Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of large bodies of rock, their

surfaces, and the composition inside the rock units to learn about their tectonic movement’s history,
past geological events and environments that could have deformed them. These can be dated to know
when the structural features formed. If the nature of these rocks can be determined, petroleum
geologists can discover if oil or natural gas are trapped within the rocks.

Importance of Structural Geology

The study of structural geology has a primary importance in economic geology, both petroleum
geology and mining geology. The main target of structural geology is to use measurements to
understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. We can also
understand the structural evolution of a particular area due to plate tectonics (e.g. mountain
building, rifting).

An essential importance of structural geology is to know areas that contain folds and faults
because they can form traps in which the accumulation and concentration of fluids such as oil
and natural gas occur. Environmental geologists and hydrologists need to understand structural
geology because structures are sites of groundwater flow and penetration which may have an
effect on leakage of toxic materials from waste dumps or leakage of salty water into aquifers.

The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries
to uncover information about the history of deformation (strain) in the rocks, and ultimately, to
understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. • This
understanding of the dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the
regional geologic past

Economical Importance of Structural Geology •

The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in economic geology. • Folded
and faulted rock strata commonly form traps for the accumulation and concentration of fluids
such as petroleum and natural gas. • Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly
occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. • Deposits of gold, silver, copper,
lead, zinc, and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas. • Structural
geology is a critical part of engineering geology, which is concerned with the physical and
mechanical properties of natural rocks.
Brunch of Geology
Geology is an over-arching term for a diverse range of different fields of study.
These fields focus on a more specific aspect of the Earth or the solar system (such
as volcanology or sedimentology) and use aspects of mathematics and the other
sciences
Geochemistry
Geochemistry is the study of the chemical processes which form and shape the Earth. It
includes the study of the cycles of matter and energy which transport the Earth’s chemical
components and the interaction of these cycles with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere.
It is a subfield of inorganic chemistry, which is concerned with the properties of all the elements
in the periodic table and their compounds. Inorganic chemistry investigates the characteristics
of substances that are not organic, such as nonliving matter and minerals found in the Earth’s
crust.

Geochemistry:
Geochemistry is a branch that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the
mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The
realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth. encompassing the entire Solar System . This
subject has made important contributions to the understanding of a number of processes
including mantle convection, the formation of planets and the origins of all kinds of rocks,
minerals, mineral fuels, soils and valuables. The mobility of all elements on in and out of a
planet are fully studied under geochemistry. Today. geochemistry is a major branch of Earth
Science that applies varieties of chemical principles to deepen the understanding of the planets.
Geochemists consider the globe composed of discrete spheres — rocks, fluids, gases and
biology — that exchange matter and energy over a range of time scales. An appreciation for
rates of reactions and the range of physical conditions responsible for the chemical expressions
of each sphere provides the significant framework to study the co-evolution of the solid Earth.
its oceans. atmosphere, biosphere, and climate.
Subdisciplines of geochemistry include biogeochemistry. organic geochemistry. trace and
elemental geochemistry. and metamorphic and igneous-rock geochemistry. The wings of
geochemistry are. Organic Geochemistry. Inorganic Geochemistry, Stable Isotope
Geochemistry, Light Stable Isotope Geochem. Metallic Element Stable Isotope Geochemistry
Actinide/Radionuclide Geochemistry. Petroleum Geochemistry. Aqueous Geochemistry.
Environmental Geochemistry. Biogeochemistry. and Planetary Geochemistry. It invokes
thermodynamics. and analytical chemistry as major tools and techniques. The analytical
instruments and their me are also a part of it. The instruments include inductively-coupled
plasma and stable-isotope mass spectrometers, a chromFTIR lab, fully automated election
microprobe. X-ray diffractometer, laser Raman. SEM. and several other equipment facilities.

Isotope geochemistry:
Isotope geochemistry is yet another important branch of geology. It is based upon the study of
natural variations in the relative abundances of isotopes of various elements. Variations in
isotopic abundance are measured by isotope ratio mass spectrometry. This study can reveal
much information about the ages and origins of rock, air or water bodies. or processes of
mixing between them. Stable isotope geochemistry is largely concerned with isotopic variations
arising from mara-dependent isotope fractionation whereas radiogenic isotope geochemistry is
concerned with the products of natural radioactivity. The origins of stable isotope geochemistry
are closely tied to the development of modem physics in the first half of the 20th century. The
discovery of the neutron in 1932 by H. Urey and the demonstration of variable isotopic
compositions of light elements by A. Nier in the 1930's and 1940's were the precursors to this
development.

