Zondiwe Mbano

ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS:
A HANDBOOK FOR COLLEGE

STUDENTS
Zondiwe Mbano
University of Malawi
Chancellor College
Zomba
May 2008
Unit One:
Note-taking and Note-making
Differences and similarities
Note-taking and note-making generally involve the same skills or subskills. The
difference between them is that note-taking is from oral source while note-making from
reading source. Some people dismiss this difference as superficial, saying what is
crucial in both is the active or productive skills of making notes from whatever source,
which shows that in both cases there is mental processing of the material. By calling
one skill note-taking, it signifies that there is a receptive skill, which means that one
simply receives the information. It is obvious that in academic listening and reading,
there is more activity than simply receiving; there are productive skills involving
mental processing of the information.
Why make notes?

There are many reasons why a student should make notes; four are given here.
Firstly, making notes helps the listener or reader to keep alert. Doing something while
listening or reading helps the mind to concentrate on the subject of discussion.
Secondly, making notes facilitates understanding; this is so because it enables you to

follow relationships of ideas as they develop.
Thirdly, making notes helps you to keep record of new ideas as they come, and this
in turn helps your memory. In different forms of college assessment such as in
examinations memory can be a great facility. Furthermore, remembering key points
makes it easier to reflect on them in order to deepen understanding.
Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 2

Finally, the whole process helps the mind to incorporate new ideas into the already
existing structure of knowledge. This facilitates your intellectual development.
Skills involved in note-making.

Firstly, as a preparation, you should try to understand in general the idea or topic
to be discussed. To do this you need to think about what you know already on this
topic. There are very few topics in which you will find that you know nothing. As you
think about what you know, ask yourself questions about what new information you
want to learn from the lecture or the reading. You can ask such questions as: what does
this mean? When or where does it occur? What is its cause or result? What are the aims
or conditions for it? What process is involved? Such questions act as prior organisers to
the topic, preparing your mind to receive the new information and arrange it in suitable
structure in your mind.
Secondly, as the lecture develops or as you read, it is important to identify the main
ideas and separate these from details, explanations and examples. The speaker will
show the main points by emphasis, such as by loudness, slowing down, pausing before
or after, or by repetition of words or ideas. Emphasis can also be shown by facial
expression, characteristic hand movements, or standing after pacing about.
To follow the main points in reading, it is important to identify and understand the topic
sentence. The topic sentence is a general sentence usually at a beginning of deductive
paragraphs or sometimes at the end of inductive paragraph development. Supporting
sentences will refer back to this or clarify ideas raised by the topic sentence.
Activity 1
The sentences below can be re-arranged to form a well constructed paragraph. In what order
should they appear?

1. Clearly, in agriculture and in industry, the progress of a country depends on the busy hands
of its working people.
2. Finally, the establishment of efficient transportation systems, essential service in a
developing country, relies heavily on a labour force of expert craftsmen who take pride in
their manual skills.
3. In addition, of course, the manufacture of machines of all kinds demands a large number of
trained mechanics and technicians.
4. To begin with, planting crops and raising livestock are both vital to development and these
require people who work with their hands.
5. Manual labour is one of the principal development resources in any industrialising country.
6. Secondly, mining natural resources, building roads and bridges, and constructing dams for
irrigation and electrical power are also important to development and also require people
who can use their hands skilfully.
In sorting these sentences into a paragraph, it will be helpful to consider first the topic
or subject of discussion, which in this case is the importance of labour: referred to as
manual labour, manual skills, labour force, and busy hands. From this it should be easy
to pick out the topic sentence that introduces this topic. While considering the topic
sentence, it is easy also to see the concluding sentence, which wraps up the discussion
by restating the topic sentence and summarising what the text shows. Then by
following signpost words or markers, one can place the remaining sentences to their
respective places in the paragraph: To begin with … Secondly…In addition …
Finally…1
An important skill in this connection is to identify key words in a sentence. These are
content words, important for transmitting the message of the sentence. For example, if
you send a telegram, the few words that you are ready to pay for must be key to the
message you are sending.
1
The correct order should be: 5, 4, 6, 3, 2, 1.

In order to find the key words we can remove form words, which are there only to build
the grammar of the sentence. Also to be removed are repetitions and redundancies,
which are words mentioned already somewhere in the sentence, or their idea has been
expressed already by some words in the sentence.
Read the following sentence and note how it has been reduced.
Original sentence: Throughout the world, doctors are looking for a cure of the disease
called HIV/AIDS.
Reduced to notes: Doctors looking for cure of AIDS, or even better to, Doctors
looking for AIDS cure.
In order to produce the above notes, the following has been done.
1. Form words such as the, are, and a have been left out.
2. Repetitions and redundancies have been left out, as follows:
• Disease: because the idea of disease is already suggested in the word
cure or HIV/AIDS.
• Called: because this refers to the idea of a name, which is clear in the
words disease and HIV/AIDS.
• HIV: because in common use this does not add anything to the idea of
AIDS.
• Throughout... world: because it is already known that doctors are found
anywhere in the world, so it is redundant to say this again.
3. Inversion has been used to remove of from the phrase cure of …AIDS; hence we
have AIDS cure.
Activity 2
Re-write the following sentence in note form by reducing it so that it does note contain form
words and has no repetitions or redundancies.

The two systems of marriage, matrilocal and patrilocal, practised in different districts
throughout Malawi, have many similarities that can be seen in the way they are
conducted.
Check the answer2
Explain why each word that has been left out should not be included in the notes. Note also that
you could change marriage to marriages and drop the word systems, and the notes will still carry
the essential message.
Thirdly, it is important to understand relationships between ideas as the lecture or

the passage develops. To do this, you must identify and understand special words or
phrases called signalling devices or semantic markers.
Some of these are as follows:

1. Indicating general purpose, topic, or direction of the lecture
Today, I ‘m going to talk about/ look at …
What we are going to look at/ talk about today is …
Have you ever considered why…?
2. Listing main points in ordinal sequence
Firstly…; Secondly…;Thirdly…;Fourthly…;Finally …
The first…; The second…;The third…
To begin/start with…; Next…; Then…; Finally…
3. Indicating main points in time sequence
Until, before, after, later, when, while …
As soon as…; Gradually…; Finally…
4. Emphasising the main point
The main point…is…; It is worth noting that …
I want to emphasise that…; Basically …
Let me emphasise/stress that…; Note that…
2
Reduced notes: Matrilocal and patrilocal (system of) marriage in Malawi similar/ many similarities.

5. Indicating cause and effect, purpose, reason and result
Because of this…; Due to this…; For this reason…; Owing to this…;This results in…; This leads
to…; This produces…; This causes… (result)
This is because…; This is as a result of…; This happens due to… ; Since…; …because of…
(reason)
This is done in order to/ so that/ so as to… (purpose)
6. Indicating condition
As long as…; Assuming that…; Provided that…
Unless…; If…
In case…(action taken to cater for the possibility of something happening)
7. Giving example
For example…; For instance…; To illustrate this…
…such as…
8. Giving additional information
In addition…; Furthermore…; Moreover…; Besides…; Worse still.
As well as…; Not only…but also…; Both… and…; Another…is…
9. Rephrasing a point already made
Let me put this another way…; To put it more simply…
In other words…; That is (to say)….
10. Offering alternatives
Either…or…; Or…;
Neither…nor…(negative, no alternatives)
11. Disagreeing
Many people believe that…but…; It used to be believed that…but…
It was a common belief that… but…; We are told that…but…
12. Comparing and contrasting
On the one hand…on the other hand…; By way of contrast…; Although…
In contrast to this…; Even if/though…; Whereas…; However…; Nevertheless…
13. Summarising and concluding
So we have seen that…; It is clear that…; Clearly...
To conclude this discussion…; In conclusion…; To sum up…

Activity 3
Many students find problems in the use of items under 5 and 6, both in their writing and oral
work. Note that items in 5 must be preceded by a sentence to which this in those items refers
back. Pick one example from reason, result and purpose and in each case, write a sentence that
can go before the marker and the one that goes with the marker.
Note under item 6 that unless means if…not, and in case is used when action is done to
forestall another thing, usually not wanted, from happening. The problem comes
because in American use, in case can be used to mean if.
Activity 4
Read the following sentence and say what it means according to British English and according to
American English.
I will lock out the cat in case it disturbs me.
It will help you to think in which case this statement is simply a threat, and in which
case it is not simply a threat, but the cat is really going to be locked out. Note that
where there is such confusing use of an item the standard of correctness in the
Malawian education system is the British English. Accordingly, in the above sentence,
where it simply communicates a threat, in case should be replaced with if.
Write a sentence using unless and another using in case. Check the correctness of your
sentences by replacing unless with if…not, and see if it makes sense. If it does not make
sense, it means you have used unless inappropriately. In the second sentence, try
replacing it with if, and if it gives the same meaning then know you have used in case
inappropriately.
(You can find other language exercises from page 24 at the end of the unit.)

Fourthly, it is important to take note of the speaker’s or writer’s point of view,
stance, or opinion, i.e.: Does he/she support or oppose the idea or school of thought? Is
he/she simply presenting facts and opinions?
Finally, it is important to jot down salient points in note form, and to organise the
information in the way one best understands it, not simply following the order of the
speaker even when it is confusing. In this connection, the important skill is that of using
abbreviations and symbols. For example, the sentence
Tobacco is a very important cash crop in Malawi
can be written in short as follows:
Tbaco v impt ksh crop Mlw.
While people are free to use their own created symbols and abbreviations, there are
commonly used abbreviations such as the following.
Abbreviations
ack(n) acknowledge(d); Afr Africa(n); asap as soon as possible; anon anonymous; approx
approximately; arr arrive; assoc association, associate; asst assistant…
b born; BA Bachelor of Arts, Born Again; bk book; bldg building; Br brother; Brit Britain, British;
Bt Blantyre…
c century; Cath Catholic; cc copy; cert certificate, certified; cf or cp compare; ch(ap) chapter;
Chanco Chancellor College; CK Chikwawa; cl class; Coll College; concl conclusion; CP
Chitipa…
d died; DA Dowa; dbl double; deg degree; dep depart/ure; diag diagram; diff difference; dupl
duplicate; DZ Dedza…
e east; Ed edited, edition, education; e.g. for example; enc(l) enclosed; Eng English; et al and
other people/things; etc and the rest; eve evening; excl excluding…
f female, foot; Feb February; fig figur(e/)ative; fl fluid floor; fol following; Fr father, France; Fri
Friday…
Gk Greek; GNP Gross National Product; gov(t) government; gt great…
H height, hour; HE His excellency; Hon honourable, honorary; hosp hospital; HQ Headquarters

Ibid in the same place; incl including; info information; intro introduction; Is Islands…
Jan January; JC Jesus Christ; Jr Junior; Jul July; Jun June…
K Kwacha (Malawian and Zambian currency); KA Karonga, Kamuzu Academy; Kg
kilogrammes; KK Nkhota-kota; km kilometres; Ku Kasungu…
L lake, little; l left, length; Lat Latin; lh left hand; lit literal literature; Ll Lilongwe; ll lines; loc cit in
the place mentioned; lux luxury…
M member; m male, married; MA Master of Arts; Mar March; MC Mchinji; Mgr Monsignor;
Messrs title used before a list of men’s names; min minimum; misc miscellaneous; MJ
Mulanje; Mlw Malawi; mkt market; MN Mwanza; mod modern, moderate; Mon Monday; MP
Member of Parliament; Ms woman’s title (which, like Mr, does not unnecessarily expose
ones marital status); MS manuscript; Mt Mount; MZ Mzuzu, Mzimba; MZUNI Mzuzu
University…
N north; nat national, natural; NB note, Nkhata Bay; NJ Nsanje; no(s) number(s); Nov
November; nr near; NS Ntchisi; NT New Testament; NU Ntcheu; NZ New Zealand…
Ob died; Oct October; op operation; op cit in the work mentioned; opp opposite; OT Old
Testament…
P parking; p(p) page(s); pd paid; PE Physical Education, Phalombe; PhD Doctor of Philosophy;
pkt packet; pop popular, population; poss possible, possibility; Pr Principal; pr pair, price;
Pres President; pro professional; Prof professor…
Qr quarter(s); qty quantity; quad quadrangle, quadruplet; qu question, queen…
R river; r right; re concerning; rec(d) receive(d); ref reference, referee; Rep representative; res
residence; resp respectively; ret(d) retire(d); rh right hand; rly railway; rt right; RU Rumphi…
S south; SA South Africa, Salima; Sat Saturday; sec secondary, secretary; sch school; Sept
September; sp special, spelling; Sr senior, sister; Sun Sunday…
T temperature, t time, tel telephone; TO Thyolo; trans translated; treas treasurer…
U union; UK United Kingdom; UNIMA University of Malawi; Univ University; UNZA University of
Zambia; USA Unites States of America …
V victory; v very, verse; VC Vice Chancellor; viz namely; vs versus…
W west; w week; wc water closet (toilet); wk work; wt weight…
X cross, kiss; Xmas Christmas…
Y yen (Japanese currency); yr year…

Za Zomba, Zim Zimbabwe…
A student sent the following message to a friend: I1TCUB45. Can you read it? Answer3
It is also possible to shorten long expression by replacing them with one word, such as:
• Are quite capable of, may be replaced by can;
• On one hand/ on the other hand, replaced by or;
• Almost invariably, replace by usually.
Activity 5
Write one or two words that can replace the following expression:
1. What this clearly shows is that…

2. In the end, we can say that…
3. To give an example of this…
4. It is worth observing that…
5. Everyone can see that…
6. To begin with …
Writing notes
Based on the above, a student should be able to write good notes in different subjects. It
is important to use a clear format for noting down main and supporting ideas. The
following is an example how notes could be written.
TOPIC
The topic should be written in capitals or underlined;
it should be centralised, i.e. put at the centre of the page.
1. Main points ---These should start close to the left margin;

they can be numbered (1, 2, 3…) or underlined, if short.
3
I want to see you before five.

If there are sub-topics, these could be treated as main points, which means
the main points will take the format of subsidiary points and so on.
Or there will be a line separation between the subtopic and the main points, so that the
main points start a line after, but are not indented further.
a) Subsidiary points---These should be indented to the right,

i.e. compared to the main points, these should start away
from the margin.
They can be numbered (a, b, c…)
Or they could be written with bullets.
i) Details or examples---These are indented further

to the right;
they can be numbered (i, ii, iii, iv, v…).
Or they could be written with bullets.
Some people do not like numbering; in stead they use clear spacing and indenting –
leaving a line between main points, and moving adequately to the right to show clear
indentation. What is important is to follow consistently the style of note-making you
have chosen. Look at the passages and the notes made from them in Activity 11 from
page 25.
Activity 6
Read the following passage and take notes of the main points. Your notes will assist you to
improve your listening skills.
IMPROVING LISTENING
Listening is an important skill of language because much of the daily communication is conducted through
speaking and listening. The problem, however, is that many people are not able to listen effectively or for
a long time due to loss of concentration. Accordingly, important information is not efficiently transmitted

between the source and the receiver, leading to loss and frustration.
It is however possible to improve our listening skills by maintaining concentration. Perhaps the important
question is: how can this be done? Our discussion today will tackle two main causes of loss of
concentration, and how these problems can be overcome. The first factor that causes loss of
concentration is noise; the second is the difference between the speaking and listening speed.
The term noise is in this context used in a general sense to refer to anything that bars or reduces
the effective transmission of oral information. It could be from the source of information, from the
surrounding or venue, or it could be from the listener him/herself. Some speakers scream or
shout, even when they use a public address system. Consequently, their voice quality is
distorted, producing irritating sounds. If this is the problem, you can politely request the speaker
to adjust his/her voice. Sometimes the problem is due to a loud sound from the venue. Again, it
will be important to politely alert the people responsible so that they do something to solve the
problem.
Some noise comes from the listener him/herself. This may include physical or psychological
situations that hinder listening. Perhaps the listener sits uncomfortably on a chair, or is
preoccupied with other concerns. In both cases he/she will not be able to concentrate on the talk
because of the noise within himself/herself. It is important to do something to solve such
problems. Sometimes the noise has to do with prejudice. Perhaps the listener has a negative
attitude towards the speaker. It could be that the listener does not particularly like the way the
speaker presents him/herself. For example, people who like formal dress cannot understand how
a person could deliver a talk in a jeans and tee-shirt. Sometimes it is the speaker’s mannerisms
while speaking that the listener finds irritating. All these things can produce disturbing noise.
The problems can sometimes be due to the listener’s attitude towards the subject. Perhaps
he/she does not particularly like the subject or topic under discussion. In all such cases, it is
important to do something to reduce the negative effects. For example, the listener can try to
develop a positive attitude by convincing him/herself that the speaker will do a better job today.
After all, the wise words from the Desiderata say, even the dull and ignorant, they too have their

story. The listener must convince him/herself not only to pay attention to the talk, but also to
support the speaker as he/she delivers the talk. This support may involve maintaining eye
contact with the speaker and even marking each point with a nod.
For students, it is possible to develop a positive attitude by thinking about the importance of the
subject matter. Consider that the presenter is an expert expounding on a subject that you need
for your academic development. Consider that you need mastery of the subject for your future
professional development. These should motivate you to be more positive and exercise greater
concentration. Every effort should be make to solve the problem of noise.
Sometimes the listener can fail to pay attention because he/she waits anxiously for an
opportunity to make a comment or ask a question. It may be that he/she waits anxiously for an
anticipated important point or for the end of the talk so that he/she is the first to congratulate the
speaker. Each of these must be treated as aspects of noise because they can prevent the
listener from focussing on the talk.
The second factor that causes loss of concentration is the difference between speaking speed
and listening speed. Naturally people listen much faster than they talk; that is to say, there is a
big difference between the listening rate and the speaking rate. It is known that a person can
listen to 400 words a minute. While this is so, the normal speaking speed is only 125 words a
minute. Few people speaking at supersonic speed, like those at the tobacco auction floor, go
beyond the limit of 150 words a minute. What all this means is that while listening there will be
many gaps when there is nothing to listen to. Obviously, it is during such gaps that the listener
loses concentration as the mind starts to wander. It is often due to this loss of concentration that
some people start to doze or even fall asleep.
So, what can be done to solve this problem? The answer lies in the principle of filling in the gaps
created by the disparity of listening and speaking speeds with activities. Such activities must not
be the kind that will also divert the mind from the talk. The useful activities are those that utilise
the extra moments to enhance listening. We have seen how such supportive activity as
maintaining eye contact and nodding can reduce noise from the listener. Such activities would be

useful even here.
An activity such as taking notes while listening can greatly facilitate concentration. This involves
picking out salient points and jotting them down in short but comprehensible form. But this should
not be done at the expense of understanding the talk. Sometimes people are so preoccupied
with jotting down details that they lose the trail. In this case, taking notes can become an aspect
of noise.
Concentration is mostly facilitated by following the general structure of the talk; this also
enhances the listener’s ability to understand. For example you can ask yourselves: how is the
talk organised? Are the points organised according to sequence of occurrence or conceptual
sequence?
In sequence of occurrence an incident is narrated and the listener can follow the order in which
things happened, such as what happened first, second, third etc. In this case, the listener can fill
in the listening gaps by anticipating what will come next. Furthermore, the listener can work out
events that have not been explicitly stated, but should naturally happen within the order of other
events. For example, in reporting an accident, it is common to narrate what happened and what
the police did, without stating how they came to the scene. The listener can naturally fill in the
details: that someone informed the police. Furthermore, the listener can work out the procedures
involved, unless it is known that the police discovered the accident during their routine patrols.
If the points are not organised according to sequence of occurrence, they are likely to be
organised according to conceptual sequence. This is used when the speaker discusses a subject
by presenting points in a way that will best facilitate comprehension. The following can be used
as guiding questions: does the speaker relate the points according to cause and effect? Does
he/she describe the state of something, such as a mountain or building, from top to bottom, from
what you see from far to near, or vice versa? Some of the conceptual sequences follow the
pedagogic principle of moving from the known to the unknown, or the familiar to the unfamiliar.
Similarly, according to conceptual sequence, ideas may be presented in a way that can be

visualised as a tree. There is the stem, and before extending to the branches, twigs and leaves,
the speaker traces the roots that anchor the whole tree. Sometimes the whole talk may be based
simply on the structure of syllogism, that is to say, on premises and a conclusion.
Preaching at a funeral, a speaker took almost an hour simple to state the following: Everyone will
die. Therefore commit your life to God. Unfortunately, after waffling about examples of how
people die, he did not even explain clearly what committing ones life to God involves. A good
listener could pick out the essential points and discard the confusing details.
Good speakers often provide prior organisers by stating the questions or issues they will tackle in
the talk. These prior organisers guide the listener to follow the points and also to evaluate the
overall development of the talk. Accordingly, if something is not discussed comprehensively, the
listener can take note and raise a question at the end of the talk. Although it is impossible to get
a clear message from a speaker who talks on a subject that is not clear in his/her mind, by
focusing on the structure or trying to construct it you can get a great deal from any talk.
Finally, to improve comprehension and memory, and thereby enhance understanding, it is

important to evaluate the talk. To do this, the listener can use these questions: Did the speaker
clarify all the issues discussed? Did he/she substantiate claims made? Did he/she sufficiently
develop problems raised? Did he/she offer reasonable solutions to the problems? Did he/she
suggest reasonable action to be taken in the absence of viable solutions? Did the speaker
answer all the key questions? Did he/she answer them sufficiently and convincingly? Did he/she
argue cogently? Such an evaluation can facilitate transfer of information from short-term to long-
term memory. To sum up, remember to improve listening by practising effective strategies for
dealing with noise and gaps created by the difference between listening and speaking speed.

Main and Subsidiary Points in Reading
In reading, it is important to take note of different ways paragraphs are developed by

focusing on the topic sentence and supporting sentences. The main idea of the
paragraph is contained in the topic sentence - a general statement that does any of the
following:
• identifies the topic or main idea
• makes a broad statement (or claim) about the subject
• raises anticipation or expectation, (or even query)
• opens the paragraph
Accordingly, the subsidiary points are contained in supporting sentences - specific

statements that perform any of the following:
• give specific details and examples
• provide explanations and descriptions
• support or substantiate a claim or broad statement
• answer questions the raised by the topic
• develop, expand or extend the topic
Activity 7
Here are topic sentences that express strong opinions on different topics. On their own they
could simply provoke an angry reaction because they are not substantiated. Choose one that you
would support. Develop points to support or substantiate its claim. Write a paragraph, starting
with the claim and after the supporting sentences, and with a conclusion that re-states the topic
sentence to maintain the argument4.
1. Mothers have more love for children than fathers.

2. Educating girls is a waste of resources.
4
Example passages, written by students, can be found towards the end of the Unit, from page 33.

