Brunner Mendoza2018
Brunner Mendoza2018
Brunner Mendoza2018
To cite this article: Carolina Brunner-Mendoza, María del Rocío Reyes-Montes, Soumya
Moonjely, Michael J Bidochka & Conchita Toriello (2019) A review on the genus Metarhizium as
an entomopathogenic microbial biocontrol agent with emphasis on its use and utility in Mexico,
Biocontrol Science and Technology, 29:1, 83-102, DOI: 10.1080/09583157.2018.1531111
Introduction
Metarhizium Sorokin (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) is a genus of ascomycetous fungi, dis-
tributed worldwide and recognised as a biological control agent of insects (Goettel, Eilen-
berg, & Glare, 2005). The species within this genus inhabit the soil as saprobes, as
rhizosphere inhabitants (Hu & St. Leger, 2002), as endophytes (Behie, Zelisko, &
Bidochka, 2012; Wyrebek, Huber, Sasan, & Bidochka, 2011) and also show complex sym-
bioses as pathogens of insects (Vega et al., 2009), and antagonism of fungal plant patho-
gens (Sasan & Bidochka, 2012). Moreover, phylogenetic analysis has shown that the genus
is more closely related to fungal grass endosymbionts Claviceps and Epichloë than to
animal pathogens (Gao et al., 2011; Spatafora, Sung, Sung, Hywel-Jones, & White,
2007). These characteristics suggest that Metarhizium may have evolved from a plant sym-
biont lineage. Many of the species have not left the role as plant symbionts, subsequently
acquiring the ability to infect and kill insects as an adaptation that allowed access to this
specialised source of nitrogen (Barelli, Moonjely, Behie, & Bidochka, 2016). However,
other species have specialised as insect pathogens and are poor plant colonisers. It is
apparent that several Metarhizium species have multifunctional lifestyles that include
their role as insect pathogens and as plant symbionts. However, this review will focus
on the utility of these fungi as insect pathogens, a role for which they are most notable,
particularly in the context of their use in Mexico.
Figure 1. Four historical Metarhizium classifications since Tulloch (1976), Rombach et al. (1987) and up
to the most recent molecular classification by Kepler et al. (2014). 1 = Sorokin (1883). 2 = Metschnikoff
(1879); Petch (1931); Tulloch (1976), Rombach et al. (1987) and Samson (1974). 3 = Driver et al. (2000).
4 = Bischoff et al. (2006) y (2009). 5 = Kepler et al. (2014); 5.1 = M. anisopliae complex; 5.2 = M. flavovir-
ide complex; 5.3 Core Metarhizium; 5.4 = Metarhizium. *Teleomorph. ^Host (Squamata:
Chamaeleonidae).
Metacordyceps as well as Nomuraea, and those in the more recently described genus Cha-
maeleomyces (Kepler, Humber, Bischoff, & Rehner, 2014). Novel Metarhizium species are
still being described such as M. dendrolimatilis (Chen, Han, Liang, Liang, & Jin, 2017)
(Figure 1) and new lineages such as Mani1, Mani2 and Mani 3 within the M. anisopliae
s.l. have been found in Mexican and Brazilian strains (Brunner-Mendoza, Moonjely,
Reyes-Montes, Toriello, & Bidochka, 2017; Rezende, Zanardo, da Silva Lopes, Delalibera,
& Rehner, 2015).
Fungal features
The genus Metarhizium includes anamorphic states that do not produce synnemata and
the recently added Metarcordyceps-like teleomorphic states (Sung et al., 2007). Conidio-
phores are branched but are occasionally simple in some species, with apices of branches
bearing one to several phialides that may be truncate or elongate. Conidia may be hyaline,
lilac, brown or green, and form chains (Kepler et al., 2014). These structures vary in shape
(cylindrical, globose, ellipsoidal) and size (from 4.0−14.5 × 2.0−5.0 µm). M. majus is the
species with the largest conidia (8.5−14.5 × 2.5−2.0 µm) and M. acridum is the species
with the smallest conidia (4.0−5.5 × 2.0−3.0 µm) (Bischoff et al., 2009; Driver et al.,
2000). Conidia are usually the only distinguishing morphological features within this
genus, however conidia morphology is indistinguishable between closely related species,
such as M. anisopliae (Figure 2), M. brunneum, M. pingshaense and M. robertsii. Morpho-
logical features among Metarhizium species can be imprecise, as there can often be an
86 C. BRUNNER-MENDOZA ET AL.
Figure 2. Metarhizium anisopliae (EH-473/4). A. Conidia; B. Mature colony (9 days) in potato dextrose
agar at 28°C.
