk about ‘sentence structure’, we are discussing the various elements of a sentence and how these elements are
organized on the page to convey the desired effect.
Writing well in terms of sentence structure requires our students to become familiar with various elements of grammar, as
well as the various types of sentences that exist in English.

In this article, we will explore these areas and discuss various ideas and activities you can use in the classroom to help your
students on the road to mastering these different sentence structures. This will help to make their writing clearer and more
interesting in the process.

TYPES OF SENTENCE   
In English, there are 4 types of sentences that students need to get their heads around. They are:

 Simple sentences
 Compound sentences
 Complex sentences
 Compound-complex sentences
Mastering these four types of sentences will enable students to articulate themselves effectively and with personality and
style.

Achieving this necessarily takes plenty of practice, but the process begins with ensuring that each student has a firm grasp
on how each type of sentence structure works.

But, before we begin to examine these different types of structure, we need to ensure our students understand the difference
between independent and dependent clauses. Understanding clauses and how they work will make it much easier for
students to grasp the different types of sentences that follow.

SENTENCE CLAUSES
Independent Clauses
Put simply, clauses are parts of a sentence containing a verb. An independent clause can stand by itself as a complete
sentence. It expresses a complete thought or idea and contains a subject and a verb  – more on this shortly!
Dependent Clauses / Subordinate Clauses
Dependent clauses, on the other hand, are not complete sentences and cannot stand by themselves. They do not express a
complete idea. To become complete, they must be attached to an independent clause. Dependent clauses are also known
as subordinate clauses.

A good way to illustrate the difference between the two is by providing an example that contains both.

For example:

Even though I am tired, I am going to work tonight.

As the non-underlined portion of the sentence doesn’t work as a sentence on its own, it is a dependent clause. The
underlined portion of the sentence could operate as a sentence in its own right and it is, therefore, an independent clause. 

Now we’ve got clauses out of the way, we’re ready to take a look at each type of sentence in turn.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
Simple sentences are, unsurprisingly, the easiest type of sentence for students to grasp and construct for themselves. Often
these types of sentences will be the first sentences that children write by themselves and they follow the well-
known Subject – Verb – Object or SVO pattern.

The subject of the sentence will be the noun that begins the sentence. This may be a person, place, or thing, but, most
importantly, it is the doer of the action in the sentence.

The action itself will be encapsulated by the verb, which is the action word that describes what the doer does.

The object of the sentence follows the verb and describes that which receives the action.

This is again best illustrated by an example. Take a look at the simple sentence below:

Tom ate many cookies.

In this easy example, the doer of the action is Tom, the action is ate, and the receiver of the action is the many cookies.

Therefore,

Subject = Tom

Verb = ate

Object = many cookies

After a little practice, students will become adept at recognizing SVO sentences and forming their own. It’s important to
point out too that simple sentences don’t have to necessarily be short.

For example:
This research reveals that an active lifestyle can have a great impact for the good on the life expectancy of the average
person.

Despite this sentence looking more sophisticated (and longer!), this is still a simple sentence as it follows the SVO structure:

Subject = research

Verb = reveals

Object = that an active lifestyle can have a great impact for the good on the life expectancy of the average person.

Though basic in construction, it is important to point out that the simple sentence is often the perfect structure to deal with
complex ideas. Simple sentences can be an effective way to provide clarity and efficiency of expression breaking down
complex ideas into manageable chunks.

 
Simple Sentence Reinforcement Activity
To ensure your students have a strong grasp of the simple sentence structure, have them go through a photocopied text
pitched at a language level suited to their age and ability.

On the first run-through, have students identify and highlight simple sentences in the text. Then, students should use various
colors of pens to pick out and underline the subject, the verb, and the object in each sentence.

This activity helps ensure a clear understanding of how this structure works, as well as helping to internalize it. This will
reap rich rewards for students when they come to the next stage and it’s time for them to write their own sentences using
this basic pattern.

