ELEMENTS OF ENGLSIH STRUCTURE AND GRAMMAR (Part1)
ELEMENTS OF ENGLSIH STRUCTURE AND GRAMMAR (Part1)
ELEMENTS OF ENGLSIH STRUCTURE AND GRAMMAR (Part1)
PREFACE
Dear Students,
I’ve been teaching English for more than 26 years. During those years, I
have seen, witnessed and experienced the weaknesses of my students in either
speaking or writing. They all have similar and common drawbacks which are
grammar and vocabulary.
Usie Bungsu
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1. SUBJECT
The subject is the agent of the sentence in the active voice; it is the person or thing
that performs or is responsible for the action of the sentence, and it normally precedes the verb.
NOTE: Every sentence in English must have a subject.
Coffee is delicious. Milk contains calcium.
The subject may be a noun phrase. A noun phrase is a group of words ending with a noun. (It
cannot begin with a preposition)
The book is on the table. That new red car is John’s
Examples of subjects:
We girls are not going to that movie.
George likes boats.
Mary, John, George, and I went to a restaurant last night.
The weather was very bad yesterday.
The chemistry professor canceled class today.
The bank closed at two o’clock.
It can act as a pronoun for a noun or can be the subject of an impersonal verb. As the subject of
an impersonal verb, the pronoun is not actually used in place of a noun, but is part of an idiomatic
expression.
It rains quite often here in the summer.
It is hard to believe that he is dead.
In some sentences, the true subject does not appear in normal subject position. There can be
act as a pseudo-subject and is treated like a subject when changing word order to a question.
However, the true subject appears after the verb, and the number of the true subject controls
the verb.
There was a fire in that building last month.
verb (singular) subject (singular)
2. VERB
The verb follows the subject in a declarative sentence; it generally shows the action of
the sentence. The verb may be a single word.
John drives too fast. They hate spinach.
The verb may be a phrase. A verb phrase consists of one or more auxiliaries and one main verb.
The auxiliaries and one main verb. The auxiliaries always precedes the main verb.
John is going to Miami tomorrow. Jane has been reading that book
Auxiliary (is) ; main verb ( going) Auxiliary (is) ; main verb (
going)
3. COMPLEMENT
A complement completes the verb. It is similar to the subject because it is usually a noun
phrase; however, it generally follows the verb when the sentence is in the active voice. The
complement CANNOT begin with a preposition. A complement answers the question what or whom.
Examples of complements:
John bought a cake yesterday. (What did John buy?)
Jill was driving a new car . (What was Jill driving?)
He wants to drink some water. (What does he want to drink?)
She saw John at the movies last night (Whom did she see at the movies?)
They called Mary yesterday. (Whom did the call yesterday?)
4. MODIFIER
A modifier tells the time, place, or manner of the action. Very often it is a prepositional
phrase. A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a
noun. NOTE: A modifier of time usually comes last if more than modifier is present.
Examples : John bought a book at the bookstore. (where did John buy a book?)
modifier of place
Jill was swimming in the pool yesterday. (where was Jill swimming?)
modifier of place
NOTE: The modifier normally follows the complement, but not always. However, the modifier,
especially when it is a prepositional phrase, usually cannot separate the verb and the complement.
Identify the subject, verb, complement, and modifier in each of the following sentences.
Remember that not every sentence has a complement or modifier. Examples:
Jill / is buying / a new hat / in the store.
subject verb complement modifier of place
The noun phrase is a group of words that ends with a noun. It can contain determiners (the,
a, this, some, etc), adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. It CANNOT begin with a preposition.
Remember that both subjects and complements are generally noun phrases.
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A count noun is one that can be counted; one by one, each by each, piece by piece…
Book ~ one book ~ two books ~ three books…
Student ~ one student ~ two students ~ three students …
Person ~ one person ~ two people ~ three people …
A non-count noun is one that cannot be counted; one by one, each by each, piece by piece…
Milk ~ you cannot say: one milk, two milks …
It is possible, however, to count some non-count nouns if the substance is placed in a countable
container.
Glass of milk ~ one glass of milk, two glasses of milk, …
Some determiners can be used only with count or non-count nouns, while others can be used with
either. Memorize the words in the following chart.
It is very important to know if a noun is countable or uncountable noun. Be sure that you know the
plurals of irregular countable nouns. The following list contains some irregular countable nouns
that you should know.
