FEED TO SUCCEED

Goat Nutrition Guide

Nutrition is important for both the health and productivity of
stock. Feeding is central to the relationship between owners
and their animals so it’s hugely rewarding when done well.
This NRM guide has been written to give information to goat
keepers who are looking to feed and care for their goats with
renewed understanding. It is also aimed at people who might
be considering keeping goats, to give confidence to get going.
NRM is New Zealand’s longest running feed brand and is
committed to supporting goat owners at all levels. Your
questions and comments are welcomed, so best practice can
be discussed and shared.
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Contents
Introduction 5 Feeding Lactating Goats 25
Useful Terms 6 NRM Dairy Goat Pellets 32
Breed and Types Available 8 Kids 33
System Options 9 Coccidiosis 35
Tips for Optimum Goat Health 12 Water 36
Introduction to Goat Nutrition 13 Reproduction 37
What’s limiting production of my goats? 17 Health and Wellbeing 39
Mineral and Trace Elements for Goats 20 Appendix 1 48
Vitamins 21 Appendix 2 50
Applying Nutrition Science to Practice 22 Bibliography 51
Body Condition Scoring 24
FAR_09734

Neither NRM nor any other person involved in the preparation of this Goat Guide accepts any liability for
any opinion or information (including the accuracy or completeness thereof) or for any consequences
flowing from its use. The information contained in this document is given in good faith, has been derived
from sources perceived to be reliable and accurate and is subject to NRM Terms and Conditions.
 Introduction

Goats are of some economic value in every nation of the world

and are of increasing commercial interest here in New Zealand as
the benefits of goat milk, meat and fibre are being realised.
Small block owners looking for companion animals, paddock mates or
an alternative to a house-cow and cow’s milk are finding goats in one
form or another appealing. Professional and lifestyle goat keepers alike
report goats to be both alluring and productive and they are attracting
passionate converts. Nutritionally they are a fascinating species that
respond well to supplementary feeding provided it is tailored to their needs.

General Facts
• Global goat population:
Around 900million
• Temperament:
Intelligent and curious.
• Mature weight:
Males/Females 27kg/24kg to 140kg/100kg
depending on breed (Pygmy through to Boer)
• Life expectancy:
10-18 years.
• Gestation period:
144-155 days (five months).
• Birth rates:
Most goats only have two teats but can have
one to six kids per litter; over three is rare.
• Oestrous (heat) cycle:
Between 18-22 days. Oestrous
period lasts for 12-36 hours.
• Stockmanship skills required:
Good for dairy; average for pets.
• Livestock unit equivalent:
Two.
• Profitability/income streams:
Good for goat milking, kid rearing,
meat and potentially fibre.

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Useful Terms

• AB/AI: Artificial breeding/insemination • Dry matter: Portion of the diet that

whereby sperm is artificially introduced contains nutrients; important to consider
into the reproductive tract of a female when comparing the cost of moist feeds
for the purpose of conception. Helps and dry feeds as moisture (water) is
the spread of genetic progress and cheaper in the water trough than carted
conservation of genetic resources in with feeds.
because a male’s genetics can be
• Hay: Traditional method of preserving
transported and delivered to more
grass which relies on sun drying to
females than would be practical naturally.
reduce the moisture content to about
• Agronomist: Seed expert who is well 15% or less which limits the action of
qualified to advise on seed mixes or plant and microbial enzymes. Hay can
crops for a specific region for both be made from grass-based pastures,
reliability and profitability. clovers and lucerne. The quality of hay
depends on the quality of the original
• Baleage: Normally pasture or lucerne
crop and minimising harvesting and
(alfalfa) silage conserved in individually
storage losses.
wrapped bales for ease of movement
rather than preserving in a clamp. • Kid: Young goat.
• Buck: Male goat. • Kidding: Giving birth.
• Crude protein: Indication of the protein • Maintenance: Nutrient requirements to
content in a feed, determined by keep an animal at a particular body mass
measuring the nitrogen in a feed and and condition.
assuming that mostly it will be from
• Major (macro) minerals: Minerals required
protein containing about 16% nitrogen
in grams per head per day. Essential
(crude protein = N x 6.25).
minerals are critical for normal health and
• Compound feed: Formulated feed production.
pressed into pellets which ensures good
• ME - (Metabolisable Energy): Normally
utilisation, convenience and normally
stated in MJ/kg Dry Matter; an
enriched with essential minerals and
estimate of the digestible energy
trace elements which are bound into the
available in a feed minus the energy
pellets to prevent sorting by animals.
lost in methane and urine. A good
• Deferred grazing: Way of shutting indication of feed quality.
up paddocks for grazing later in the
• Mohair: Fibre produced by Angora goats.
season rather than conserving as hay
or silage. Concerns some people as
combustible material accumulates in Fun Fact
paddocks which could fuel a paddock The first Heidi book was about a
fire should ignition occur. goat-loving girl in the Swiss Alps who
spent her summers on the mountains
• Doe: Female goat.
with a goatherd Peter. The book
was originally published in 1880.

6
 Useful Terms Cont.

• NE - (Net Energy): Estimate of the • Strip grazing: Way of rationing grass

energy from the total diet actually intake by regularly moving an electric
used for maintenance, growth, fence. Works well with cattle but less well
pregnancy or production calculated with goats.
as Metabolisable Energy, minus the
• Straights: Individual feeds that can be
heat produced by metabolism and
purchased in bulk or incorporated in
fermentation. Microbes in the rumen
compound feeds. Normally by-products
generate a lot of heat which can be
from human food, such as soya bean
handy in the winter but is largely lost to
meal from soy oil production or bio-fuel
the animal.
production, such as maize dark distillers
• Nanny: Female goat but more grains from maize grain distilled to make
commonly called a doe. ethanol. Some like tapioca are grown for
the animal feed itself.
• Pasture: Normally grass based such
as ryegrass, cocksfoot, fescue species • Trace (minor) minerals: Minerals required
with some clover but increasingly in mg (thousands of a gram) per head per
contains broad-leaved species like day. Essential trace minerals are catalysts
chicory and plantain which may add which play a key role in the effectiveness
variety to the grazing animals diet. of enzymes and hormones throughout
the animal’s body.
• Silage: Often made from pasture but
can be made from clover, lucerne • Wether: Castrated male.
or whole crops (cereal and maize).
Quality varies greatly depending on the
crop ensiled and quality of the ensiling
process. If baled at harvest called
Fun Fact
baleage which is typically more mature
Abraham Lincoln’s sons had two goats
than pit silage.
that lived with them in the White House.

Housed goats eating a hay based diet.

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 FEED TO SUCCEED

Breed and Types Available

While goats belong to the family There is a myth out there that all goats
‘bovidae’ and they are classed as smell–this is half true. Bucks have scent
ruminants along with the likes of glands located just to the rear of their
cows and sheep, they also horns and in a few other locations. These
belong to the sub-group capra, emit an odour, with the smell becoming
which only includes goats. stronger during the breeding season,
There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat, with the hope of attracting a mate. Does
grouped according to their main purpose on the other hand do not smell any more
(meat, milk or fibre), so the breed or mix than other livestock such as sheep or
of breeds selected may depend on what cattle. Bucks can be easily avoided on
you want to get out of your goats. Goats your farm, in order to evade their smell.
were the first animals to be used for milk Castrated bucks (wethers) do not smell.
by humans. Breeds more suited for milk
production include the Nubian, Saanen
Sable, British Alpine and Toggenburgs.
Different breeds have different milk
production characteristics, with the
Nubian often compared to a Jersey cow–
producing less milk but with a higher milk
solid percentage. The Saanen is compared
to Friesian cows–producing more milk
but with a lower milk solid percentage. If
a good meat breed is required then the
South African Boer or the New Zealand
developed Kiko is a good choice, as they
tend to put on weight quickly, instead of
producing lots of milk. Some breeds are
dual-purpose, meaning they produce
plenty of milk as well as put on weight well
and cross breeds can often be a good
choice and easier to get your hands on.
The Angora and Cashmeres are well
known for their high-quality fibre, which
is sought after for use in luxury clothing
items. If a pet is what you are after, looks
and personality may be a priority and
potentially any goat breed will fit the bill!
One is never enough - goats are very
social animals and are best kept in herds.

South African Boer Goat

8
 System Options

The product goats are most well-known relatively new to handling stock. There
for is their milk. Goat milk typically is an added time commitment required
fetches a high price per kilogram of when keeping milking goats as they require
milk solid (fat and protein) and makes daily milking, or even twice daily milking
particularly tasty cheese. if wanting to optimise milk production. If
milking’s are skipped this can cause health
Demand for goat’s milk has encouraged
issues in does, such as uncomfortably
many smaller farmers into larger scale
full udders and even mastitis, so it does
commercial production. Goat milk is
require some commitment. Hand milking
preferable to cow’s milk for people with
can be time consuming, however more
allergies, as it contains less allergenic
automated milking machines can increase
proteins. The fat in goat milk is also easier
ease of milking. The kids produced by
on the digestive system due to its fat
does in order to stimulate the lactation will
globules, which are naturally much smaller
require hand rearing, which can be time
in size compared to cow’s milk. Goat milk is
consuming but personally rewarding.
also reported to alleviate the symptoms of
eczema and other skin irritation, so is often Farming goats for fibre is a specialist
included in skin products for sufferers of operation and Angora/Cashmeres do have
these skin conditions. Goat milk is actually increased maintenance requirements (such
used more regularly by people in the world as shearing) and can be more susceptible
as a whole compared to cow’s milk, with to animal health issues such as skin
goats being a popular stock choice in irritations, lice and fly strike. Their fibre
less developed countries due to their high however is much sought after for luxury
efficiency to convert feed to milk and the clothing items and can fetch a high price,
fact that cows produce more milk daily than so they can generate some income.
what a family can practically make good
Currently most of the goat meat produced
use of. An average dairy doe may produce
in NZ is from feral goats but there is
over 2.5 litres per day over a 300-day
growing interest in farming meat breeds
lactation, whereas a dairy cow can produce
such as the Boer and NZ breed Kikoniu.
ten times this amount. A goat or two may
Goats can handle steeper contours and
match a family’s milk consumption more
consume more weeds than sheep and
closely than a cow, plus goats are smaller
cattle so can complement traditional stock
and less dangerous to handle than dairy
in hill blocks with little effect on existing
cows so are a good option for people
stocking rates.

Top Tip
Goats are like little cows in some ways but not others, so it’s best to understand
what you are feeding them and what they need before making mistakes.