Oceanography
Oceanography is the study of the composition and motion of the water column and the
processes which are responsible for that motion. The principal oceanographic processes
influencing continental shelf waters include waves and tides as well as wind-driven and other
oceanic currents. Understanding the oceanography of shelf waters and the influence this has on
seabed dynamics, contributes to a wide range of activities such as the following:

 assessment of offshore petroleum production infrastructure

 seabed mapping and characterisation for environmental management
 marine biodiversity surrogacy research
 assessment of renewable energy potential

Paleontology
Paleontologists are interested in fossils and how ancient organisms lived. Paleontology is the
study of fossils and what they reveal about the history of our planet. In marine environments,
microfossils collected within layers of sediment cores provide a rich source of information
about the environmental history of an area.

MICROPALEONTOLOGY – How microfossils are characterized.

Sedimentology
Sedimentology is the study of sediment grains in marine and other deposits, with a focus on
physical properties and the processes which form a deposit. Deposition is a geological process
where geological material is added to a landform. Key physical properties of interest include:
  the size and shape of sediment grains
 the degree of sorting of a deposit
 the composition of grains within a deposit
 sedimentary structures.
These properties together provide a record of the mechanisms active during sediment
transportation and deposition which allows the interpretation of the environmental conditions
that produced a sediment deposit, either in modern settings or in the geological record.

Physical geology:
Physical geology may be defined as the branch of geology which deals with the study of
physical forces and processes that bring about changes in the earth’s crust or to the surface of
the earth on account of their prolonged existence and action.

Physical geology is the fundamental study of the earth's lithospheric components like rocks.
minerals. and soils and how they got originated over a period d time. Many geological
processes are active on the surface of the earth. They are called as exogenous processes. The
highly complex internal processes such as plate tectonics and mountain-building have also
formed the crustal rocks and brought them to the earth's surface. These are called as
endogenous processes. All these processes are capable of creating both constructional and
destructional landforms. The agents that are responsible for these actions are called as
geological agents. The notable surface geological processes are weathering. mass-wasting,
erosion. transportation and deposition.
The subject . physical geology. deals with the Solar system. the Earth's origin. age and internal
constitution, weathering and mass-wasting. geological work of river, lake. glacier. wind, sea and
groundwater. It also deals with the Volcanoes - their types & distribution, geological effects and
products: earthquakes -its distribution. causes and effects. Physical Geology also projects the
elementary ideas about the origin of geo synclines. concept of isostasy and mountain
building(Orogeny). continental drift. sr:knout spreading and plate tectonics. This subject gives
the foundation for all other earth science branches
Structural Geology:
Structural geology is the scientific study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with
respect to their deformational genesis and histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to
use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover the information about their
origin and history of deformation (strain) in the rocks. k helps to understand the stress field that
resulted in the observed features of strain and geometries. This understanding can also be
linked to important events in the geologic past. These can also help to find out the date of
events. Once the nature of these rocks are determined. petroleum geologists can discover if
petroleum. natural gas, or other natural resources that are trapped within the rocks. Deposits
of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and other metals, are commonly located in structurally
complex areas. Structural Geology aims to characterize deformation structures (geometry), to
characterize flow paths followed by particles during deformation (kinematics), and to infer the
direction and magnitude of the forces involved in driving deformation (dynamics). This subject
is a field-based discipline. Field Geology is a branch which requires the knowledge of
Geomorphology. Petrology. Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. Structural Geology and GIS.
Structural geology is an essential part of engineering geology. %inch is concerned with the
physical and mechanical properties of natural rocks.

Sedimentology:
Sedimentology deals with the study sediments, their formation, transportation and deposition.