The following list contains some uncountable nouns that you should know.
Some uncountable nouns, such as food, meat, money, and sand, may be used as countable noun
in order to indicate different types.
The word time can be either countable or uncountable depending on the context. When it means
an occasion, it means a number of hours, days, years, etc… it is uncountable.
Exercise 2: Determiners
7. THE
THE is used to indicate something that we already know about or something that is common
knowledge. It can be used for both countable and uncountable noun. With uncountable nouns, the
is used when speaking in specific terms, but no article if speaking in general.
Normally, plural countable noun, when they mean everything within a certain class, are not
preceded by the.
Normally a proper noun is not preceded by an article unless there are several people or things
with the same name and the speaker is specifying one of them.
Normally words such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, school, church, home, college, and work do
not use any article unless to restrict the meaning.
We ate breakfast with Jane this morning. She brought us the breakfast.
Use the following generalizations as a guide for the use of the article the.
EXERCISE 3. In the following sentences supply the article ( a, an, or the) if they are
necessary. If no article is necessary, just write ( ~ ).
1. Jason’s father bought him bicycle that he had wanted for his birthday.
2. Statue of Liberty was a gift of friendship from France to United
States.
3. Rita is studying English and math this semester.
4. judge asked witness to tell truth.
5. Please give me cup of coffee with cream and sugar.
6. big book on table are for my history class
7. No one in Spanish class knew correct answer to Mrs. Perez’s question.
8. My car is four years old, and it’s still runs well.
9. When you go to store, please buy bottle of chocolate milk and
dozen oranges.
10. There are only few seats left for tonight’s musical at university.
11. John and Mercy went to school yesterday and then studied in library before
returning home.
12. Lake Erie is one of five great lakes in North America.
13. On our trip to Spain, we crossed Atlantic Ocean.
14. Mount Rushmore is the site of magnificent tribute to four great
American president.
15. What did you eat for breakfast this morning?
16. Louie played basketball and baseball at Boys’ Club this year.
17. Rita plays violin and her sister plays guitar.
18. While we were in Alaska, we saw Eskimo village.
19. Phil can’t go to movies tonight because he has to write essay.
20. David attended Princeton University.
21. Harry has been admitted to School of Medicine at Midwestern University.
22. Mel’s grandfather is in hospital, so we went to visit her last night.
23. political science class is taking trip to United Arab Emirates in
spring.
24. Queen Elizabeth II is monarch of Great Britain.
25. Declaration of Independence was drawn up in 1776.
26. Scientists sent expedition to Mars during 1990’s
27. Last night there was bird singing outside my house.
28. chair that you are sitting in is broken.
29. Civil War was fought in United States between 1861 and 1865.
30. Florida State University is smaller than University of Florida.
8. OTHER
The use of the word other is often a cause of confusion for foreign students. Study the
following formulas;
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an + other + singular noun = one more → another pencil = one more pencil
the other + singular noun = last of the set → the other pencil = the last pencil remains.
other + plural noun = more of the set → other pencils = some more pencils.
the other + plural noun = the rest of the set → the other pencils = all remaining pencils.
Another and other are nonspecific while the other is specific. If the subject is understood,
you can omit the noun and keep the determiner and other so that other functions as a pronoun.
If it is a plural countable noun that is omitted, other becomes others. The word other can
NEVER be plural if it is followed by a noun.
I don’t want this book. Please give me another. ( another = any other book – not specific)
I don’t want this book. Please give me the other. ( the other = the other book – specific)
This chemical is poisonous. Others are poisonous too ( others = other chemicals – not specific)
I don’t want these books. Please give me the others. ( the others = the other books – specific)
NOTE: It is also possible to use the demonstrative articles this, that, these, and those as
pronouns. It is correct to say this one and that one; however, it is NOT CORRECT to say
these ones or those ones. Simply use these or those as pronouns without adding ones.
This elevator is broken. That one is also broken. (that elevator)
These glasses are dirty. Those are dirty too. (those = those glasses)
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2. We also use this tense for a situation that we think is more or less permanent.
~ Where do you live? ~ She works in a bank.
~ They love coffee. ~ She has three children.
~ I am married. ~ I don't like mushrooms.
3. The next use is for habits or things that we do regularly. We often use adverbs of
frequency in this case.