3. There cannot be love and compassion without sacrifice.
4. The best way to combat HIV/AIDS is by abstinence for those not married and being
faithful to one partner for those in marriage.
5. Women are better teachers than men.
6. Many newly established churches in Malawi have leaders who use the word of God
to enrich themselves.
7. Multi-party in Malawi has attracted many crooks to political leadership.
8. Democracy is impossible in a poor country.
9. It is not good for a newspaper to support a political party.
10. Giving students free meals and accommodation is a waste of taxpayers' money.
11. Women who dress scantily rape men.
12. Men who defile children must be castrated.
Generally, there are three types of paragraphs: deductive paragraphs where the topic
sentence is placed at the beginning; inductive paragraphs with the topic sentence at the
end of the paragraph; and a mixture of the two where the topic sentence is in the
middle. In the first instance, the supporting sentences refer back to the topic sentence,
while in the second they lead to the topic sentence. In the last instance, supporting
sentences start as in inductive by giving an example or case study; then they extend and
elaborate the topic sentence. To understand the topic, it is important to identify and
understand the topic sentence, and follow what details the supporting sentences
contribute to the topic, even if one cannot remember all the details.
Here are model paragraphs with the topic sentence placed at different positions. Read
through to take not how the paragraph develops, and what you see as advantages of
each. In each case the topic sentence is underlined.
Model 1: Deductive Paragraph

Like the people of America, the culture of America has been drawn from many different lands
and eras. The major religions, for example, have their origins in the Palestine of two millennia
ago, or more. The technology has been developed with the help of mathematics, which began in

ancient Greece and India, was nurtured among the medieval Arabs, and came to fruition in early
modern Europe. The system of government is based upon the political concepts and institutions
of the Greek city-states and the Roman republic. The theatre draws upon conventions
established in England, during Restoration days. The very language, English, can be traced back
to diverse sources in ancient Germany, Scandinavia, Rome, and Greece, and, ultimately, to a
hypothetical zone in central Europe and a period at least 4000 years before the birth of Christ.
Model 2: Inductive Paragraph

When the delegates to the Continental Congress framed their famous declaration in the summer
of 1776, the knew that word of it would get to George Washington and his troops long before it
reached George 111 in London. There was no way for the British king to received the bad news
in less than the six weeks required for even the swiftest Atlantic ship. In 1901, when President
McKinley lay dying in Buffalo, New York, the physician summoned from New York City took
hours to reach him by the fastest express train; it would be decades before a jet plane could
make the same trip in just about one hour. In our own era, if the Nazis had kept Jewish scientists
at home, working on an atomic bomb, instead of driving them into exile as "non-Aryans", Hitler
might well have made a Hiroshima out of some American cities and won World War II. Science
and technology often exert a subtle but profound influence upon human history.
Model 3: Topic Sentence in the Middle

Jane is a financial analyst in a large bank, and the detailed statistical reports she prepares are
studied weekly by the bank's investment officers. She is also a mother of lively 6-month-old
twins, and she cannot leave them with a babysitter for more than an two hours a day. So the
baby's cribs are right alongside the computer terminal at which she works. Her neighbour,
Jimmy, has been confined to a wheelchair since a car accident halted his career as an
advertising sales representative several years ago. He now works six hours a day, creating
direct-mail sales letters for corporations. The computer on which he composes and edits his
material, and which transmits the completed letter over electronic circuits to his clients, can be
manipulated easily from the wheelchair. For traditionally homebound people, the computer is
bringing about a genuine revolution in work possibilities and styles. It is creating a new kind of
"cottage industry", harking back to the times just before an earlier industrial revolution, when

craftsmen built and wove and carved in their own homes, leaving only to buy supplies or market
the finished product. And the manufacturers of computers are not slow to recognise the possible
economic rewards of this dramatic new movement. Computers are rapidly being scaled down in
size and price, so that many households will soon find it easy to own one. In the near future it will
be common to have people perform most of their daily work in their own houses. (Paragraphs from
Ezor, Edwin and Jill Lewis. 1984. From Paragraph to Essay: A process approach for beginning college
writing. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp 62-63)
Note how the second and third paragraphs start in a similar way by giving examples, or
case studies before leading to the topic sentence. In the third paragraph, after the topic
sentence there is an elaboration on the situation to broaden its scope and bring
justification for it. Finally the writer states hopefully what will be if this present trend
continues.
Well constructed paragraphs combine the first two systems of paragraph in that they
start in a deductive way and restate the topic sentence in the concluding sentence. This
enhances unity of the paragraph and assists the reader to understand the thesis by giving
it again in the concluding paragraph. In this way the paragraph seems to work in cyclic
way by ending where it started.
Development of Ideas
In reading as well as in listening, there are special words you need to take note of in
order to understand the relationships of ideas. These, called signpost words, have also
been referred to as signalling devices or semantic markers under listening and note-
taking. The majority of these given here are found in reading passages; in other words,
they are used mostly in writing.
1. Those marking addition: in addition, and, moreover, furthermore, also, additionally…

Worse still (also intensifies)…
On the contrary (reinforces and expands information, and fits in a specific structure. The statement
before on the contrary is always negative, while that after is positive; e.g. Experts agree that the

situation on earth is serious, but certainly not hopeless. On the contrary, they feel it is well within
man’s ability to learn how to control population growth, pollution and resource consumption.)
2. To mark contrast (or change in line of reasoning): but, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, although,
yet, while …
3. Specific information to support wider or general information: in fact, e.g. There is always the possibility
of a major accident with nuclear power. In fact, many people were killed in Russia when a nuclear
power exploded.
4. Summarising preceding reasoning: in brief, in short, to summarise …
5. Reminding of something already known, in case forgotten or not fully understood: of course, obviously,
naturally, e.g. Scientists are developing genetically modified crops. Of course, many people doubt
whether such crops can give wholesome food.
6. Concluding or showing end of line of reasoning: In conclusion, to sum up …
7. Cause, effect, and reason
A) Cause or reason: because, since, as a result, owing to the fact that …, This is because
B) Result (or reason why preceding statement or data was given): Therefore, accordingly, so, hence..
C) Result (or result of information or argument given in preceding sentences): as a result,
consequently, thus…
Activity 8
Complete the following passage with appropriate signpost words drawn from the list above.
Passengers on Spaceship Earth
We are on a spaceship – Spaceship Earth. Let us begin by giving the report on the state of the spaceship,
which is hurtling through space at about 107 000 km/hr on a fixed course. Although it can never return to
home base to take on new supplies, the ship has a marvellous and intricate life-support system. The
system uses solar energy to recycle the chemicals needed to provide a reasonable number of us with
adequate water, air and food.
________________, (1) let us look at the state of passengers and the life-support system of the
spaceship. There are about four billion on board, with more than 150 nations occupying various sections.
About 25% have inherited the good to luxurious quarters in the tourist and first-class section, and use
approximately 80% of all resources available. ______________, (2) most of the North Americans have

the most lavish quarters. Even though they represent only about 5% of the total population, they consume
about 35% of the resources.
It is sad to say that things do not really improve for the 75% of passengers travelling in the hold. Over one
third suffer from hunger or malnutrition; three quarters do not have adequate water or shelter.
__________________, (3) these numbers continue rising as the soaring population growth wipes out any
gains in food supply and economic development. Recently, partly due to economic hardships and fatalistic
attitudes that paralyse efforts to change harmful habits and traditions, these passengers have been
ravaged by the HIV/AIDS pandemic. ___________________, (4) this population could easily be
exterminated if nothing is done to work out meaningful interventions against hunger and HIV/AIDS.
_____________, (5) the overpopulation of the hold in relation to available food is only part of the problem.
There is a second type of overpopulation that is even more serious, because it threatens the entire life-
support system. This type is occurring in the tourist and first-class sections. These sections are
overpopulated in relation to the level of resource consumption and the resultant pollution of the
environment. __________________, (6) the average North American has about twenty-five to fifty times
as much impact on the life-support system as each passenger travelling in the hold, because the North
American consumes twenty-five to fifty times as much of the resources, and causes twenty-five to fifty
times as much pollution. In this sense, then, the North American section is the most overpopulated one of
the spaceship. ________________, (7) knowing the arrogance of these people, they cannot easily
appreciate the problems they are causing because they belief that, more than any one else, they are
entitled to this kind of luxury.
______________________, (8) there is lack of co-operation and continued fighting among some groups;
this can destroy many, if not all, of the people. Only about 10% of the population are Americans and
Russians, but their powerful weapons and unceasing threats to build even more destructive ones is a
great concern of many peace loving people. While the recent collapse of the Soviet Union should have
assured the nations of peace, it has launched America to more dangerous heights of aggression.
_______________, (9) the explosive situation of the Middle East has spread terrorism and suicide
bombings even to far away cities.
Now, passengers of Earth are entering the early stages of the first major spaceship crisis – an interlocking
crisis of overpopulation, pollution, resource depletion, the danger of mass destruction by terrorism and

warfare, and the ravages of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Experts agree that the situation is serious, but
certainly not hopeless. ___________________, (10) they feel that it is well within the ability of human
beings to learn how to control population growth, pollution, disease and resource consumption, and to
learn how to live together in co-operation, peace and equitable distribution of resources. We have only
about thirty to fifty years to deal with these matters. _________________, (11) we must redouble our
effort and begin to work out strategies now.
_________________, (12) we can say that the Spaceship Earth has a reliable life-support system using
solar energy to recycle the chemicals that ensure the adequate provision of water, air and food, but there
are problems arising from human activities. Amongst the problems is overpopulation, which brings social
economic hardships; these in turn aggravate the incidence of HIV/AIDS in the hold. The other problems
are over consumption of resources by the few in the first-class, resulting in pollution and threats of
resource depletion, besides the dangers of terrorism and war. The combined effect of these threatens
catastrophic results unless there is urgent and concerted action. (Signpost words and text adapted from Ray
Williams. 1982. Panorama: An advanced course of English for study and examinations. Essex: Longman. 2,4-5)
Here are suggested signpost words to complete the blank spaces of the text. Note that
in some cases more than one is possible.
1. In brief, in short 7. Of course, naturally, obviously

2. In fact 8. In addition (to this), additionally
3. Meanwhile 9. Furthermore, moreover
4. As a result, consequently, thus 10. On the contrary
5. However, nonetheless 11. Therefore, accordingly, thus
6. For example, for instance 12. In conclusion, to sum up.
Extra Activities

Further language practice on signalling devices or semantic
markers.
Activity 9
Make correct sentences by completing part A with an appropriate item from part B and from part
C from the following table. Note that in some cases more than one combination is possible. For
example, it is possible to make the following sentences by combining different items from part B
and C to one stem from part A.
Some old people have no teeth. Because of this, they cannot easily chew meat.
Some old people have no teeth. Because of this, they find nsima with eggs a good meal.
Some old people have no teeth. Owing to this, they cannot easily chew meat.
Some old people have no teeth. Owing to this, they find nsima with eggs a good meal.
A B C
1. Some old people have no teeth. 1. I cut its branches and pulled them
2. Students think the only way to solve away.
problems is by angry demonstrations. 2. our towns and cities to be filthy.
3. Few people access ARVs. 3. frequent elections are needed to flush
4. Boys burn dry grass in the field. They do this to out some.
5. People are very poor. For this reason, 4. find money for buying food.
6. It has been observed that multiparty This leads to 5. top soil to be eroded in rainy season.
politics attracts many crooks. Owing to this, 6. selfish leaders who are not concerned
7. Many people use contaminated water. Worse still, about the welfare of the people.
8. People burn trees and sell charcoal. This is a result of 7. they cannot easily chew meat.
9. The tree fell across the road. This is done (in 8. they fail to develop calm reasoning.
10. Vendors and pedlars swarm trading order) to 9. cholera outbreaks.
centres during market days. Because of this, 10. there is carnage on the roads.
11. Roads are narrow and in poor This causes 11. kill mice and other small animals.
condition. This is because 12. alleviate poverty.
12. There is poor disposal of refuse in 13. they do not carefully analyse the
cities. consequences of such action.
14. HIV/AIDS claims many lives.

15. they cut down trees and sell
firewood.
16. it is difficult to apprehend
pickpockets.
17. they find nsima with eggs a good
meal.
18. a great deal of time for classes is
lost.
Activity 10
Choose an appropriate theme, such as health and safety, agriculture and natural resources,
education and discipline, and politics and economics. Write down all the sentences you can
make from the table relating to the theme.
Further work on note-taking and note-making.
Activity 11
Listen to the reading of the following passage. Make notes using appropriate format and
abbreviations where necessary as you listen.
ORAL PASSAGE 1
Our talk today is on how water is purified. Firstly, I will talk about why water is purified; in other words,
why water should be made suitable for drinking. This must be made clear before we can talk about
the process of purification.
Water needs to be purified because it is almost impossible to discover a natural source of pure water,
and secondly because, as we all know, impure water may contain living organism called germs, that
can greatly harm people. Some of the fatal diseases caused by germs are cholera and typhoid.
Now, are there any natural sources of pure water? Well, snow, which falls in very cold regions, is
probably the purest natural source of water, and the next is probably rain. However, rain contains
dissolved poisonous gases of the air, such as carbon monoxide, chlorides and sulphates. Although
these substances are there in very small quantities, it means that rain water is not completely pure.
Other water sources, such as mountain stream and lakes, often contain dissolved inorganic salts.

Water found in lowland regions is totally polluted with all kinds of bacteria.
So it seems clear that all these sources of drinking water need to go through a purification process.
We will accordingly look at three methods used in water purification, and these are by storage, by
filtration and finally by chlorination. This is how each of the methods is conducted.
The first method is storage, and this is done by keeping water in a reservoir. Furthermore, the water
is aerated, and chemicals are added to the water. This treatment makes three things happen. The
impurities in the water settle, and the odours and gases are removed. Furthermore, bacteria lose
their power when water is kept in a storage tank. This is how storage purifies the water.
The second method is by filtering water through sand. This also removes many impurities and
bacteria. Various methods of filtering have been established, and the most successful of these is one
that forces the water through the sand mechanically and at great speed.
Nowadays, a common method of water purification is chlorination. This is a very cheap, quick and
efficient method. About four kilograms of chlorine is added to about five million litres of water. This is
enough to destroy almost all the bacteria that may be in the water.
These them are the reasons why water needs to be purified and the methods of purification. Next
time you drink a glass of water, remember the processes it goes through.
Compare your notes with the ones below. Did you take down more details, or leave out
essential details? Did you organise your notes accordingly? Note that your notes may
not be exactly like these ones.
WATER PURIFICATION
Reason for purifying water:

Source of pure water hard to find, e.g. snow.
Other sources, e.g. rain, streams, and lakes have impurities + germs,
----- causing diseases e.g. cholera + typhoid.

Purification methods:
Storage : in reservoirs, chemicals added, aerated.
----- Impurities settle, odours + gases removed.
Filtering :through sand. Most successful methods force water at great
speed.
-----Removes bacteria + other impurities.
Chlorination :Cheap + efficient method.
-----Destroys bacteria.
Note that in the above passages, to make it easier for students to follow the notes,
abbreviations have not been used.
Activity 12
Here are other practice passages. Practise taking notes while someone reads the passage to
you at the normal speaking speed. You can use abbreviations and symbols that you know.
Oral Passage 2
Today’s talk is about the Sahara desert, which is in fact, the largest desert in the world. We will
look at the following five main features: location, climate, vegetation, population, and economy.
Let’s start by looking at the location. The Sahara desert stretches right across the northern part
of Africa. It covers about a quarter of the total area of Africa; in other words, it is more than the
entire United States of America. It is bounded by an area known geographically as the Sahelian
zone, or simply the Sahel.
Next, we will consider the climate and vegetation – the factors that make the Sahara a desert.
Most of the Sahara receives practically no rain; because of this, it has no vegetation. The Sahara
has some of the world’s highest temperatures, of up to 55 degrees centigrade during the day in
some parts. Nights, on the other hand, are cold because the clear air and bare ground allow a
rapid loss of heat. Although the Sahara itself has no vegetation, the Sahel, the area round the

desert, has a continuous cover of dry prickly grass, and low thorny trees, because it has some
regular rain. However, in areas where too many animals graze, the thin vegetation is easily
destroyed, and the Sahel can become a complete desert.
Despite these inhospitable characteristics, it is interesting to find that the Sahara does have a
population, even though small and scattered. There are in fact two categories of people. There
are the settled group, that is, the farmers. These depend for their existence on the date palms
and cereal crops that grow round the oases. The other population group is that of nomads, who
constantly travel around the desert. These depend for their existence on the camel and other
animals that can leave on very dry conditions.
Finally, let us look at the economy of this vast desert region. For many generations, trade routes
have been famous across the desert. This is not all there is. Deposits of salt have been well
known for centuries. In the last century, oil and other minerals were discovered; for example,
there is oil and gas in Libya, uranium and phosphates in Niger, and iron in Mauritania. These
have made the Sahara a very important region, economically and politically.
Oral Passage 3
The talk of today is about the police force, that professional body of people, which is the main
instrument for law and order in modern societies. We shall examine particularly the historical
development of the police force. To do this, we will trace the five stages in the development of
the police.
Primitive societies did not need the services of police. However, as society became more
complex, certain persons, such as elders and fathers of families, took up the job of administering
justice in particular communities whenever an offence was committed. The punishments
administered were often immediate and harsh; this was done to serve as a warning to members.
Then, as communities developed further, the second stage in the development of the police
came about. By now more people owned property, and this property attracted criminal elements
in the society. At this stage, it was the rich people who employed their own guards. These
guards were usually big and muscular men, who, it was hoped, would deter criminals.

It was much later when society as a whole realised they it needed protection from criminal
elements in its midst. As a result of this came the next stage, which involved the employment of
full-time policemen. At this stage, one member of the community might be appointed to act as a
policeman for, say, six months, then another might take over for a similar period, and so on.
Eventually, with the growth of cities, it became apparent that this method of enforcing law and
order was ineffective as crime increased more and more. Thus a professional body came into
being, and this was really the origin of the modern police force. Its main job was of course to
prevent crime from taking place, and to apprehend those who did commit offences. This was the
fourth stage in the development of the police force.
However, the fifth and final stage was when other duties, apart from crime prevention, were
included in the police force. Today, the police perform many other duties, such as controlling
traffic on the roads, assisting in emergences such as fire and road accidents, supervising crowds
during big events such as football matches. Well, I hope I have shown briefly how the police
force has developed
Activity 13
Reading Passage
Read the following passage about dictionaries and make notes by listing the different things that
are entered about words in a dictionary. You can also record any useful things you have learnt
from this passage.
Dictionaries are of different types. Broadly, there are those dictionaries you consult when you
have a meaning or idea and you want the correct word to express it. An example of a useful
dictionary for this purpose is a Roget’s Thesaurus; this is the kind of dictionary you use for
working out English crossword puzzles. But the common dictionary is what you consult when you
have a word but do not know its meaning and correct usage. There are many publishers for such
dictionaries, but this passage focuses on the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary for Current
English, and the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.

In the dictionary, the first entry of a word, called the headword, shows you how the word is spelt.
This is the standard spelling according to British Standard English. If there is an alternative
spelling, usually from American English, this will be entered after the standard English spelling.
Needless to say that all the words in a dictionary are entered alphabetically, from A to Z.
The second entry, usually between slash marks, is the phonemic transcription of the word. This
shows you how the word is pronounced according to the received pronunciation (RP5). For
example, many students mispronounce the first syllable in the word comfort; they pronounce it
the same as in composition or compost. The dictionary transcription shows that this must sound
the same as in the words come or company. Another aspect the dictionary shows is if the word
has an alternative pronunciation such as the Scottish or American pronunciation; this will be
entered immediately after the first one. For words that have two or more syllables, there will be
stress marks to show the syllables stressed. All these are there to assist you in pronunciation.
The third entry after the headword will indicate the part of speech of the word. This is grammar
information stating, for example, whether the word is a noun, an adjective, a verb, or any other
part of speech the word is categorised into.
Furthermore, if the word is a noun, after it will be written a capital C or U. This is there to show
you whether the noun is countable or uncountable. For a noun that does not take the usual plural
form of adding an –s/es at the end, the dictionary will immediately give its plural. For instance,
after the word mother-to-be, the dictionary will give its plural as mothers-to-be. After the word
goose, which follows what is called the ablaut process6, the dictionary will give the plural as
geese. Sometimes it is difficult to decide which form of verb will follow a collective noun or group
noun. For example, do you say: the police have or has? The government has or have? In such
cases, the dictionary will indicate the appropriate form of the verb.
If the word is an adjective, immediately after it will be the information about its degrees, that is to
say comparative and superlative degree. This is especially useful for adjectives that do not take
the usual more and most, or –er and –est. Adjectives that completely change the word from
5
RP, such as the pronunciation of the Queen or the BBC, is supposed to be the model. Currently ideas
are towards rejecting models from countries outside speech community in favour of those from within
where English is used, with suggestions of international varieties as long as they maintain
intelligibility.
6
Process of changing vowels to mark the plural.

positive degree to the comparative and superlative degrees are such as good better best, well
better best, or ill worse worst.
There is also important entry about adjectives. This is whether the adjective is used attributively -
that is to say, it comes before a noun; or predicatively - that is to say, it comes after a stative or
linking verb. Some adjectives cannot be used in both ways, so the information in brackets
indicates which way the adjective is used, either attributive or predicative. An interesting example
is the adjective apparent, which changes meaning with the different use or position. For
example, if used attributively, it has the same meaning as the word seeming, such as in:
Unfortunately, her apparent rudeness made the lecturer very angry. If used predicatively, it has
the same meaning as the word clear, such as in: His selfish motives became apparent from his
actions. It is important therefore to know whether an adjective is attributive or predicative.
While still on the third entry, discussing parts of speech or grammar information, it is important to
examine the entries after verbs. If the verb is irregular, immediately after it will be indicated its
forms in the past tense and past participle. For example, after the verb to go, the dictionary will
indicate that the past tense is went and the past participle is gone. Some dictionaries will even
indicate the 3rd person singular present tense as goes. Many verbs baffle students. For example,
what is the verb form of the adjective dirty? Many will say dirten*. Unfortunately, this word does
not exist. The correct verb form of dirty is the same, dirty. Its past tense is dirtied; its past
participle also dirtied. The continuous or progressive form is dirtying. All this information will be
found in any standard dictionary.
Another important entry after verbs is the information whether it is transitive or intransitive. Most
dictionaries will follow up this information by giving codes showing patterns. This is part of
syntax, giving different sentence structures into which the verb fits. For example, the Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English has more that twenty-five verb patterns. A
verb such as enjoy, which is transitive, will take patterns where the object of enjoy comes
immediately after the verb in a sentence. Therefore, a sentence such as
I enjoyed very much*
is not grammatically correct because very much is not an object that can be enjoyed. The verb
patterns will show that immediately after enjoy must be the object, such as the dance, or singing,
or his/her company, or myself. This goes back to the information that the verb to enjoy and

similar verbs such as request are transitive; accordingly, they must be followed by the object -
the thing that is enjoyed or requested.
The fourth entry after the headword is that of prepositions used with the word. As many will
appreciate, choosing the correct preposition to go with a particular meaning of the word can be
problematic. The dictionary will show the correct prepositions to be used with a particular word
for an intended meaning. Under verbs, commonly used phrasal verbs will also be given. Some of
the verbs with many meanings depending on what prepositions or adverbs they are combined
with are break, come, go and take.
The fifth and following entries will be different meanings of the headword. In this case, each
meaning is entered against a different number, such as 1, 2 and 3. This is done to show the
different meanings the word conveys. Usually the order of these will be from the most commonly
used meaning to the least. It is also from the denotative meaning, a direct meaning based on the
word, to it connotative meaning, an indirect meaning associated with it. Alongside these,
example sentences for the different meanings will be provided. After these, various idiomatic
expressions of the word will also be given. The idiomatic expression will first be given, usually in
bold, followed by the example sentence. Words that are most frequently used, in spoken or
written form, are specially highlighted with their meanings and examples of usages within the
pages of the dictionary. This particular idea has been taken up and well elaborated in a special
dictionary, such as the Longman’s Essential Activator. In this various shades of meaning with
example sentences are given.
There are many other pieces of information to be found in a dictionary. For example many
dictionaries have brief sections, labelled Note on Usage, which explain differences in usages of
similar words that people find confusing. Examples of such words are about and on, admission
and admittance, big, large and great, make and do, and pay, wages and salary. Where a visual
sense experience is necessary to understand the word, the dictionary will provide a picture or an
illustration, sometimes in colour. For specialist vocabulary for particular professional fields, the
dictionary will give fields such as psychology, architecture, grammar, law or medicine. The
dictionary will also indicate whether the word is formal, informal, derogatory, or impolite. There
are many other useful pieces of information in a dictionary; these assist learners to use language
in an exact and comprehensible way.