Stratigraphy
The study of the order, nature and rates of change of geological events and processes. This is
related to geological mapping of rocks exposed at the Earth's surface. Stratigraphy helps to
determine the ages and field relations of rocks to construct geological maps and databases.
Stratigraphy is defined as "the science of rock strata." It is "the study of rock successions and
the contlation of geological ewnts and procees in time and space". Stratigraphy is a branch of
geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and Layering (stratification). k is
primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has two
related subfields. They are lithologic stratigraphy or lithostratigraphy. and biologic stratigraphy
or biogratigraphy. The fundamental laws of stratigraphy, classification of the stratified rocks
into groups, systems and series and clamification of geologic time into eras, periods and epoch,:
are studied in this subject.
Lithostratigraphy:
Lithostratigraphy is a sub-discipline of stratigraphy. the geological science associated with the
study of strata or rock layers. Major focuses include geochronology. comparative geology. and
petrology. In general, a stratum will be primarily igneous or sedimentary relating to how the
rock was formed. Sedimentary layers are laid down by deposition of sediment associated with
weathering processes. decaying organic matters (biogenic) or through chemical precipitation.
These layers are distinguishable as having many Fusils and are important (or the study of
biostratigraphy. Igneous layers are either plutonic or volcanic in character depending upon the
cooling rate of the rock. These layers are generally devoid of fossils and represent intrusions
and volcanic activity that occurred over the geologic history of the area. mete are a number of
principles that are used to explain the appearance of stratum. When an igneous rock cuts
across a formation of sedimentary rock, then we can say that the igneous intrusion is younger
than the sedimentary rock. The principle of superposition states that a sedimentary rock layer
in a tectonically undisturbed stratum is younger than the one beneath and older than the one
above it. The principle of original horizontality states that the deposition of sediments occurs as
essentially horizontal beds.

Chemostratigraphy:
Chemostratigraphy is the study of the chemical variations within sedimentary sequences to
determine stratigraphic relationships. It uses chemical fingerprints stored in sediments and
sedimentary rocks for stratigraphic correlation. Stable isotope signatures fixed in sedimentary
inorganic and organic matter are among the Imo powerful proxies used in chemostratigraphy..
The distinct chemical signatures of sediments can be as useful as distinct fossil assemblages or
distinct lithographies in establishing stratigraphic relationships between different rock layers.
Chemostratigraphy generally provides two useful types of information to the larger geological
community. First, chemostratigraphy can be used to investigate environmental change on the
local. regional. and global levels by relating variations in rock chemistry to changes in the
environment in which the sediment was deposited. Second. regionally or globally correlatable
chemogratigraphic signals can be found in rocks whose formation time is well-constrained by
radionuclide dating of the strata themselves or by strata easily correlated with them, such as a
volcanic suite that interrupts nearby strata. Chemostratigraphy can be applied to sediments of
any age. of any Ethology and from any depositional environment. More importantly. however,
it can be applied to any sample. with the majority of our work being done on cuttings samples.
As such. it is probably the most versatile stratigraphic tool available to the industry at this
moment.
Mineralogy:
The branch of geology which deals with the study of minerals, their formation, analysis,
association, physical and chemical properties and classification is called mineralogy.
The history of mineralogy is as old as humankind. The early writings on mineralogy were
devoted to gemstones, mostly seen in the retards of ancient Babylonia. the ancient Greco-
Roman norkl. ancient and medieval China. and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the ancient
Islamic World. The modem study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of
crystallography. It is the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structtre. and physical (including
optical) properties of minerals. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of
mineral origin and formation classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well
as their utilization. There are several afferent branches to mineralogy.
Physical mineralogy: Physical mineralogy is concerned with the physical properties and
descriptions of minerals. Minerals can be described using several physical attributes. including
hardness, specific gravity. luster, color. streak. and cleavage.
Chemical Mineralogy The chemical mineralogy deals with the investigation of the chemical
composition of minerals and its variation. the processes of mineral formation. and the changes
minerals undergo when acted upon chemically.

36. Descriptive mineralogy

Descriptive mineralogists use the properties discussed in physical mineralogy to name and
classify the new minerals. Determinative mineralogy is the branch of mineralogy that deals with
identifying unknown minerals, also using the physical properties of minerals. Other branches of
mineralogy include chemical mineralogy (identifying minerals to determine the chemical
composition of the earth's crust), optical mineralogy (using light to determine the crystal
structure of minerals).