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 FEED TO SUCCEED

Goats can also of course be kept simply as Goats do have some special requirements,
pets and they can be just as entertaining in order to keep them as healthy and
and interactive as the family dog, as they productive as possible. They do require
are very intelligent and trainable animals. extra attention in terms of fencing and
They can even be taught to do agility housing.
courses and tricks like dogs and at the time
of writing they do not have to be registered
with authorities like cattle and deer under
the NAIT (National Animal Identification and
Tracing) system.

Commercial goat milk operations are becoming more popular in NZ.

10
Around the world goats will go the extra mile in search of feed.
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Tips for Optimum Goat

Health and Wellbeing

• Housing is important to consider when • Kid goats may need to be de-budded

keeping goats. Goats do not withstand if the growth of horns is to be avoided.
the wet and cold very well and are It is better to de-bud animals at a
susceptible to pneumonia and may young age rather than de-horn at an
benefit from shade in the summer older age (the dehorning procedure
so robust weatherproof shelter of can be distressing for both the goat
some kind is vital. Shelter should be and human). Some goats are of the
light and airy but not too draughty. polled variety and horns will not grow
due to their genetic makeup. Talk
• Adequate fencing is important when
to your vet for more information.
keeping goats, as they tend to be
very good at escaping and can • There are some health and welfare
slip through openings and holes in issues associated with tethered
fences you may think they wouldn’t goats, as they can often not express
have a chance of getting through. their normal social behaviour and
Electrified fences are recommended. can sometimes not be given the
care they require. It is recommended
• Hooves require regular trimming.
that goats are not tethered, however
Goats without access to rocks and
if they are, it is recommended that
concrete may require more frequent
the MPI ‘Code of Welfare for Goats’
hoof trimming than those that do. Only
is consulted and adhered to.
the dead hoof should be trimmed,
possibly every 2-3 months if necessary.
Get some advice on the best way to
do this and the best equipment to use. Goats have excellent
Over-trimming can cause bleeding, co-ordination and love climbing
pain and subsequent infection. things; owners suggest they
benefit greatly from access to a
• Goats are particularly susceptible to ‘playground’ to reduce boredom.
internal parasites (worms) and should
be on an appropriate drenching
programme based on faecal egg
counts and the degree of cross grazing
with cattle, horses and alpacas.
It’s best to talk to your vet around
parasite control, in order to ensure
you are using the correct drenches at
appropriate times during the season.
• Shearing fibre goats requires special
care by experienced shearers.

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 Introduction to Goat Nutrition

Successful goat keeping gases their symbiotic microorganisms

requires many practical skills generate in large quantities but would
including animal husbandry, rather not be surrounded by. Ruminants
also go to the added trouble of ruminating
agronomy and nutrition.
or ‘chewing the cud’, a process where they
While goats are resilient and adaptable, bring food previously consumed back into
having some understanding of their needs their mouth in order to break it down further
can improve the outcome of a new venture by chewing and adding saliva, easing the
or improve the performance of an existing access for microbes and buffering some
enterprise. Goats are classed as ruminant of the acidity they create. Goats literally
animals, as are cattle and sheep. This go the extra mile to harvest green feed,
means they can get nutritive value out browsing on plants many species avoid.
of higher fibre plant matter due to their Although an amazing system, ruminants
complex digestive system consisting of can struggle to cope with extreme diets.
four stomach compartments. Mammals Too much hard fibre (especially lignified)
lack the enzyme to digest cellulose, so can ‘bung up’ the rumen and limit dry
ruminants rely on a symbiotic relationship matter intake, unlike horses they do not
with microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa know how to cut their losses and pass
and fungi) to digest fibrous plants like material which is too fibrous. At the other
grasses. Ruminants are great hosts who extreme, very lush pasture in the spring
work hard to provide feed through the or feeding too much rapidly fermentable
day into a nice warm chamber that is as carbohydrate (starch and sugar) may
free from oxygen as possible and clearing deliver insufficient fibre to support enough
waste products like organic acids and rumination which reduces the efficiency
of the fibre digesting microbes.

Digestive system of a goat

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 FEED TO SUCCEED

Goats are natural browsers and love to seek out other sources of feed from their environment.

Herbivores around the world evolved a higher fibre component and it may be
to fill specific plant supply niches, like worth exploring alternative forage mixes.
koala bears for example who are totally
It is perhaps no coincidence that farming
dependent on eucalyptus leaves. Although
systems based on “cut-and-carry” fresh
goats are in the same animal group as
forage, conserved forages and concentrate
cattle and sheep, they do have a more
feeding are well suited to the biology of
flexible feeding behaviour which has
the goat. Cut and carry systems often
seen them succeed in many different
utilise broad-leaved species which survive
environments. They are classed as
longer in the sward without the pressure
browsers rather than grazers, which means
of hard grazing. Goats are possibly able to
they actively seek out feed in trees, bushes
consume a more concentrated diet than
and shrubs, rather than just grazing the
cows and utilise grain-based starchy feeds
pasture that is directly in front of them.
well BUT are highly-suited to utilising high
They also like to eat weeds and woody
fibre feeds. Nature has uniquely equipped
parts of plants that other livestock would
them with the biology to make good use of
not eat, so they are very thrifty animals
more mature conserved forages and grain
when they need to be. For this reason,
based supplementary feeds. While sheep
goats tend to prefer a diet with more
and cows are conditioned by their anatomy
variety and simply offering them a typical
to retain fibre in their rumen to maximise
ryegrass/ clover pasture may not be ideal.
fibre digestion, goats are able to allow
Access to good quality hay may provide
higher passage rates out of their rumen.

14
 Introduction to Goat Nutrition Cont.

Cattle can lose condition when fed as Although goats are known to eat things
much low-quality hay as they can eat, they shouldn’t, they can also be fussy
goats have a bit more flexibility to increase at times. Goats will decrease feed
throughput when forage quality drops. intake if offered spoiled feed. They don’t
Although they have a smaller digestive even like to eat feed that other goats
capacity, they can eat up to six percent of have nuzzled. Hygiene is therefore
their bodyweight in dry matter compared important and feed troughs should be
to nearer four percent for cows. A shorter cleaned out regularly and new feed
retention time in the rumen may reduce should not be out on top of old feed.
how much energy is extracted per kg
Goats will aim to select a diet of better
consumed but if more can be consumed
quality than what’s on offer and at times will
per day overall energy intake can increase.
go to great lengths, such as climbing trees,
With their greater flexibility, it is not
to achieve their goal. A tendency to graze
surprising goats have become so popular
higher has exposed goats to less parasites
in so many different countries despite
than are found in the base of swards so
producing a wide range of feedstuffs.
over the millennia they have evolved less
Goats do have a reputation for consuming resistance to worms than sheep and cattle.
things they shouldn’t, which can be Commercial systems based on “cut and
frustrating for owners and also not good carry” have become popular to avoid the
for the goat if they consume something problem of parasites but often incorporate
poisonous. For this reason, make sure conserved forages which are of lower
that fencing is adequate and that goats nutritional quality than high quality grazed
are not given access to plant matter that pasture. Highly digestible supplements
could cause health issues. Do your own are a good complement to conserved
research into what may be available to forages which typically lack protein and
goats in your paddocks and if safe to minerals in addition to being harder to
consume or not. Although goats are digest. Fortunately, in studies goats
curious by nature and like to consume appear to digest fibre more than might
woody plants and weeds, if higher be expected. They chew their feed better
production is desired out of them, such and recycle nitrogen to the rumen more
as in the case of milking goats or growing efficiently thanks partly to being equipped
kids, a better quality diet will be required with big salivary glands. Goats grazing
in order to support the higher energy and alongside cattle and horses will consume
protein requirements associated with a tannin rich vegetation such as woody
higher physiological state. For this reason, plants, weeds and brush not consumed
supplementation with a grain- based feed by the other species. This is due to their
may be beneficial, particularly if pasture ability to more effectively neutralise tannins
quality is not as good as it should be. thanks to compounds in their saliva.

Top Tip
Don’t take the risk of feeding mouldy feed – it may contain mycotoxins.

15
 What factor is limiting
the production of my goats?

When considering diets normally a reflection of the maturity of a

for productive stock it is crop when consumed. The typical ME
worthwhile considering what of different forages and feeds is readily
available online and in print. Forages
is the limiting factor.
and feeds can be sent to a laboratory for
Which nutrient, if supplied in greater or analyses and the ME will be reported.
lesser quantity, will allow higher levels of
Young, leafy material is easier to digest
production, health or fertility? If you have
and contains less fibre than more mature
control over where your goats roam and
plants. Pasture based milk production
what feed is available to them, it helps to
normally focuses on grazing pasture before
understand what feeds contain in relation
the fourth leaf stage. Maintaining low
to the needs of different classes of stock.
residuals (i.e. grazing paddocks down low)
In most circumstances, energy is the may not be desirable for goats given their
first limiting factor for rapidly growing susceptibility to worms that live at the base
or lactating animals. Energy intake is of the sward and limited drench options.
determined by the energy density of Grasses decline in feed value as the crop
the diet. This is normally measured in gets bulkier and especially at times of the
megajoules metabolisable energy per kg year when they reproduce as the seed
dry matter (MJ ME/kg DM) multiplied by head is often held on a strong, fibrous stem
the dry matter intake. For forages, ME is to lift it above the leaves. This is so seeds

Energy
Typically the first limiting factor

Protein Fibre
May be in excess or deficient Too much can be filling

Major Minerals Trace Minerals

Essential for life Essential for health

Vitamins Palatability

Dry Matter Additives

17
 FEED TO SUCCEED

can eventually get blown far and wide digestible dietary protein passing from the
provided goats haven’t eaten them first. rumen. Rationing and choosing between
Whole crop silages (cereals and maize) feeds gets a little more complicated
have a lift in feed value as grain is produced because an MP value cannot simply be
but inevitably contain a bulk of fibrous ascribed to an individual feed because it
mature material because at the time of depends how the total diet is digested.
ear initiation the crop is already bulky and
Excess protein can be used for energy, but
relatively mature. Supplementing mature
energy cannot be used for protein. Forage
forages with grain-based supplements is a
maturity goes hand-in-hand with lower
logical way to increase the energy density
crude protein percentage, so diets based
of a ration for lactating goats. Forages are
on conserved forages are likely to lack
generally bulky, relatively low nutrient dense
protein relative to the needs of growing or
feeds. For a more detailed explanation of
lactating stock. Rumen microbes require
how energy in feed is utilised by ruminants
a balanced diet if they are to multiply
see Appendix 1.
and ferment the diet efficiently, so the
The second limiting factor for milk first priority in terms of protein supply is
production is generally protein. to ensure protein available in the rumen
is not limiting fermentation. At higher
When describing animal feed, we often
levels of production, by-pass protein or
use Crude Protein percentage (CP%) as
digestible undegradable protein, can help
an indication of the amount of protein
to meet the needs of the animal over and
they contain. Crude protein is calculated
above what can be supplied by rumen
by multiplying the nitrogen content of the
microbes. It is important that by-pass
feed by 6.25 and assumes that the protein
protein is also digestible, or it will by-pass
in the feed contains 16% nitrogen. The
the animal completely and end up in the
rumen microflora are so tiny they can’t
dung. Protein associated with the fibrous
consume the protein molecule whole.
part of seed kernels or burnt protein may
Just like we can’t swallow a whole piece
be undegradable in the rumen but also
of rhubarb without biting it into small
undigestible after the rumen so will not
pieces. Microbes have to digest proteins
deliver available protein to the animal.
externally, absorb the chopped up amino
Protein is generally more expensive than
acids they are made from and then rebuild
energy and excess protein is excreted
them into their own microbial protein,
very concentrated patches in urine which
which is well balanced to the needs of
is not always well utilised by pasture so it
lactating ruminants. The actual protein
makes sense not to over-supply protein.
available to a ruminant (Metabolisable
Over-supply may be inevitable when high
Protein-MP) is the amount absorbed from
quality pasture dominates the diet because
the lower digestive tract in the form of
lush, leafy pasture typically contains more
amino acids arising from the digestion
protein than stock require.
of microbial protein and undegraded