overlap of traits among different species (Kepler & Rehner, 2013). On agar media, Metar-
hizium mature colonies (8–9 days) are described as predominantly dark green, light green,
white or brownish, or even as bicolour in the centre (Figure 3). The morphology of the
colonies can differ depending on the artificial media type (Kamp & Bidochka, 2002),
senescence (Wang, Butt, & St, & Leger, 2005), and other factors. The edges may be
white with variable thickness while the reverse image (on a Petri dish) may be brownish,
orange, and yellow or white (Fernandes et al., 2010).
Figure 3. Morphological differences in Metarhizium strains in PDA at 27°C, 14 old cultures. A. M. robertsii
(ARSEF 2575); B. M. acridum (7486); C. M. brunneum (2974); D. M. flavoviride (380189); E. M. guizhouense
(B77-ai); F. M. pingshaense).
Furthermore, numerous studies have demonstrated that species vary across different
regions, M. robertsii and M. brunneum being the dominant species in Ontario and
Western Siberia (Kryukov et al., 2017; Wyrebek et al., 2011), M. brunneum in Oregon
and M. brunneum and M. flavoviride in Denmark (Fisher, Rehner, & Bruck, 2011;
Keyser, De Fine Licht, Steinwender, & Meyling, 2015; Steinwender et al., 2014); M. aniso-
pliae in Mexico (Brunner-Mendoza, Moonjely, et al., 2017) and Brazil (Rezende et al.,
2015), and M. pingshaense in Japan (Nishi, Hasegawa, Iiyama, Yasunaga-Aoki, & Shi-
mitzu, 2011). On the other hand, the Metarhizium community composition has also
been linked to forested and agricultural habitats (Bidochka et al., 2001; Inglis, Duke,
Goettel, & Kabaluk, 2008; Kepler, Ugine, Maul, Cavigelli, & Rehner, 2015; Rocha,
Inglis, Humber, Kipnis, & Luz, 2013; Steinwender et al., 2014). Distribution and abun-
dance of Metarhizium species are both related to the presence of certain types of plants
(Kepler et al., 2015; Wyrebek et al., 2011).
Studies of diversity and genetic population structure in agricultural soils in Mexico
(Guanajuato), using morphological and molecular techniques (EF-1α, ITS and β-
tubulin) have revealed a greater diversity of species of Metarhizium (M. anisopliae,
M. robertsii and M. pingshaense), infecting white grubs (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae), as
compared to species of another insect pathogenic fungus, Beauveria (only B. pseudobassi-
ana) (Carrillo-Benítez, Guzmán-Franco, Alatorre-Rosas, & Enríquez-Vara, 2013). In
another study, Pérez-González et al. (2014) assessed the relative abundance and diversity
of entomopathogenic fungi across 11 different geographical locations in Mexican agricul-
tural soils, and found that Metarhizium was less frequent, compared to the abundance of
88 C. BRUNNER-MENDOZA ET AL.
Beauveria isolates. In contrast, in a study in the state of Oaxaca, M. anisopliae s.s. was the
most abundant species in soil and leaf samples taken from sugarcane plantations (Hernán-
dez-Domínguez et al., 2016). Metarhizium isolates from infected Aeneolamia postica
(Hemiptera: Cercopidae) from sugarcane plantations in the state of Tabasco (in Southern
Mexico), showed intra-specific variability in RAPD markers and ITS-rDNA sequences
(Bautista-Gálvez & González-Cortés, 2005). Furthermore, in a recent study of Metarhi-
zium strains from the ‘Centro Nacional de Referencia de Control Biológico (CNRCB)’
of the ‘Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, Pesca y Alimentación
(SAGARPA)’ from different states (Veracruz, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi) and hosts (Coleop-
tera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera) were phylogenetically placed, using 5′ TEF, as M. anisopliae,
M. robertsii, M. guizhouense and M. pinghaense (Brunner-Mendoza, Moonjely, et al.,
2017). All of these data show the ample biodiversity from the genus Metarhizium in
Mexico.