Optical Mineralogy:
Optical mineralogy is the study of minerals and rocks by measuring their optical properties.
Most commonly. rock and mineral samples are prepared as thin sections or grain mounts for
study in the laboratory with a petrographic microscope. Optical mineralogy is used to identify
the mineralogical composition of geological materials in order to help reveal their origin and
evolution. It deals with the principles of optics. behaviour of light through isotropic and
anisotropic substances. petrological microscope. construction and working of nicol prism.
birefringence. pleochrosim . extinction. physical. chemical and optical properties of more
common rock forming minerals. The subject deals with the optical properties of crystalline
matter and to the polarizing microscope for optical mineral identification. Thin section and
polished section studies provide important information on the crystallographic properties and
the chemical composition of the common rock-forming minerals. Optical mineralogy analyses
the interaction of light with minerals, most commonly limited to visible light and usually further
limited to the non-opaque minerals. Opaque minerals are more commonly studied in reflected
light and that study is generally called ore microscopy - alluding to the fact many opaque
minerals are also ore minerals.
Optical mineralogy is the study of minerals and rocks by measuring their optical properties.
Most aunnionly. nick and mineral samples are prepared as thin sections or grain mounts for
study in the laboratory with a petrographic microscope. Optical mineralogy is the study of
minerals and rocks by measuring their optical properties. Most commonly. rock and mineral
samples are prepared as thin sections or grain mounts for study in the laboratory with a
petrographic microscope. Optical mineralogy is used to identify the mineralogical composition
of geological materials in order to help reveal their origin and evolution.
Optical mineralogy deals with the study of the interaction of light with minerals, most
commonly limited to visible light and usually further limited to the non-opaque minerals.
Opaque minerals are more commonly studied in reflected light and that study is generally
called ore microscopy - alluding to the fact many opaque minerals are also ore minerals. The
most general application of optical mineralogy is to aid in the identification of minerals, either
in rock thin sections or individual mineral grains. Another application occurs because the optical
properties of minerals are related to the crystal chemistry of the mineral -- for example. the
mineral's chemical composition, crystal structure. order/disorder. Thus, relationships exist. and
correlations are possible between them and some optical property. This often allows a simple
optical measurement with the petrographic microscope (a polarizing microscope) that may
yield important information about some crystal chemical aspect of the mineral under study.

Volcanology
The study of volcanoes, their location, formation and prediction, types of eruptions, and the
sorts of rocks produced, plus associated hazards/societal impact.

Crystallography :
The branch dealing with the study of crystal of minerals is known as crystallography. Crystals
are solid geometric figures and have well defined, more or less plane, faces which bound the
solid.

Petrology:
The branch of geology which is concerned with the study of rocks is called petrology. It is further
subdivided into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic petrology depending upon the rock
group studied under the particular heading.
Petrology is the scientific study of rocks, their composition. tenure. and structure. their
occurrence. distribution and origin in relation to physicochemical conditions and geologic
processes of formation. It is concerned with all thee major types of rocks—igneous.
metamorphic, and sedimentary. Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses on detailed
description of rocks. Someone who studies petrography is called a petrographer. The mineral
content and the textural relationships within the rock are described in detail. Petrologic.
petrographic. and petrogenetic studies can be applied to igneous metamorphic or sedimentary
rocks. The classification of rocks is based on the information acquired during the petrographic
analysis.
Petrographic descriptions start with the field notes at the outcrop and include all macroscopic
description of hand specimens. The most important tool for a petrographer is the petrographic
microscope. The detailed analysis of minerals by optical mineralogy in thin section and the
micro-texture and structure are critical to understanding the origin of the rock. EPMA- Electron
microprobe analysis of individual grains as well as the whole rock chemical analysis by atomic
absorption. X-ray fluorescence, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. are used for
understanding the genesis and distribution. Analysis of microscopic fluid inclusions, within the
mineral grains. with a heating stage on a petrographic microscope. provides clues to the
temperature and pressure conditions existent during the mineral formation.
Igneous Petrology
Igneous petrology is the scientific study of igneous rocks. that are formed from magma. As a
branch of geology. igneous petrology is closely related to volcanology. tectonophysics. and
petrology in general. The study of igneous rocks utilizes a number of techniques, some of them
developed in the fields of chemistry, physics or other earth sciences. Petrography,
crystallography. and isotopic studies are conunon methods used in igneous petrology. The
major aspects studied are magma - its composition and nature, crystallization of magma.
Differentiation and assimilation. Bowen's reaction principle. Texture and structure of igneous
rocks. mode of occurrence and mineralogy of igneous rocks, in addition to the classification and
varieties of igneous rocks. Petrologic. petrographic. and pet rogene tic studies are applied to all
kinds of igneous rocks