18
 What factor is limiting the
production of my goats? Cont.
Fibre can be a limiting factor if either under- mineral deficiencies share the same
or over-supplied. A diet low in effective symptoms. For example, both cobalt
fibre e.g. long fibre from forages rather and iron deficiency can cause a loss of
than the short fibre in by-products, may appetite. Poor fertility may be linked to a
not support sufficient rumination and if rich deficiency of copper, iodine, manganese,
in soluble carbohydrates may increase the selenium and zinc. Iodine deficiency
risk of sub-acute rumen acidosis which can seems to be more common in goats
limit health and production. Diets based compared to other livestock. Iodine
on mature pasture or conserved forages deficiency is characterised by goitre (an
may over-supply fibre for high producing enlarged thyroid gland), rough, brittle hair
dairy goats. Although goats can tolerate and reduced growth rate/condition loss.
higher fibre diets by increasing rumen Kids from iodine deficient does may be
outflow, inevitably faster transit times will born weak or dead – if born alive, they
limit fermentation and the digestibility of the can often grow in a stunted manner with
feed consumed. shortened leg bones. Ensuring that goats
are kept topped up with iodine is important,
Diets need to be balanced in terms
particularly in New Zealand, as our soils
of the key major essential minerals,
are typically low in iodine. However,
especially calcium, magnesium, sodium
humans are not good at dealing with
and phosphorus. Major minerals can
excess iodine so it’s important however
be associated with stock going down,
not to over-do iodine supplementation for
metabolic issues linked especially to
milking animals or the iodine content in
calcium and magnesium in particular.
their milk may be excessive for the end
Simply adding loose minerals to blends
user. A zinc deficiency can be associated
can be problematic. Goats do not like to
with poor skin and hair condition. Other
eat a lot of fine particles in their feeds so
micronutrients may be deficient at times,
minerals can be avoided. Pelleting reduces
including but not restricted to selenium,
the amount of fines and ensures essential
copper and cobalt. Mineralised compound
minerals and expensive micro-nutrients like
feed or mineral blocks can be a good way
trace elements and vitamins won’t be left in
of ensuring that goats are always topped
the trough. Phosphorus is often considered
up on the mineral side. There are some
the forgotten mineral in New Zealand and
compound feeds available specifically
can be lower in mature forages than young,
for goats, however if these are not easily
leafy forages. Some dicalcium phosphate
accessible, multi feed options can be a
has been included in NRM Dairy Goat
safe option too. Some trace minerals are
Pellets because it has a crucial role in so
also available in an organic form where the
many processes throughout the body.
mineral is linked to an organic component
The effects of trace minerals are a little such as an amino acid which increases the
more subtle and health issues can be availability to the animal.
difficult to pinpoint as several trace

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 FEED TO SUCCEED

Mineral and Trace Elements for Goats

Where specific recommendations are not available, dairy cow and sheep
recommendations have been included as an indication only.

NRC requirement
Supplementation in the diet/kgDM Toxicity
Mineral Function Symptom if deficient (check with a vet or supplier) g/kg or mg/kg g or mg/kg Comments

Magnesium oxide on pasture,

In enzymes and nervous Hypomagnesaemic tetany
blocks, infeed or magnesium Not stored so needed daily. Poor
Magnesium system (transmits nerve (staggers) – nervousness 0.5 – 1.4g/kg 6g/kg
chloride or magnesium sulphate in weather, very lush growth and
(Mg) impulses) throughout the leading to convulsions and
water. Magnesium phosphate and
(NRC 2007) (NRC 2005)
potassium can reduce intake.
body. even death.
magnesium bullets.

Found in bones and teeth Milk fever pre- and post- Milk fever more common in
Calcium Limestone and dicalcium 1.4 – 6g/kg 15g/kg
but also enables nerves and kidding and also when mating older dairy does at kidding than
(Ca) muscles to function. if dry matter intake falls.
phosphate. (NRC 2007) (NRC 2005)
maiden does.

Salt in mineral supplements or Always provide access to

Sodium Maintains fluid and ion Abnormal licking of wood, soil, 0.5 – 1.1g/kg 40g/kg (
rock salt. Salt both stimulates and unlimited drinking water if
(Na) balance in body. & urine, reduced performance.
regulates intake.
(NRC 2007) NRC 2005)
supplementing animals with salt.

Essential in formation of P level drops as forages mature

Weakness, poor appetite or
Phosphorus bones and body structure. Dicalcium phosphate most 1.3 – 3.3g/kg and in whole crops. Often linked
depraved  appetite, 6g/kg
(P) Concentrated in red blood
reproductive failure.
commonly used. (NRC 2007) with protein so low protein diets
cells, muscle and nerve tissue. may be P deficient.

Poor appetite, harsh coat

Cobalt Required for vitamin B12 Cobalt sulphate in fertiliser, bullets, 0.11mg/kg 25mg/kg Cobalt levels in grass lowest in
and muscle wasting known
(Co) production in the rumen.
as pining.
injection. (NRC 2007) (NRC 2005) spring and summer.

Anemia, poor growth, Lactating 15mg/kg

Interacts with sulphate, zinc,
Copper Involved in many different scouring, ‘spectacles’ and Copper sulphate fertiliser, injection, Mature 20mg/kg
40mg/kg molybdenum and iron in the
(Cu) enzyme systems as a catalyst. poor coat condition, reduced bullets and licks. Growing 25 mg/kg rumen which reduces availability.
fertility. (NRC 2007)

Goitre (thyroid gland becomes

50mg/kg
Essential for thyroxin enlarged) and reproductive Requirement increased in
Iodine Lactating 0.8mg/kg EEC limit 10mg/kg
production which controls problems (irregular to Iodised salt or injection. presence of goitrogens (kale
(I) metabolism. suppressed oestrous, early Growing 0.5mg/kg feed to reduce risk
and other brassicas).
to consumers
embryonic death).

Bone deformities in newborn/ Various manganese compounds 2000mg/kg

Manganese Essential for the functioning of 7.7 – 23.9 mg/kg Forages normally rich in
young. Low fertility and milk including sulphates, oxides and EEC limit 150
(Mn) the brain and nervous system.
production. chlorides.
(NRC 2007)
mg/kg
manganese.

Weak muscles disease Lactating

Sodium selenate orally or by 5mg/kg Excess selenium is toxic so
Selenium Anti-oxidant in all active body (WMD), unthriftiness in young 0.3mg/kg
injection, mineral supplements or EEC limit 0.5mg/kg avoid supplementing by several
(Se) tissues. stock, poor conception rates
as fertiliser. Growing in complete feed routes at the same time.
and retained cleansings. 0.3mg/kg

Needed in enzyme systems 5.4 – 63 mg/kg 300 sheep

Zinc Dry skin, coarse hair, soft Zinc oxide in drench or bolus, Zinc Helps good hoof, skin and hair
throughout the body and Lactating 500 cattle
(Zn) keratinous tissues.
hooves. sulphate in mineral supplements.
39mg/kg Unknown goats
growth and aids immunity.

20
 Vitamins

Vitamins are essential organic matures. Vitamin D is known as the

compounds that are required by ‘sunshine’ vitamin or the ‘anti-rickets’
the body in minute amounts for vitamin and plays an essential role in
calcium and phosphorus metabolism.
metabolism, physiological function
Most animals do not have a nutritional
(maintenance, growth, reproduction requirement except housed animals
etc.) and health. when insufficient sunlight is available.
The vitamins most likely to be deficient Vitamin E works closely with selenium
in the goat’s diet are A, D and E. Vitamin throughout the body as a biological
A is essential for growth, reproduction, antioxidant and plays an essential role in
vision and plays a role in disease disease resistance and reproduction.
resistance. Plants contain the yellow
pigment β-carotene which is converted Fun Fact
to Vitamin A in the animal. The levels Both male and female
of β-carotene decreases as the plant goats can have beards.

Housed goats may benefit from additional vitamin supplementation

because of their diet and reduced exposure to sunshine.

21
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Applying Nutrition Science to Practice

Does your goats’ current diet meet and indeed may be desirable to ensure
their needs? If you are starting animals are content but not gaining
out from scratch what can you do weight and in danger of becoming obese.
to put the odds of a successful Pasture quality drops as the plants get
bigger and especially when seed heads
outcome in your favour?
are produced as the stems are strong
Forages are relatively bulky feeds, so and harder to digest than young leaves.
the first priority for higher levels of milk Conservation (preserving forages as hay
production or growth is to ensure stock or silage) inevitably lowers the feed value
are full i.e. can eat as much as they can. of the crop being preserved and the aim
The second priority is to ensure the of good preservation is to minimise the
quality of the forage is appropriate to the losses. To minimise conservation costs
needs of the class of animal being fed. per kg the temptation is often to give the
crop longer to bulk-up but high yield often
If the quality of the forages is not sufficient
comes at the cost of reduced feed value.
animals can be full but not fully fed i.e.
they are eating as much as they can, The milking goat gets the majority of her
but nutrient intake is still not sufficient to energy and protein from the end products
meet their potential growth rate or milk of microbial fermentation or digestion of
production. Higher quality forages are the dead microbes themselves (rumen
important for higher levels of production bacteria are over 60% protein). Like
and are fundamental to successful any eco-system, the rumen microflora
pasture-based livestock farming. thrive best on a balanced diet. Feeding
supplements only once or twice per day
Digestibility is a key indicator of the quality
is not ideal but by including ingredients
of a forage because it is correlated to both
with a range of fermentation rates the
ME and intake potential. As digestibility
delivery of nutrients can be spread over
rises each mouthful consumed delivers
a longer period. A source of fermentable
more energy to the animal and because
energy and protein, NRM Dairy Goat Pellets
it ferments faster they can eat more
have been formulated to help maximise
of it. Conversely, as digestibility drops
microbial protein production and then
each mouthful consumed delivers less
help meet additional nutrient requirements
energy to the animal and because it takes
over and above those met by the rumen
longer to ferment they eat less of it per
microbes. Microbial protein production
day. High quality forages require less
is maximised when energy and protein
supplementation than poor quality forages
are available to the rumen microbes in
but even high-quality forage will not meet
a synchronised manner – NRM Dairy
the needs of the highest performing milking
Goat Pellets contain a range of non-GM
doe alone. Lower quality forages may be
energy and protein sources which degrade
appropriate for animals at maintenance
at different rates after consumption
such as pets, wethers or ‘dry’ goats
and so are more likely to balance the
that are not growing or gaining weight
forages eaten between milkings.