~ Do you smoke? ~ I play tennis every Tuesday.
~ We often go to the cinema. ~ She gets up at seven o'clock every day.
~ At the weekend, we usually go to the market.
~ How often do you study English? ~ I don't travel very often.
4. Four, we use the simple present to talk about what happens in books, plays, or films:
~ The hero dies at the end of the film.
~ A young woman travels through Europe, where she meets different people, and
finally falls in love.
~ In this book, an army invades Britain.
~ The main character is very pretty and works in a bookshop.
6. Strangely, we can use this tense to talk about the future. When you are discussing a
timetable or a fixed plan, you can use this tense. Usually, the timetable is fixed by
an organization, not by us:
~ School begins at nine tomorrow. ~ Our train leaves at eleven.
~ What time does the film start? ~ When does the class finish?
~ The plane doesn't arrive at seven, it arrives at seven thirty.
7. We also use it to talk about the future after words like ' 'when', 'until', 'after',
'before' and 'as soon as' in a future sentence:
~ I will call you when I have time. (Not: 'will have')
~ I won't go out until it stops raining.
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NOTE: There are verbs that always take Simple Present Tense form even though they are used
to indicate present time (NOW). But in some cases they are also possible to be used in
progressive tense
Example : They understand the problem now. (the situation is at this moment/right now)
He wants to leave now. (he is about to leave at this moment)
The coffee tastes delicious ( He is tasting the coffee at this moment)
1. First, we use it for things that are happening at the moment of speaking.
~ I'm working at the moment. ~ Julie is sleeping.
~ Please call back as– we are eating dinner now.
~ You are studying the present continuous.
2. We can also use this tense for temporary situations, when we feel something
won't continue for a long time.
~ She's staying with her friend for a week.
~ I'm living in London for a few months.
~ John's working in a bar until he finds a job in his field.
~ I'm reading a really great book.
Compare this with the present simple, which is used for permanent situations that we
feel will continue for a long time.
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3. We can use the present continuous for habits but they have to be temporary
or new habits (for normal habits that continue for a long time, we use the present
simple).
~ He's eating a lot these days.
~ She's swimming every morning (she didn't use to do this).
~ You're smoking too much.
~ They're working late every night.
4. Another present continuous use is for annoying habits, when we want to show
that something happens too often and we don't like it. In this case we usually
use an adverb like 'always', 'forever' or 'constantly'.
~ You're always losing your keys!
~ She's constantly missing the train.
~ He's always sleeping in.
~ They're forever being late.
5. The next use is for definite future arrangements (with a future time word). In
this case we have already made a plan and we are pretty sure that the event will
happen in the future.
~ I'm meeting my father tomorrow.
~ We're going to the beach at the weekend.
~ I'm leaving at three.
~ They're coming to the party at the weekend.
6: Finally we use this tense to talk about a situation which is slowly changing.
~ I'm getting better at playing the piano.
~ The weather is improving.
I. We use it with finished actions, states or habits in the past when we have a finished
time word (yesterday, last week, at 2 o'clock, in 2003).
I went to the cinema yesterday.
We spent a lot of time Japan in 2007.
II. We use it with finished actions, states or habits in the past when we know from
general knowledge that the time period has finished. This includes when the person we
are talking about is dead.
Leonardo painted the Mona Lisa.
The Vikings invaded Britain.
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III. We use it with finished actions, states or habits in the past that we have introduced
with the present perfect or another tense. This is sometimes called 'details of news'.
I've hurt my leg. I fell off a ladder when I was painting my bedroom.
I've been on holiday. I went to Spain and Portugal.
IV. For stories or lists of events, we often use the past simple for the actions in the story
and the past continuous for the background.
He went to a café. People were chatting and music was playing. He sat down
and ordered a coffee.
V. We use the past simple to talk about things that are not real in the present or future.
So we use it with the second conditional and after words like 'wish'.
If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.
I wish I had more time!
VI. The “be” for Past Tense are was and were.
She was here a few minutes ago. They were late.
John was a pilot but now he is retired John and Mary were married
Annie was nice when she was a kid Mary and Bobby were friends
1. An action in the past which overlaps another action or a time. The action in the past
continuous starts before and often continues after the other shorter action or time.
I was walking to the station when I met John.