The anamorphic stages of some Metarhizium species have a broad insect host range.
For example M. robertsii, can infect over 200 insect species representing the orders
Orthoptera, Dermaptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera
(Zimmermann, 2007). Other Metarhizium species or genotypes are restricted to certain
arthropods. For example M. acridum and M. album show a narrow host range restricted
to the Orthoptera and Hemiptera, respectively (Wang, Kang, Lu, Bai, & Wang, 2012).
Genomic analysis suggests Metarhizium divergence first as specialists (M. acridum,
M.album) then more recently a transition to generalists (M. anisopliae, M. brunneum
and M. robertsii) (Hu et al., 2014). Recently, there are some accounts of M. viride and
M. granulomatis as aggressive pathogens of chameleons (Reptilia) (Samson, 1974;
Sigler, Gibas, Kokotovic, & Bertelsen, 2010).
Mechanism of infection
The infection mechanism of Metarhizium begins when susceptible insects come in contact
with conidia from anthropogenically dispersed conidial suspensions or conidia found in
the soil (anthropogenic or natural) (Hesketh, Roy, Eilenberg, Pell, & Hails, 2010).
Conidia attach to the host insect cuticle via hydrophobic interactions (Ortiz-Urquiza &
Keyhani, 2013; Thomas & Read, 2007). The main proteins involved in this are conidial
surface hydrophobins one of which is coded by ssgA (St. Leger, Staples, & Roberts,
1992). Specific adhesins such as Mad1 (Metarhizium adhesion 1) also contribute to attach-
ment of conidia on host surface (Wang & St. Leger, 2007a). Conidial germination on the
insect cuticle is dependent on a variety of biotic factors such as insect cuticular hydrocar-
bons as well as abiotic factors (e.g. temperature, solar radiation, and humidity) (Boucias &
Pendland, 1991; Ortiz-Urquiza & Keyhani, 2013). Most entomopathogenic fungi require
high humidity (>90%) for germination. Some Metarhizium isolates show germination,
growth and conidiation up to 37°C and may tolerate up to 4 h of exposure to UV-B radi-
ation (Braga, Flint, Miller, Anderson, & Roberts, 2001; Okuno, Tsuji, Sato, & Fujisaki,
2012). After the germination stage, the fungus develops a hold-fast structure called an
appressorium where cAMP and Ca+2 ion signals are involved (Clarkson, Screen, Bailey,
Cobb, & Charnley, 1998). Beneath the appressoria a penetration peg is formed that pene-
trates the host cuticle (Boucias & Pendland, 1991). The penetration process is aided by the
production of several cuticular hydrolytic enzymes including proteases, chitinases and
BIOCONTROL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 89
Strain improvement
Several biotic and abiotic factors can have a significant impact on the efficiency of Metar-
hizium strains as biocontrol agents for field applications. It is possible to genetically engin-
eer desirable traits into Metarhizium that affects persistence and improves virulence.
Integration of additional copies of a constitutively over-expressed insect cuticle degrading
protease (Pr1A) into M. anisopliae resulted in increased virulence. The resultant trans-
genic strain when applied to target insect Manduca sexta (tobacco hornworm), showed
25% reduction in survival time (LT50) compared to parental strain (St. Leger, Joshi,
Bidochka, & Roberts, 1996). Hemolymph induced expression of the insect specific neuro-
toxin (AaIT) from the scorpion Androctonus australis in M. anisopliae (ARSEF 549)
increased fungal pathogenicity 22-fold and 9-fold against M. sexta caterpillars and adult
Aedes aegypti (yellow fever mosquito) respectively (Wang & St. Leger, 2007b). Transfer
of the esterase gene (MestI) from the generalist insect pathogen M. robertsii to the
specific locust pathogen M. acridum expanded the host range of M. acridum (Wang,
Fang, Wang, & St. Leger, 2011). Recombinant strains of Metarhizium have been developed
BIOCONTROL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 93
that target malarial parasites in mosquitos (Fang et al., 2011) which have a great potential
to control livestock and human malaria. Recombinant technologies have also been used to
improve stress resistance in fungi which is a critical factor that affects persistence of field
applications. Expression of melanin in M. anisopliae resulted in enhanced resistance to
UV and high temperatures (Tseng, Chung, & Tzean, 2011). Integration of highly
efficient archaeal photolyase gene from into M. robertsii genome improved the photo-
repair ability of the fungus, consequently improving resistance to sunlight (Fang &
St. Leger, 2012). Alternatively, the virulence of Metarhizium spp. could be improved by
changing the culturing or growth conditions. M. robertsii displayed increased virulence
to Tenebrio molitor when subjected to transient anoxia or grown under nutrient limited
conditions (Oliveira & Rangel, 2018).