22
 Applying Nutrition Science to Practice cont.

Attention to detail is a common theme Grains are a good complement to forages

amongst successful livestock farmers. because they are high in energy and low
Many profitable farmers pay fastidious in fibre. After appropriate processing they
attention to providing clean drinking are readily fermentable so can be used to
water to their stock. Goats are prone increase energy intake in a relatively small
to fouling their drinking water so volume which takes up less space in the
equipment or practices that ensures rumen. By-products–often called straights–
access to clean water is important. have a range of energy and protein levels
so are useful for balancing a diet.

Top Tip
If you can measure it you can manage it — laboratory testing of feed
is worthwhile if trying to understand production or health issues.

The softness of hay

reflects its digestibility.

23
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Body Condition Scoring

The key goal of nutrition is to keep skill to acquire. Search the internet or
stock fit but not thin or fat so they ask somebody who is experienced with
can enjoy a long and productive life. goats how to body condition score (BCS)
so that you can assess the condition
Body types differ between meat and of your animals against a recognised
dairy breeds and weigh scales can be standard. Feeding to reach and maintain
difficult to justify for small herds, so the targets – especially fat cover over the
ability to body condition score is a useful spine – is both practical and achievable.

Body Condition Scoring (BCS) guide for dairy and meat goats

0
No internal or external fat reserves
Emaciated

Loin: No muscle on edges of transverse process, bones very sharp, thin skin.
Vertebral angle has little muscle and is very concave. Spinous processes
1 very prominent with no muscle in between.
Poor Rump: Sharp outline visible; no muscle between skin and bones.
Pins: Very sharp, no padding.

Loin: Muscle extends to the edges of transverse process, spacing can be felt
between the vertebral processes, thin skin.
2
Rump: Outline slightly contoured; light padding but bones still somewhat prominent
Thin and very easy to feel.
Pins: Sharp, little padding

Loin: Muscle and subcutaneous fat covers edges of vertebral process; individual
3 bones are somewhat distinct.
Good Rump: Smooth, without signs of fat; pelvic bones and spine are distinct.
Pins: Slight pressure needed to feel the pin bones.

Loin: Vertebral processes indistinct and firm pressure needed to feel them.
Vertebral angle rounded but not yet bulging over spinous processes.
4 Spinous process spacing difficult to detect; spine felt as a hard line.
Fat Rump: Heavily padded with fat; bones can only be felt with firm pressure.
Pins: Heavily padded with fat, and firm pressure needed to feel them.

Loin: Edge of vertebral processes and spacing between too fat to feel bones.
5 Vertebral angle bulges over the level of the spinous processes.
Obese Rump: Spine lies in the centre of a groove of fat.
Pins: Buried in fat, bones very indistinct and hard to locate.

Taken from MPI Code of Welfare for Goats.

24
 Feeding Lactating Goats

Surveys of commercial goat farmers in revealed peak production in the herds

the North Island suggest lactation length surveyed was from 5th lactation does
from around 200 days in outdoor herds which averaged 3.7kg milk per day over
to closer to 320 days in indoor herds. a 246-day lactation. Interestingly, does in
Milk production of goats located in their 10th lactation were still producing well.
Waikato for the 2015 season (Scholtens,
Milk production of goats located in
M., Lopez-Lozano, R., Smith, R. 20171)
Waikato for the 2015 season1:

Milk Production of Goats in Each Parity For The 2015 Season

Parity
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lactation length
192.1 217.0 223.6 216.0 246.2 237.5 230.4 208.0 190.3 232.0
(days)

Yields^ (kg)

Milk 581.5 801.6 883.6 846.1 917.5 856.7 837.5 664.2 625.8 699.7

Fat 19.5 26.8 28.3 27.6 30.0 27.2 26.4 21.7 19.9 27.4

Protein 18.3 25.4 27.9 26.6 28.6 26.7 25.7 20.3 19.0 24.9

Somantic cell
8.8 8.9 9.1 9.1 9.4 9.6 9.6 9.9 9.9 9.9
score
^Yields are kg liquid milk, not kg milk solids

Pregnant goats need more energy value of winter pasture or conserved

and protein in late pregnancy. Their forages may be insufficient to meet the
energy requirement may be double increasing demand from growing foetuses,
normal maintenance requirements, especially if animals are grazing outside
compared to three times maintenance in cold, wet conditions when there is a
requirements at peak milk production. wind chill factor. Goats are susceptible
Supplementary feeding may be necessary to ketosis/pregnancy toxaemia if their
in late pregnancy if the condition of needs are not met around this time.
does is slipping, especially if the feed

25
 FEED TO SUCCEED

However, as with dairy cows, expansion A well-balanced diet will support does to
of rumen capacity takes time and dry produce to their genetic potential. High
matter intake is slow to rise after kidding producing dairy goats in early lactation
compared to milk production so some need more protein in their diet than dry or
weight loss is inevitable. Supplementary lower producing goats. Milk production
feeding can reduce the loss and help is demanding, so to support higher levels
support and extend milk production. of milk production the quality of the ration
A long lactation length and shorter (in terms of energy and protein) and
gestation fortunately takes the pressure the ability to consume more needs to
off trying to get does pregnant whilst at increase (i.e. is it available to be consumed
peak milk production which challenges and is the nutrient density sufficient).
many spring calving dairy cows.
Goats can recycle more protein than
Does in early lactation will lose some body other ruminant species but high protein
condition to provide more milk for their intake is still required to support higher
offspring. But at some point, depending liveweight gain or milk production. The
on the genetic predisposition of the animal examples below taken from the National
to produce milk, compared to holding Research Council recommendations
condition, peak yield will be determined. (Nutrient requirement of small ruminants,
This then sets the potential for the whole NRC 2007) are for goats in confinement
lactation provided nutrition continues with no appreciable parasite burden.
to support that level of production. The recommendations show that the
Meat breeds and crossbreds are more maintenance requirement of a dry doe
likely to put a priority on body condition is quite modest. Requirements in terms
compared to dairy breeds and within dairy of both energy and protein increase
breeds some animals will have a greater through pregnancy, especially for does
inclination towards milk production. carrying triplets and more kids.
Milk production is determined by:
• Size of the doe – bigger goats have
the potential to produce more milk
• Genetic potential – dairy goats are
by-and-large well-bred having been
selected for milk production in excess
of what 2 or 3 kids would naturally
require for a very, very long time
• Demand – animals milked twice or three
times per day will respond with more Fun Fact
milk than animals milked once per day Goats deposit less fat externally and
more fat internally (around the organs)
• Ultimately the quality of the diet compared to sheep and cattle

26
 Feeding Lactating Goats cont.

Energy and protein requirements of a 70kg parlour milked doe

(taken from NRC 2007)

Crude
Body Dry matter protein %
weight Energy intake of the diet
gain or concentration (DMI) kg Crude assuming
kg loss in diet (% of body Metabolisable protein DMI
Animal Milk g/day MJME/kg weight) ME MJ/d Protein g/day g/day* indicated

Mature
1.52
doe (Dairy) Zero Zero 8 12.1 68 94 6.2
(2.2%)
Maintenance only

Mature doe
1.83
(Dairy) Early Zero 40 8 14.6 110 153 8.3
(2.6%)
gestation, twins

Mature doe
1.87
(Dairy) late Zero 97 10 18.7 157 218 11.7
(2.7%)
gestation, twins

Mature doe
1.98
(Dairy) late Zero 186 10 19.8 174 242 12.2
(2.8%)
gestation, triplets

Mature doe
3.44
(Dairy) early 5.6 -100 10 34.4 415 576 16.8
(4.9%)
lactation

Mature doe
3.33
(Dairy) early 7 -125 12 39.9 487 676 20.3
(4.9%)
lactation

Mature doe
3.79
(Dairy) early 8.4 -150 12 45.5 573 796 21
(5.4%)
lactation

Mature doe
3.83
(Dairy) mid 5 Zero 10 38.3 420 583 15.2
(5.47%)
lactation

Mature doe
4.35
(Dairy) late 3.6 120 8 34.8 381 529 12.2
(6.2%)
lactation

* MP is 72% of CP in the diet for indication only.