Sedimentary Petrology:
Sedimentary petrology is one of the branches of petrology. It focuses on the origin. occurrence.
distribution. composition and texture of sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale. or
limestone. These rocks consist of pieces or particles derived from other rocks or biological s
chemical deposits. These masses are usually bound together in a matrix of finer material. The
major aspects studied are sedimentary process and products, classification of sedimentary
rocks and primary sedimentary structures like bedding. cross bedding. graded bedding. ripple
marks. sole structures. parting lineation. It also includes the study of residual deposits . their
mode of formation. characteristics and important types. Sedimentary petrologists work to re-
establish the ancient depositional environment. Sedimentary petrology also help to study the
rocks under deep burial, which may be in elevated temperature and pre%ure conditions. That
leads to the study on the transitional area between sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock.

Metamorphic Petrology
The metamorphic petrology a branch of petrology. It is concerned with decoding the
mineralogical and microstructural record of burial/heating and exhumationkooling imprinted m
pre-existing sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic tucks by processes such as subduction.
accretion. trench advance or retreat, collisiorral orogenesis and orogenic collapse.
Metamorphic petrology covers the chemical and physical work done in natural systems in
response to changing physical conditions. Petrogenetic processes such as recrystallization.
continuous and discontinuous reactions, mixed volatile reactions and deformation are studied
in detail. The principles of metamorphic petrology are then applied to a number of °townie
events through geologic time. and modern advances in research in metamorphic petrology are
explored. the basic concepts include simple recrystallization: metamorphic reactions in a closed
system: isograds. metamorphic facies; continuous reactions; mixed volatile reactions:
metamorphism and melting: and meirunoprphic tectonites and deformation.

Petrogenesis:
Petrogenesis refers to the origin of a rock or mineral deposit. It is an exclusive sub-branch of
petrology. k is studied under specialization of various rock systems. Petrogenetic significances
are very much essential for geomodelling, geodynamics and in geotectonic.

Petrography
Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. Someone
who studies petrography is called a petrographer. The mineral content and the textural
relationships within the rock are described in detail. The classification of rocks is based on the
information acquired during the petrographic analysis. Petrographic descriptions start with the
field now: at the outcrop and include macroscopic description of hand specimens. However, the
most important tool for the petrographer is the petrographic microscope. The detailed analysis
of minerals by optical mineralogy in thin section and the micro-texture and structure are critical
to understanding the origin of the rock. Electron microprobe analysis of individual grains as well
as whole rock chemical analysis by atomic absorption. X-ray fluorescence, and laser-induced
breakdown spectroscopy are used in a modem petrographic lab. Individual mineral grains from
a rock sample may also be analyzed by X-ray diffraction when optical means are insufficient.
Analysis of microscopic fluid inclusions within mineral grains with a heating stage on a
petrographic micrtacope provides clues to the temperature and pressure conditions existent
during the mineral formation.

Natural hazards
The features and effects of phenomena such as earthquakes, landslides, floods, volcanoes etc.
and the importance of forecasting, resilience and minimisation of damage.

Seismology
The study of seismic waves passing through the Earth from earthquakes, explosions or
controlled sources, which can be used to predict earthquake hazards, map planetary interiors
or explore for resources.

Paleontology:
The study of the past life on the earth is called paleontology. It is studied with the help of fossil
records that is preserved in the sedimentary rocks of the earth.

Historical Geology / Stratigraphy:

Historical Geology is that branch of geology that studies the evolutionary history of the earth in
a chronological manner. Historical geology is further subdivided into stratigraphy (the study of
the stratified rocks of the earth).
It deals with the past history of the Earth as deciphered from the study of rocks and features
associated with them. The rocks contain within them enough which can indicate nature and
time of their formation, composition, constitution, magnetism, structural disposition and in
many cases fossils. All of which when interpreted scientifically reveal a lot about the events that
have passed since their formation.With the help of the above evidence, estimates can be made
about the climates, biological and environmental conditions prevailing. Just before, during and
after the formation of these rocks in and around the areas of their occurrence. Historical
geology can be sub-divided into paleo-geography, paleontology and stratigraphy.