(This passage is based on the entries in two dictionaries: Hornby, A S. 1989. Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary of Current English. (4th Edition). Oxford: OUP; and Longman Dictionaries. 1995. Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English. (3rd Edition). Essex: Longman Group Ltd.
Further Example Passages

Here are paragraphs written from the claims or statements expressing strong opinion,
used as topic sentences.
TEXT 1
Educating women is not a waste of resources. To begin with, well-educated people contribute effectively
to the development of a country. Malawi’s statistics indicate that the population of women is higher than
that of men. If women are fully educated it means that a large number of the population is educated;
hence there will be development in the country. For example, in various public sectors such as health and
education the inclusion of educated women will ensure an increased number of human resources since
they will work owing to the skills obtained through their education. In most cases, well-educated women
secure good jobs and become self-reliant, which means they provide for their family and their own needs.
If it happens that the husband dies and the woman loses property due to property grabbing by the man’s
relative, she cannot lack resources to cater for herself and her children. With these benefits, we feel
educating women is not a waste of resources. (Lucy Chitseko, John Kathewera and Foster Kamanga, 1st
Year Bachelor of Education Humanities, May, 2006)
TEXT 2
Educating women is a waste of resources. Education is a system of training and instruction designed to
give knowledge and skills. In this regard education falls into two groups, namely formal and informal. The
major concern here is on the formal education of especially those girls whose parents live below the
poverty line. Formal education requires resources, such as time and money, to become functional. It is
these resources that are usually wasted through educating women. In Malawi, for instance, there is free
primary education, but statistics show that out of the many girls who start Standard 1, very few reach
Standard 8. Worse still out of those who continue to secondary education, very few finish in Form 4. The
reasons for this are pregnancies, early marriages and backward cultural beliefs. Because of this families
and the government lose a great deal of resources. Although there is a policy that pregnant girls can go
back to school after nursing their babies, when they come back they are bound to repeat some classes.
The result of this is a great loss of time and money. The few girls who make it to university and complete,

will get married and therefore cannot easily be deployed to work where they are most needed, such as in
rural areas. All this clearly shows that educating women is a waste of resources. (Clemence Kambale,
Mphumula Lynn Saka, Maxmos Kilowe and Wanangwa Kayira, 1st Year B Ed Humanities, May, 2006)
TEXT 3
Educating girls is not a waste of resources. According to the Constitution of Malawi, every citizen has the
right to education regardless of sex. It is for this and other important reasons that girls should not be
sidelined in education. Educating girls enhances development in all aspects. If a girl is educated, she is
able to contribute towards development activities in society. In politics, educated women full participate in
decision making which benefits both sexes. In health, if more women are educated, the rate of maternal
mortality will reduce, thereby increasing the number of healthy people for the development of the nation.
Most of the present abuses, such as gender-based violence, would be reduced if women were educated
and did not find themselves relying helplessly on cruel men. Because of the many cases of gender-based
violence, the government is spending millions in civic education and rehabilitation of victims. This clearly
shows that educating girls is not a waste of resources, but a means of stimulating socio-economic
development of the nation. (Martin Pindamkono, Faith Chiwaula, Iness Malenga, Josephine Buleya,
Madalo Kalonga and Atusunje Nembo, 1st Year Bachelor of Education Humanities, May, 2006)
TEXT 4
There cannot be love and compassion without sacrifice. Sacrifice involves giving up something valuable
for the good of others. The meaning of love and compassion was shown in the beginning by God Himself
when He created man in His own image. Furthermore, when man rebelled, God continued to demonstrate
love and compassion by sending His only Son to die for people and bring salvation. It could be argued
that God has divine power, so He only is able to sacrifice. This is not true because even human beings
have demonstrated love for fellow human beings by sacrificing a great deal in order to bring about
freedom. For example, Mandela suffered twenty-seven years of imprisonment in order to free South
Africans from the apartheid system. In Malawi, Chilembwe sacrificed his life in order to fight the thangata
system and the recruitment of innocent black people to die in wars amongst white people. Such examples
are too many to be cited here. Even in the love between a man and woman, each is called to sacrifice
time and other resources for the sake of the other. In a situation of need one sees who are his/her friends

from the way they sacrifice their time and other resources to share in his/her suffering. Where this
sacrifice is absence as each one aims at maximising his/her benefits, the relationship easily breaks. This
is why it is true to say that there cannot be love and compassion in the absence of sacrifice. (Audifansio P
Chakale, Happy Nkhonya and Martin Chiocha, 1st Year Bachelor of Education Humanities, May, 2006)
TEXT 5
It is not good for a newspaper to support a political party. The functions of a newspaper are to inform,
educate, and entertain people. These functions cannot be easily fulfilled if a newspaper supports a
particular party. Such a newspaper is likely to misinform the public by backing the position of the
supported party and misrepresenting that of other parties. It will exaggerate the goodness of the
supported party and the badness of other parties. Such a newspaper will have good sales only when the
party is popular, but might easily fold up when the party loses popularity. Furthermore, such a newspaper
may not be able to recruit the best personnel because it will be forced to employ people because they
support the particular party. Because of this it cannot maintain quality, which may also negatively affect its
sales. In conclusion, therefore, a newspaper should not support a political party if it is to fulfil its functions
in society. (Richard Chongo, Agness Wizi, Emmie Mpaso, Angawone Kumpukwe and Ted Nkhata, 1st Year
Bachelor of Education Humanities, May, 2006)
TEXT 6
Giving students free meals and accommodation is not a waste of taxpayers’ money. Eighty percent of
Malawi’s households are poor; therefore the majority of students come from poor families. Such students
cannot afford to pay for meals and accommodation; hence they would not access tertiary education if
required to pay. The government has a duty to make education accessible to the rich and poor. It would
be great injustice if eligible students were denied access because they are poor. Where many people are
educated, they greatly contribute to the social, economic and technological development of the country.
The country does not have to spend a great deal of money on hiring foreign experts. Furthermore, taxes
from educated employees and businessmen greatly contribute to the national budget. All these benefits
come because of increased access to education. Therefore, providing students with free meal and
accommodation is not a waste of taxpayers’ money, but a necessary investment by the government.
(Titha Kalinda, Emmanuel Chilanga, Michael Waphamkonzi and Hermes Suzaliyo, 1st Year Bachelor of
Education Humanities, May, 2006)

Unit Two:
Reading and Summary
Summary and Expansion

Summary and expansion are essential aspects of listening, reading and writing. The
ability to summarise a written or oral text is a clear indication that the listener or reader
has understood. As was stated in note-taking, in order to understand, one has to focus
on the topic and main ideas as they develop. This involves following the structure of
the main ideas and their relationships, and identifying subsidiary ideas and what they
contribute to the main ideas, such as providing details or examples. Deeper
understanding is enhanced by memory and reflection. This is why summary becomes
an integral part of understanding as it facilitates the keeping of record of ideas which
you can reflect on.
There are many ways of summarising a text. Those with visual talent can summarise
by presenting the material diagrammatically in figures or tables. To summarise, you
focus on the main ideas, and present these into a more concise way, by reducing details.
It is like packing the material by using words that embrace more general concepts or
ideas. Often this also involves re-organising the material under broader frames.
Expansion is the reverse of summary; it involves unpacking the general concepts into
smaller and more concrete ideas, details and examples. It is like covering the skeleton
with sinews, flesh and skin, and then adorning it with clothes.

Activity 14
Compare the flow diagram below with the paragraph that follows. To what extend does the
diagram summarise the paragraph or the paragraph expand on the information on the diagram?
You may wish to count the number of words each one uses to assist you in this.
Classification Types Characteristics

Examples/names
Stems Short, thick and round Potatoes, yams

produce buds – thus
Tubers planted as seed;
usually eaten cooked;
Roots Long, cylindrical; have

Cassava/manioc,
thick covers, easily carrots
peel off; some have varying
amounts of poisonous
chemical, cyanide.
Tubers can be classified into two types. There are stem tubers and root tubers. Stem tubers are short,
thick and round. They produce buds, and can be planted as seeds. They are usually eaten cooked.
Among examples of stems are potatoes and yams.
Root tubers are long and cylindrical. They have thick covers that easily peel off. Some of them have
varying amounts of a poisonous chemical called cyanide. Among the examples of tubers are cassava or
manioc, and carrots.
Activity 15
Examine the information in the table below. Write a short comparison of countries’ percentage
populations and percentage resource consumption, focusing on those that consume a great deal,
those that consume little, and those in the middle. Make a general statement about the
relationship between population and consumption. In your general statement give your opinion
on such issues as poverty, equity or responsibility.

Finally count the number of words to determine how much your writing was an expansion of the
summarised information below.
Country/Region Population % of world World Resource Consumption %

Middle East 7.6 1.2
Oceania 0.6 1.6
Africa 7.9 3.8
Rest of Asia (India, China etc) 40.6 7.4
USSR (Russia) 6.8 13
Japan 2.8 15
North America (USA and Canada) 6.4 22
Europe (Britain, France, Germany etc.) 17.7 32
(Table based on graphs from Ray Williams.1982. Panorama: An advanced course in
English for study and examinations. Essex: Longman. P.27)
There are different types of summary depending on what one wants to achieve. For
example, the shortest summary of a text is its title, which may summarise the subject of
discussion in less than five words. Stating the theme is also a kind of summary that
focuses on a deeper meaning or interpretation of the text. Related to this is the message,
which gives a specific judgement or lesson that according to your opinion you think the
writer is trying to communicate. For example, a writer can narrate about boxing match,
capturing its intensity and excitement: how the boxers exchanged savage blows, while
sweating and bleeding; how spectators whistled and cheered, some of them even
swearing and clenching their teeth or fists. The subject of such a story could be boxing;
while the theme could be cruelty. The writer of such a story might aim at showing that
despite advances in civilisation people have vestiges of bestial behaviour that make
them enjoy hurting others, or that modern people use boxing as a catharsis for their
brutal passion; this would be the message or lesson from the story. Summary can be
done at each of these levels: subject, theme or message.

Ideally, summary or précis is one third or less of the length in words of the original text.
To write this, you need to survey the whole text first, capturing the overall idea first,
then examine parts to fit in relevant details. This is a recommended strategy for
approaching your reading as well.
It is also possible to construct conceptual frames for understanding the organisational

focus of similar texts.
Summary in Expository7 Texts

Many expository texts are constructed along problem and solution8, as their
conceptual frame. By focusing of these two elements one can easily understand the text
and can summarise it even if it is very long. Texts that discuss complex social problems
such as HIV/AIDS or poverty usually clarify the problem by defining it and showing its
extent in historical, geographical or statistical terms. It is not easy in such texts to offer
real solutions to the problems. What the passages usually do is to suggest action that
can reduce the impact to the problem. To summarise such texts, therefore, it is enough
to focus on the problem and action9 to mitigate the problem.
For example, a whole article on HIV/AIDS can be summarised along problem and
action as follows.
• Problem: HIV/AIDS, a viral infection spread mostly through coitus, causes

many deaths of productive people in Malawi. Statistics show more people in
towns affected; among youth, many girls infected.
• Action: (Despite many claims by quacks and traditional healers, HIV/AIDS no
cure, therefore) abstain, use condom, or maintain one faithful partner tested
negative.
7 Texts that explain or give information about a subject, common in academic writing.
8 From Mason, M. 1989. Illuminating English: Book 2, Reading for learning. Wigan: TRACE.
9 From Mason, M. 1989. Illuminating English: Book 2, Reading for learning. Wigan: TRACE.

These notes can form a one paragraph a summary. Note that you do not need to use the
words problem and action in your summary.
Activity 16
Read the following passage and summarise it in less than one third of the original length in
words. Compare your summary with the one given after it. Do not look at the answer before you
have attempted the summary.
Air, water and food are the three essentials for life. Scientists and legislators have worked hard to ensure
that water and food are good and wholesome. Until quite lately, however, singularly little attention has
been paid to air. Elaborate and costly drains, sewers and purification works are provided to make sure
that we are not harmed by the excretion of out bodies. Yet the wasteful and dangerous products of
combustion, emitted from factory and house chimneys and from motor-cars and lorries’ diesel engines are
allowed to escape into the air we breath in spite of the fact that they cause damage to human life,
vegetation and even houses, offices and factories.
There has been legislation against nuisances caused by smoke from factory chimneys for more than a
century. But it was never very effective and domestic chimneys, which contribute about half the smoke,
were subject to no control. Only in the last few years have we seen the development of ‘smokeless
zones’, such as those now established in Manchester, London and other urban areas.
It took the London Smog of 1952 to arouse public opinion. Over one thousand square miles of London
and the Thames Valley were shrouded by an impenetrable blanket of smoke and fumes. It extended
upwards to about 300 feet, killing prize cattle brought from the pure air of the countryside for the
Smithfield show. The deaths caused were in excess of the normal for that time of the year.
Smog in large towns is almost invariable followed by an increase in the death rate in those towns. In the
London smog, the death rate from bronchitis increased nine fold and that from pneumonia four fold. The
main reason why the death rates in town are always substantially higher than in the country is the
excessive deaths from lung diseases. This difference is almost certainly due to the pall of smoke in the
towns, which absorbs about 30 per cent of the sunshine and 45 percent of the light. The death rate from

cancer of the lungs is heavier in the towns than in the country, and there is some evidence to indicate that
some of this excess is associated in some way with air pollution.
We can all take precautions to protect ourselves if there is smog – as indeed there is almost sure to be –
until the Clean Air Act has had time to get well and truly into its stride. (405 words)
In order to summarise this passage, you need to understand the whole passage first, that
it is about air pollution. This is the problem the passage discusses; therefore we can also
say the title of this passage is Air Pollution.
What point or argument about air pollution does the passage present? It is that although
air pollution is very dangerous, little has been done to solve this problem. This is
mostly found in paragraph one. Paragraph two adds the point that the little done in
solving air pollution has been directed to factory chimneys, not domestic chimneys
which contribute about half of the smoke. The other point that is introduced in the
second paragraph but is elaborated in paragraphs three is that the other solution to air
pollution was the creation of ‘smokeless zones’ in urban areas of Britain, which came
as a result of the London Smog. Details of the London Smog relating to when it
happened, its extent in width and height, and the death of cattle it caused are given in
paragraph three. Paragraph four continues to give details of the high death rate due to
the London Smog, and how in general smoke, by reducing sunlight, increases death rate
in towns. The last paragraph generally appeals to individuals to take action to protect
themselves from smog.
The passage could therefore be summarised as follows.

While a great deal has been done to reduce food and water pollution, until recently very little has been
done against air pollution, such that emissions from chimneys and exhaust pipes continue to pollute the
air. Legislation against air pollution, which has been there for over a century, never targeted domestic
chimneys and yet these produce 50% of all smoke. Following the 1952 London Smog, which killed
animals and people, ‘smokeless zones’ were created in Manchester, London and other cities. It is now
known that air pollution significantly raises death rate due to lung diseases, and that more such deaths
occur in towns. Until the Clean Air Act is fully operational, people must protect themselves against smog.

(117 words)
In other texts, the problem and solution structure may not be obvious, instead the text
may have a clear internal structure based on the subject of discussion. Such a structure
may be clear if you construct the questions the text seems to answer, or follow the topic
sentence of each paragraph. It is important to notice this and understand the text
accordingly. The summary can therefore go along this internal structure evident in the
text.
Activity 17
Read the following passage and summarise it by focusing on the questions:
• What is blackening?
• What are the conditions for blackening?
• What are the causes of destoolment?
The privilege of blackening one's stool is not granted to every dead chief or queen-mother without 1
conditions. The honour is merited only on the fulfilment of certain conditions on the part of the
occupant of the stool. The blackening of the king's stool is regarded as the greatest honour that can
be conferred on a ruler; thus in many Akan states only the stools of kings who proved to be true
leaders are blackened. 5
No royal person's stool is preserved unless he died while a ruler. A destooled chief is the last
person whose memory anybody wants to keep fresh. He must have broken a taboo or committed a
serious crime to merit his degradation. He may have committed adultery with his servants' wives; he
may have bought and sold slaves who are considered as heirlooms to the stool; he may have used
the oath unreasonably; he may have cursed people. All these crimes can deprive a chief of his regal 10
powers. Once this happens, he becomes, in the eyes of the people, more insignificant than a
commoner who has no right whatever to become a chief.
However, a chief may 'die on the stool', and yet not have his stool blackened. This is because one
must die 'a good death'. Sudden death through an accident destroys the right to have ones stool
blackened. So does death through an unusual disease such as leprosy, lunacy, epilepsy and 15

dropsy - which, if discovered in time, is a cause for destoolment. The only exception here is death in
war, which magnifies one's fame and dignity. But even here, if it is found out that one fell when
retreating, or running away, from the enemy, one is regarded as a treacherous and infamous leader
who should be erased from all historical memory. A chief who suffered from an unclean disease,
but got cured before dying, is said to have been involved in a personal difficult war with the disease 20
and emerged triumphant. Such a chief is worthy of respect. Suicide is, perhaps, one of the worst
deaths a chief could undergo. Under no condition whatever will the stool of a ruler who takes away
his own life, or is killed by a 'fetish' be consecrated. (372 Words)
(from The Sacred Stools of the Akan, by Peter Sarpong, in P Ogundipe, Practical English Pupils’
Book 5) 25
The passage is about blackening of Akan stools. It is organised conceptually by

focusing on what blackening is and elaborates necessary conditions to be fulfilled for
blackening to be done. The main condition is that one must be a true leader, and this is
seen when one dies ‘on the stool’ and dies ‘a good death’. Alongside this the writer
takes time to elaborate what causes someone not to ‘die on the stool’; in other words, he
gives the causes of ‘destoolment’. Note that while the text answers the above questions,
it is not neatly organised according to these questions, but freely mixes material that
essentially answers the questions. Therefore, in order to write a clear summary there is
need to re-organise some of the material.
The following is an example summary, with some points re-organised.

Blackening a stool is the greatest honour the Akan confer on true leaders. The conditions for this are
that one must ‘die on the stool’ and ‘die a good death’. To ‘die on the stool’ one must avoid
destoolment by not breaking taboos, not committing crimes (such as selling slaves considered
heirlooms to the stool, or committing adultery with servants’ wives), and not suffering from unclean
diseases such as leprosy and epilepsy. ‘A good death’ is in war, fighting not retreating, and any
normal death, even after recovering from an unclean disease. The stool of a chief who dies from an
unclean disease, dies suddenly in inexplicable circumstances, commits suicide or is killed by a fetish
is never consecrated. (10410 or 119 words)
10
This is achieved by not including the examples in brackets.

(Further examples and activities based on such texts are given form page 56 towards
the end of the Unit where you will find interesting text about the Malawi Young
Pioneers and Nyerere’s article about Education in Tanzania.)
Summary and Expansion in Narrative Texts

For narrative texts the problem-solution structure can be elaborated further. The
elaboration starts with situation, giving background to the story, proceeds to problem,
highlighting a conflict, to solution(s), attempt to solve the problem, to outcome11, a
resolution or successful result of the solution. For instance, the following parts can form
a complete story for children or it could be a summary of an adult short story or novel.
• Situation: Dinga and Dingile lived in Kawale location in Lilongwe.

• Problem: One evening, Dingile discovered that there was no food in the house.
• Solution: She reported to Dinga, who went to a grocery store and bought rice
and eggs.
• Outcome: Dingile prepared a delicious meal which they took before going to
bed.
Here is a summary of a tale or folk story.
• Situation: A bush fire spread across the forest between rivers Lukonkhobe and
Lunyangwa.
• Problem: The fire surrounded the big mvunguti12 tree in which snake was
hiding.
• Solution: Snake called to pigeon flying past to rescue him from the fire.
• Outcome: Coiled around bird’s neck, snake was flown and landed to the safety
of Lukonkhobe river.
11. Mason, M. 1989. Illuminating English: Book 2, Reading for learning. Wigan: TRACE.
12
A tree that bears huge sausage-like fruits which are not edible.

This folk story can be sophisticated by bringing another problem, starting the cycle
again. For example, snake refused to uncoil from bird's neck, saying he was very
hungry and would therefore not leave his food to go. Bird pleaded with him to leave her
since without her snake would have burnt to death. Snake could not listen to this. So, in
the end he ate poor bird.
For snake the end is a perfect outcome, but if you look at it from bird it is not. The story
ends in a problem from bird’s point of view. It also seems to raise moral problems of
someone suffering for doing good. The story could therefore be sophisticated further.
Kalulu, the hare, found them arguing and asked them to explain what the problem was.
After listening to both of them, he said what snake said was very right: it would be
stupid for one, having been saved from the fire, to die of hunger when there is food
around. He, however, said he did not believe that bird could carry snake for such a
distance. He therefore asked them to demonstrate what had actually happened.
Accordingly, he asked bird – with snake around her neck - to fly again to the mvunguti
tree, where Kalulu instructed snake to uncoil so that they start the process again. Snake
uncoiled and Kalulu signalled to bird to fly away, leaving snake to face the raging
flames.
Activity 18
Based on your judgement or opinion of the message from the above folk story, what do you think
would be a suitable title of the story? Justify the title to other students. You may work in groups of
four, where each one is given a chance to justify their title and answer any questions.
Activity 19
Here is a summary of a story. Read the summary and expand it to a full story.
• Situation: On a foggy morning, Nyavinde was driving to work.