27
 FEED TO SUCCEED

NRC have calculated the metabolisable lactation, can help to support the demands
protein (MP) requirement of different of milk production and minimise condition
classes of stock. Feeds cannot be given loss. Feeding a compound feed throughout
a particular MP value because it depends the lactation can also help to increase peak
on the how the total mix of feeds being milk production and lengthen the lactation.
consumed is fermented in the rumen NRM Dairy Goat pellets are typically
and how quickly it leaves the rumen. It increased gradually to 0.5 to 1kg/head/day
is not easy to convert MP to CP without depending on the size, milk production and
knowing the degradability of the protein in quality of the base diet. For higher levels
the diet (Sahku et al 2004) so the figures of milk production high genetic merit dairy
in bold have been added as an indication goats can be fed at up to 50% of the total
only and assume MP averages 72% of dry matter intake – up to 1.5 to 2kg/head/
the CP in the diet (ranges from 64-80% day of NRM Dairy Goat Pellets for high
according to NRC 2000). They do not performance animals during peak lactation
include the protein mobilised by weight for smaller and larger breeds respectively.
loss and are included to highlight the
It is important to keep in mind that feeds
increase in protein in the diet required to
designed for other animals may not contain
support higher levels of milk production.
all the nutrients goats need. For example,
Heavily pregnant does also have increased
sheep feed generally contains very low
pressure on rumen capacity caused by the
levels of copper, as this trace element
growing size of their developing foetuses.
is only needed in very small amounts
Lactating is a demanding physiological by this species. Goats on the other
state that requires a good quality diet in hand have a much higher requirement
order to support optimum production. for copper, so if lactating goats are fed
Peak milk production occurs at around a sheep or multi-purpose feed, they
6-9 weeks after kidding but feed intake will not be meeting all their nutritional
does not peak until around 12 weeks after requirements. Lactating animals require
kidding. In dairy goats that are milking well higher levels of macro minerals in the diet
(especially those with high milk production), compared to dry animals (e.g. calcium
this can mean that the herd is in a negative and magnesium just to name a few). For
energy balance, as they are not physically this reason it is important that a mineral
able to consume enough energy until peak supplement of some sort is included in the
dry matter intake is reached. Negative diet as standard. Feeding a mineralised
energy balance means that the doe uses compound feed can be a great way of
her body reserves to produce milk and ensuring essential minerals, trace minerals
this results in a loss of body condition. and vitamins are delivered daily. The
The lower the Body Condition Score at mineral content of forages varies greatly
mating, the harder it will be for the doe to and antagonists – other minerals than
fall pregnant and the higher the chance the can reduce the availability of essential
doe will not get pregnant. Feeding a high minerals – can have a big effect on mineral
energy compound feed, particularly in early supply to the animal. Where lower levels of

28
 Feeding Lactating Goats cont.

supplementary feed are being fed it may be Buying individual grains or straights may be
necessary to feed additional mineral, but it useful if targeted nutrition is required to help
is not always the case that more is better. balance a particular deficit in the diet. They
are more of a DIY option and require more
If wishing to supply specialist goat
understanding of what they deliver and
milk processors in New Zealand with
what is required than compound feeds or
your goat milk, there are sometimes
blends which carry a degree of nutritional
nutritional guidelines that must be met
complexity which means they will most
in order to do so. For example, feeds
likely meet more of the limiting factors more
containing genetically modified source
of the time. For larger herds, investment
ingredients (e.g. soy bean meal) or
in storage, mixing and feeding systems
palm kernel expeller (PKE) meal may
may be required to make economic use
be prohibited by some milk processors.
of bulk feeds. Each season presents
It is worth doing research into these
different challenges so it can be rewarding
guidelines to ensure they are followed.
to adjust the supplementary portion of
For people with larger herds bought in the ration as required. NRM has a team of
conserved forages, straights or blends Nutrition Specialists and Nutritionists that
may be appropriate in addition to or as a understand the forages and feed available
complement to compound feeds. Some in each region. NRM can supply straights
moist by-products like brewer’s grains and and blends with options to contract forward
kiwi fruit waste may be available in some to fix pricing and ensure supply which can
locations. The cost of freight normally be especially important when a drought
limits their use to close to the point of hits and feed stocks in NZ rapidly diminish
production. With purchased forages it and take time to restock from overseas.
is important to calculate the cost per kg
consumed as wastage and other costs can
add considerable to the purchase price.
The dry matter and quality of forages, can
also make a difference to their relative cost
effectiveness, especially if more than just
maintenance is sought.

Top Tip
Read the label of any medicated feeds on-farm as they may require a
long milk withholding period if accidentally fed to dairy goats.

29
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Typical nutritional value of grains and common by-products

Energy Protein NDF
(MJ ME/ (% Dry (% Dry
Feed kg DM) Matter) Matter) Key Benefits Key Limitations

• Very high energy with average protein. • Best fed in a controlled feeding situations.
• High in starch, low in fibre and tends to be low in • Major minerals, trace elements and vitamins may need to be supplemented when feeding wheat to support
Wheat 13.8 12.5 12 vitamins. milk production or growth.
• Is useful for increasing milk protein yield and for • The readily fermentable carbohydrates present can cause acidosis when fed at high levels.
growth.

• High energy, low protein, palatable and digestible. • Readily available carbohydrate source Requires rumen adaptation for optimum and safe use.
• Best fed through an in-shed feed system or mixed in • A good complement to high quality pasture which often supplies more protein than lactating dairy cows
Barley 13.2 11 21 a ration on a feed pad. require.
• Can help to lift the Energy density of a diet containing Conserved forages or medium quality pasture.

• High starch and risk of acidosis at high feeding rates and/or when quickly introduction into the diet.

• High energy and starch. • Compared to wheat and barley, more of the starch in maize is not fermented in the rumen, so maize tends to
• Slowly digestible. have more of an effect on cow condition compared to temperate grains.
Maize 14 8.5 10 • Some level of acidosis risk but less than barley or wheat.

• Low in protein, fibre, and minerals.

• Useful to fill a feed pinch when forage supply is • Less nutrient dense than grains and some other by-products. Oil content effects milk composition. Typically
PKE 11.8 17 60–70 limiting. 18% of the NDF is in the form of indigestible lignin which may limit DMI. Pasture fed cows are often not
• Non-GM. protein deficient. High copper level even for some dairy breeds when fed at high levels for a long period.

• Safe high fibre feed – but less than 5% of the NDF • Specifications undersell its virtues – should be used by more farmers, more of the time. Importers are
as lignin so works well in high performance rations. struggling to predict demand so it sells out – best to contract forward. Value appreciated around the world so
Swells and forms a three dimensional matrix in the not available at bargain-basement prices like PKE.
Soy Hulls 11 11 65 rumen which may help rumen microbial function.
Low protein level helps lower total CP% in pasture
based diets.

• High energy and protein can help increase the • Contains about 6% fat which is unsaturated residual cereal oil which limits recommended feeding rates –
nutrient density of a total ration. Contains yeast especially for young ruminants or when other unsaturated oils are present in the diet. Protein may already be
extracts and a fermentation smell which is over-supplied, excess rumen degradable protein will require energy to neutralize.
DDGS (Maize) 13.5 30 30 associated with good palatability. About 55% of
protein is rumen by-pass which may support milk
production.

• Typically contains about 55% starch and very low • Typically available as a large nut which may cause problems with some auger systems. Palatability can vary.
Tapioca 12.2 2.5 27 protein content. • Non-GM.

• High content of high quality protein with good amino • Looks expensive, but is often the best value protein supplier. Most soya is GM and demand for non-GM in
Soya Bean acid content can help support production across New Zealand is not sufficient to justify specialist non-GM importation.
13.8 52 10 may species and animal types. Good palatability and
Meal digestibility, so ideal for calf feed. Huge supplies as
long as deep fat frying is popular.

• A high protein, good energy feed used to partially • The protein is less digestible than soya bean meal. Bitter taste can be unappealing – especially to younger
Canola Meal 12.2 36 25 replace soya bean meal. animals who prefer sweet tasting feeds. GM free New Zealand and Australian canola meal may be available.

30
 Feeding Lactating Goats cont.

Compound feed relies on the feed mill

to process and combine straights and
minerals in appropriate amounts relative
to the intended class of animal being fed
and relies on adjustment of feeding rate
to accommodate the difference in need
between animals. Pelleting offers a number
of advantages over blended feeds:
1. The heat and pressure associated with
pelleting reduces the bacterial loading
so that pellets stay fresher for longer
2. The hammer milling of grains ensures
good utilisation compared to intact grains
3. Micro ingredients are evenly distributed
through the pellets and cannot separate
out during transport and storage
4. Pelleting prevents sorting and
selection by the animal when
presented with the feed.
5. Less fines are left behind in the
trough or paddock when pellets
Some of the straights silos at the Rolleston feed mill.
are well formed and durable.

Milled feed is forced through a die to form pellets.

31
 FEED TO SUCCEED

NRM Dairy Goat Pellets

Energy 13 MJ/kg DM Crude Protein 18%

Formulated from non- genetically modified • Pelleted for decreased wastage

organisms (non-GMO) ingredients for and reduced selection
lactating dairy goats and is PKE free. • Starch from a range of grains
Non-GMO ingredients means that the and legumes to support rumen
raw materials in the formulation are not fermentation and milk production
produced from genetically modified
• Supplies a combination of rumen
crops. The NRM mill in the South Island
degradable and rumen by-pass
is committed to using as much NZ
protein from NZ canola meal
grown feed as possible which is non-
GMO because no commercial crops • Palatable and low in fibre for
in NZ are genetically modified. The increased feed intake
product is therefore suitable for suppliers • Enriched with essential trace
of goat milk processors that specify elements including cobalt, copper,
suppliers must not feed GM feeds to iodine, selenium and zinc.
lactating animals. Although PKE is not • Nutritionally significant levels of key
genetically modified it has not been minerals – calcium, magnesium,
included partly because it generally fits phosphorus and sodium – to help
better as a forage replacer than in high support health and production
energy supplementary feeds designed to
complement rather than replace forage. • Vitamins A, D and E to help support
fertility, well-being and performance

Feeding recommendations

Introduce gradually, especially if stock Designed to support body condition

are not accustomed to supplementary and milk production in milking does.
feeding as aggressive feeders may eat
Milking Doe
more than shy feeders initially and rumen
Typically 0.5-1kg/head/day but could
microbes take time to adjust to new feeds.
be up to 50% of the total dietary dry
If feeding at the rates indicated below,
matter intake (up to 2kg/head/day
build levels gradually over 10 to 14 days.
for large, high yielding breeds).
Optimum feeding rates depend on the
quality and quantity of pasture on offer High protein option for growing does:
and the level of production of the livestock Growing Kid over 3 months (30kg)
being fed but typically do not exceed the Up to 0.5kg/head/day
recommended rates below for more than a
week. Ensure adequate amounts of forage
and clean drinking water are available. NRM Deer Performance Nuts could be considered
if looking for a lower protein supplementary feed
formulated from non-GMO ingredients.