After students have mastered combining subjects, verbs, and objects into both long and short sentences, they will be ready
to move onto the other 3 types of sentence, the next of which is the compound sentence.
FOLLOW THESE EXAMPLES TO MAKE SENSE OF SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES
 

Reinforcement Activity

COMPOUND SENTENCES

While simple sentences consist of one clause with a subject and a verb, compound sentences combine at least two
independent clauses that are joined together with a coordinating conjunction.

There’s a useful acronym to help students remember these coordinating conjunctions – FANBOYS.

For

And

Nor

But
Or

Yet

So

Some of these conjunctions will be more frequently used than others, with the most commonly used being and, but, or,
and so.

Whichever of the conjunctions the student is choosing to use, it will connect the two halves of the compound sentence –
each of which could stand alone as a complete sentence.
Compound sentences are an important way of bringing variety and rhythm to a piece of writing. The decision to join two
sentences together into one longer compound sentence is made due to the fact that there is a strong relationship between the
two, but it is important to remind students that they need not necessarily be joined as they can remain as separate sentences.

The decision to join or not is often a stylistic one.

For example, the two simple sentences:

1. She ran to the school.

2. The school was closed.

Can be easily joined together with a coordinating conjunction that reveals an important relationship between the two:

She ran to the school, but the school was closed.

As a bonus, while working on compound sentences, a convenient opportunity arises to introduce a correct usage of the
semicolon. Often, where two clauses are joined with a conjunction, that conjunction can be replaced with a semicolon when
the two parts of the sentence are related, for example:

She ran to the school; the school was closed.

While you may not wish to muddy the waters by introducing the semicolon while dealing with compound sentences, more
advanced students may benefit from making the link here.

Reinforcement Activity:
THESE BOOKS CONTAIN RHYMING PATTERNS WHICH IS PERFECT FOR THIS ACTIVITY
A good way for students to practice forming compound sentences is to provide them with copies of simple books from early
on in a reading scheme. Books for emergent readers are often written in simple sentences that form repetitive patterns that
help children internalize various patterns of language.

Challenge your students to rewrite some of these texts using compound sentences where appropriate. This will provide
valuable practice at spotting such opportunities in their own writing, as well as experience in selecting the appropriate
conjunction.

COMPLEX SENTENCES            
There are various ways to construct complex sentences, but essentially any complex sentence will contain at least one
independent and one dependent clause. However, these clauses are not joined by coordinating conjunctions.
Instead, subordinating conjunctions are used.

Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions:

●     after

●     although

●     as

●     as long as

●     because

●     before
●     even if

●     if

●     in order to

●     in case

●     once

●     that

●     though

●     until

●     when

●     whenever

●     wherever
●     while

Subordinating conjunctions join dependent and independent clauses together. They provide a transition between the two
ideas in the sentence. This transition will involve a time, place, or a cause and effect relationship. The more important idea
is contained in the sentence’s main clause, while the less important idea is introduced by the subordinating conjunction.

For example:

Although Catherine ran to school, she didn’t get there in time.

We can see that the first part of this complex sentence (in bold) is a dependent clause that cannot stand alone. This fragment
begins with the subordinating conjunction ‘although’ which joins it to, and expresses the relationship with, the independent
clause which follows.

When complex sentences are organized this way (with the dependent clause first), you’ll note the comma separates the
dependent clause from the independent clause. If the structure is reorganized to place the independent clause first, with the
dependent clause following, then there is no need for this comma.

For example:

You will not do well if you refuse to study.

Complex sentences can be great tools for students to not only bring variety to their writing, but to explore compex ideas, set
up comparisons and contrasts, and convey cause and effect.

Reinforcement Activity
A useful way to practice writing complex sentences is to provide students with a subordinating conjunction and dependent
clause and challenge them to provide a suitable independent clause to finish out the sentence.