(I started walking before I met John, and maybe I continued afterwards.)
At three o'clock, I was working.
(I started before three o'clock and finished after three o'clock.)
2. In the same way, we can use the present continuous for the background of a story. (We
often use the past simple for the actions.) This is really a specific example of Use 1.
The birds were singing, the sun was shining and in the cafés people were laughing
and chatting. Amy sat down and took out her phone.
3. Temporary habits or habits that happen more often than we expect in the past. We often
use 'always', 'constantly' or 'forever' here. This is the same as the way we use the
present continuous for habits, but the habit started and finished in the past. This thing
doesn't happen now.
He was always leaving the tap running.
She was constantly singing.
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4. To emphasise that something lasted for a while. This use is often optional and we usually
use it with time expressions like 'all day' or 'all evening' or 'for hours'.
I was working in the garden all day.
He was reading all evening.
Remember you can't use this tense or any continuous tense with stative verbs
Unfinished Actions
1. We use this tense when we want to talk about unfinished actions or states or habits that
started in the past and continue to the present. Usually we use it to say 'how long' and we
need 'since' or 'for'. We often use stative verbs.
I've known Karen since 1994.
She's lived in London for three years.
I've worked here for six months.
We use 'for' with a period of time (2 hours, three years, six months).
I've known Julie for ten years.
I've been hungry for hours.
She's had a cold for a week.
Finished Actions
2. Life experience. These are actions or events that happened sometime during a person's
life. We don't say when the experience happened, and the person needs to be alive now.
We often use the words 'ever' and 'never' here.
I have been to Tokyo.
They have visited Paris three times.
We have never seen that film.
3. With an unfinished time word (this month, this week, today). The period of time is still
continuing.
I haven't seen her this month.
She's drunk three cups of coffee today.
I've already moved house twice this year!
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4. A finished action with a result in the present (focus on result). We often use the present
perfect to talk about something that happened in the recent past, but that is still true or
important now. Sometimes we can use the past simple here, especially in US English.
I've lost my keys (so I can't get into my house).
She's hurt her leg (so she can't play tennis today).
They've missed the bus (so they will be late).
5. We can also use the present perfect to talk about something that happened recently, even
if there isn't a clear result in the present. This is common when we want to introduce news
and we often use the words 'just / yet / already / recently'. However, the past simple is
also correct in these cases, especially in US English.
The Queen has given a speech.
I've just seen Lucy.
The Mayor has announced a new plan for the railways.
We use 'GONE' (often when we are talking about an action with a result in the present) to mean
that the person went to the place and is at the place now.
Where's John? He's gone to the shops (he's at the shops now).
Julie has gone to Mexico (now she's in Mexico).
They've gone to Japan for three weeks (now they're in Japan).
Unfinished actions
1. To say how long for unfinished actions which started in the past and continue to the
present. We often use this with 'for' and 'since' (see the the present perfect simple
page for more about 'for' and 'since').
I've been living in London for two years.
She's been working here since 2004.
We've been waiting for the bus for hours.
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This use is very similar to how we use the present perfect simple, and often it's possible to use
either tense. Of course, with stative verbs, we can't use the present perfect continuous.
I've been here for hours.
2. For temporary habits or situations. The action started in the past and continues to the
present in the same way as with use number 1, but we don't answer the questions about
'how long' so clearly. Instead, we use a word like 'recently'.
I've been going to the gym a lot recently.
They've been living with his mother while they look for a house.
I've been reading a lot recently.
This is very similar to the use of the present continuous for temporary habits and often either
tense is possible.
Finished actions
3. Actions which have recently stopped (though the whole action can be unfinished) and have
a result, which we can often see, hear, or feel, in the present. We don't use a time word
here.
I'm so tired, I've been studying.
I've been running, so I'm really hot.
It's been raining so the pavement is wet.
The present perfect simple has a very similar use, which focuses on the result of the action,
whereas the present perfect continuous focuses on the action itself. See my page here about the
difference between the present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous for more
explanation.
PAST PERFECT
We usually use the past perfect to make it clear which action happened first. Maybe we are
already talking about something in the past and we want to mention something else that is further
back in time. This is often used to explain or give a reason for something in the past.
~ I'd eaten dinner so I wasn't hungry.
~ It had snowed in the night, so the bus didn't arrive.