32
 Kids

The gestation period in goats is 144–155 through the colostrum. Transmission can
days (about 5 months). When a doe is be avoided by feeding kids colostrum
approaching parturition she will have from does shown to be CAE-free,
a swollen vulva with discharge, her using heat-treated colostrum or by
udder may start bagging up and she feeding another species colostrum. If
will separate herself away from other CAE is of concern to you, have a chat
animals to prepare for the birth. Kidding with your vet about the best ways to
normally goes smoothly. The rule of thumb avoid transfer from doe to kids (more
is 30:30:30 as in 30 minutes from first information about CAE on page 42.
sign of placenta to presentation of kid to
Goat milk replacers can be used
actual birth of kid. Any longer than that
successfully as a fresh goat milk alternative
and an inexperienced person should get
and it is best to use purpose made
help. Soon after birth the kids should be
bottles or feeders, which are more widely
standing and suckling from the doe’s teat.
available for goats in recent times. Kids be
It is important that kids receive adequate can reared with milk replacer labelled as
colostrum soon after birth. Colostrum suitable for feeding to goats. Goats and
contains immunoglobulins, which are lambs are more prone to abomasal bloat
important for supporting the immune than calves so increasingly whey-based
system of young animals while their own milk replacer is favoured for kids as they
immunity develops in the months ahead. seem to create less bloating. Calf milk
The amount of colostrum fed in the first replacer is not typically recommended
24 hours should be 10% of the kid’s body for kids but Power Whey is suitable for
weight. Kids that are suspected not to kids. When feeding your kids milk, don’t
have received adequate colostrum should allow them to gorge on the milk. Follow
be fed colostrum via bottle or tube. Goat instructions on the bag for feeding levels
colostrum is best, however purchased cow and don’t be tempted to offer more.
colostrum can work as well. If the kids are Kids can be aggressive eating and can
to be taken away from the doe in order to over-consume milk which can cause
milk the doe, this should be done as soon bloating and/or scouring. Also make
as possible following birth to minimise sure you mix up the milk according
distress and the kid should be given its first to the instructions and feed the milk
drink of colostrum as soon as possible. at body temperature (39-40oC). Milk
that is fed too hot can cause issues.
Raising dairy kids can be done in a
similar way to calves in the dairy industry
and much of their practices and tips A doe tending to her two kids.
can be translated to rearing kids. How
dairy kids are raised can impact on how
productive they will be in the years to
come, so attention to detail is important.
Caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE), can
be transmitted from the doe to the kid

33
 Kids respond well to bottle feeding.

A hard feed should be offered from an Top tips for hard feeding
early age to kids whilst they are still
drinking milk or milk replacer in order • Offer hard feed from the first
to aid in the development of the rumen week of life so kids can get used
and help maintain growth after weaning. to the flavour and texture.
Kids reared with products designed for
lambs may need supplementary copper • Make sure fresh feed is put out each
to ensure health and development day and old feed is removed. If left it
proceeds normally. Goats have a similar can go stale and put kids off eating it.
requirement for copper as cattle so from a
copper perspective hard calf feeds such • Make sure feed troughs are kept clean.
as NRM Moozlee or GrowUp 20% are
• Ensure troughs are at the
more appropriate for kids than products
correct height for kids to reach
designed solely for lambs. They won’t
and eat comfortably from.
eat much for the first few weeks but if
some is put out fresh each day, they will • Ensure there is adequate trough
start to take an interest and intakes will space so there is no competition
increase from there. Once the kids are for eating the hard feed.
really getting into the Moozlee, they can
be gradually moved over to NRM GrowUp • Don’t use a hard feed that has
20% Pellets if desired, or they can be palm kernel or other cheap by-
kept on the Moozlee for longer if that is products in it. This can decrease
preferred. It is best to make the change the palatability of the feed.
from Moozlee to pellets gradually by mixing
them together before fully transitioning • Don’t allow lactating goats producing
over to the pellets. It’s also important to milk for human consumption to
not make the change from Moozlee to eat calf feeds like NRM Moozlee
pellets at a time when something else is which contain Bovatec.
changing for the kids (for example weaning
off milk). It’s a good idea to leave the hard Fun fact
feed in once the milk feed is taken away Goats deposit less fat externally and
for some time, as it helps support kids more fat internally (around the organs)
during the stressful weaning period. compared to sheep and cattle

34
 Coccidiosis

Coccidiosis is a debilitating disease caused the coccidiosis burden on a property is

by a protozoa parasite and is common in high due to more intense kid rearing over
young goats. It is more commonly seen several years as the protozoa can survive
when large numbers of kids are reared between seasons and gradually increase.
in the same facilities year on year. The A calf feed like NRM Moozlee or NRM
parasite affects the intestine of animals, GrowUp 20% containing a coccidiostat
laying eggs in the intestinal lining and (in this case lasalocid sodium as Bovatec®
when the eggs hatch some time later, the - see Appendix 2) may be a good option
intestinal lining is damaged, causing a in this case but it is best to discuss this
bloody scour. Immunity increases as the with your vet. The level of coccidiostat
immune system develops; however young in calf feeds should be effective but
goats are susceptible. Coccidiosis can be not dangerous for kids provided the
difficult for animals to recover from after a recommending feeding rate in terms of
severe case. If coccidiosis is suspected, the coccidiostat per kg of live weight of
contact your vet as soon as possible. the consuming animals is not exceeded.
Preventative measures can be taken if

Life Cycle of the Parasite Which Causes Coccidiosis

Feed that contains

Bovatec® cannot
be fed to goats
producing milk for
human consumption.
If this occurs then
milk should be
discarded for 35 days
following the last time
that goats consumed
feed that contains
Bovatec®. Beware
– feeds containing
a coccidiostat
are poisonous if
consumed by dogs,
horses or alpaca, so
it must be kept away
from these animals.

35
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Water

Goats must have drinking water and feed intake. Water is important for
available at all times. the regulation of body temperature by
heat loss by the lungs and urine.
This become even more important if they
Young goats and kids will often play
are pregnant or lactating, if it’s very hot or
on the rims of troughs and they can
if they are on dry feed. The water supply
slip in and drown. It’s a good idea to
should allow for a minimum of 4 litres a
cover deep troughs or to place concrete
goat each day and the supply system
blocks or bricks in them so that any
should be able to provide up to 15 litres a
animal that falls in can escape.
head daily in temperate climates. During
periods of water loss (e.g. scours, hot Troughs should be checked sufficiently
or humid weather) or water restrictions often to ensure that daily water
(e.g. freezing conditions, inadequate supplies are not contaminated and
supply) a reduction in body fluid quickly they should be cleaned regularly.
impacts negatively on metabolism

Stock water should be clean and easily accessible.

36
 Reproduction

Replacements represent the future of a • Increased tail-wagging.

herd. To maximise the gain from genetic
• Bleating.
improvement it makes sense to grow
animals so they reach their genetic • Increased urination.
potential. Does reach maturity as early
as 3-4 months of age but mating should If a buck is present on the property, the
be held off until 5-6 months, to avoid signs will be more obvious. Once heat is
adversely effecting growth and production. detected the doe must be put up to the
buck. This is more difficult if there is no
Goats are classed as seasonal breeders, buck on the property, however there are
with oestrus cycles linked to day length. other options such as bringing the doe to
Does tend to come into heat as the day an off-site buck or artificially inseminating
length shortens and autumn approaches. the doe. Artificial insemination is growing
Does must be put to the buck when in popularity and is a good way to
displaying signs of being on heat and it avoid travelling to bucks and possible
may only be on heat for 24 hours at a time. inbreeding issues. Increasingly responsible
If an oestrus cycle is missed, or does not breeders request evidence that does are
result in a pregnancy, the doe will come disease free before allowing services.
back onto heat in 17-20 days (this varies If artificial insemination is preferred, it
between goats). Signs of heat can be is best to do more research into how
more difficult to detect if only a few goats it can best work for your system.
are kept on the property but there are
some tell-tale signs that a doe is on heat: Unlike other goats, Boer goats
are polyestrous and can breed
• Swollen vulva sometimes throughout the year.
accompanied by a discharge.
• Riding other goats or being
ridden by them.

Bucks lift their lips and sniff pheromones to tell when does are receptive.

37
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Pet goats and South America. Goat meat is very

similar in characteristics and taste to beef
The growing goat dairy industry needs and lamb but lower in fat and is often
replacement does but is inevitably described as delicious, sweet and mild.
producing male kids that can be grown Farming goats for meat can be viable
for meat or available for forever homes commercially and goat meat is growing in
as pets. Pets can be reared in the same popularity in the Western world due to its
way as replacements to ensure a strong, desirable taste. Goat meat is also a useful
healthy start to life. Once fully-grown, feed by-product of keeping goats for fibre or
requirements for mature, non-lactating milk. Boers have been specifically bred for
animals are quite modest. NRM Multifeed meat production but even they crossed
Nuts are a good option for pet goats with dairy goats to increase milkiness
that need a supplement to maintain or and Cashmere for thicker coat for cold
lift condition without the extra minerals regions. Goats can be slaughtered for
required for milking goats. They are a the table at 3-6 months of age but can
good option as a treat or to help recover be taken to bigger weights and finished
or retain body condition – especially around 12 months of age. Boers under
during the winter. NRM Alpaca pellets good management can reach carcass
are a good option for pets if looking for weights of 14-18kg at eight months of age.
a non-GMO option. A mineralised salt Unneeded bucks can also be slaughtered
block with copper levels designed for at a few days old for consumption and
cattle will help top-up trace minerals and are very popular in some cultures. Meat
stimulate water consumption as animals goats are often reared on their mum
tend to drink after licking a salt block. but can be reared by hand if necessary
and respond well to additional protein
Meat Goats supplements when growing. If meat goats
require extra energy during the finishing
In 2016 the commercial goat kill in NZ phase NRM Multifeed are a good option.
was 121,000 – less than 1% of the lamb Feeding rate will depend on the quality of
kill of 19.5 million lambs. Meat goats may the base diet, if animals are cold and/or
complement other livestock, especially wet and the rate of weight gain required.
on marginal land where they can help
weed and pest control. Interest is growing
in meat breeds like Boer to supply
specialist markets that value goat meat
with premiums available for wethers and
females and avoidance of bucks because Top tip
their meat can be tainted in terms of Read the label of any medicated
flavour. Goat meat, otherwise known as feeds on-farm as they may require
‘chevon’, is a staple meat in many cultures a long milk withholding period if
around the world including Africa, Asia accidentally fed to dairy goats.