• Problem: She went into a ditch and could not drive out.
• Solution: She asked three men passing by to help her push the car out.

• Outcome: They pushed it out, and she drove away and reached the office on
time.
What you will need to expand this story is to add description of the people, place and
car. Give details of what really happened for her to be found in a ditch: did she fail to
negotiate a corner? Did the car develop a mechanical fault? Was it because another car
overtook her suddenly? Was she preoccupied with something? How did she feel about
the accident? How did the pushing happen? Did she give them something at the end, or
did she simply thank them?
You will also need to add dialogue. For example: what exactly did she say to the men?
What did they say? What did she say to thank them? Descriptions and dialogue are used
to expand a story and make it more interesting.
Activity 20
Read the following story and answer the questions that follow.
Cat in the Rain

By Ernest Hemingway
There were only two American stopping at the hotel. They did not know any of the people they 1
passed on the stairs on their way to and from their room. Their room was on the second floor
facing the sea. It also faced the public garden and the war monument. There were big palms
and green benches in the public garden. In the good weather there was always and artist with
his easel. Artists liked the way the palms grew and the bright colours of the hotels facing the 5
gardens and the sea. Italians came from a long way off to look up the war monuments. It was
made of bronze and glistened in the rain. It was raining. The rain dripped from the palm trees.
Water stood in pools on the gravel paths. The sea broke in a long line in the rain and slipped
back down the beach to come up and break again in a long line in the rain. The motor-cars
were gone from the square by the war monument. Across the square in the doorway of the café 10

a waiter stood looking out at the empty square.
The American wife stood at the window looking out. Outside right under their window a cat was
crouched under one of the dripping green tables. The cat was trying to make herself so
compact that she would not be dripped on.
‘I’m going down and get that kitty,’ the she said. 15
‘I’ll do it, ‘ her husband offered from the bed.
‘No, I’ll get it. The poor kitty out trying to keep dry under a table.’
The husband went on reading, lying propped up with the two pillows at the foot of the bed.
‘Don’t get wet,’ he said.
The wife went downstairs and the hotel owner stood up and bowed to her as she passed the 20
office. His desk was at the far end of the office. He was an old man and very tall.
‘Il piove,’ the wife said. She liked the hotel-keeper.
‘Si, si, Signora, brutto tempo. It is very bad weather.’
He stood behind his desk in the far end of the dim room. The wife liked him. She liked the
deadly serious way he received any complaints. She liked his dignity. She liked the way he 25
wanted to serve her. She liked the way he felt about being a hotel-keeper. She liked his old,
heavy face and big hands.
Liking him, she opened the door and looked out. It was raining harder. A man in a rubber cape
was crossing the empty square to the café. The cat would be around to the right. Perhaps she
could go along under the eaves. As she stood in the doorway, an umbrella opened behind her. 30
It was the maid who looked after their room.
‘You must not get wet,’ she smiled, speaking Italian. Of course, the hotel-keeper had sent her.
With the maid holding the umbrella over her, she walked along the gravel path until she was
under their window. The table was there, washed bright green in the rain, but the cat was gone.
She was suddenly disappointed. The maid looked up at her. 35
‘Ha perdulo qualque cosa, Signora?’
‘There was a cat,’ said the American girl.
‘A cat?’
‘Si il gatto.’
‘A cat? The maid laughed. ‘A cat in the rain?’ 40
‘Yes,’ she said, ‘under the table.’ Then, ‘Oh, I wanted it so much. I wanted a kitty.’
When she talked English the maid’s face tightened.
‘Come, Signora,’ she said. ‘We must get back inside. You will be wet.’

‘I suppose so,’ said the American girl.
They went back along the gravel path and passed the door. The maid stayed outside to close 45
the umbrella. As the American girl passed the office, the padrone bowed from his desk.
Something felt very small and tight inside the girl. The padrone made her feel very small and at
the same time really important. She had a momentary feeling of being of supreme importance.
She went on up the stairs. She opened the door of the room. George was on the bed, reading.
‘Did you get the cat?’ he asked, putting the book down. 50
‘It was gone.’
‘Wonder where it went to?’ he said, resting his eyes from reading.
She sat down on the bed.
‘I wanted it so much,’ she said. ‘I don’t know why I wanted it so much. I wanted that poor kitty. It
isn’t fun to be a poor kitty out in the rain.’ 55
George was reading again.
She went over and sat in front of the mirror of the dressing table, looking at herself with the
hand glass. She studied her profile, first one side and then the other. Then she studied the
back of her head and her neck.
‘Don’t you think it would be a good idea if I let my hair grow out?’ she asked, looking at her 60
profile again.
George looked up and saw the back of her neck, clipped close like a boy’s.
‘I like it the way it is.’
‘I get so tired of it,’ she said. ‘I get so tired of looking like a boy.’
George shifted his position on the bed. He hadn’t looked away from her since she started to 65
speak.
‘You look pretty darn nice,’ he said.
She laid the mirror down on the dresser and went over to the window and looked out. It was
getting dark.
‘I want to pull my hair back tight and smooth and make a big knot at the back that I can feel,’ 70
she said. ‘I want to have a kitty to sit on my lap and purr when I stroke her.’
‘Yeah?’ George said from the bed.
‘And I want to eat at a table with my own silver and I want candles. And I want it to be spring
and I want to brush my hair out in from of a mirror and I want a kitty and I want some new
clothes.’ 75
‘Oh, shut up and get something to read,’ George said. He was reading again.
His wife was looking out of the window. It was quite dark now and still raining in the palm trees.

‘Anyway, I want a cat,’ she said. ‘I want a cat. I want a cat now. If I can’t have long hair or any
fun, I can have a cat.’
George was not listening. He was reading his book. His wife looked out of the window where 80
the light had come on in the square. Someone knocked at the door.
‘Avanti,’ George said. He looked up from his book.
In the doorway stood the maid. She held a big tortoiseshell cat pressed tight against her and
swung down against her body.
‘Excuse me’, she said, ‘the padrone asked me to bring this for the Signora.’ (1141 words)
A. Questions
1. Why is the wife interested in the cat?
2. When the husband says, ‘Don’t get wet.’ How does he feel about his wife?
3. How many people does the wife see as she goes to get the cat?
4. Why does the wife like the padrone? Do you think they are in love?
5. How does George react when his wife tells him the cat is gone?
6. Which words show that George is impatient with his wife?
7. The wife makes many demands. Are her demands normal? Why do you think she
makes them?
8. What do you think avanti as used by George means?
9. Was the tortoiseshell brought by the maid the same cat the wife went to rescue?
Explain.
10. After receiving the cat, would you say the wife is now happy? Explain.
11. Was there really a cat in the rain? Explain.
12. Why did the writer entitle the story ‘Cat in the Rain’ with no definite or indefinite
article ‘The’ or ‘A” before ‘Cat’?
B. By focusing on situation, problem, solution and outcome, summarise the story13.
C. Choose one of the following judgements and present a talk to support it14
13
Suggested answers to these questions can be found at the end of the Unit, from page 66. But do not
look at them until you have attempted the questions.
14
Evaluation form for oral presentations is on page 67.

1. The wife needs care and attention, but George is selfish and insensitive. The rift in
their relationship is George’s fault.
2. George is level-headed and contented. His wife cannot settle and is neurotic. She
behaves like a child and George has to be firm with her. The rift in their relationship
is the wife’s fault.
(Story and some questions from Ronald Carter and Michael N Long. 1987. A Web of
Words: Exploring Literature through Language. CUP. pp6- 9, 175)
Note that summarising a narrative might appear difficult because you have to change
the organisation of the text and the main language characteristics. While narrative is
organised according to sequence of occurrence, following the order of events according
to the time when they happened, your summary will be organised according to
conceptual sequence, which follows the way ideas are organised to be easily
understood. Accordingly some key language aspects will also chance. Detailed notes
about this area are discussed in Unit 4, under Key Language Aspects of Written Texts,
where you can get details of the difference between Narrative and Descriptive, referred
to as Communicative Purposes.
Writing Book Review
Book reviews are part of summary written to inform would-be readers who want to
decide whether to read a newly published book, or to promote the sales of the book.
Students are often asked to write book reviews for the purpose of demonstrating how
well they can read and understand a book in a particular subject.
To demonstrate proficiency in reading, the reader must show levels of comprehension,

understanding and evaluation. Comprehension is at the surface level where the reader
goes through the experience in the book: the feelings invoked, and how the story relates
to life experiences, such as of family life, of travelling, of schooling, of office work, of
love, and of death. The second level is understanding, where the reader interprets the

meaning of events in the book by making connections and inferences, drawing from
his/her knowledge of language, other related texts, and cultural or political contexts.
The third level is evaluation that involves assessing the value of the book from different
perspectives such as moral, aesthetic or literary. The aim of this is to assess both the
strengths and weaknesses of the material. In academic circles, book reviews are written
to demonstrate critical appreciation, which goes through the three levels, but the focus
is evaluation.
The following is the process you go through in order to write a book review:
Survey the contents of the book. Skim through it to get an overall picture of what it is
about. Make notes. Examine certain sections for relevant details for better
understanding. Add relevant details to you notes. Examine the book to compare certain
things or follow up some issue for evaluation. Outline your material, making sure
nothing important has been omitted. Draft your material. Edit it to final version.
Proofread it.
Note that you only need to skim the book once. For intensive reading you should target
specific sections by examining relevant paragraphs. In a subject content book, the
important sections of the chapters are the introductory and concluding paragraphs. The
overall introduction of a book gives you relevant information about what the book is
about; it is useful to read this before reading the book. In novels, however, it may be
useful to read it at the end, to help you summarise the story.
There are two types of book review: descriptive and analytical. The descriptive review
is a summary, focusing of content, scope, treatment, and importance of the material.
This would be for generally a non-academic readership such as in newspapers and
magazines. Such review would contain, not necessarily in this order, the following:
• summary of the author’s aims and the intended audience
• summary of author’s qualifications, and reference to his/her other works
• summary of the content and questions discussed

• statements placing the material within the context of other texts which it
complements or overrides,
• evaluative comments and observation about strengths and shortfalls or
omissions in the text.
The analytical review is an appraisal, focusing on the content, quality, applicability and
limitations of the text; it is mainly targeted at an academic readership. The discussion
of the merits and deficiencies of the book is usually done in comparison to relevant
existing texts in the subject. In this way the reviewer gives information and his/her
opinions about the material. There should be a clear statement about what the author is
trying to do, and an evaluation of the extent of his/her success in this, supported by
evidence from the text and other relevant texts. It is important to make balanced
statements and fair criticism.
Such a review will cover, not necessarily in this order, the following:
• description of purpose of material, and author’s qualifications (to justify his/her
competence in tackling the subject)
• background to the work and a brief summary of the content or questions being
discussed
• academic context, highlighting the genre to which the material belongs
• evaluation of the main strengths and weaknesses
• commentary on the significance of the text vis-à-vis its intended audience.
Activity 21
Choose a short interesting novel. Read it and write a book review of about 1000 words. Give to
your lecturer for feedback. Improve your review and send it for publication with magazines such
as WASI, or one of the weekend newspapers. Often the newspapers are interested in reviews of
novels studied at MSCE.

STEMS15 AND AFFIXES: Working out word meaning
One habit that slows down reading, resulting in loss of concentration, is stopping now
and again to check the meanings of new words. Efficient readers guess or work out
meanings of words from the contextual clues within the passage, paragraph or sentence
– the words surrounding the unfamiliar word.
Words have meaningful parts called morphemes in grammar, or lemma in lexis. The
morphemes that stand on their own to form a word are called free morphemes, found in
words such as boy, dress, work, build, and water. The morphemes that must be attached
to other morphemes to form a word are called bound morphemes, such as the –s/-es,
used to mark plural, and -d/–ed used to mark past tense. Stems can also be divided into
free and bound ones. The free stems are the same as free morphemes while the bound
ones are such as –duce in produce and capt- in captive; these must take an affix to form
a complete word.
It is possible to work out the meaning of a word through the knowledge of stems and
affixes. In ordinary language, a stem is the form to which others parts can be added to
form different words or meanings. Affixes are the parts that are fixed at the beginning
or end of the stem to form different words or meanings. Those at the beginning are
called prefixes and those at the end are suffixes. The knowledge of both stems and
affixes can facilitate word attack strategies which assist the reader to work out
meanings of different words in reading as well as in listening; this promotes
understanding in both reading and listening.
There are different Latin stems used in English to form many words. Amongst these are
press, port and tract: press means push, tract means pull, and port means carry. By
using an affix such as de-, which means away, down or less, we can form the following
words: depress, deport and detract. Depress means push someone or something down,
15
Stem is preferred to root as a metaphor because you can add parts to both ends of a stem. In this system
(used in Carter R and McCarthy, M. 2006. Cambridge Grammar of English: A comprehensive guide.
Cambridge: CUP. Pp 471-2) base form is a part with more than one morpheme to which you add an affix.
Others use root and stem in stead of stem and base (Richards, J. C and Schmidt, R. 2002. Longman
Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Essex: Pearson Education, pp 513-14)

or make someone sad; detract means take someone’s attention away – its opposite is
attract. Deport is used in a special way to mean sending a foreigner away to his/her
country.
Activity 22
Write the meaning of each of the following words, basing on the meaning of the stem and of the
affix. When you have finished writing all the meanings, check in the dictionary. You will discover
that even where the meaning has changed, it may not be too far from what you suggested.
The prefix re- means again, or back.
Word Meaning 1 Meaning 2
1. Repress
2. Report
3. Retract
The prefix sub- means under, below, or less important.

4. Suppress
5. Support
6. Subtract
The prefix com/n- means together, or with.

7. Compress
8. Comport
9. Contract (verb or noun) Verb:
Noun:
The prefix ex- means out or outside.

10. Express
11. Export
12. Extract

The prefix im- means in.
13. Impress
14. Import
The prefix trans- means across, or between two.

15. Transport
The suffix -er/or means a person or thing used to or for….

16. Compressor
17. Porter
18 Tractor
19 Transporter (machine not person)
20 Reporter
The suffix -ion/ation means system or process of…; it is also used to describe an attitude or feeling.
21. Depression
22. Deportation
23. Traction
24 Extraction
25 Impression
Note that the meanings of the stem press, port and tract show that they are used as
verbs. Accordingly, the words formed from 1 to 15 are used mostly as verbs, while
those from 16 to 20 are nouns. By adding –able/ible or –ive we can use them as
adjectives. Note that –able means having or showing the quality of…. When used with
some verbs though, it means that which must/may be…; for example eatable means that
which may be eaten, or is good to eat, (while edible may be used generally to describe

what is not poisonous, such as a mushroom). The suffix –ive refers to a person or thing
having the tendency to, or the quality of… Note that apart from adjectives, this is also
found in nouns such as explosive(s), captive(s), and narrative(s).
Activity 23
Write the meaning of each of the following words, basing on the meaning of the stem and that of
the suffix. For example repressive means having the tendency to repress, by being harsh or
severe.
Word Meanings
1. Impressive
2. Expressive
3. Tractable
4. Intractable (in- means not)
5. Supportive
6. Compressible
7. Portable
8. Attractive
9. Supportable
10. Depressive
Activity 24
Write fifteen words of your own that use similar combinations of stem and affix. In each case
write the meaning of the word thus formed.
More practice on expansion.

Activity 25
Look again at Activity 7 in UNIT 1, pages 17 to 18, and example passages from page 33. Note
that the passages unpack the contents of the statements as understood by the different writers.

Pick one statement from pages 17 to 18 and expand it accordingly. Or, expand the following
statement: Gender equity is a problem in Malawian political leadership.
More Activities for Summarising Expository Texts.
Activity 26
Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow.
There are four basic elements in the present educational system of Tanzania which prevent, or at 1
least discourage, the integration of pupils into the society they will enter, and which encourage
attitudes of inequality, intellectual arrogance and intense individualism among the young people
who go though our schools.
First, the most central thing about the education we are at present providing is that it is basically 5
elitist, designed to meet the interests and needs of a very small proportion of those who enter the
school system. Although only about thirteen percent of our primary school children will get a place in
a secondary school, the basis of our primary school education is the preparation of pupils for
secondary schools. Thus eighty-seven per cent of the children who finish primary do so with a
sense of failure of a legitimate aspiration having been denied them. Indeed we all speak in these 10
terms, by referring to them as have finished their primary education. On the other hand, the other
thirteen percent have a feeling of having deserved a prize – and the prize they and their parents
now expect is high wages, comfortable employment in towns, and personal status in society. The
same process operates again at the next highest level, when entrance to university is the question
at issue.
15
In other words, the education provided is designed for the few who are intellectually stronger than
their fellows; it induces among those who succeed a feeling of superiority, and leaves the majority of
the others hankering after something they will never obtain. It includes a feeling of inferiority among
the majority, and can thus produce neither the egalitarian society we should build, nor the attitudes
of mind that are conducive to an egalitarian society. On the contrary, it induces the growth of a class 20
structure in our country.

Equally important is the second point: the fact that Tanzania’s education tends to divorce its
participants from the society it is supposed to be preparing them for. This is particularly true of
secondary schools, which are inevitably almost entirely boarding schools; but to some extent, and
despite recent modifications in the curriculum, it is true of primary schools too. We take children 25
from their parents at the age of seven, and for up to seven and half hours a day we teach them
certain basic academic skills. In recent years we have tried to relate these skills, at least in theory,
to the life which the children see around them. But the school is always separate; it is not part of
society. It is a place children go to and which they and their parents hope will make it unnecessary
for them to become farmers and continue living in the villages.
30
The few who go to secondary are taken many miles from their home; they live in an enclave, having
permission to go into the town for recreation but not relating the work of either town or country to
their real life – which is lived in the school compound. Later a few people go to university. If they are
lucky enough to enter the university they live in comfortable quarters, feed well and study hard for
their degree. When they have been successful in obtaining it, they know immediately that they will 35
receive a high salary, equivalent to about £660 per annum. That is what they have been aiming for;
it is what they have been encouraged to aim for. They may also have the desire to serve the
community, but their idea of service is related to status and the salary which a university education
is expected to confer upon its recipient. The salary and the status have become a right
automatically conferred by the degree.
40
It is wrong of us to criticise the young people for these attitudes. The new university graduate has
spent the larger part of his life separated and apart from the masses of Tanzania; his parents may
be poor, but he has never fully shared that poverty. He does not really know what it is like to live as
a poor peasant. He will be more at home in the world of the educated than he is among his own
parents. Only during vacations has he spent time at home, and even then he will often find that his 45
parents and relatives support his own conception of his difference, and regard it as wrong that he
should live and work as the ordinary person he really is. For the truth is that many of the people in
Tanzania have come to regard education as meaning that a man is too precious for the rough work
and hard life which the masses still live.
The third point is that our present system encourages school pupils in the idea that all knowledge 50
which is worthwhile is acquired from books or from ‘educated people’ – meaning those who have
been through a formal education. The knowledge and wisdom of our old people is despised, and

they regard them as being ignorant and of no account. Indeed it is not only the education system
which at present has this effect. The government and party themselves tend to judge people
according to whether they have passed school certificate, have a degree, etc. If a man has these 55
qualifications we assume he can fill a post; we do not wait to find out about his attitudes, his
character, or any other ability except the ability to pass examinations. If a man does not have these
qualifications we assume he cannot do a job; we ignore his knowledge and experience. For
example, I recently visited a very good tobacco-producing peasant. But if I tried to take him into
government as a Tobacco Extension Officer, I would run up against the system because he has no 60
formal education. Everything we do stresses book learning and underestimates the value to our
society of traditional knowledge and the wisdom which is often acquired by intelligent men and
women as they experience life, even without their being able to read at all.
This does not mean that any person can do any job simply because they are old and wise, nor that
educational qualifications are not necessary. This is a mistake our people sometime fall into: a 65
reaction against the arrogance of the book-learned. A man is not necessarily wise because he is
old; a man cannot necessarily run a factory because he has been working in it as a labourer or
storekeeper for twenty years. But equally he may not be able to do so simply because he has a
doctorate in commerce. The former may have honesty and the ability to weight up men; the latter
may have the ability to initiate a transaction and work out the economics of it. Both qualifications are 70
necessary in one man if the factory is to be a successful and modern enterprise serving our nation.
It is as much a mistake to overvalue book-learning as it is to undervalue it.
Finally, and in some ways most importantly, our young and poor nation is taking out of productive
work some of its healthiest and strongest young men and women. Not only do they fail to contribute
to that increase in output which is so urgent for out nation; they themselves consume the output of 75
the older and often weaker people. There are almost 25,000 students in secondary schools now;
they do not learn as they work, they simply learn. What is more, they take it for granted that this
should be so. Whereas in a wealthy country like USA it is common for young people to work their
way through high school and college, in Tanzania the structure of our education makes it impossible
for them to do so. Even during the holidays we assume that these young men and women should 80
be protected from rough work; neither they nor the community expects them to spend their time on
hard physical labour or on jobs which are uncomfortable and unpleasant. This is not simply the
reflection of the fact that there are many people looking for unskilled jobs – pay is not the question
at issue. It is a reflection on the attitude we have all adopted.