Economic Geology:
The branch of geology which that deals with the study of the earth materials that are used for
economic and/or industrial purposes such as petroleum, coal, ores, building stones, salt,
gemstones, etc., is known as economic geology.
It deals with the study of those minerals and rocks and other materials occurring in the Earth
that can be exploited for our benefit. When these include a wide variety of ores of all the
metals and non-metals, building stones, salt deposits, fuels and industrial minerals for
refractories, abrasives, and insulations and for the manufacture of chemicals. Economic geology
study includes the mode of occurrence of these materials, principles involved. Their formation
and accumulation, their properties, structure and other means which help in their extraction at
economical costs.
Economic Geology:
Economic Geology is the scientific study of the Earth's sources of mineral raw materials and the
practical application of the acquired knowledge. Economic geology is primarily concerned with
the earth's materials that are used for economic and/or industrial purposes. These materials
include precious stones and base metals, nonmetallic minerals. construction-grade gones,
petroleum minerals. coal, and water. These materials include precious and base metals.
nonmetallic minerals, construction-grade stone. petiole= minerals, coal, and water. Economic
geology is a subdiscipline of the
geosciences. It is "the application of geology". It might also called as the scientific study of the
Earth's sources of mineral raw materials and the practical application of the acquired
knowledge The term commonly refers to metallic mineral deposits and all other mineral
resources. The techniques employed by other branches of earth sciences (such as geochemistry.
mineralogy. geophysics. petrology and structural geology) are used to understand. describe.
and exploit an ore deposit. Economic geology may be of interest to other professions such as
engineers. environmental scientists. and conservationists became of the far-reaching impact
that extractive industries have on society. the economy. and the environment. Economic
geology focuses on the properties and characteristics of ores. ore minerals and gangue
minerals. gives an outline of the processes of formation and classification of ore deposits. the
mode of occurrence. origin. distribution (in India) and economic uses of gold. ores of iron
manganese. chromiuu copper. aluminium. lead and zinc: mica. gypsum. magnesite and kyanite:
diamond: coal and petroleum.

Ore Geology:
Geologists are involved in the study of ore deposits. which includes the study of ore genesis and
the processes within the Earth's crust that form and concentrate mainly on are minerals into
economically viable quantities. The study of metallic ore deposits involves the use of structural
geology. geochemistry, the study of metamorphism and its processes. as well as undemanding
rnetasomatign and other proceaes related to ore genesis. In general, ore deposits are
delineated by mineral exploration methods, which uses geochemical prospecting, drilling and
resource estimation via geostatistics to quantify economic ore bodies. The ultimate aim of this
proces is mining.

Hydrogeology:
The branch of geology which deals with the study of occurrence, movement and suitability of
groundwater is called hydrogeology.

Engineering Geology:
Engineering geology deals with the application of geology to engineering practices and solving
engineering problems

Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and esolution of landforms and landscapes
created by physical. chemical or biological processes operating at or near the Earth's surface. It
is concerned with the internal geologic processes of the earth's crust. such as tectonic activity
and volcanism that constructs new landform s. as well as externally driven forces of wind.
water. waves. and glacial ice that modify such landforms. It is closely related to soil science.
hydrology, geology and environmental science. This has the potential fa applications in
environmental / development planning, transport human settlements, mining and hydrological
sectors, hospitality and tourism. Geomorphology also focuses on the investigation of surface
pnicvses and the way these processes create small :scale huidfonns.
Geomorphology was first used as a term to describe the morphology of the Earth's surface in
the 1870s and 1880s. Geomorphologists work within certain disciplines such as physical
geography. geology. geodesy. engineering geology. archaeology and geotechnical engineering.
This broad base of interest contributes to many research areas and interests within the field of
terrain evaluation. remote sensing, defence operations. transport systems, and all urban
development .
Geomorphology is further divided into various branches. To mention a few, are:
a) Evolutionary Geomorphology - which deals with the Davisian Erosion Cycles / peneplain
(Footprints of Darwinian Evolution)
b) Process Geomorphology - Process geomorphology is the study of the processes responsible
for landlimn development.
c) Quantitative Dynamic Geomorphology - Drainage basin morphology i streiun order, density
etc.) Newtonian mechanistic approach (stream power. fluvial erosion, diffusion/transport laws .
Dynamic equilibrium approach
d) Thermodynamic Geomorphology - Entropy concept
e) Predictive Geomorphology - Earthcast ( extreme events — flood. landslide) - Mathematical
morphology (Fractal. Spatio-temporal Geoscienoe Information System analysis) - Deterministic
& Numerical models - Artificial Neuron Network (ANN).
The other branches include the following:
a) Planetary geomorphology
b) Mega-geomorphology
c) Tectonic geomorphology
d) Volcanic geomorphology
e) Fluvial geomorphology and river management
I) Coastal geomorphology
g) Submarine geomorphology
h) Aeolian systems and and geomorphology
i) Tropical geomorphology
j) Cokl region geomorphology.
Geomorphology is fully concerned with bndfonns and their origin and esolution. This subject
has been studied. initially . using qualitative approaches. with the dcscriptiun aC landforms. by
describing the forces acting on Earth's surface to produce landfortns and landfonn change.
Later. more quantitative approaches came in, which were largely based on the work of Horton.
Strahler. and Leopold in the 1940's and 50's. These scientists advocated for a physically-based
assemment of landkinns. There are many sub disciplines in geomorphology including tectonic.
fluvial. norm. aeolian. floodplain. glacial. groundwater. climate. tsunami, and many others.
These sub disciplines are mainly driven by distinctions in the mechanics and dynamics that are
involved in the processes
Geochronology

The study of determining the age of rocks, fossils and sediments. Absolute geochronology uses
radioactive isotope systems, whereas relative geochronology uses palaeomagnetism and stable isotope
systems.

Geochronology is the science of determining the age of rocks, fossils. and sediments using signatures
inherent in the rocks themselves. Absolute geochronology can be accomplished through radioactive
isotopes. whereas relative geochronology is provided by tools such as palaeomagnetism and stable
isotope ratios. By combining multiple geochronological (and biostratigraphic indicators the precision of
the recovered age can be improved.

Geochronology is different in application from bioautographic y. which is the science of assigning

sedimentary rocks to a known geological period via describing, cataloguing and comparing fossil floral
and faunal assemblages. biostratigraphic does not directly provide an absolute age determination of a
rock. but merely places it within an interval of time at which that fossil assemblage is known to have
coexisted. Both disciplines work together hand in hand however, to the point where they glare the same
system of naming rock layers and the time spans utilized to classify layers within a stratum.

The science of geochronology is the prime tool used in the discipline of chronostratigraphic, which
attempts to derive absolute age dates for all fossil assemblages and determine the geologic history of
the Earth and extraterrestrial bodies. Geochronology means dating of geological events. Although this
expression was first used for geological time estimates, based on sedimentation rates, this term is now
commonly applied to geological dating. based on radioactive decay and spontaneous fission.

Hydrogeology

The branch of geology concerned with underground and surface water, its movement, behaviour and
quality.

PALEOMAGNETISM – How to reconstruct previous magnetic fields in rocks including the direction and
intensity to explore pole reversals in different time periods (past and future).

MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY – How sedimentary and volcanic sequences are dated by geophysically

correlating samples of strata deposited with the Earth’s magnetic field polarity

NATURAL RESOURCES: Examining rocks, terrain and material as natural resources

BEDROCK GEOLOGY – How the intact, solid rock beneath surficial sediments formed including age
(stratigraphic sequences), morphology and rock properties (folds, faults, fractures).

SURFICIAL GEOLOGY – How surface sediment (till, gravel, sand, clay, etc) overlying bedrock was formed
such as during glacial retreat or in lakes associated in these periods.