If it's clear which action happened first (if we use the words 'before' or 'after', for example),
the past perfect is optional.
~ The film started before we arrived / the film had started before we arrived.
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2. Something that started in the past and continued up to another action or time in the past.
The past perfect tells us 'how long', just like the present perfect, but this time the action
continues up to a point in the past rather than the present. Usually we use 'for + time'. We
can also use the past perfect continuous here, so we most often use the past perfect
simple with stative verbs.
3. To talk about unreal or imaginary things in the past. In the same way that we use the past
simple to talk about unreal or imaginary things in the present, we use the past perfect (one
step back in time) to talk about unreal things in the past. This is common in the third
conditional and after 'wish'.
FUTURE TENSES
1. We use the future continuous to talk about an action in the future that overlaps another,
shorter action or a time. The action in the future continuous usually starts before and
might continue after the second action or time. This is very similar to how we use the past
continuous in the past. The verb after 'when' is usually in the present simple.
2. We can use the future continuous to talk about something that will happen if everything
happens as we expect. This is sometimes called future as a matter of course. It's usually
possible to choose the future simple as well, but we often choose the future continuous
because then it's clear that we are not making a request or offer.
Remember, we can't use the future continuous with stative verbs, so if we want to use a stative
verb in one of the situations where we need to the future continuous, then we use the future
simple with 'will'.
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FUTURE PERFECT
1. We use the future perfect to say 'how long' for an action that starts before and
continues up to another action or time in the future. Usually we need 'for'. We can also
use the future perfect continuous here so we often use the future perfect simple
with stative verbs. If we use 'when', we usually need the present simple.
When we get married, I'll have known Robert for four years.
At 4 o'clock, I'll have been in this office for 24 hours.
Sometimes we could also use the present perfect in the same situation. But we like to use
the future perfect to make the time an easy number.
I've lived here for 11 months and three weeks. (This is correct, but the time is not an easy
number.)
On Tuesday, I will have lived here for one year. (A much easier number.)
2. We use the future perfect with a future time word, (and often with 'by') to talk about an
action that will finish before a certain time in the future, but we don't know exactly when.
By 10 o'clock, I will have finished my homework. (= I will finish my homework some time
before 10, but we don't know exactly when.)
By the time I'm sixty, I will have retired. (= I will retire sometime before I'm sixty.
Maybe when I'm fifty-nine, maybe when I'm fifty-two.)
1. Just like with the other perfect continuous tenses (and the future perfect simple), we
can use the future perfect continuous to say 'how long' for an action that continues up to
another point in the future. The second point can be a time or another action. Generally,
we need 'for + length of time' and if we use 'when' or 'by the time', we usually use
the present simple.
In April, she will have been teaching for twelve years.
By the time you arrive, I'll have been cooking for hours!
In the same way as with the future perfect simple, we often use the future perfect continuous
because we like easy numbers. It's also possible to use the present perfect continuous, but then
we get a more complicated number.
I've been working here for 11 months and three weeks. (This is correct, but the
time is not an easy number.)
On Tuesday, I will have been working here for one year. (A much easier number.)
2. We can use the future perfect continuous, like the other perfect continuous tenses, to
talk about something that finishes just before another time or action (in this case, in the
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future). It's often used because there will be a result at the second point in the future.
(Again, if we use 'when' we usually need the present simple.)
When I see you, I'll have been studying, so I'll be tired
Remember that the subject and verb in a sentence must agree in person and number.
The elevator works very well. The elevators work very well
singular singular plural plural
When taking the TOEFL, you must always check the subject and verb to be sure they AGREE.
However, sometimes it is difficult to decide exactly what the subject is if the subject and verb
are separated.
The boys in the room are studying.
plural plural
Normally, if the subject and verb are separated, they will be separated by a prepositional phrase.
The prepositional phrase has no effect.
The actress, along with her manager and some friends, is going to a party tonight.
singular subject singular verb
Mr. Robbins, accompanied by his wife and his children, is arriving tonight.
singular subject singular verb
NOTE: If the conjunction and is used instead of one of these phrases, the verb would then be
Plural.
Some words are often confused by students as being plural. The following words must be followed
by singular verbs and pronouns in formal written English.