How many of our students spend their vacations doing a job which could improve people’s lives but 85
for which there is no money – jobs like digging an irrigation channel or a drainage ditch of a village,
or demonstrating the construction and explaining the benefits of deep-pit latrines and so on? A
small number have done such work in the National Youth Camps or through school-organised,
nation-building schemes, but they are the exception rather than the rule. The vast majority do not
think of their knowledge or their strength as being related to the needs of the village community.
1472 words.
(Julius Nyerere. 1968. Essays on Socialism. London: OUP. Pp.54-59, quoted in Alafor…)
Questions
1. What title would you give to this passage?
2. What is the subject under discussion?
3. Briefly summarise the four problems in the education system. Write less than 50
words in each case.
4. In less than 20 words state the negative result these problems have in the
development of the country.
5. Check the meaning of the word egalitarian. What do you think is the ideal
education system Nyerere would like to see, to solve the prevailing problems?
6. Imagine you are a consultant on education. Arrange the following three aims of
education in order by writing an appropriate number 1, or 2, or 3 against each.
The order should indicate which aim you think is the most important and
therefore should apply to every learner in schools and colleges and which is the
least, to apply to few learners.
A. Academic development: to develop leading academicians, philosophers,

writers and researchers who will generate knowledge and spearhead a
revolution in thinking and the way things must be done.
B. Social development: to develop learners’ social and life skills so that they
understand who they are and appreciate their responsibility to contribute to

the welfare of their community, in full demonstration of the African
philosophy of ubuntu.
C. Professional and technological development: to develop learners into
professionals such as engineers, doctors, economists, computer experts, so
that the nation has a cadre of highly qualified personnel who utilise
modern facilities for the socio-economic transformation of the country.
Here is an outline of the text on Tanzanian education.
Summary of Nyerere’s Criticism of Tanzanian Education

System
Problem 1: Education is elitist
• Designed to meet the needs of very few who proceed from primary to
secondary, and secondary to university.
• Only 13% proceed from primary to secondary.
• This frustrates the majority who can’t proceed
Problem 2: Education leads to alienation
• Takes children away from home or society
- for long hours in day schools
- long months in boarding.
• Not socialised into their society
- People look down on their society
- value high salaries of western educ, not service to society
- children not appreciate poverty of parents, school shielded them from
this life.
Problem 3: Makes people over value book learning
• value certificates got, overlooking character and performance
- people with relevant skills but no certificates underrated.
Problem 4: Takes the youthful and strong away from productive work
• youth taken into enclaves where they consume so much

- produced by the old and weak.
• Believe eductn entitles them to no physical work, even during holidays
- yet poor countries need strong people to produce food and goods
• in rich western nations youth learn and work (to earn) through high school to
university.
These problems discourage integration of youth into their society, promote inequality and
intellectual arrogance, intense individualism, and do not promote development.
Activity 27
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.
Some fifteen African countries have established youth corps of different styles since independence 1
and these have often been in the news: sometimes they have been associated with political
thuggery or as providing a continuing base for dropouts who neither could nor would subsequently
leave and take up a job. The history of the Malawi Young Pioneers is instructive.
Established in August 1963, just a year before independence, the MYP is an offshoot of the earlier 5
Nyasaland African Congress Youth League; this was banned in 1960 and then replaced by the
League of Malawi Youth. At that time its purpose was entirely political, as an arm of the anti-colonial
struggle. With the winning of independence, President Kamuzu Banda decided that the movement
had to be redirected into nation-building purposes: in Malawi, this means the land. Banda has said:
‘Our young men and women must be taught very strongly and properly, that the land is where they 10
can get their living. There is nothing undignified in being a farmer. There is nothing noble in being a
clerk, a teacher, a minister or a doctor.’
Most job seekers in Malawi are primary school leavers. 30,000 of these come out of school every
year; those who do not go on to secondary education come on to the labour market and the majority
have little chance of finding employment. For a proportion of these the MYP provides the next stage 15
in their education. One of the most important considerations in MYP recruitment policy is that after
training a man can go back and pioneer change in his community. Recruitment is carried out in
August and September ready for the ten-month course that the movement runs from October to
July, coinciding with the agricultural year. Recruits range in age from fourteen to thirty: some have

no formal education, some are primary school leavers, and a few may have gone as far as the 20
school certificate course.
Starting with a single base camp in 1964, the movement has grown, until this year there are twenty
training bases and a Central Training School. It is deliberate policy to ensure that every base
includes recruits from each of the twenty-four districts of the country, so as to break down
regionalism. During the first eight years of the MYP, 11,536 boys and 637 girls underwent training at 25
the various bases.
Training is geared to fit into the national development plans and the overwhelming emphasis is
upon agriculture. In a typical base programme of ten months, out of the 2,376 hours of training, 642
are given to practical agriculture and 477 to agriculture theory – almost half the total programme.
The rest of the programme consists of civics and citizenship, youth leadership techniques, social 30
activities, sports and physical training, literacy and basic education, rural vocational training,
hygiene, first aid and health, animal husbandry, and homecare.
Settlement schemes are part of the government’s overall approach to development, aimed at
opening up unused land. The idea is to select a few trained and disciplined young farmers to settle
such an area, and in this the MYPs have played an important part. The Ministry of Agriculture and 35
Natural Resources is responsible for the settlement schemes themselves; the MYPs are responsible
for the selection of the settlers and their maintenance for the first year. During this initial period, a
settler is provided with tools with which to clear his plot of land; he will be accommodated in groups,
in boarding houses, and paid K216 a month for the first year.
The settler works on his holding as an individual under guidance from a technical adviser. During 40
this year, he both prepares his field and builds his house; then he may bring his wife and family to
join him. A pilot settlement project was carried out in 1966; today there are some nineteen
settlements schemes around the country. These settlements have demonstrated the advantages of
proper farming techniques. Those producing rice, for example, have reaped some 4,000 lbs per
acre. Most farmers are encouraged to go in for two crops and they have consistently shown that 45
whereas the average yield per acre for ordinary farmers using the traditional methods was perhaps,
five bags of maize per acre, that achieved in the settlement schemes was five time as much.
1. Initially equivalent to ₤1

In the early days it was found that the MYPs roused antagonism in their village if they returned
home and tried to teach their elders new methods. Now the emphasis is upon demonstration. The
settlements schemes have two overall purposes: to settle pioneers so that they can get a living from 50
the soil; and to demonstrate new methods of agriculture to the nearby villages. The emphasis of the
movement is upon nation-building; its catchwords17 are unity, loyalty, obedience and discipline. The
training is rigorous, much of it based on Israeli methods; the Israelis provided the initial core of
trainers and still provide assistance. In a country where development means agriculture and where,
as in half of Africa, there is the perennial problem of too few jobs while the young men are attached 55
to the towns, this emphasis upon the land is not only vital but it is also working18. The aim this year
is to increase accommodation at the training bases so that up to 3,000 can be taken in.
(‘Young Farmers of Malawi’, Africa, 27 November 1973, pp 59-60, quoted in Alafor…)
Questions
1. What title would you give to the passage?
2. What were the corps initially associated with?
3. List the advantages that the MYP movement had in the development of the
nation?
4. In what ways do you think the MYP would be an answer to Nyerere’s concerns?
5. What original aspects of the movement do you think brought the MYP to
disrepute in a new multiparty era?
6. If it were to come again, which aspects of the original movement do you think
would have to be emphasised? Which one would have to be dropped? What new
name would you give it?
7. In recent years the University of Malawi has lost up to two years due to strikes,
riots and political interventions. Students have to wait for a long time after
passing their school certificate before they can go to university. In view of this,
there is a suggestion to re-open MYP institutions so that for two years before
university, students can go for training in social and practical skills, and a
certificate from this be part of the requirements for university entry.
17
Also called the four corner stones of the Malawi Congress Party.
18
A military wing developed in the MYP. In the early 90s, the MYP clashed with the Malawi Army,
bringing the country to a brink of war. Consequently, the movement was disarmed and disbanded.

Present a ten minutes talk to support or oppose this suggestion. This can be done individually or
in groups of up to four. The speaker should be ready to handle questions and comments after the
talk.
More activities on summarising narrative texts.

Activity 28
Read the following passage and summarise it by capturing each of the following elements of
narratives: situation, problem, solution, and outcome.
Early in 1935, I realised that more decisive efforts would be needed if I was ever to get to the United 1
States. Although I saved every penny I could lay hands on, there was still not enough to pay for a
passage. Then I thought of a relative who might help, a man who had moved years before to Lagos
in Nigeria. To Lagos I went. I spent several days there for my host had many questions to ask about
our relations and friends. When the time came for me to leave, he kindly gave me money to 5
supplement my savings, and also paid my passage back to Axim. I thanked him in high spirits; my
trip to America was at last becoming a reality.
Some months before, I had successfully applied to Lincoln University for admission, but only one or
two close friends with whom I stayed knew of my plans. Now I strove to complete my arrangements.
As there was no American Consul in the Gold Coast at the time, I should have to travel first to the 10
United Kingdom to obtain a US visa. Thanks to my kinsman's generosity I now had one hundred
pounds. To this the Chief of Nsaeum, another relative, added fifty pounds, out of which I paid for a
third-class passage from Takoradi to Liverpool in England. Within a month of my return from Lagos,
everything was in order and I waited impatiently for the day of departure.
My joy was overshadowed, however, by the thought of having to break the news to my mother. I 15
knew how much I meant to her and how deeply she would grieve over my going. Accordingly, I went
home and stayed with her for a few days, but it was not until the night before I was due to leave that
I had the courage to tell her. She was obviously very shocked, but showed no sign of grief as we sat
up talking the whole night through. I cannot recall all we discussed during those hours, but I
remember very clearly my mother listing carefully all that I should do and all that I should avoid whilst 20

I was away. She also related in detail the story of my ancestors, of the chief Aduku Addaie, the first
of my forebears to settle in Nzima centuries ago, whose sister Nwia gave birth to my matrilineal line.
She also told me of my claim to two stools or chieftaincies in the country, those of Nsaeum in
Wassaw Fiase, and Dadieso in Aowin.
The following morning, I packed my few possessions into the canoe that was to take me across the 25
Ankobra River on the first stage of my journey to Takoradi. As I looked up-river where the swirling
muddy waters disappeared among a mass of jungly growth, I saw the women and children of the
village standing knee-deep in the water unconcernedly bathing or washing clothes. At this peaceful
picture of African rural life, I felt my first pang of homesickness. I took a deep breath and forced
myself to smile as I came back up the bank to say a final good-bye to my mother. Then I saw that 30
she was in tears. In spite of trying so hard to hide her feelings, this parting proved to be too much.
With tears in my own eyes, I told her that if she would rather I stayed behind she had only to say so.
She stood and looked at me for a few minutes, 'It cannot be helped,' she said, 'may God and your
ancestors guide you.’ (602 words) (From Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah)
Activity 29
Read the following passage and summarise it along situation, problem, solution and outcome.
In the autumn of 1919, I was asked by a doctor of my acquaintance to examine a young lady who
had been suffering for the past four years from severe pains in her left breast and pelvic region, as
well as a chronic respiratory condition. When making this request he added that he thought the case
was one of hysteria, though there were certain counter indications which had caused him to examine
her very thoroughly indeed in order to rule out the possibility of some organic affection. The young
woman was married, but living apart from her husband, in the home of an aunt. Our patient had had a
promising musical career interrupted by her illness.
My first interview of this young woman of twenty-nine years of age did not help me to make much
progress in understanding her case, nor could I glimpse any sign of the inner vitality I was assured
she possessed. Her face, in which the eyes were the best features showed the marks of severe
physical suffering; yet there were moments when it registered nothing, and at these times I was
reminded of the faces of victims of battle traumas, whom it had been my melancholy duty to examine.

When she talked it was often difficult for me to hear, on account of her hoarse and rapid breathing.
As a consequence of her pains, she walked with an awkward gait, bending forward from the waist.
She was extremely thin, even by the standards of that unhappy year, when few in Vienna had
enough to eat. I suspected an anorexia nervosa, on top of her other troubles. She told me the mere
thought of food made her ill, and she was living on oranges and water.
On examining her, I understood my colleague’s reluctance to abandon the search for her symptoms. I
was stuck by the definiteness of all the descriptions of the character of her pains given me by the
patient, the kind of response we have come to expect from a patient suffering from an organic illness
unless he is neurotic in addition. The hysteric will tend to describe his pain indefinitely, and will tend
to respond to stimulation of the painful part rather with an expression of pleasure than pain. Frau
Anna, on the contrary, indicated where she hurt precisely and calmly: her left breast and left ovary;
and flinched and drew back from my examination.
She herself was convinced that her symptoms were organic and was very disappointed that I could
not find the cause and put it right. My own increasing conviction that I was, despite appearances to
the contrary, dealing with an hysteria was confirmed when she confessed that she also suffered from
visual hallucinations of a disordered and frightening nature. She had feared to confess to these
“storms in her head”, because it seemed to her an admission that she was mad and should be locked
away. I was able to assure her that her hallucinations, like her pains and her breathing difficulties,
were no sign of dementia; that indeed, given the intractable nature of reality, the healthiest mind may
become a prey to hysterical symptoms. Her manner thereafter became a little more relaxed, and she
was able to tell me something of the history of her illness and of her life in general… (555 words)
(excerpt from The White Hotel by D M Thomas, found in The Web of Words p142-3)
Answers to questions on Cat in the Rain

1. To relieve boredom, or loneliness.
2. Not very interested in what she does; just feels he needs to say something.
3. Three: padrone, man with rubber cape, and maid.
4. He shows interest and concern.
5. Briefly seems to show interest, but goes back to reading.
6. Line 69. ‘Oh, shut up and get something to read.
7. No. To engage her husband into talking. OR. She is stressed by the situation.

8. Come in, or get in, or enter, or Open.
9. No. This was a gift from the padrone.
10. No. Because: A. It was not the cat that was in the rain. B. Her problems with
George could not be solved by a cat.
11. No or Yes. There are details to show it was not a real cat or that it was really there.
Perhaps the cat seems mostly an object of empathy for the girl.
12. Perhaps to suggest that the cat is not a real one. Suggestion that Cat is perhaps a real
name, (or short form of a real name eg Catherine) that cannot take an article eg. in
Mzuzu University, or Kamuzu Academy, without the before because they start with
names or proper nouns, while The University of Malawi, The National Seed
Company, because no proper nouns.
B.
Situation Problem Solution Outcome
1. Raining Cat trapped under table Girl goes to rescue it ------------
2. Raining Wife wants to go outside Padrone sends maid with Goes out and in
hotel umbrella without getting wet.
3. Raining outside, Feeling bored and lonely - George reads a book ------------------
American couple know
no one in hotel - Girl tries to engage -------------------
George into discussion
4. Wife keeps on George feels disturbed Shouts at her -------------------
talking from reading
5. Husband busy Does not attend to wife Wife goes into tantrums -------------------
reading
6. In a hotel room with Does not have something Wants a kitty, pet to play Gets tortoiseshell
husband to keep her busy with cat, gift from
padrone
Evaluation Form for Oral Presentations
Evaluation Categories Comments: starting with strengths Grade

then shortfalls
1. Subject matter:
• Show understanding of main issues or
problems?
• Breadth and depth of understanding?
• Relating to other relevant/current
issues?

2. Organisation of material:
• Properly organised in conceptual
sequence or sequence of occurrence
?
• Material properly paced?
• Main ideas properly linked?
• Relevant subsidiary ideas linked?
3. Language:
• Correct use, fresh expressions?
• Appropriate use for the function?
• Appropriate level for audience?
4. Non-verbal communication:
• Appropriate voice quality: loudness,
pitch, intonation, speed, pauses?
• Posture, movement and use of
hands?
• Maintaining eye contact with
audience?
5. Overall presentation:
• Confidence and liveliness?
• Listening to others during questions
and comments?
• Consciousness of time?
Any other comment, suggesting areas of
improvements?
OVERALL GRADE?
References
Afolayan A and H E Newsum. 1983. The Use of English: Communicative skills for
university students. Essex: Longman.
Carter, R. and Long, M N. 1987. A Web of Words: Exploring Literature through
Language. Cambridge: CUP.
Carter R and McCarthy, M. 2006. Cambridge Grammar of English: A comprehensive
guide. Cambridge: CUP
DiYanni, Robert. 1986. Literature: Reading fiction, poetry, drama and the essay. New
York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Kneale, Pauline E. 1999. Study Skills for Geography Students: A practical guide.
London: Arnold.
Mason, M. 1989. Illuminating English: Book 2, Reading for learning. Wigan: TRACE.

Richards, J. C and Schmidt, R. 2002. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics. Essex: Pearson Education.
Unit Three:
Writing Skills
Writing in College
Writing is an essential skill for students because success in college work is judged by
what one presents in writing. Although some lecturers may assess oral work, in most
cases this is valued only for communication within the classroom. For final assessment
what the student presents in writing, as essay, seminar paper, dissertation or
examination, is what contributes a higher weight. This means that a student needs to
take the development of writing skills very seriously.
At college level, writing essentially tests the following four areas. The first is
understanding of the subject, topic, theory or ideas taught or read. In academic as
well as in many other spheres, understanding is critical; it is difficult to find something
that can replace it. It is not surprising that one of the important things that a writing
exercise such as the essay demonstrates is the level of understanding of the subject.
The second, which is closely related to understanding, is lucidity of thought. Good

writing demonstrates this in the clear and logical presentation of ideas. This helps the
reader to follow easily the subject of discussion. Furthermore, this proves that the writer
understands what he/she is discussing in writing and is able to present it clearly and
logically for others to understand.

The third, closely related to lucidity of thought, is lucidity of language. This is so
because it is difficult to separate thoughts and language since our thoughts are
expressed in language; that is to say language, either oral or written, is the main
material form in which we access our thoughts. Among the language skills, writing is
the most visible and permanent; accordingly, written language demands greater care to
produce. Good writing demonstrates lucidity of language by employing accurate and
comprehensible expressions through competent use of grammar, structure, diction and
other mechanics of language in the writing mode.
The fourth and final area that is tested in writing is the use of acceptable format of
presentation. While something can be said in general about formats of writing in
different subjects, every subject has a format or layout that has been developed and is
expected by specialists in that subject. It is very important to learn this and use this as
the format in a particular subject.
Students should check that their writing succeeds in the four tests: demonstrating
understanding of the subject, lucidity of thought, lucidity of language, and in the
competence of using acceptable format of presentation according to the subject.
Expository Writing
This is the writing used in various academic purposes. The aim of expository writing is
to explain a subject or idea by discussing it in depth. Expository writing covers many
functions such as definition, explanation or description, comparison or contrast,
argumentation or persuasion, offering solutions or recommendations, and introduction
or conclusion. It is usually the case that in one piece of writing several functions may
be fulfilled, such as at paragraph level or in sections separated by different subheadings.
Definitional Paragraphs
Such paragraphs seek to define various aspects of a subject, topic, or term used in order
to facilitate understanding of the text. In the case where a word is used frequently in the

text and understanding its meaning is important if the reader is to understand the text,
such a word or term is defined. There are different situations that make defining a term
or word used necessary.
For example, when a word frequently used is technical and knowing its meaning is vital
to understanding the text, there is need for a definition. Such words or terms as ablaut,
epenthesis, conjugation, inflexion, lemma, polyandry, polygyny, praxis, and schema
will need defining if an ordinary reader is to understand the passage in which they are
frequently used.
Activity 30
Choose any five words that you do not know from the following list: ablaut, epenthesis,
conjugation, inflexion, lemma, polyandry, polygyny, praxis, schema. Check the meanings in a
dictionary or encyclopaedia and write a short definition of each of the chosen words.
Another example is when the meaning of a term varies depending of the different
subjects in which it is used. The term theme has different meanings in grammar from
that used in Literature and other subjects; the word work has different meaning in
science from the meaning in everyday use.
It is also important to define a term when the understanding of its meaning depends on
ones view-point. A word such as democracy is a good example. In Malawi there are
many political parties such as AFORD, DPP, MAFUNDE, MDP, MDU, MGODE,
NDA, and UDF; the D in each acronym stands for Democracy. So from the viewpoint
of the owners their party is democratic, but someone outside may see a great deal of
dictatorship in the leadership and operations of the parties, most of which do not hold
elections to fill in positions of leadership. An interesting word in this connection is
love.

Activity 31
Look at the list of words below and the sentences in the box. Write numbers 1 to 16 on a piece of
paper, corresponding with the sentences in the box. Now write each of the words against each
number to describe the kind of love the sentence expresses. Note that one to one
correspondence is not likely as one word may be put against more than one sentence and
several words may be put against one sentence.
After doing the activity, compare your answers with someone’s. Discuss any differences to find
out why each one thought differently. Now define love by focusing on what you think is its central
idea, leaving out the extremities that seem to describe its opposite.
A. Words
addiction, admiration, affection, attachment, attraction, caring, commitment, cordiality, devotion,
enjoyment, exploitation, fellowship, friendship, habit, hate, hugs and kisses, liking, lust, petting,
romance, sexual desire, selfishness, sacrifice, warmth.
B. Sentences
1. Mother loves baby. 2. Mr. Jere loves his wife.
3. The Phiri brothers love their sister. 4. Women’s guild members love each
other
5. Women love the President 6. Hotel manager loves guests
7. The old widow loves her dog. 8. Boy loves girl.
9. Wongi loves reading. 10. BB supporters love their team.
11. Jews love their country. 12. Black boy loves coloured girls
13. The old soldier loves drinking 14. Mrs Banda loves gossiping.
15. Nymphos love men. 16. Cats love mice.
It is interesting to note that the understanding of what love is can range from caring,
devotion, commitment, sacrifice, romance, enjoyment to exploitation, selfishness and
even hate, when you view the last sentence from the position of mice. Accordingly, it

can be seen that a simple word such as love can cause much misunderstanding by its
range of meanings.
To define a thing involves separating it from any other thing. The process goes through
classifying the thing, and continually sub-classifying it to the last items in the group,
after which a detail is added to separate the thing from other related items. Defining
sometimes involves giving examples or negative statements expressing what something
is not.
Activity 32
Examine the following definition of a violin. What four things have been said about the violin? Try
translating the definition into any of the Malawian languages.
A violin is a four-stringed musical instrument played with a bow

(Little, 1973:31)
Because in English adjectives are often placed before the noun you might think that the
definition is very simple, yet it goes through the whole process. Firstly the violin is
classified as an instrument, sub-classified as musical; it is further sub-classified as
stringed, and even further sub-classified to those with four strings. From this group it is
separated by the detail that it is played with a bow.
Activity 33
Examine the definition of a lexeme. Although the idea is abstract, what details are included that
make the idea clearer?
Lexeme n, also lexical item

the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units.
…an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is
regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. …Forms such as give, gives, given, giving, gave
would belong to the one lexeme give. Similarly, such expressions as bury the hatchet, hammer and tongs,

give up… would each be considered a single lexeme. In a dictionary, each lexeme merits a separate entry
or sub-entry. (Richards J. C. and R. Schmidt. 2002. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics. Essex: Pearson Education, p.303.)
Explanation and Description

These paragraphs seek to expand or deepen the subject matter by providing relevant
details. Such details would answer questions relating to what, why, how, when etc.
Explanations also give information about causes, conditions and effects of something.
Here too, examples may be given. Related to this are descriptions that seek to show the
subject in visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory senses19, and give such other
details that can expand or deepen the understanding of the subject.
Organisation of the material is very important here. You must decide under what broad
areas or conceptual frames you will organise the material, and follow your plan
systematically. In description you will need to decide what conceptual sequence you
want to follow. Is it from top to bottom? Is it from far to near? Is it from whole to parts?
Or is it vice versa? For example, to describe a person you may start with what you can
see from a distance and end with details you see when close. In this case you may start
by describing the stature and build, and go to complexion, shape of nose and colour of
eyes. Organisation also helps to put related things or things next to each other together.
For example, it would be confusing to start describing facial features, move to the
hands and then back to the face.
Remember that the words you choose to describe things or people show your attitude,
whether positive or negative, approving or disapproving.
Activity 34
Sort out the following words into two groups relating to:
19
Senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell.