38
 Health and Wellbeing

Acidosis utilise forages. Dry matter intake can be

affected, in acute cases the gut wall fails to
Acidosis or grain poisoning can occur contract properly and gases can build up
when goats eat large amounts of rapidly causing bloat. As the rumen swells it can
fermentable carbohydrate–sugar or constrict the heart and death may occur
starch–which can be found for example rapidly. Animals suffering from sub-acute
in fodder beet and grain respectively, rumen acidosis may have suppressed dry
especially if goats are not accustomed to matter intake and performance. Grain is a
eating them or even if they’re suddenly valuable and useful way to deliver energy
eating them again after a short break. to ruminants but feeding instructions for
Sugar and processed grain is rapidly products should be followed to reduce risk.
fermented in the rumen, if the microflora High sugar feeds like apples, molasses and
are not accustomed to the acids produced, fodder beet also need to be fed with care.
the rumen can become too acidic for the
fibre digesting microbes required to fully

Biosecurity

Part of an ASD form

39
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Biosecurity anything that comes into contact with

your goats. Restrict movement on and
Good biosecurity can help keep your stock off your block if disease is suspected
free from pests and diseases in addition or identified. Don’t become the source
to helping to boost long term productivity. of a disease outbreak. Use bowls and
Animal contact is the main risk to stock so troughs to prevent faecal contamination
try to minimise the movement of stock in and clean and sanitise regularly.
and out of your farm. A closed herd policy NRM recommends the use of Virkon
may not be possible but understanding S - a broad spectrum disinfectant
the animal health status of the farm from that kills all viruses /bacteria/ fungi
where stock are to be purchased should be known to affect animals.
helpful. Animal Status Declarations (ASD’s)
• Cleans and disinfects in one operation.
must be completed when animals are
moved between properties and apply to: • Fast acting pathogen kill
• Cattle, deer, sheep, pigs, time 30 sec/2 mins
goats, ostriches, emus, horses,
• Safe for humans and to spray
alpacas and llamas.
in the presence of animals
The seller should keep the ASD for one • MPI approved against M Bovis
year after sale and the buyer for one
year after the animals are kept. Informal • MAF approved for exotic diseases.
trading makes it much harder to manage
and control movement of animals if
there is a disease outbreak. Dead stock Virkon™ S
should be disposed of appropriately.
Virkon S has been independently
Deter pests, rodents and birdlife by proven against:
keeping the area around pens free of
debris, spilled feed and standing water. • Over 100 strains of viruses
Manage pests to control rodent and insect in 22 viral families
populations, especially in the milking
shed, kid raising pens and feed storage • Over 400 strains of bacteria
area. Quarantining new stock for a least
• Over 60 strains of fungi and yeasts
two weeks can help them recover from
the transport stress and allow a proper Anyone with farmed livestock or poultry
health assessment to be made when should see themselves are part of
they have settled. Diseases can spread
the human food chain and having an
through people, vehicles and equipment
important role to play in the safety of
so minimise traffic and clean and disinfect
food and the sustainability of industries
vehicles or equipment carefully before
that are important for the NZ economy.
sharing with other properties. Routinely
and thoroughly clean and disinfect

40
 Health and Wellbeing cont.

Bloat for years infected with CAE if not put

under stress, so CAE infected goats can
Fortunately bloat is less common in goats make good pets. However, they should
than cattle and sheep. Bloat can be life not be allowed to pass the disease onto
threatening and can be frothy bloat (often other goats. Talk to your vet if you suspect
linked to the consumption of lush legumes CAE may be apparent in your goats.
such as clover or Lucerne, especially
when wet) or free gas bloat caused by Facial eczema
a blockage in the oesophagus which
can be caused by apples or carrots. Facial eczema is caused by a toxin
produced by the spores of the fungus
Pithomyces chartarum which grows on
CAE pasture when the climate is warm and
(Caprine arthritis encephalitis) humid. The fungus grows especially in
the base of the sward and in dead litter.
CAE is a viral disease passed from does If eaten the spores release toxins which
to their offspring through colostrum and can damage the liver and bile ducts. A
milk. Symptoms are not apparent for some breakdown product of chlorophyll then
time following infection and symptoms can builds up in the blood causing sensitivity to
be set off when an animal goes through a sunlight, which causes inflammation of the
period of stress. Some animals will never skin when exposed to UV light. In severe
show signs but will continue to pass on cases the skin can peel off, leaving large
the virus to offspring. CAE can take two burn wounds that can become infected
forms in terms of symptoms. Inflammation and cause severe pain and discomfort.
of the brain in young kids can cause Reduced milk production and even death
problems with walking, developing into can result. Goats are more resistant to
paralysis of the back legs. In older goats facial eczema than cattle and sheep.
CAE can cause chronic arthritis, with goats Goats will seek shade and may develop
developing inflammation of joints, severe crusty lesions about their eyes and their
problems grazing due to the swelling and ears may become thickened. Fungicide
therefore condition loss due to decreased sprays can be useful provided they are
feed intake. There is no current cure for applied before the spore count rises.
CAE. If an animal is suspected to have Supplementation with zinc oxide at least
CAE, it should be tested and if found to be 10 days before spore levels rise can help
infected, should be culled. Prevention of prevent facial eczema. Over-dosing with
the disease entering your herd is important, zinc can be dangerous and should be
so goats introduced to your herd should be administered carefully but veterinary advice
guaranteed CAE free by the seller, or tested should be sought before using products
for CAE before they join your animals. On registered for cattle and sheep for goats.
the other hand, goats can live comfortably

41
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Dairy goats have been selected for a very long time for milk production

Grass tetany/ Mastitis

hypomagnesaemia Mastitis is an inflammation of the udder
Hypomagnesaemia is defined as low blood and can be caused by physical injury,
magnesium and is a serious metabolic stress, viruses, fungi or bacteria. The early
condition in goats. Magnesium plays a signs of mastitis are a drop in milk yield,
key role in the function of nerve fibres modified milk texture, colour and taste and
around the body. If blood magnesium misshapen udders. Mastitis can be either
levels are low animals become excitable clinical (clots or serum can be seen in the
which can develop to convulsions before milk) or sub-clinical (detectable by culturing
they pass into a coma and die. Animals the milk in a laboratory). Goat milk typically
in milk, especially older ones, are at most contains a much higher total bacterial count
risk because they are losing magnesium than cow’s milk. This increases through
in milk every day, but mobile magnesium lactation and with parity and high cell
stores in the body are limited so if intake counts may not always indicate mastitis.
drops even for a short period blood Clean housing and milking practices are
magnesium levels can fall dangerously low. helpful for the prevention of mastitis in
High levels of potassium or nitrogen and goats. Several trace minerals are important
low levels of sodium or fibre in the diet can for disease resistance and fighting
reduce magnesium supply from the diet. infection–especially zinc and selenium–so
the prevention of deficiencies may help.

42
Love me, love my goat
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Health and Wellbeing cont.

Milk Fever Johne’s Disease

Milk fever or hypocalcaemia is a serious
(pronounced ‘yo-kness’)
metabolic condition defined by a low Goats seem to be more susceptible to
level of calcium in the blood. People most Johne’s disease than other livestock.
probably associate calcium with strong Johne’s disease in an incurable disease
bones and teeth but it’s also essential for that infects young animals via interuterine
muscles to function properly. Moderate transmission, colostrum/milk, or by mouth
milk fever may cause poor appetite (via contaminated feed or water). Animals
and milk production, goats may seem may not show signs of the disease until 1-2
lethargic and a little depressed. If blood years old. Symptoms include significant
calcium levels drop too low animals are condition loss, scouring and eventually
unable to stand and can slip into a coma death. If Johne’s Disease is suspected,
if not treated quickly by administering contact your vet as soon as possible.
calcium into the blood system. Clinical
symptoms in goats tend to be less
severe than those seen in cattle. Milk Mycotoxins
fever is most common around the time
of giving birth when calcium is required When moulds are stressed, they produce
for the rapid growth of multiple kids and mycotoxins – poisons to kill other moulds.
colostrum and then milk production at The presence of moulds does not mean
a time of falling dry matter intake. mycotoxins will be present and if conditions
get so bad the mould disappears the
Multiple bearing does are at most risk
mycotoxins can be left behind. Mycotoxins
before kidding whilst higher yielding dairy
are not evenly distributed through feeds
goats are at most risk post-kidding. Older
so should be considered an invisible
animals are at increased risk because
enemy that is hard to detect. Mycotoxins
they produce more milk faster than young
can have significant effects on animal
animals and because their ability to
health, production and fertility ranging
mobilise calcium from bones takes a little
from feed refusal, immune suppression,
longer to get going. The mineral content
infertility and even death. Many types of
of the diet in the weeks before kidding can
feed from pasture through to conserved
increase the risk of milk fever. A very high
forages, grains and by-products can
calcium diet, such as one rich in lucerne,
be a source of mycotoxins. Mould on
may increase the risk but a high potassium
feeds and conserved forages should be
diet, such as one based on high quality
treated suspiciously and risk is related
pasture, may be a bigger risk factor. After
to the level of contamination, so the
kidding a higher calcium diet, especially
effects are reduced if the contaminated
in the first 3 to 4 days, will help increase
feed is diluted. Deciding not to throw
calcium uptake until hormones kick-in to
away all suspect feed may prove a false
increase calcium mobilisation so it can
economy. If mouldy feed has to be fed,
be helpful to be generous with limestone
a registered mycotoxin binder may
flour to does in the colostrum mob.

44
 Health and Wellbeing cont.

lessen the risk to the animal. Different less time eating and may get dehydrated
binders work on different mycotoxins due to drinking less water. Dairy goats
with the more elaborate binders generally may produce less milk, become distressed
having a wider spread of activity. when herded and go down in the shed.
If possible, remove animals from affected
Poisonous plants pasture. If safe pasture is not available,
consider locking in yards and feeding
Goats seek a varied diet so it important to a good quality conserved forage with
be aware of the plants on your property fresh clean water available. Be aware
and recognise what is poisonous to that infected ryegrass will produce toxic
stock Some poisonous plants are hay. If ryegrass staggers is an annual
rhododendron, yew, azaleas, hydrangeas, occurrence consider planting safe crops
bay trees and all flowers and bulbs. or renewing pasture with an endophyte-
safe variety. There are registered toxin
binding products on the market in
Ryegrass staggers NZ which can help block the toxin
before it is absorbed by the animal.
Ryegrass staggers is a nervous disorder
caused by a fungal toxin found in perennial
ryegrass. It is common in the summer
and autumn when conditions are ideal
for the growth of the endophyte fungus
Neotyphodium lolii. This fungus produces
toxins which affect the brain and cause
nervous signs. The fungus is beneficial
to the plant as it provides protection
from insects. Modern “endophyte-
safe” ryegrass seed contains an
endophyte strain which does not cause
staggers but still protects the plant.
Clinical signs develop gradually over a few
days and are most obvious when animals
are disturbed or forced to move. Mild cases
show fine tremors of the head and nodding
movements while more severe cases have
a stiff-legged gait, short prancing steps and
ultimately collapse with rigid spasms that
can last a few minutes. The disease itself
does not cause death but there is a risk
of injury or death as a result of accidents.
Water work issues can be a problem with older castrated males.
Affected animals may not do as well due to

45
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Urinary calculi saliva is produced and more phosphorus

is excreted in the urine which increases
Castrated males and to lesser extent intact the risk of stones developing. A lack of
billies, are vulnerable to urinary calculi or water and water sources that are high in
‘water belly’. It is generally recommended minerals may also add to the risk. Access
that lambs and kids are castrated between to salt can help stimulate water intake.
1 and 7 days of age, especially if rubber The ratio of Ca:P in the total diet can be
bands are used. Early castration removes important because if the ratio is less than
the hormonal influence necessary for 1:1 calcium absorption will be affected and
the urethra (the pipe from the bladder) excess P will cause bone malfunctions.
reaching full size and increase the risk of A ratio of 2:1 is often quoted as ideal but
problems later in life. The disease occurs for cattle a ratio of 7:1 may be safe and
when calculi (stones), usually comprising sheep 4:1 provided P level is adequate so
of phosphate salts, lodge in the urinary it seems likely that more calcium above
tract and prevent urination. Phosphorous 2:1 is safer for goats. Cereal grains have
is normally recycled through saliva and lost a low calcium to phosphorous ratio so
in faeces but with a low roughage diet less compound feeds normally contain added
limestone flour to help maintain the proper
ratio of calcium to phosphorus. Some
people are unnecessarily focused on the
Ca:P ratio in supplementary feed which
generally only comprises a small part of the
daily diet when actually the levels and ratios
in the total diet are more important. Legume
hays (Lucerne and clover hay) are good
sources of calcium and increase salivation
and rumination compared to leafy pasture
so may be beneficial in terms of reducing
the risk of urinary calculi. Feeds specifically
designed for milking animals with added
phosphorus and magnesium may increase
the risk of males developing urinary calculi.