For example:

After returning home for work,…

or,

Although it was late,…

You may also flip this and provide the independent clause first, before challenging them to come up with a suitable
dependent clause and subordinating conjunction to finish out the sentence.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
Compound-complex sentences are, not surprisingly, the most difficult for students to write well. If, however, your students
have put the work in to gain a firm grasp of the preceding 3 sentence types, then they should manage these competently with
a little practice.
Prior to teaching compound-complex sentences, it’ll be worth asking your students if they can make an educated guess at a
definition of this type of sentence based on its title alone.

The more astute among your students may well be able to work out that a compound-complex sentence refers to joining a
compound sentence with a complex one. More accurately, a compound-complex sentence combines at least 2 independent
clauses and 1 dependent clause.

Since the school was closed, Sarah ran home and her mum made her some breakfast.

We can see here the sentence begins with a dependent clause followed by a compound sentence. We can also see a complex
sentence nestled in there if we look at just the bracketed content in the version below.

(Since the school was closed, Sarah ran home) and her mum made her some breakfast.

As complex sentences go, this is a fairly straightforward example, but they can come in lots of guises, containing lots more
information while still conforming to the compound-complex structure.

For example:

Because most visitors to the city regularly miss out on the great bargains available here, local companies endeavor to
attract tourists to their businesses and to help them understand how to access the best deals the capital has to offer.

There is a lot going on in this sentence, but on closer examination, it follows the same structure as the previous one. That is,
it opens with a dependent clause (that starts with subordinating conjunction) and is then followed by a compound sentence.

With practice, your students will soon be able to quickly identify these more sophisticated types of sentence and also
produce their own examples too.

Compound-complex sentences can bring variety to a piece of writing and can help to articulate complex things. However, it
is important to encourage students to pay particular attention to the placement of commas in these sentences to ensure
readers do not get confused. Encourage students to proofread all their writing, but especially when writing longer, more
structurally sophisticated sentences such as these.

Reinforcement Activity:

You could begin reinforcing student understanding of compound-complex sentences by providing them with a handout
featuring a number of examples of this type of sentence.

Working in pairs or small groups, have the students identify and mark the independent clauses (more than 1) and dependent
clauses (at least 1) in each sentence. When students can do this confidently, they can then begin to attempt to compose their
own sentences.

Another good activity that works well as a summary to sentence structure work is to provide the students with a collection
of jumbled sentences of each of the 4 types.
Challenge the students to sort the sentences into each of the 4 types. In a plenary, compare the findings of each group and
examine together those sentences where the groups disagreed on their categorization.

In teaching sentence structure, it is important to emphasize to our students that though the terminology may seem quite
daunting at first, they will quickly come to understand how each structure works and recognize them when they come across
them in a text.

Often, especially for native English speakers, much of this is done by feel. Just as someone may be a competent cyclist and
struggle to explain the process verbally, grammar can at times feel like a barrier to the doing.

Be sure to make lots of time for students to bridge the gap between the theoretical and the practical by offering opportunities
to engage in activities that allow students to get creative in producing their own sentences.

WHAT IS A SENTENCE FRAGMENT?

A sentence fragment is a collection of words that looks similar to a sentence, but actually isn’t a complete sentence.
Sentence fragments usually lack a subject or verb, or don’t express a complete thought. Whilst a fragmented sentence can
be punctuated to appear similar to a complete sentence it is no substitute for a sentence.
Sentence fragment features:
These are the distinguishing features of a sentence fragment:

 It lacks a subject
 Example: Jumped further than a Kangaroo. (Who jumped?)
 It lacks a verb or has the wrong verb form
 Example: My favorite math teacher.  (What did the teacher do or say?)
 It is a residual phrase
 Example: For better or worse.  (What is better or worse? What is it modifying?)
 It is an abandoned clause
 Example: When my mother married my father.  (What happened when “my mother married my father?”)
 It is an improper use of “such as, for example, especially,” etc.
 Example: Such as, my brother was practicing martial arts.  (It is unclear; did something happen when my
brother was practicing martial arts?)

The methods for correcting a sentence fragment are varied but essentially it will boil down to three options. Either
to attach it to a nearby sentence, revise and add the missing elements or rewrite the entire passage or fragment until they
are operating in sync with each other.