A. Big body build,
B. Small body build.
In each group, write the words in order from those that are positive or show approval, to those
that are negative or show disapproval.
Finally, compare you list with that of your neighbour, and discuss any differences to find out why
you thought differently. If time allows, compare your lists with lists of other people.
bony, brawny, burly, buxom, corpulent, chubby, dumpy, fat, flabby, gaunt, gangling, lanky, lean, obese,
petite, plump, portly, scraggy, scrawny, skeletal, skinny, slender, slight, slim, squat, stout, svelte,
sylphlike, thin, trim, tubby, weedy, wizened
Activity 35
Write a one paragraph description of an interesting person, place, mountain, river etc. In your
description do not rely on adjectives such as good, beautiful or interesting; use words and
expressions that demonstrate these qualities.
Argumentation and persuasion

Although argumentation and persuasion are treated together, there is a difference
between then. Argumentation systematically uses calm reasoning to prove a point or
theory or to show that a claim is not valid. In a deductive argument, one makes a
general statement, as a claim, and follows it with specific statements to substantiate the
general statement by giving relevant points and ideas or example to prove the general
statement. In such writing one avoids fallacious reasoning as evidenced by such things
as contradictions, overgeneralizations, tautologies or circular reasoning, unnecessary
appeal to emotions, stating things that do not necessarily follow, and any such faulty
reasoning processes.
Persuasion, however, does not usually employ vigorous reasoning; it combines

reasoning with emotions to render the reader less critical so that he/she can be moved to
accept the opinions presented. Such discourse is more effective in oral delivery such as

in political speeches because these are meant to have immediate effect. Orators may
deliberately use known fallacies for their desired goal. Although in most writing there
is a mixture of argumentation and persuasion, in academic writing it is expected that the
writer will lean more on the argumentation side by avoiding flaws in reasoning.
Such writing demonstrates a clear structure of topic sentence and supporting sentences
and the paragraph moves from stating the thesis or argument, to vigorously marshalling
supporting for it, and finally to wrapping it up in a conclusion that restates the thesis.
Activity 36
Examine again Julius Nyerere’s essay from page 57, especially the introduction and topic
sentences of each paragraph, to find out how he develops the argument to support his opinion
that education works against the values of society. It might help to check the summary of the
passage at page 62.
Now read again the statements from page 17. Write a powerful argument to support or oppose
one of the statements. Avoid statements dealt with in example passages from page 33.
Comparison and Contrast

Texts that compare or contrast describe similar and different characteristics of things.
While comparison involves highlighting both similarities and differences, contrast only
involves highlighting differences.
There are two ways of comparing or contrasting subjects. One way is to take one
subject, say subject A, and discuss all its characteristics. Then take the other subject,
say subject B, and likewise discuss all its characteristics. Finally, make a few
statements highlighting how, overall, A is either similar or different from B.
The other way is to take a characteristic, say height or length, and compare or contrast
it across subject A and B. At the end, it is also important to state overall whether there
are more similarities than differences or vice versa.

Where the subjects are obviously similar, it is more challenging or academically
rewarding to highlight differences; similarly, where the subjects are commonly viewed
as different, it is more interesting to highlight underlying similarities. The reading is
made interesting and purposeful by giving a thesis – a theoretical framework one wants
to explore or an argumentative stance that one seeks to substantiate, right from the
beginning. Comparing or contrasting without a thesis makes the writing purposeless
and boring. This applies to most academic writing.
In other forms of writing where very sensitive subjects are discussed it may be
advisable not to show your stance right from the beginning; this is left to the reader to
work out as the material progresses. It does not necessarily mean that you do not have a
stance, but that you present this in a more subtle way, so that you do not bias readers
right from the beginning. It is important to remember that comparing or contrasting
involves evaluation of the subjects under discussion.
Activity 37
Read the following notes on the two traditional marriage systems in Malawi. Draw six or seven
broad areas that the notes cover; one of them could be: Residency of the family…
Write a statement of one or two sentences representing your theory20 or argument for comparing
the two marriage systems. Here is a structure to assist you formulate this statement.
(My opinion about Malawian systems of marriage is that):…………………………………

.………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
Use your theory or argument (without the words of the formula structure above) to make an
outline of the essay comparing the two systems, utilising the points below.
20
The theory could be to show why or how early societies in Malawi developed such marriage systems.

Notes on Matrilocal System
1. The system is common in the Central and Southern regions.
2. The couple reside at the woman’s home.
3. Before the wedding, the man presents items such a piece of cloth, a cock or a
hoe to his parents-in-law.
4. The whole marriage process emphasises the bond of relationship not only
between the couple but also between their respective extended families.
5. The man is expected to do chores for his parents-in-law.
6. Children belong to the matrilineal side; the uncles have more responsibility and
authority over the children.
7. Men belong to Nyau21 secret society through which they gain mystical and
religious powers over the women; during important rituals and occasions they
perform dances, masquerading spirits and animals.
8. When the man dies, the body is taken to his original home for burial; when the
woman dies, the man is sent back to his original home, leaving his children.
9. When both parents die, children are looked after by their maternal aunts and
uncles.
10. In general, women have more authority in society.
11. Critics say the man is a borrowed cock; his status as mkamwini22 is that of a
slave.
Notes on Patrilocal System

1. The system is common in the North, northern parts of the Centre, and the Lower
Shire.
2. The couple reside at the man’s home.
3. Before marriage, the man pays lobola in the form of several head of cattle to his
parents-in-law.
21
A secret society for men, with venue in a thick forest or graveyard, into which boys are initiated.
22
Emphasising his status in the village as son-in-law.

4. The whole marriage process emphasises the bond of relationship not only
between the couple but also between their respective extended families.
5. The woman is expected to do chores for her parents-in-law.
6. Children belong to the patrilineal side; the father has more responsibility and
authority over his children.
7. Women perform vimbuza23, a mystical dance believed to cure psychosomatic24
diseases, in which they often sing about their hardships and make demands that
must be honoured by the man and his relatives.
8. When the woman dies, she is buried at her marriage home; when the man dies,
the woman continues to live with her children at her marriage home.
9. When both parents die, children are looked after by their paternal uncles and
aunts.
10. In general, marriages are more stable.
11. Critics say the woman is a purchased cow; her status as mkamwana25 is that of a
slave.
Structure of the Essay
Introductory Paragraph
The introductory paragraph is the first paragraph in the essay, and it generally fulfils
two functions. The first is to introduce the subject to the reader who may be assumed to
know little about the subject. In class assignments, however, the main reader is the
expert assessing the writer. In this case, therefore, the writer aims to introduce the
major line of argument or a plan he/she will follow in marshalling the argument. The
second function of the introduction is to catch the attention of the reader and raise
his/her anticipation so that he/she can read on with interest. To fulfil these functions
23
Involves vigorous dancing to powerful drumming; sometimes there is sacrifice involving animal blood.
24
Illness connected with the body and mind.
25
Emphasising her status in the village as daughter-in-law.

there are three parts essential to an introduction: the general statement, the thesis, and
the statements of contents of the subject.
The general statement is the topic statement of the introductory paragraph. It states the
subject of discussion and gives its interest. Furthermore, it places the subject in a
general perspective, such as in historical, sociological, or economic perspective.
Activity 38
Here is a list of what the general statement fulfils in the introductory paragraph. Compare these
with those listed on page 17 under topic sentence. What are the similarities and differences?
Why do you think there are differences in the two lists?
• places the topic in theoretical frame, e.g. by focussing discussion into

philosophical, sociological, economic, or historical context
• briefly gives relevant background information
• defines the topic, or key concepts
• briefly states general assumptions,
• states the main problem(s) in the subject of discussion
Activity 39
Here are two example general statements. Complete the second example by writing what you
think can appropriately complete the statements. For this you may need to check the meaning of
education and especially of equity.
Example 1. The important question in the teaching of writing is: can we determine the outcome of a
writing activity before hand? Two approaches emerge from the kind of answer we give to this
question. Those who answer it in the affirmative take what is called the product approach whose
outlook is …Those who answer it in the negative take what is called the process approach whose
outlook is …
Example 2: Education is … Equity in education requires that … It is therefore the assumption of this essay

that education cannot be divorced from …
To test the validity of the general statement you should ask yourself: would the
statement work in an entirely different topic of writing? If your answer is yes, then your
general statement is not good; you must cross it out. What this means is that the general
statement, while placing the subject in a general perspective, must also be relevant to
the particular piece of writing.
The core component of the introduction, to which the general statement provides
context, is the thesis. It is in the thesis that the purpose and organising principle for the
essay is shown, as the writer states his/her position, belief or opinion about the subject.
The key to writing a thesis is examining your attitude, and expressing this clearly in a
coherent and often complex sentence. In a short essay, the thesis may be part of the
general statement or the statement of contents.
Activity 40
Examine the following statements that combine aspects of a general statement and of
thesis, relating to any of the two topics:
• Conservation of the Natural Environment
• Building a Third University in Lilongwe.
Classify the statements according to the topic for which you would use them, and the
argumentative stance that they take – whether supporting or opposing.
State the broad subject that they seek to use for their arguments, e.g. economic, moral,
historical, educational, and sociological.
Break the statements into two sentences by writing an appropriate general statement, and an
appropriate thesis.
1. When people are so poor because many cannot find a piece of land where to cultivate

their staple food crop, it is not only irresponsible but callous for the government to
maintain hundreds of square miles of virgin land as national parks or game reserves.
2. Malawians have raped the natural environment and brought so much imbalance that
even their lives are now threatened; it is very important now that they learn to behave
more responsible and conserve whatever little remains of their natural environment.
3. It is important for any government to assess the economy in order to determine what
plans can be comfortably implemented at a particular time and what, even if good,
should be shelves for the future, so that resources can be committed to expanding and
improving existing institutions..
4. Education is a right for citizens, and in a country where thirty years have only seen
expansion of primary and secondary but not tertiary education, and now less than ten
percent of the cream can find room in the university, building another university is an
urgent matter.
While the thesis is the core in academic writing, it may not be so in other essays such as
those in newspapers and magazines, especially those handling political or sensitive
issues. The writer, knowing the varied views the readers have, may deliberately hold
the thesis to the end, or even give it indirectly by simply stating key questions in the
introduction.
The other essential part to the introduction is the statement of contents of the subject
matter that sets in summary the fundamental questions, areas of concern, or problem
being tackled. The areas or questions the essay will focus on provide explicit
information to support the thesis. The statement of contents also sets the parameters of
the topic in order to show the area of focus and direct the readers. Accordingly, a
disclaimer is added to this statement. The disclaimer shows that you know the topic
could cover many areas but you have decided for good reasons to concentrate on those
specified. Other people call this part of the introduction the aim of the essay.
Activity 41

Look at activity 37. Use the six or seven broad areas you classified the notes into to complete the
gaps in the statement of contents below.
This essay compares the two marriage systems under the following heading:…
It is not within the scope of the essay to discuss … because …
In long essays or dissertations, particularly those discussing research finding or using

specific ways of analysing the material under discussion, there is a fourth part called the
method. This informs the reader how research was conducted, or how investigation or
analysis of the topic will be conducted in line with the aim.
Here are example sentences for this.

The method used involves reviewing relevant literature… with the aim to …
The analysis process utilises the … model, which is appropriate for this type of …because…
Development Paragraphs
The development paragraphs form the bulk of the essay; it is here where what has been
introduced is developed to the full. Accordingly, all details, arguments, and support for
the thesis are found in the development paragraphs.
Activity 42
Here are the main functions of development paragraphs. Compare these with the ones for
supporting sentences, listed on page 17. What are the similarities and differences? Why do you
think there are differences in the two lists?
• Support the thesis with factual details

• develop the subject of discussion
• elaborate the problem introduced by supplying details and example

• substantiate the main ideas with authority
• present other views relevant to topic, even if contrary to thesis
• relate contrary views to thesis and resolve apparent contradictions
• explore possible solution and their likely outcomes
The development paragraphs discuss the main ideas and link them to the thesis and
topic. Furthermore, under each main idea, subsidiary ideas that develop the main ideas
are discussed and linked to each other. In the discussion of the subsidiary ideas, details
and examples are given so that the reader understands the main ideas as they develop.
Development paragraphs can also discuss causes, conditions and effects or results.
They can also show the extent of the problem by discussing its extent in terms of time;
that is to say how long it has been a problem. The extent can also be shown in terms of
space: how widespread the problem is within a country, a continent, or the world.
Sometimes a problem may not be extensive in terms of time and space, but still be
shown to be important. This is done by showing that it is urgent, which mean that if it is
not addressed quickly it may spread to a dangerous extent.
Within development paragraphs, the main ideas are supported with authority. In this
context, authority refers to research findings, statistics, and experts in the field. In
academic writing, it is necessary to substantiate the main points one is making by
quoting research findings in that area. This could be research the writer conducted
himself/herself or research others conducted. Alongside research findings, statistical
figures can be used as authority. It is important that these are given in summary;
otherwise an essay does not read well when there are too many figures in it. It is
enough to give the relevant figures and explain what trends these figures show. Many
essays in disciplines such as humanities rely on quoting what important personalities in
the field have said about the subject. These may have conducted research and written
articles or books articulating their ideas and opinions about the subjects. Citing them
strengthens the discussion.

Development paragraphs also give a fair represent of contrary views. If this is skilfully
done, it can greatly strengthen the argument. By acknowledging contrary views, the
writer shows fairness and confidence. It is important though that one does not end in
contradictions. What skilled writers do is to develop their thesis sufficiently, then show
the other views, briefly explain these and show how their theoretical position or thesis
takes care of these concerns.
Finally, where a problem has been presented and elaborated, the development
paragraphs also explore possible solutions. This is done by discussing the solutions and
their likely outcomes so that they are shown to be viable or not. These are given with
the view that in the end one of them that offers successful outcomes can be
recommended.
It is important that your reasoning is cogent and your language is exact and
comprehensible as you develop your ideas. There is a whole section in Unit Four
dealing with this.
Concluding Paragraph
The concluding paragraph is the last paragraph. Its function in writing is to wrap up the
discussion, to offer a preferred solution, or, where no solution is evident, to suggest
action. To wrap up the discussion, the writer restates the thesis or argument that was
presented in the introductory and supported in the development paragraphs. In this case
the thesis may not be stated in exactly the same words. Having restated the thesis, the
writer goes on to highlight one or two salient points raised in the development
paragraphs. Finally the writer shows the position or point to where the discussion
naturally leads; that is to say the resolution or conclusion of the discussion.
Where a problem was discussed, the conclusion offers a preferred or viable solution.
This is done by again restating the problem and the thesis presented in the introduction.
Then the writer concludes by showing the solution with the most successful outcome.

Where a solution is not possible, the writer concludes by suggesting a course of action.
Again he/she proceeds in the same way by restating the problem and the thesis
presented in the introduction, showing one or two important points raised in the
development paragraph, and then winds up by showing what course of action to be
taken.
The points given under the reading skills about the development of paragraphs in terms
of topic sentence and supporting sentences, and the organisation of these different types
of paragraphs - deductive, inductive and mixed - are very important in the development
of the writing skill. With effective marshalling of the points in the introductory,
development, and concluding paragraph the essay can capture the interest of the reader
and convince him/her that the writer has a broad and deep knowledge of the topic or
subject matter.
Diagram for Structure of Essay

Introductory
Paragraph:
Presenting subject,
thesis &
essay structure
Concluding Development
Paragraph: Paragraphs:
Wrapping up Supporting idea
discussion & restating
thesis ONE
Thesis
Main idea
Development
or main Development
Paragraph:
Synthesis, argument Paragraphs:
Resolving Supporting idea
contradiction, & re Two
focussing on thesis:
Development Development
Paragraphs: Paragraphs:
Antithesis Supporting idea
of one, two & three Three
Adapted from Figure 12.1 Structuring an Essay (Kneale, 1999: 76).
Activity 43
Read the following passage and answer the questions

Consequences of Damaging the Amazon Rain Forest
Living things often depend on each other to survive. In some places, such as the oceans and the tropical
forests, thousand of species may be living together in this way. These living creatures also interact with
the nonliving, or inorganic things around them. Such areas of close interdependence in nature are known
as ecosystems. These ecosystems, however, do more than support the plants and animals that live in
them. They also influence the environment of the entire planet. The ecosystems of tropical forest, for
example, protect the entire planet by returning water to the air as vapour and by providing much of the
oxygen that we breathe. One of the largest of these is the rain forest of the Amazon River Basin in Brazil.
This forest is almost as large as the United States. It protects many unique species, and it plays a major
role in controlling the earth’s atmosphere and weather. However, it is being destroyed to provide farm
land. Little is being done to prevent this destruction. Many people do not seem to understand that the
failure to preserve the Amazon rain forest could have serious consequences for all living things.
Some of the consequences are physical or biological. It is estimated, for example, that one million species
of animal and plant life depend on the rain forests and on each other to survive. Without this ecosystem,
these species, which live nowhere else on earth, would quickly become extinct. Destroying the forests
would also speed up the so-called greenhouse effect, which may be causing the earth’s temperature to
rise at an alarming rate. The rain forests absorb a large amount of carbon dioxide. Scientists believe that
this gas is partly responsible for the rising temperatures. A third consequence is the increase in diseases
such as malaria. As forests are cleared to make room for hydro-electric dams, large stagnant lakes are
formed. These provide breeding grounds for malarial mosquitoes. A final physical consequence of the
loss of the Amazon forests might be a significant reduction in the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.
Without the earth’s large forests, we might soon run out of air to breathe.
In addition to the physical effects caused by the destruction of the rain forests, there are social and
economic effects as well. The Amazon forests contain many of the world’s rubber trees, which are a major
source of income for people living in the area. These people would have to find other ways to make a
living if the forest disappeared. An even more serious consequence is the introduction of previously
unknown diseases, such as malaria into the region. Poor people, who cannot easily get medicines, often
have no protection against these diseases. In addition, native people whose tribes have lived for centuries
in the area are now being forced to move to escape diseases and to find new sources of food as the
forests disappear. However, many of the native peoples are hunters and gatherers who are unable to

change their way of life. They cannot find food in the areas where they must live. The result is that these
people are dying from diseases and starvation, and their cultures are vanishing.
It is clear, therefore, that the destruction of the Amazon rain forest must stop. The harm that this
destruction is causing is far greater than any benefits it might bring. All the nations of the world must
become involved in this problem, for the entire planet depends on the Amazon forest and the other great
tropical forests. This involvement must not be one-sided. We must not expect Brazil alone to bear the
responsibility or pay the cost. Ecology is an issue that has no national boundaries. We shall all have to
make sacrifices, including contributions of money, work and time. Only by making such a commitment to
our planet can we guarantee a safe and healthful environment for our children.
Questions
What structural components (essential parts) does the introduction have?
What structural component does it not have?
What three functions of writing can you identify in the introduction?
Why is the idea of ecosystem defined in the introduction?
What three ideas does the writer use to define ecosystem?
Apart from supporting plants and animals, what else do ecosystems do? How do
they do this?
What two problems are presented before giving the thesis?
Which sentence would you say is the thesis? Why?
How are the two development paragraphs developed?
What four problems are discussed under physical/biological effects in the second
paragraph?
What five problems are discussed under socio-economic effects in the third
paragraph?
How does the concluding paragraph neatly wrap up the discussion?
What three clauses are used to call for action?
Which two words used in the conclusion refer back to ecosystems?
What reason is given in the conclusion to support the call for action?

Pick out a word used four times that effects cohesion or coherence by referring
directly to the thesis and subject? What word has replaced it in the conclusion26?
Writing the Essay

The Process
There are many joys of student life, but many who have gone through it will remember
the agonising experience of approaching deadlines of assignments and dates of
examinations. It is known that during such times many students get ill due to stress and
anxiety. It is possible to reduce the stress and anxiety, and as a result not only enjoy the
rich social life of college but also perform well academically. A great deal has been
written about how to approach assignments and examinations in study skills books. The
key is to be organised and approach assignments and examinations systematically in a
way that suits your mode of operation.
Briefly, these are the steps you go through in order to write a good essay.
• Analyse the topic.
• Read for ideas and information.
• Take notes of relevant ideas for the essay.
• Plan your essay.
• Express the ideas clearly and fluently in continuous prose.
• Edit your essay to the required criteria of correctness.
• Proof-read it before handing it in.
(summarised from Claunchy and Ballard, 1992)
When you are given an essay question, read carefully through it several times in order
to understand its demands. Underline or highlight key words or phrases while reading.
Jot down points you have in line with the demands of the question. You may read the
26
Find the suggested answers from page 104, but do not look at them until you have attempted all the
questions.

key words again and add more notes. If it is in an examination condition, read through
your notes to draw out a thesis. Organise the notes to form a plan for your response to
the question, and start writing.
If it is an essay, proceed as follows. Examine the key words of the question and your
notes for these. Find gaps in your knowledge, or where you need more details. Read to
beef up information in these areas. Make sure your reading is focussed on issues in the
question. Direct your reading to relevant chapters in a book, and in the chapters to
relevant paragraphs. Take notes of information relevant to the question. There is always
a problem of when to stop reading and start writing. The temptation is to read on and
on. However, when you have notes covering all aspects of the question you should start
writing. Sit up until you have written at least a paragraph. It is possible to add in new
information even after you have started writing.
It is important at this stage to write quickly until you finish, not worrying too much
about the language details. Edit the material to required standards. Proofread before
handing in. In examination situation, remember to leave time at the end for editing and
proofreading your writing. If time is limited, it is possible to edit the essay by quickly
checking that each paragraph contributes to the thesis, and that each sentence in the
paragraph contributes to the topic sentence or the main idea of the paragraph.
In an essay, it is possible to do thorough editing, up to word level. What you need for
this is a good dictionary. Read each line aloud to yourself, pausing at the end. This way
your internal ear will pick up anything that sounds awkward. Check spellings of
unfamiliar words. If you have the time, you can even check whether familiar words
have been spelt correctly and whether words have not been repeated. The best way to
do this is to read the page from bottom up, to break the text in your mind which makes
you read what you thought instead of what is on the paper.
The main problem you must avoid in the essay is going off the topic. This happens
mostly in examinations where you present material that does not answer the question. It

may be material for a different question or even material you memorised which has not
been asked for. In an essay, this problem can come if you do not read the question
carefully. This is why it is important to read the questions several time and not rush into
interpretation. Going off the point is a serious problem because such an essay does not
merit any of the marks allocated for the question. Planning your essay and strictly
writing from the plan can solve this problem. Furthermore, quickly checking that each
paragraph is relevant can help discover this problem.
The other problem is digression, which lecturers call waffling. This happens where you
start answering the question and in the process your mind wanders to something not
directly relevant. It may be that while answering the question you are also thinking
about another question you did not choose, or it may be due to the natural tendency of
the mind to wander. Again planning and writing strictly from the plan can solve the
problem. Furthermore, reading each sentence in the paragraph to check that it
contributed directly to the main idea of the paragraph can help.
These problems underline the importance of reading the questions objectively, several
times, planning the essay and writing strictly from the plan, and editing and
proofreading the material.
Activity 44
Read the following question and plan of an essay. Underline the key terms that the writer has
used to draw up his/her plan. Compare the plan with the diagram of the structure of an essay on
page 88. What similarities and differences can you notice? Discuss your answers with your
neighbour.
Planning the Essay

QUESTION: Urban planning in Britain since 1940 has improved the nature of cities in
that country. Discuss this statement with particular reference to the
planning of London.