(Toriello, Navarro-Barranco, Martínez, & Mier, 1999, 2006), or the evaluation of acute
gastric exposure of M. acridum (Toriello et al., 2009). Generally, these studies show low
risk of Metarhizium strains in mammalian models. There are reports that Metarhizium
is allergenic but without the presence of any major adverse effects on the manufacturing
staff or applicators (Zimmermann, 2007). Unfortunately, few studies have assessed health
hazards specifically in Mexican strains of Metarhizium spp.
A few reports have shown Metarhizium as the causative fungus in scarce human infec-
tions. For example, an ocular keratitis caused by Metarhizium spp., was observed in an 18-
year-old otherwise healthy male from Colombia (De García, Arboleda, Barraquer, &
Grose, 1997), a keratomycosis in a 36-year-old female librarian who wore extended-
wear soft contact lenses (Jani, Rinaldi, & Reinhart, 2001), a keratitis in a 12-year-old
girl who wore contact lens (Motley, Melson, & Mortensen, 2011) and, more recently, a
52-year-old female that required a corneal transplant (Showail, Kus, Tsui, & Chew,
2017); a 47-year-old woman and a 50-year-old man both from US (Goodman et al.,
2018). A Sklerokeratitis was observed in 52-year-old woman from rural Australia
(Amiel, Chohan, Snibson, & Vajpayee, 2008), and also a 76-year-old male from Japan
with a prolonged systemic steroid treatment for chronic rheumatoid arthritis (Eguchi
et al., 2015). Likewise, a possible disseminated infection in a 9-year-old boy with a 5-
year history of pre-B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia that despite antifungal treatment
(liposomal amphotericin and 5-flucytosine), the patient eventually died (Burgner et al.,
1998), and two cases of sinusitis in a 36-year-old male and a 79-year-old female, appar-
ently immunocompetent (Revankar et al., 1999), were also reported. In over a century,
only these few cases in humans (mostly immunocompromised) have been reported, sup-
porting the low risk of infection by Metarhizium spp. when used for the biological control
of insect pests.
However, research must continue on this area of biosafety as we are dealing with living
organisms as biological control agents The effects on non-target organisms, vertebrates,
mammals and human health must continue while using these fungi in biological control.
Conclusions
This review focuses on the role of Metarhizium as an insect pathogen. Several studies have
shown that Metarhizium is a viable alternative to chemical pesticides, due to its low
environmental impact and low risk to mammals. The use of Metarhizium as a biological
control agent in Mexico is incipient, hence the need to access the diversity of Metarhizium
strains for their potential application in Mexican agro-ecosystems.
Acknowledgments
Brunner-Mendoza C acknowledges the scholarship and financial support provided by the Consejo
Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT-346729), as well for the support and training from
the Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM).
The authors gratefully acknowledge to Dr. Ayala-Zermeño for his help on SAGARPA data. Toriello
C acknowledge the financial support by Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigación e Inno-
vación Tecnológica (PAPIIT)-Dirección General de Asuntos de Personal Académico (DGAPA),
UNAM, project IT202012, and CONACyT project PDCPN 2015 PN 1247.
BIOCONTROL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 95
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
Brunner-Mendoza C acknowledges the scholarship and financial support provided by the Consejo
Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT-346729), as well for the support and training from
the Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM);
PAPIIT (Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica)-DGAPA
(Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal Académico).
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