12. NONE / NO
None can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on the noun which follows it.
singular noun
no + + singular verb
uncountable noun
When either and neither are followed by or and nor, the verb may be singular or plural,
depending on whether the noun following or and nor is singular or plural. If or or nor appears
alone, the same rule applies. Study the following formulas.
neither nor
+ noun + + plural noun + plural verb
either or
Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today
plural noun plural verb
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If a sentence begins with [verb + ing] (gerund), the verb must also be singular.
Also many words indicating a number of people or animals are singular. The following nouns are
usually singular. In some cases they are plural if the sentence indicates that the individual
members are acting separately.
*Majority can be singular or plural. If it is alone it is usually singular; if it followed by a plural noun, it is usually plural.
The following nouns are used to indicate groups of certain animals. It is necessary to learn the
nouns; however, they mean the same as group and thus are considered singular.
The following nouns are always considered plural. They cannot be singular. In order to speak it of
them as singular, one must say “a pair of ”
Remember that with sentences beginning with the existential there, the subject is
actually after the verb.
there is
there was + singular subject or uncountable noun
there has been
there are
there were + plural subject
there have been
14. A pack of wild dogs (has / have ) frightened all the ducks away.
15. The jury (is / are ) trying to reach a decision.
16. The army (has / have ) eliminated this section of the test.
17. The number of students who have withdrawn from class this quarter (is / are ) appalling.
18. There (has / have ) been too many interruptions in this class.
19. Every elementary school teacher (has / have ) to take this examination.
20. Neither Jill nor her parents (has / have ) seen this movie before.
19. PRONOUNS
There are five forms of pronouns in English: subject pronouns, complement pronouns (object
pronouns), possessive pronouns, possessive adjectives, and reflexive pronouns.
i. SUBJECT PRONOUNS
Subject pronouns occur in the subject position of a sentence or after the verbbe. Study the
following list of subject pronouns.
I , You , He, She, It Note : Also use the subject
pronoun after than, as, and that.
We, You, They
Note: We, you, and us can be followed directly by a noun. In the above sentence we students
makes it more clear exactly who we refer to.
me us
you y ou
him
her them
it
Note: You and it are the same for subject or complement position. The others are different.
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However, remember that many prepositions can also function as other parts of speech, like
adverbs or conjunctions. Therefore, you must determine the part of speech of the word from
context and not simply rely on your normal understanding of the word.
Possessive adjectives are not the same as possessive pronouns. These simply modify, rather
than replace, nouns; possessive pronouns replace nouns. Possessive form indicate ownership. Study
the following adjectives.
my our
your your
Note : Possessive adjectives are
his
used to refer to parts of a body.
her their
its
These pronouns cannot precede a noun. They are pronouns and thus replace the noun. The noun
is understandood from the context and is not repeated. Study the following pronouns.
v. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
These pronouns usually follow the verb and indicate that the subject is both giving and
receiving the action. Study the following list
Note : In the plural, the self changes to selves.
Myself ourselves
Note: Most forms are made by adding the suffix to the
Yourself yourselves
possessive adjective; however, himself, itself, and
himself
themselves are made by adding the suffix to the
herself themselves
complement form. The forms hisself and theirselves are
itself
ALWAYS INCORRECT.
Reflexive pronouns can also be used for emphasis. This means that the subject did the action
alone. In this case, it normally follows the subject.
EXERCISE 8: PRONOUNS
Note : these sentences are made negative by adding the negative particle not before the
infinitive or gerund.
John decided not to buy the car.
We regreted not going to the party last night.
The following verbs can be followed by either the infinitive or the gerund with no change in
meaning.
The following expressions contain the preposition to. The word to in these expressions must not
be confused with the to in the infinitive. These verb + Prepostion expressions must also be
followed by gerund.
In cases where the infinitive is used as a complement, any noun or pronoun directly
preceding it will be in the complement form. Some common verbs which are followed by the
infinitive and which often required an indirect object listed here.
NOTE : before the gerund, a noun or pronoun must appear in the possessive form.
The verb need is followed by the infinitive only if a living thing is the subject. If a thing (
an inanimate object) is the subject of this verb, the verb is followed by a gerund or the verb
be plus the past participle.
EXERCISE : NEED
AFFIRMATIVE AGREEMENT
When indicating that one person or thing does something and then adding that another does the
same, use the word so or too. To avoid needless repetition of words from the affirmative
statement, use the conjunction and, followed by simple statement using so or too is used.