PLAN
Introduction (thesis): Structure of cities improved significantly
But not the social planning /quality of life
Development Paragraphs:
1. Brief background : Pressure for planning and change
• Post war baby boom
• Population expanding in smaller areas
• Increasing mobility
• Migration to London and the south
• Prosperity, eg cars, bigger houses
2. Changes in structure (focus on London)
• Legislations between 1945 to 49: Greater London, distribution of
industry act, planning act, national parks and access to countryside…
• Extent of change: 1946 – 50 migrations to city, but inter-regional
migrations up to 1966;
--1956 reconstruction and clearance of slums.
• Transport: 1950 congested roads,
-- construction of motorways, multi-storey car parks
But 3: Neglect of social objectives and quality of life
• High rise in housing – displacement of low income people, no
alternative replacement; urban decay – high income people move to
peripheral suburbs
• Quality of services (education, transport); physical environment (air,
water); deterioration of urban areas.
• Employment, dislocation?
Conclusion: Improvements at macro-level in physical structures
--- But need to plan for social objectives, only realised with hindsight.
Activity 45

Read the following question and underline the key terms. Using the background given in the
question and your knowledge of Chilembwe Uprising which is enacted every year on the radio,
write brief notes. Write a thesis in answer to the question. Organise your notes into a plan.
Compare and discuss your answers with your neighbour.
Martyrs Day, on 3rd March, is an important day when Malawians remember those who lost their lives in
the fight for freedom. The main hero of the day, from newspaper articles and radio and TV programmes,
is the Rev. John Chilembwe, who led an uprising from his church headquarters in Chiradzulu. Apart from
declaring 15th January a holiday in his name, the UDF-led government chose only Chilembwe to be
honoured by printing his portrait on all the notes of the national currency, K5, K10, K20, K50, K100, K200,
and K500.
Would you say Chilembwe deserves such an honour, as the foremost hero? Examine the causes and
effects of Chilembwe uprising of 1915 and establish whether it was part of resistance, rebellion or
nationalism27. Assess his role as a hero in comparison to other heroes you know.
Note that the key to the above essay is the question whether Chilembwe deserved the
honour of the foremost hero? The background shows that he has been treated as such.
The essay further asks you to analyse Chilembwe uprising in terms of the categories
resistance, rebellion and nationalism. Naturally, you will be expected to define these
categories by quoting authorities.
By discussing its causes and effects, you should be able to place the uprising in one or
two of the categories. Perhaps for you to answer the question the main task is to
establish whether the uprising was either part of resistance or rebellion, or part of
nationalism. If it was part of resistance or rebellion, then your thesis will be that
27 Historians distinguish three phases of African reaction to colonialism or imperialism. The first is resistance which
occurred immediately after the whites arrived and started establishing authority over the Africans. Often Africans
silently refused to change their way of life or to perform certain imposed duties; this led to conflicts. The second
reaction was rebellion, which was a result of some government policies whites promulgated. Systems such as
health, education, agriculture, taxation and recruitment of African to fight in European war led to confrontation.
Usually some form of organisation was evident in these reactions, but it was mostly at local level. The third reaction
of nationalism came about later when educated Africans started well co-ordinated national organisations with the
objectives of self-government or independence; in many cases this led to military confrontation. The final result
though was independence.

Chilembwe does not deserve (even) the honour of a national hero. There are many
people who led some form of resistance or rebellion in their local areas who are not
even mentioned at national level. If the uprising is seen as part of nationalism, either in
its causes or effects, then your thesis will be that he deserves the honour. But now there
is a further issue to resolve: that of being the foremost among national heroes. For this,
you will need to compare him with other national heroes. Among these you may
consider such people as Kamuzu Banda, Orton Chirwa, Chakufwa Chihana and any
that you know, not to mention those who are still alive. It is against these that you can
prove that Chilembwe deserved the honour of the foremost hero.
Citations and References
In academic writing, different styles have been developed for acknowledging other
people’s work that a writer has used. It is useful to learn these systems early in your
academic development. When you use exact words from another person’s writing or
summarise ideas from another persons writing you must acknowledge this. Two things
are crucial here: to cite whatever you have used from other sources, and to use
acceptable format for citation and referencing. Students are often tempted to write
something as if it is their own idea. Doing so is committing plagiarism, an academic
crime which, if you are discovered, could have dire consequences. Sometimes students
are tempted to show off that they have read a great deal by attributing well known facts
to some scholarly work. This shows misunderstanding of the purpose of citation and
referencing.
Activity 46
From the twelve statements below, choose those that would not require citing sources if you
were to use them.
1. Lake Malawi has many types of fish, and the chambo is one of them.
2. Vimbuza is not a spirit possession dance. On the contrary, it is an artistic
performance in which the performer uses song and dance to express her

feelings.
3. Britain colonised many parts of Africa amongst which are Malawi and
Zambia.
4. Women who do not have children or give birth to only one or two grow old
quickly.
5. Men who develop a bald head are super-masculine.
6. Many Malawians believe in spirits and witchcraft and have an inordinate fear
for these.
7. Human beings are either male of female; it is inconceivable that one could be
both, nor be neither.
8. In Malawi, the population of women is slightly higher than that of men.
9. That slave traders ill-treated slaves is now disputed because it could be a great
loss to the traders if many reached America thin or died on the way.
10. HIV/AIDS has no known cure; what modern drugs such as ARVs do is only to
prolong life.
11. Although most bats are blind, there are some species that can see.
12. A goat has two horns, four legs and a short tail.
Activity 47
Skim through the following bits and pieces from a long essay on the teaching of writing and
answer the following questions.

The Secondary School English Syllabus emphasises the role of English language in Malawi in the
following words:
English is an internationally used medium of communication for government, law,

education, commerce, industry, etc. As such it promotes unity and facilitates
communication within Malawi's multilingual society, as well as overseas. Malawians
need to achieve a high level of competence in English as a second language (Malawi
Institute of Education, 1998:1).
English, as a second language as well as the official language in Malawi, is the medium of instruction
from Standard 5 upwards; as a subject, it is compulsory from Standard 1 in primary to Form 4 in
secondary school. In most tertiary level institutions, English language skills, especially reading and
writing, are taught as Language and Communication Skills to all students, at least in their first year of
study…
Large classes constitute a major challenge to teaching and learning of writing in English in
Malawi….Coleman (1989a:35) says that teachers find large classes problematic, especially when there is
overcrowding and inadequate instructional materials also….As a result of these problems, there develops
amongst the teachers 'the growth of an undercurrent of frustration and self-doubt' (Coleman, 1989b:34).
The problem is aggravated by a paucity of resources such as textbooks.... Often such classrooms do not
have adequate furniture for every pupil. This is what Daborn (1996:11) observes when she says about the
Malawian classrooms:
The main sources of oral input in the formal learning situation are teachers, with large
classes and limited teaching resources. Outside the classroom the radio provides the
main source of oral models…Input in written English is primarily from text books and
library books in the school.
Because of this situation, many pupils do not sufficiently develop writing skills in English; their problems
range from language to style and rhetorical skills…
In a discussion of language learning activities, Richards and Lockhart (1994:171) describe what they call

allocated time, time-on-task, and academic learning time. Allocated time is defined as the length of time
the teacher assigns to an activity; time-on-task is the degree of learner’s active engagement during
allocated time; academic learning time is the proportion of time-on-task that learners achieve high
accuracy of completing the task. …When group work is not properly organised it can work against the
advantages of individual work. Veenman, Kenter and Post (2000:3) warn that simply seating pupils
together in a group can produce mutual competition and individualistic learning, or worse still, breed free
riders who simply sit and watch others working. To effect real cooperative learning…there is need to
organise the groups by considering such factors as: positive interdependence…and individual
accountability…
In a study in Ukraine, interesting innovations to group work achieved not only positive interdependence
and individual accountability, but a great deal of fun also. For example, in a team of eight members, each
was required to write one sentence … and pass on the paper to another. The second wrote another
suitable sentence … and passed it on… until all the eight had contributed a sentence each. In the end,
each of the eight wrote eight sentences, and thus eight pargraphs …were produced by each group
(Tarnopolsky, 1999). Perhaps an addition to this would be …Such activities would promote individual
practice within the framework of group work.
A historical overview of approaches to the teaching of writing shows the movement from the product
approach through the process approach to the current the genre approach…
In the product approach, the procedure starts with a model of writing, which is analysed …. This approach
is severely criticized now, for as van Zyl (1992:42) states, it is tantamount to suggesting that, “if you get
the pieces of a dead amphibian back in the right order and use appropriate coherence devices, you’ll end
up with a live frog.” The process approach…developed…because professionals were dissatisfied
with…the product approach… Writing is understood to be dynamic and recursive, consisting of cycles of
viewing and re-viewing. An effective writing method must
empower28 writers in thinking and expressing their thoughts so that they can produce their own pieces of
writing. White (1988:6) states that, ‘the learner’s intention…becomes of paramount concern, and the
learner is seen to have a role as initiator.’
The process approach has also received its share of criticism. It has been observed that, in lessons full of
28
I visited schools at the peak of the process approach in 1986 in Queensland, Australia. Classrooms
were full of pupils’ writing – poems and stories on walls and hung from the ceiling. The teachers said
what was difficult in writing was to stop pupils from writing.

practice activities with learning points well embedded but hidden from view, learners may not know what
else to do outside class, to consolidate their learning, and those who miss the lesson do not know what
else to do in order to catch up (Allwright 1989:3). The process approach has also been criticized for
paying little attention to how to write, functions of writing in society, and mechanics of writing, such as
spelling and grammar (Inglis, Thomson and Macdonald, 2000:117)...
The genre29 approach has been developed to balance the process approach with teaching writing
explicitly. Tribble (1996:57-61) insists on the necessity of combining both process and genre approaches
to teaching writing...
Questions
1. Within the text, how is the work cited when the author’s name comes as part of your sentence
(e.g. van Zyl)? How about when it is not (e.g. Tarnopolsky)?
2. Is there any difference in the format of citation if you have one, two or three authors? How do
you decide whose name comes first, second etc?
3. What does the last number inside the brackets represent? Why is this number not there in some
citations (e.g.Tarnopolsky)?
4. How is the work cited when the author is not indicated, in stead there is the name of an
institution (e.g. MIE)?
5. When is the cited text put within your sentence (e.g. White)? When is it indented and presented
separate from your sentence (e.g. Daborn)? Why do you think separating it is necessary?
6. What differences in punctuation are there when the text is part of your sentence and when it is
separate? How exactly is it indented: left side? right side?
7. Why is it that sometime the cited text is in quotation marks (e.g. van Zyl or White) and
sometimes it is not (e.g. Allwright or Tribble)?
8. Why do you think it is necessary to write a and b against the date if an author published two
materials in one year (e.g. Coleman)? What confusion would occur if this was not done?
9. What purpose are footnotes used for? Why do you think they are called footnotes? What would
be the difference with endnotes?
29
A close examination of the genre approach shows that it is an eclectic approach combining aspects of
the product and process approach.

10. Why do you think the small number used within the text to identify a footnote is called a
superscript? What does this number correspond to?
Activity 48
Look at the following list of materials cited in the text and answer the following questions.
References
Allwright, D. 1989. How important are lessons, anyway? Project Report No.12: Lancaster-Leeds
Language Learning in Large classes Research Project.
Coleman, H. 1989a. How large are large classes. Project Report No.4: Lancaster-Leeds Language
Learning in Large classes Research Project.
Coleman, H. 1989b. Large classes in Nigeria. Project Report No.6: Lancaster-Leeds Language Learning
in Large classes Research Project.
Daborn, E. 1996. Aspects of Textuality in Written English in an African Context: A study of
communication style and information management, with implication for status and use of English
as a second language. PhD thesis in Applied Linguistics. University of Edinburgh.
Ewald, H. R. 1983. Writing as Process: Invention and Convention. Columbus, OH: Charles E Merrill
Publishing Co.
Inglis, M., Thomson, C. and Macdonald, A. 2000. Language in Learning and Teaching (LILT).
Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press.
Malawi Institute of Education. 1998. Malawi Junior Secondary School Teaching Syllabus for English.
Domasi, Malawi.
Richards, J. C. and Lockhart, C. 1994. Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Tarnopolsky, O. 1999. Writing English as a Foreign Language: A report from Ukraine. Seminar paper.
Indiana TESOL Annual Conference.
Trible, C. 1996. Writing, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Veenman, S., Kenter, B. and Post, K. 2000. Cooperative learning in Dutch primary classrooms.
Educational Studies 26 (3).
White, R. V. 1988. Academic writing: Process and product. ELT Documents:129 : 4-16.
van Zyl, M. H. 1992. What the best-dressed writing courses are wearing. UNISA English Studies 30(2):
41-46.

Questions
1. List all the different materials (books, journals etc) found in this reference.
2. Instead of numbers, what is used to order the material in the references? Why do you
think the numbers are not necessary here?
3. List bits of information contained in each item of the references? What is the order of
the information from author to publisher?
4. What is the difference in the way different materials are cited in references? What is the
difference in how the publisher is cited between American books and books from other
places (compare Ewald and Tribble)
5. What is used to order the material where the same author has two books of the same
year (e.g. Coleman)? Which one do you think would be entered first if the books had
different years such as 1985 and 1982?
6. Suppose you had two authors with the same surname, what would you use to decide
who comes first?
7. Why do you think van Zyl is listed under Z, not V? What does this indicate about parts
of the name written in lower case that come before the capitalised name?
8. Where the material does not have an author, what do you enter first?
9. The last numbers in the citation of a journal or book with articles are the pages. Why do
you think it is important to indicate this in such materials? What other numbers are
indicated before page numbers? What do they represent?
10. What do you think would be the difference if we had entitled this list Bibliography,
instead of References?
Note that in the style used above, called included reference, or Harvard, brief citation
information (author, date: page) is provided within the text, and the details are in a
consolidated list at the end, called references. In this system footnotes or endnotes are
used for explanations and extended details that might not fit within the flow of the
writing. Quotations of more than three lines or twenty words are separated from the text
and indented. Parts of the original words left out in quotations are indicated by placing
an ellipsis of three dots […]. It is usual to leave a line or at least some space before and
after the quotation, and to use single spacing in quotations.

In the references, if you are not typesetting the material, you can underline the book and
journal titles. Where there is information about edition or translation, it comes after the
title. For books with articles, the author of the cited article comes at the beginning and
after the article title, the editors are written, followed by the book title and other details.
Whether a particular article is selected or not, immediately after the names of the
editors, the following is indicated in brackets: (ed. or eds.). When you have a list of
more than three authors or editors, you can use et al (Latin for and others) after the first
author or editor.
Note that departments may prefer different styles such as Chicago, APA (American
Psychological Association) or MLA (Modern Languages Association). What you must
do is learn these and present assignments accordingly. It is difficult to clearly define the
differences between these styles in terms of punctuation, fonts, spacing, citations and
references; briefly, however, the main differences seem to be in the placement of the
date, use of brackets or not around the date when placed after the authors, and the use
of the ampersand (&) instead of the word and when writing the list of authors.
Where bibliography is preferred, it entails separating the list between books, and other
materials such as journals, government pamphlets, magazines, abstracts and websites.
Under the subtitle Books are included books with articles, and under Articles or
Journals go the rest of the materials. Note that where websites are included, the date
you visited the site must be indicated after all the website details. For academic writing,
websites cited must be those known to be academic, not any that writes on a topic.
Using footnotes for citation can be a cumbersome exercise to be endured only if the
department insists on it. Briefly this is what you do. On the first citation, use all the
details: author, year, title, place, publisher and page. On subsequent citations you can
use the short forms of the above, focusing on author, shortened title and pages, or you
can use Latin terms used in such cases, such as ibidem (in the same place), opere
citato (in the same work cited), loco citato (in the place already cited), passim
(scattered) and f or ff (and the following page or pages, e.g. p. 46f.).

When you have cited the work and you want to cite the same immediately after, use
ibidem. Write the footnote number, ibidem and the page number as follows: 2. ibid.,
p.29. After citing other sources, if you come back to the same book you cited and the
material is on the same page, use loco citato. Write the footnote number, name of the
author, and loco citato, without indicating page number, as follows: 5. K. Phiri, loc. cit.
After citing other sources, if you come back to the same book but on a different page,
use opere citato. Write the footnote, name of the author, opere citato, and page number,
as follows: 8. P. Kishindo, op. cit., pp 30-1. Where the material you cite is the main
concept discussed in many parts of the book, use passim, as follows: 9. C. Kamlongera,
Kubvina, passim. In short, use ibidem when citing again material you have cited
immediately before, and loco citato and opere citato when there have been intervening
citations. Use passim when there are many pages dealing with the idea, and f or ff when
you can specify the first page mentioning the idea but do not want to follow it to other
pages.
For your reading for particular assignments, journals or periodicals are recommended
because they contain current information from new research, unlike encyclopaedias and
books, unless published recently. Journals appear in volumes and issues; the volume is
for a year and issues can be monthly, quarterly or biannually. The page numbering is
continuous for one volume. Journal articles have an abstract that summarises the
problem investigated, the findings and the methods of investigation used. In the
introduction is related the previous work on the topic and the present work to show
what shortfall the current work addresses, or what it replicates. Usually it is enough to
read the abstract or introduction, unless you are particularly interested in the details.
Other up-to-date sources of information are reviews, reports of conference proceedings,

subject abstracts, seminar papers, dissertations or theses for higher degrees. These can
provide initiation to the academic discourse of a particular discipline and orientation to
the acceptable format of presentation.

Answer to Unit 2, Activity 29, from page 65
FRAU ANNA
Suffering from hysteria for four years, Frau Anna, a twenty-nine year musician from Vienna, separated
from husband and living with her aunt, was referred to a doctor experienced in examining victims of battle
traumas in 1919. (The problem was that) she acted as if she had organic illness by breathing rapidly,
speaking with a hoarse voice, bending forward from the waist, and flinching when touched on parts she
said were painful. Furthermore, she hid symptoms of hysteria for fear she would be locked away as a mad
woman, which made it difficult to diagnose her illness. After repeatedly interviewing and examining her,
she confessed to hallucinations. She was assured that she had no signs of dementia. Finally, she relaxed
and gave the history of her illness and of her life. The specialist diagnosed anorexia nervosa besides
confirming hysteria. (134/8 words)
Answers to Questions on Damaging the Amazon, from Page 88
1. General statement and thesis.

2. Statement of contents with disclaimer.
3. Definition, exemplification, and description.
4. Key concept that forms basis for subject and thesis.
5. Living together, interdependence and interaction.
6. Influence environment or climate; and returning water to air as vapour and providing oxygen.
7. Destruction of the Amazon forest and that little is done to stop this.
8. … failure to preserve the Amazon rain forest could have serious consequences for all
living things. This is the main idea or argument that the other paragraphs support.
9. Deductively by topic sentence and supporting sentences.
10. Death of species, greenhouse effect/rising of earth’s temperatures, diseases e.g. malaria,
reduction of oxygen.
11. Taking away people’s livelihood, introducing new diseases to poor people, displacement of the
people, failure to find food sources in new places, resultant deaths due to diseases and starvation.
12. Restating the thesis and calling of action
13. Destruction of the Amazon rain forest must stop. All nations…must become involved… We shall
all have to make sacrifices…of money, work, and time.
14. Ecology and environment
15. To guarantee a safe and healthful environment for our children.

16. Consequence or consequences, harm.
REFERENCES
Afolayan A and H E Newsum. 1983. The Use of English: Communicative skills for university students.
Essex: Longman.
Claunchy J and Ballard B. 1992. How to write essays: a practical guide for students. London: Longman.
Ezor, E and Lewis, J. 1984. From Paragraph to Essay: A process approach for beginning college writing.
New York: McGraw-Hill Company.
Govier Trudy. 1985. A Practical Study of Argument. Bermont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Hamilton, E. 1998. Mythology: Timeless tales of gods and heroes. Chicago: Back Bay Books.
Heaton, J. B. 1975. Studying English: A practical approach to study skills in English as a second
language. Essex: Longman.
Johnson, B. E. 1994. The Reading Edge: Thirteen ways to build reading comprehension. Florida: D C
Heath.
Kahane H. 1984. Logic and Contemporary Rhetoric: The use of reason in everyday life. Baltimore,
California: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Little, P. 1973. Communication in Business. London: Longman.
Kneale, P. E. 1999. Study Skills for Geography Students: A practical guide. London: Arnold.
Richards. J. C and Schmidt, R. 2002. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics.
Essex: Pearson Education.
Sharp, A. 1993. English for Science: Materials for first year English (A handbook). Zomba: University of
Malawi, Chancellor College.
Thornbury, S. 2006. An A-Z of ELT: A dictionary of terms and concepts used in English Language
Teaching. Oxford: Macmillan.
Williams, R.1982. Panorama: An advanced course of English for study and examinations. Essex:
Longman.
Wyrick J. 1984. Steps to Writing Well. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.

Unit Four:
WRITING: Thought and
Language
We use language to communicate our thoughts and understand other people’s thoughts.
In the discussion of writing, it is stated that skilful writing demonstrates, among other
things, clear and logical presentation of ideas, which is referred to as lucidity of
thought. Greatly contributing to this is lucidity of language, which means that the
spoken or written language is clear, accurate and comprehensible.
Since effective communication and the development of clear thinking are at the core of
speaking and writing, identifying and evaluating clear thinking is important for
understanding in both reading and listening. The link between language and thought has
been a subject of discussion from the time of Vygotsky, or even earlier, through
modern philosophers such as Hirst30. It is often difficult to separate thoughts and
language since thoughts are expressed in language; that is to say language, oral or
written, is the main material form in which we express or access thoughts. It can also be
observed that we understand our own thoughts31 as we struggle to bring them out in a
definite form or shape through speech or writing. Furthermore, it is in this form that
thoughts can be revisited, revised, recast, and remoulded.
In this section, we are going to examine facts and opinions, and fallacies in reasoning.
Firstly, this is done so that you can increase your understanding by identifying these in
listening and reading. Secondly, this knowledge if well utilised will improve your
30
Hirst makes a statement implying words are the very thoughts, which would be ridiculous, to think that
thoughts come from the mouth.
31
While asserting this, I am also aware of what Malagrida says: ‘Speech has been given to man to hide
his thoughts’ (in Stendhal. 1953. Scarlet and Black. Penguin 152)

communication both in speech and writing, as you effectively use facts and opinions
and express your thoughts cogently.
Facts and Opinions

In both listening and reading, one way of evaluating statements in by examining the
proper use of facts and opinions. A fact, which others call historical truth, is objective,
and its existence or occurrence can be verified in time and space. This means we can
state or verify when and where something occurred. An opinion, which shows inner
conviction, is a subjective judgement, and can be verified as reasonable or
unreasonable. While factual statements are either well known, or require verification, or
can be proved false, opinion statements are either fair or biased. The two extremities
are false statements and biased opinions. False statement may be identified because of
inconsistencies that are in conflict with what is generally known. It may be that the
facts presented are incorrect or the statement itself has internal contradictions. Some
statements treated as false here are those from fiction or beliefs. Bias can be identified
where there are any of the following: over-generalisation, name-calling, emotionally
charged or inflammatory statements, false assumptions, stereotyping, and malice.
Activity 49
Evaluate the following statements by writing the letter of the category that best describes the
statement. The letters and their corresponding categories are:
A : A fair opinion
B : A biased opinion
C : A well-known fact
D : A factual statement that requires verification
E : A false statement
1. The light from the sun enables plants to manufacture their food. ......
2. It is very bad that Madonna, a foreigner, was allowed to take away a Malawian orphan boy. .
...
3. It is not good for students to boycott classes because in the end they are the losers… .
4. Many black people were sold as slaves in America by the Arabs. .....