46
 Health and Wellbeing cont.

Temperature are mentioned here because drench

resistance and a lack of new drenches
The normal body temperature for goats is being developed means that better
between 38.9 and 39.4 degrees centigrade nutrition is likely to be central to reducing
(101.7 and 104.5 degrees F). Checking the drench dependency going forward.
body temperature of kids with diarrhoea is There are some steps you can take to
a good way to tell if they have a nutritional decrease parasite burden in your animals
scour (body temperature normal) or an (along with a drenching programme).
infectious scour (typically associated with
increased body temperature but may be • Have a low stocking rate to decrease
associated with low body temperature). parasite load in the pasture

• Add more variety into the diet to

Worms decrease the amount of pasture
consumed (pasture is the main
Goats are more susceptible to worms source of parasites). In more extreme
(internal parasites) than sheep and cattle situations, limit access to pasture
when grazing pasture alone and tend to to reduce parasite exposure.
develop less innate immunity in adulthood.
• Practise good pasture management
This may be because they naturally eat practices such as not grazing too
above the lower layer in pasture where low (parasites reside in higher
worm larvae mostly live so have not proportions in the base of the sward).
developed the immunity to worms over
the millennia. Some goats will accumulate • Goats share some parasites with
large worm burdens with minimal outward sheep, so sheep cannot be used to
signs until the infection is very severe reduce parasite burden in pasture for
and then ‘crash’ and can be difficult to goats. Cattle however can be used for
turn around. Many dairy goat operations controlling parasite burden in pastures
operate a ‘cut and carry’ system because by either co-grazing (grazing together at
of the challenges of managing worms the same time) or if this is not preferred,
in pasture-based goat grazing systems. cattle and goats can be grazing
Adult goats which are well fed and are alternately on the same pastures.
not stressed are better able to resist
• Take a cutting of hay from the pasture
and tolerate parasite challenge. Drench every so often – this reduces parasite
resistance is a particular problem on goat load in the pasture for the next time it
farms, possibly because the standard is grazed. Ensure animals are well fed.
sheep dose rates appear to be only partially When feed is restricted, immunity can
effective in goats and because more become compromised and parasite
goats seem to retain the ‘oesophageal burden can increase. For animals under
groove reflex’. This diverts drench into more pressure, such as pregnant and
the abomasum rather than the rumen, lactating goats, high quality supplements
where it is required to be effective. Worms may help to support immunity.

47
 FEED TO SUCCEED

• Make hygiene a priority and Salmonella

ensure housing, troughs and
water sources are kept clean. Salmonella has to be multiplied through
an animal or bird. The rumen provides
For more information about drench
some protection against salmonella but
resistance and worming strategies
high intakes can overwhelm the system.
readers are advised to read the Beef and
Lamb Wormwise for Goats booklet.

Appendix 1

Understanding the energy The difference between the GE of the feed

and the energy in the faeces being the
in feeds digestible energy available to the animal:
This section has been included to Gross energy minus faecal energy
explain that although ME is the best = Digestible energy (DE)
estimate of the energy in a feed for
ruminants it is not the complete picture Feed for pigs and horses is normally
and the difference is in the detail. described in terms of DE.

Anybody with a wood burner knows that For ruminants some energy is lost in gases
organic matter contains energy which is so feed is normally considered in terms of
given off as heat if burnt. The Gross Energy metabolisable energy (ME) rather than DE:
(GE) of plant material is fairly constant
and normally about 19.5MJ/kg DM. Digestible energy minus the
energy in gas (methane = about
When a feed is consumed some energy 6-15% of energy consumed) and
is lost in faeces, in many countries dung urine = ME (MJ ME/kg DM).
is collected, sun dried and then used
as a fuel so obviously contains energy. All warm-blooded mammals create
Wood contains similar GE as hay but some heat but the microbes living in
if sawdust was pelleted and fed to the rumen generate more heat - which
ruminants it was pass through undigested is good in the winter but bad in the
because it is so heavily lignified that even summer because dry matter intake
rumen microbes can’t digest wood. is suppressed during hot days. The
amount of energy actually available to a

48
 Appendix 1 cont.

ruminant is the Net Energy (NE) which long term to rely exclusively on grazing.
takes into account the heat generated Grains and straights (normally by-products
by the animal’s normal metabolism and from the human food industry) can be
fermentation in the case of ruminants: used to complement forages, either
individually, in blends or compound feeds.
ME minus Heat Energy (produced by Manufactured feeds offer the advantage
metabolism and heat of fermentation) that ingredients have been balanced to
= NE actually used for maintenance, help meet the specification required and
growth, pregnancy or production. Energy may include minerals and trace elements
is used at different efficiencies for growth, that can be difficult to deliver individually.
pregnancy and lactation so the NE value of
a feed can only be determined in relation Unless somebody is paying you to keep
to how it is being used by the animal. their animals e.g. over the winter, or
the price of an animal changes due to
Wow! Don’t be put off at this stage, seasonal demand, there is generally no
it all makes sense at the end! profit in simply maintaining an animal
i.e. feeding it just enough to maintain its
Unfortunately then, not all ME is created
current weight and condition. Low input,
equal. The ME delivered in fibrous forages
low output systems based on high quality
will create more heat than the same ME
pastures and forages can be profitable
delivered in say grains. The take-home
for breeding and finishing systems and
message is that in pasture-based systems
supplementary feed needs may be quite
we want to make good use of high-quality
modest and seasonal. High quality dairy
forages but for higher levels of production
animals can often outperform what
it may be necessary to top-up diets with
grazing only will support and the value
more concentrated feeds. Mature animals
of their milk can justify supplementary
at maintenance i.e. not growing, not in
feeding to increase the level of milk
the later stages of pregnancy, walking
production or extend the lactation.
long distances and not milking may do
fine if allowed to eat as much forage as
they need even if the quality is not great.
Some supplementary feeding may be
necessary during the winter or if older
stock need to regain some condition.
For animals growing, pulling a goat cart,
heavily in kid or milking, the quality of
the forage has to be higher quality to
sustain body weight, growth rates and/
or higher levels of milk production. High
quality pasture can support high weight
gains and milk production but given the
increased worm challenge when grazing
pastures it may not be desirable in the

49
 FEED TO SUCCEED

Appendix 2

Bovatec® 20CC
Contains Lasalocid sodium as an aid in the control of coccidiosis caused by Eimeria
species in goats and cattle.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE

This product must not be used for growth promotion in rumminants intended for
human consumption. By law the user must take due care, obtaining expert advice
if necessary, to avoid unnecessary pain and distress when using the product other
than as directed on the label.
Aid in Coccidiosis Control in Goats and Cattle:
a. Mix 5mg Bovatec (1mg Lasalocid) per kg liveweight per day to a plateau of 225mg
Bovatec per day (45mg Lasalocid) for goats and 2,000mg Bovatec per day (400mg
Lasalocid) for cattle into crushed grain, milk replacer, liquid supplement or other
suitable food vehicle that will ensure adequate intake.
b. Up to twice the above dose rate (i.e. 2mg Lasalocid/kg/LW) is indicated where severe
coccidia challenge is expected or a wide range of individual liveweights occur within a
group. (Do not feed more than 400mg Lasalocid/head/day to lactating dairy cattle).
c. Reduced daily gain may result at 5 times and mortality from 15 times maximum
recommended dose. Ensure you animals are adapted to medicated feed for 2 to
3 weeks prior to weaning, as coccidia challenge is most likely in the 8 weeks after
weaning. In any case, initiate treatment at least 2 days prior to expected coccidial
challenge.

CONTRAINDICATIONS
• Care must be exercised when feeding concurrently with other antimicrobials.
• Do not feed with other ionophores, e.g. monensin capsules, liquid or premix.
• Do not exceed recommended dose rates.
• Do not feed more than a total of 400mg Lasalocid/head/day to lactating cattle.
• Not to be used for single dose treatment.

CAUTION: Do not allow dogs, horses or other equids access to feeds containing
BOVATEC, as ingestion by these species may be fatal.

WITHHOLDING PERIODS
It is an offence for users of this product to cause residues exceeding the relevant MRL in
the Food Notice: Maximum Residue Levels for Agricultural Compounds.

50
 Appendix 2 cont.

Goats: Meat: Nil

Milk: Milk intended for human consumption must be discarded during the
treatment and for not less than 35 days following the last treatment.

Registered pursuant to the ACVM Act 1997, No. A9679.

See www.foodsafety.govt.nz for registration conditions.

Approved pursuant to the HSNO Act 1996, No. HSR002037.

See www.epa.govt.nz for approval conditions.

Bibliography
• 1 Scholtens, M., Lopez-Lozano, R., Smith, R. 2017. New Zealand Goat
Industry, Report to the Federated Farmers of New Zealand Incorporated.
• NRC (National Research Council). 2000. Nutrient Requirements of Beef
Cattle (update 2000). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
• NRC (National Research Council). 2005 Mineral Tolerance of
Animals, 2nd revised edition. National Academy Press.
• NRC (National Research Council). 2007 Nutrient Requirements of
Small Ruminants Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
• Sahlu, T., A. L. Goetsch, J. Luo and Z. B. Johnson. 2004. Energy and protein
requirements of goats: developed equations, other considerations and
future research to improve them. Small Ruminant Res. 53: 191-220.
All information is provided in good faith and without prejudice

51
Nobody is closer to your animals than you – and nobody
understands their unique nutrition needs more than our qualified
NRM nutritionists. It’s their expertise that make our range of feeds
some of the most scientifically advanced in the market. Plus having
nationwide access to their in-depth knowledge will support your
understanding of animal nutrition to improve the productivity and
profitability of your farming operation.

If you have any queries, please contact us.

0800 800 380

nrm.co.nz