Gravimetry The branch of geophysics that looks into the study of terrestrial gravity field anomalies and
explains its causes associating it to mineral deposits, etc

Geocryology
Geocryology is the study of frozen rock. soils and ground. It deals with the origin. historical
development. and conditions of existence of frozen strata in the earth's crust. It helps to study the
processes and phenomena that occur in freezing, frozen, and thawing rock. soils, and ground, as well as
their structure. composition. and properties. The subject also deals with the geophysical. physico-
geological. geomorphokrgical and hydrogeological phenomena that are related to the processes of the
freezing. thawing. and diagenesis of frozen strata. In addition to developing the theory of such
processes. geocryology also deals with the development of methods of influencing processes of freezing
in the interests of construction. transportation, agriculture. and other activities. There are two main
branches as —general geocryology and engineering geocryology. The second one has much more
practical significance:.

The early development of geocryology occurred in Russia as early as 1924. The first cation of a standard
text which came frau the Soviet Union. Obshcheye Merzlotosedeniya (General Pennafrostology), ssus
published in the year 1940. By comparison, North American geocryology is of relatively recent origin.
Geocrrlogy got emerged initially from geophysics. Today. geocryology uses various methods of
investigation—as a complex of field (expeditionary) and laboratory methods of the geological,
geographic. and geophysical sciences and the physical and physicochemical laboratory methods.
Geocryology combines the experimental research with theoretical basis and makes extensive use of
numerical approaches.

12. Submarine geomorphology:

Submarine geomorphology deals with the form. origin. and development of features of the oceanic
bottonts . In shallow marine environments, the landfonns include ripples. dunes. sand waves, sand
ridges. shoreline:. and subsurface channels. In the continental slope transition zone the features studied
are submarine canyons and gullies. inter-canyon areas, intra-slope basins, and slump and slide scars. The
deep ocean basins contain varied landfonns like trenches . trench fans. sediment wedges. abyssal plains
and distributary channels.
13. Planetary geomorphology:

Planetary geomorphology is yet another branch of geomorphology. It involves the study of landforms on
planets and their satellites. It is a modern branch. Most of the surface processes on other planets and
their satellites depend on various factors like mean distance from the Sun. annual receipt of solar
energy. rotational period, and on the nature of the planetary atmospheric conditions. Observed
geomorphic processes include weathering, wind activity. fluvial activity. glacial activity, and mass
wasting.

26. Stratigraphical palynology:

Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of micropalaeotlology and paleobotany. Mich studies fossil

palynomorphs from the Precambrian to the Holocene. The subject relies on the we of palynomorphs,
their identification, distribution, and abundance to correlate among sedimentary sequences of any age.
or to provide chronological control for these sedimentary sequences.

Palaeogeography:

Palaeogeography for paleogeography) is the scientific study of historical geography. generally within the
physical landscapes. Palaeogeography includes the study ct human or cultural enviromnents.
Paleogeography yields information that is crucial to the scientific undentatxling in a variety of contexts.
Pakogeographers also study the sedimentary environment associated with tbssiLs for clues to the
evolutionary development of extinct species. Paleogeographic evidences have contributed to the
development of continental drift theory including plate tectonic theories. shape and latitudinal location
of supercontinents such as Pangaea and ancient oceans such as Panthalassa. It helps to enable the
reconstruction of prehistoric continents and oceans.

Petroleum Geology
Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement. accumulation. and exploration of
hydrocarbon fuels. It refer: to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for
hydrocarbons (oil exploration). Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of several
key elements in sedimentary basins, like. source. reservoir, seal, trap. timing maturation. and migration.
In general. all these elements must be assessed from exploration wells. Recently. the availability of
inexpensive, high quality 3D seismic data (front reflection seismology) and data from various
electromagnetic geophysical techniques (such as Magnetotellurics) has greatly aided the accuracy of
such interpretation in oil exploration.

Coal geology:

Coal Geology is a modern branch of geology. It deals with all aspects of coal and the role of geology in
coal industry. It deals not only with the formation. distribution. composition and character of the coals,
but also with the exploration, extraction, and utilization of coal resources. The subject focuses on the
origin of coal together with the physical and chemical properties of coal and coal petrology. in addition
to all areas of coal exploration, production and use. Coal geology is an important field of earth science
today. The evolution of coal formation was affected by palaeobotanical. paleogeographic. and
paleotectonic factors. Therefore. coals occurring in different basins have different characteristics that
are closely related to the different coal-forming periods of geologic history.