5. Many people believe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. ......
6. Malawi is the most densely populated country in Southern Africa, with about 105 people per
square kilometre. .....
7. Once upon a time, Bird and Fish were in love; however, they failed to marry because they
could not find one place where to live. .....
8. Educated people are the happiest in the world because they earn a good income.. . . . .
9. It is a fact that the first man, Adam, was a monkey because it is well known that human
beings descended from monkeys. ......
10. For maintaining economic conditions that convinced the World Bank and European Union to
cancel Malawi debt, Goodall Gondwe has proved to be a good minister of finance.
.. . . . . .
11. In hospitals, if they want a patient to die, they put him or her on oxygen.. . . .
12. Americans killed many innocent people in Iraq, but failed to show the weapons of mass
destruction they claimed Iraq was manufacturing. . .....
13. Only women who do not form a good relationship with their husband’s people suffer property
grabbing when the husband dies. . .....
14. The construction of the mausoleum and the large multitude that attended its unveiling shows
that many Malawians respect Kamuzu Banda, the first president of Malawi.
......
15. HIV/AIDS, manufactured in laboratories of Europe and America, is white man’s witchcraft to
exterminate the black race. .....
16. Polygyny32 is an appropriate custom where there are more women than men, and polyandry
where there are more men. .....
17. Although quacks claim they can cure it, HIV/AIDS has no known cure.. . . . .
18. Droughts occur frequently because Malawians no longer render due prayers and sacrifices
to their ancestors. ....
19. As long as we have members of parliament who are not graduates, there cannot be any
meaningful debate in the National Assembly. ......
32
Polygyny system of having more than one wife at one time; polyandry, having more than one husband
at one time.

2033. If you see cats mating in broad daylight it means something very bad is going to happen.
.. ...
Note that we can eliminate the biased statements and most of the false statements by
changing the language elements in these statements. For example, Sentence 2 could be
changed to: It is not good that Madonna, who did not reside in the country for the
required minimum period, was allowed to take away a Malawian orphan boy. In this
case, the statement has been changed to the category of fair opinion. This has been done
by removing the intensifier, very, and by changing the word bad to not good. It will be
appreciated that this has reduced the intensity of the emotional condemnation contained
in very bad. The other word that has been replaced is foreigner; it brings the negative
idea of segregation. Instead it has been replaced by a clause that states the issue at
stake: that she did not reside in the country for the required minimum period.
It is also possible to change the statement even more; for example, we could say: It is
illegal that Madonna, a foreigner, was allowed to take away a Malawian orphan boy.
In this case the sentence has become a factual statement that requires verification. We
need to verify whether Malawian laws forbid this kind of adoption. In theory this can
be done, although practically this might be a difficult task because legal interpretation
is a judgement, and therefore an opinion; accordingly, lawyers often hold different
opinions on the same issue. The other way of changing the statement to a factual
statement is by stating it as follows: Many NGOs said that it is bad that Madonna, a
foreigner, was allowed to take away a Malawian orphan boy. This is better because it is
more specific. It shows that it is the Non-governmental Organisations that said the
adoption was objectionable. As things really were in this matter, later even the father of
the boy and many people came out clearly in support of the adoption.
Here is another way we can change a statement. Sentence number 20 could be stated as
follows: Some people believe that if you see cats mating in broad daylight it means
something very bad is going to happen. We could even specify it more in terms of time
33
After attempting all the questions, check the suggested answers at the end of the unit, on page 148

or space. For example we could specify people in the Central Region, people in Chitipa,
or people along the Shire Valley. The statement has therefore become a factual
statement that requires verification. We can verify whether there are people who hold
that belief, and we can even find out, in a given community, whether such people are in
majority or not.
Activity 50
From the exercise of evaluating opinion and factual statements pick out the false statements and
biased opinions. Rewrite them so that the false ones are upgraded to factual statements that
require verification and the biased ones to fair opinions or factual statements requiring
verification. After writing, discuss your sentences with your neighbour to check whether they
really have changed.
Argumentation: Cogent reasoning

It has been shown that eliminating biased statements and false statements is very
important in enhancing lucidity of thought. The other aspect of lucidity of thought is
demonstrated by the use of cogent reasoning, which goes along with the energetic
marshalling of support, sensitivity to emotional issues, and exact use of language.
Accordingly, there is need for language that is alive, fresh with sensory descriptions
and lively comparisons. The overuse of signpost words in argumentation can bring a
sense of falsehood as in well-presented argumentation logic has its own flow, natural
and powerful as an undercurrent that can easily sweep you.
Look at the following argument.

It is wrong to kill a human being.
Capital punishment takes the life of (kills) a human being.
Therefore capital punishment is wrong.
In this argument, the last statement is a conclusion drawn from the first two premises
that provide reasons for accepting it. The premises and conclusion make a syllogism.

From the above syllogism, it will be seen that for our reasoning to be cogent or
acceptable: firstly, we must start with justified or acceptable premises; secondly, we
must include relevant information; thirdly, the premises must be properly connected to
the conclusion; and fourthly, the conclusion, based on the premises, must be valid.
Govier (1985:61) summarises the conditions for cogent reasoning in the acronym ARG:
Acceptable, Relevant, and adequacy of Grounds.
The two basic types of valid arguments are deductive and inductive. The above is a
typical deductive argument where the premises are true; therefore the conclusion based
on the premises must be true. In other words, the premises entail the conclusion. Of
course there are many people who would dispute the conclusion because they hold
different beliefs. Perhaps such people could argue as follows.
It is wrong to kill a human being.
Murderers kill human beings.
Society needs to protect itself from murders.
The effective way of protecting society is by eliminating murderers.
Therefore capital punishment is good.
This is a commonly accepted argument, justifying capital punishment. It has clear

premises, and the two statements before the conclusion give relevant information.
However, the conclusion is not as convincing as that in the first argument. It would be
easy to agree with the first three premises. The fourth premise, however, is
objectionable. Perhaps this is because the argument links two ideas in a way that is not
very convincing. While protecting society is good, it does not necessarily entail
eliminating murderers by killing them. There may be other ways of protecting society
such as by making sure known murderers do not loam about in society.
Inductive arguments, also called probability arguments, provide good grounds for the
conclusion, even though such grounds are not conclusive; in other words, inductive
arguments provide probable conclusions. It has been pointed out that the fact that the
sun has always risen in the past is no proof that it will rise tomorrow, and the following

mornings. However, practical wisdom has taught people to plan their lives without
doubting whether the sun will rise tomorrow. Here is an example of a valid inductive
argument.
Multiparty politics in Malawi has attracted mostly crooks.
Therefore, most Malawian politicians will be crooks.
(Material based on Kahane, 1984: 4, 7)
It is important to check that our reasoning is not marred by fallacies or errors; this is
especially important in writing. It is often easier to recognise an invalid argument than a
valid one. The following are examples of common errors or fallacies.
1. Argument based on unqualified generalisation (Latin, dicto simpliciter).

Example: Exercise is good; therefore every body should exercise.
This is a fallacious statement. For example, for those who suffer from heart
disease exercise may not be good. Even doctors may advise such people to
avoid exercise.
The problem with the above argument is that it is based on the generalisation:
Exercise is good. This generalisation is not qualified, yet it needs to be
qualified. For example, it can be qualified so that it reads as follows: Exercise is
usually good or Exercise is good for most people.
2. Hasty generalisation
Example: You cannot speak Chitonga. I cannot speak Chitonga. Temwa
cannot speak Chitonga. I conclude that nobody in our class can speak
Chitonga.
This is another fallacious argument because in a class of twenty, thirty or forty,
only three are too few instances to support such a conclusion. This
generalisation has therefore been reached too hastily.
3. Does not follow. (Latin, non sequitur)

Example: Maphwiya was a very good footballer. Therefore, he will
make a very good mayor for Chikanda city.
This is yet another example of fallacious reasoning. It does not follow that
because Maphwiya was a very good footballer, he will be a very good mayor.
Obviously, the skills required for being a good football player are not the same
as those for being an effective mayor.
4. Something is presented as truth that is supposed to be proven by the argument.

(Begging the question.)
Example: Hippos are huge and useless animals; they should be
slaughtered and fed to malnourished people in hospitals.
The fallacy in this can be seen in that there is a suggestion to slaughter hippos and
feed them to the malnourished. The reason given to justify this extermination of
hippos is that they are huge and useless. While we know that hippos are indeed
huge, we do not know nor agree with the view that they are useless; therefore,
there is need to substantiate this. To this extent, the assertion begs the question,
such as: why are hippos considered useless? Or, we might as well ask: are they
really useless? This fallacy is common in slogans both in politics and advertising.
Look again at the argument in favour of capital punishment (page 4). In what ways
is it an example of begging the question?
5. Hypothesis contrary to fact.

Example: If I had not taught you how to swim, you would never have
been able to swim.
This is another fallacious argument because, as a rule, if your hypothesis is not
true, you cannot draw any reasonable conclusion from it. The fact is that the
person was taught how to swim, and he/she is able to swim. The negative
hypothesis (if I had not…) is not a fact; hence, we cannot draw a reasonable
conclusion from it. In this case, it is possible that someone else (not I) may have

taught the person (you) how to swim. Or many other things could have
happened, such as the person teaching himself or herself how to swim.
Another example of fallacious reasoning, taken from the discussion of the story,
An Incident at Chirunga, is as follows: If Phyera had not shocked the campus
with her scanty dress, the girls of Chirunga would not have enjoyed freedom of
dress.
Often, when people want to stress a point, they resort to stating the negative of
what really happened, expressing a negative hypothesis. This is why this fallacy
is very common in political and evangelistic campaigns.
6. Undistributed middle.
Here is another syllogism:
All human beings are mortal.
Professor Chimwala is a human being.
Therefore, Prof. Chimwala will die (is mortal).
This is an example of good deductive reasoning.
Now examine the following example:

All lions are mammals.
All goats are mammals.
Therefore, goats are lions.
Although the first two statements are true, it is obvious that the last one, or the
conclusion, cannot be true. Even a child can see that the conclusion is ridiculous
because goats are not lions.
7. Mistaking evidence for cause and effect. (Post hoc, ergo propter hoc. Latin for: After
that, therefore because of it)
Example: My grandfather must stop visiting us. Every time he comes my
daughter has malaria.

This kind of reasoning is fallacious because malaria is caused by mosquito bites.
Surely there cannot be a clear connection between the coming of the old man
and the daughter developing malaria. In this case it may be argued that there is a
connection due to belief in witchcraft. Unfortunately, issues of witchcraft are
not amenable to rational thinking.
8. False analogy.
Example: It is wrong to choose members of parliament through voting.
After all, children do not choose their teachers by voting.
This is another example of fallacious reasoning because there is something
wrong with the analogy. Those who take part in electoral voting are not children
but adults, who are able to know what qualities are needed for a good M. P.
Most children cannot be expected to really know the qualities of a good teacher.
In any case, teaching is a profession in which someone has to undergo training
while being a legislator is not.
9. Irrelevant appeal to sympathy. (Ad misericodiam)

Example: A student who was asked why he was absent from a class,
answered: I am tired of this life. My parents died ten years ago.
Recently, my girlfriend left me for my mesho34. Yesterday I got a letter
telling me that my only cow, given me by my uncle, has died…
While people will feel pity for a student in such a situation, it is clear that his
reply to the question is not logical. It does not directly answer the question; it is
a mere appeal to sympathy.
10. Poisoning the well.

Example: Never vote for members of the Angoni Democratic Alliance
for Development (ADAD). This is a party for polygamists and
incorrigible drunkards.
34
Room-mate

Such arguments are fallacious. By saying only bad things about leaders of the
ADAD party the person has poisoned the well (so that people should not drink
from it). It is both an unfair and erroneous argument because it is unlikely that
everyone in the ADAD party can be a polygamist and a drunkard.
11. To the people. (Latin, ad populem)

Example: Only prostitutes and womanisers can appreciate the
advantages of freedom of dress, which promotes the wearing of mini-
skirts, slinky slacks and see-through dresses.
This fallacy here is similar to that in 9 and 10. The person evades the real issue
by appealing to popular emotions. By mentioning such negative words as
prostitutes and womanisers, the speaker or writer is pumping up listeners’ or
readers’ negative emotions. Accordingly he/she is running away from the main
issue of freedom of dress, whether it is good or bad, and why. Note that it is also
possible to evade real issues by using positive words that many would like to be
associated with such as love, tolerance, democracy, freedom, gender, and rights.
12. The call for perfection.

Example: In Malawi voting does not bring any change. In the end, you
still have the same corrupt and mediocre leaders winning. It is
therefore a waste of time to go and vote during elections.
This kind of reasoning is also fallacious. The assumption is that because a
system is not perfect, that is to say it has a drawback, it must be rejected. With
such reasoning it is easy to overlook advantages, which might outweigh the
disadvantages, as is the case with the democratic system. It is also possible that,
despite the present drawbacks, you have to continue with the system because
there is nothing better. This fallacy is also shown in the proverb that you do not
throw the baby out with the bath water.
13. Two wrongs make a right.

Example: Many politicians abuse government resources; hence, it is not
bad for civil servants to abuse government resources.
This fallacy is in contrast to the call for perfection. Here, the problem is no
longer frustration, but taking an amoral stand, or rejecting standards because
others do not observe them. It is an attempt to justify doing a wrong thing
because others do it also. However, the fact that others – even if more in
number, or higher in status – do something wrong does not change it to become
right. This fallacy is committed mostly when we want to justify our wrong
action by accusing other people of doing the same.
A recent example in Malawi is when the Nkhoma Synod of the CCAP35 built its
churches beyond boundaries agreed upon almost a century ago, in the areas
belonging to the Livingstonia Synod of the CCAP. After many failed attempts
to solve the problem, Livingstonia resorted to building their own churches in the
areas of Nkhoma, starting from the very heart, Lilongwe city. Many people
pointed out that this is not a solution because two wrongs do not make a right.
14. An irrelevant point is introduced to divert someone’s attention from the main issue.
(red herring).
Example: In the discussion of a talk that an expert in the field presented,
someone comments that the speaker’s skirt was a bit too short, or
that she over applied her lipstick.
Another example: Two people are debating an issue. In the heat of the
debate, someone points out that the other has made grammatical
or pronunciation errors or mistakes, and goes on to prove this. At
this point, it is likely that the debate will be diverted.
This is a fallacy because it diverts from the main issue: the subject, content,
message or meaning. Note that sometimes this may be done deliberately by
35
Church of Central Africa Presbytery, uniting the Church of Scotland (Blantyre Synod), the Dutch
Reformed Church (Nkhoma Synod) and the Free Church of Scotland (Livingstonia Synod).

someone who wants to confuse you so that you lose the direction of the argument.
The idea of the red herring comes from the practice of escaping prisoners dragging
a strong-smelling fish across the trail to confuse police dogs.
15. A statement is used as proof that simply repeats in different words what the speaker
or writer needs to prove. (circular reasoning)
Example: There is famine because the people do not have any food.
There is circular reasoning because what is given to explain the famine is actually
the famine itself: having no food. The correct information needed after because
should state why there is famine; in other words, it must suggest the cause of the
famine. The following information would be suitable: that floods swept the crops,
pests destroyed crops, or there was not enough rain. It is important to see that what
we give as reason or cause does indeed fill an information gap. Unfortunately, most
definitions seem to suffer from this problem by being tautological – repeating the
same thing in different words.
Activity 51
Evaluate the following arguments by stating what fallacy or fallacies can be identified in each one
of them.
1. The word says that God blesses those that give to His work. Therefore, if you do
not give, God will not bless you.______________________________________
2. Thandose must not join the fun ride to the lake. Twice when we went with her
the bus broke down on the
way._________________________________________
3. The behaviour of our MPs in parliament is worse than that of an over-enrolled
kindergarten. Hence, it is wrong to show parliamentary sessions live on
television if we want to have discipline in
schools.________________________________
4. A farmer does not go to the garden without a hoe. Accordingly, you must not
leave your house without a condom in your
pocket.____________________________

5. If the Ngwazi had not broken the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, the
independent countries of Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe would not be there.
________________________________________________________________
__
6. Classes that are too large cause many problems in schools because two many
pupils are in such classes.___________________________________________
7. Most preachers on television have the title Apostle Dr. before their names. This
means that, for spiritually effective preaching on television, one must have the
title Apostle Dr.___________________________________________________
8. The leadership of UDF is from the Southern region, so is the leadership of
NDA. This means that the leadership of UDF is also the leadership of NDA.
________________________________________________________________
__
9. Candidates should be allowed to use their notes during examinations because
lecturers and teachers use books and notes in class.
________________________________________________________________
__
10. I plead with you to offer me this teaching job because I am a lone parent; I have
been unemployed for five years; moreover, my parents are very old.
________________________________________________________________
__
11. The DPP government has honest and hardworking ministers; its performance in
every sector is outstanding. Look, even the rainfall is very good this year.
________________________________________________________________
_
12. If Phiriton is from vinyau36 infested areas, do not marry him; many men from
these areas cut off their wives hands or genitals.
________________________________________________________________
_
36
Mask dance performed by men during rituals, associated with cruelty against those not initiated.

13. Students staged violent demonstrations because of delayed allowances. Their
allowances were paid after that. This clearly shows that the allowances were
paid as a result of the students’ violent demonstrations.
________________________________________________________________
__
14. I have four black dogs. Whenever I unleash them, no intruder can dare come
near my house. Black dogs are really
vicious._______________________________
15. The mighty MCP with its black cock deserves to be voted into power this time.
________________________________________________________________
__
16. Gravitational force is caused because bodies have a proclivity for acceleration
towards the centre of the earth._______________________________________
17. MPs extend deliberations with unnecessary points of order and confrontations
so as to increase days for sitting allowances. Parliament should therefore only
meet once for budget, and even then they should not take more than one month.
________________________________________________________________
__
18. Do not listen to whatever Mtchona says. He is a pathological liar.
________________________________________________________________
__
19. Although my neighbour walks to work because his car broke down, I cannot
offer him a lift because he never offered me when I had no car.
________________________________________________________________
__
20. AFORD was started by the brave Chakufwa Chihana of the Northern region;
therefore, AFORD is the party of the north.
________________________________________________________________
__
21. The condom: your future, your good
life.________________________________

22. If a person endangers others with his gun, it is confiscated. Accordingly, those
who defile children must be castrated.________________________________
23. It is impossible to prove witchcraft activities; therefore, witchcraft does not
exist.
________________________________________________________________
__
24. A real Christian cannot come to church wearing dreadlocks.
________________________________________________________________
__
25. The drought in the country is because Elnino, with its warm dry air, is blowing
across Malawi.___________________________________________________
26. The brain is the principal sex organ because sexy thoughts start from there.
Therefore, women who dress scantily are principal rapists who must be
imprisoned. ______________________________________________________
27. The flag of UDF party is yellow; this means yellow is UDF, the party of
Atcheya.
________________________________________________________________
__
28. Fruits are good for health; therefore, everyone should have fruits for breakfast.
________________________________________________________________
__
29. Although Vunde has the professional qualifications and leadership qualities, he
cannot be headmaster because he does not wear a tie and jacket.
________________________________________________________________
__
30. 37Since independence, forty years ago, presidents have been either from the
Central region or the Southern region; there has never been a president from the
Northern region. This clearly shows that no president of Malawi will ever come
37
After you have attempted all the questions you can consult suggested answers at the end of unit, on
page 148.

from the north.
_____________________________________________________
Activity 52
From the above sentences, pick out any ten with different fallacies. Rewrite them so that they
present cogent reasoning.
Key Language Aspects of Written Texts
When introducing writing in Unit 3, many functions of writing were mentioned, such as
definition, explanation, description, comparison and argumentation. It is possible to
describe the key language aspect of these functions.
Activity 53
Examine the following table that describes key language aspects, such as
communicative purpose, verb form, verb type etc for each text numbered 1,2,3,4 and 5.
Pick one function at a time, such as Text 1, instructive function, and examine what the
language aspects combine to achieve this function. Proceed with the rest of the
functions. What language aspects make instructive, narrative, and descriptive (human
controlled) and descriptive (natural process) text? What makes each one of them
different? What makes description of characteristics different from the rest of the
functions? Discuss your answers with your neighbour.
Table of Functions and Key Language Aspect
Key Text No. 1 Text No. 2 Text No. 3 Text No. 4 Text No. 5
language

aspects
Communic- Instructive Narrative Descriptive: Descriptive: Descriptive:

ative Characteristics Human- Natural
Purpose controlled process
process
Verb Form. Stem (plain form) Stem+ed Stem+s (Be+s) Be+stem+ed Stem+s, Stem
Examples. Use, measure, Arrived, made, Be+plural Is put, are Produces,
add, stand, poured… Has, is, are tended, is receives, find,
strain.. prepared develop
Verb Type Dynamic Dynamic Stative Dynamic Dynamic
Sentence VOA: Measure SVOA: Lunga SVC: SVA: Fertilizer SVOA: Soon,
Pattern. the coffee into arrived home Columbian is put into the the stigma
Examples. warmed jar. from work… Coffee is holes… While receives pollen
VO: (Do not) use He poured it strong and the seedlings from the
the normal four. out. rich…They are are growing, anthers…
V: Strain (and SVO: He took often very they are When they are
serve it). a sip. bitter. …it has carefully ripe, some
a harsher taste tended. …holes seeds find soil
than other are made at in which to
coffees. fixed intervals. grow.
There+VC: SV: The soil is SVA: The
There are prepared… seedling grows
many different into a small
types of coffee tree…
Discourse Sequence of Sequence of Conceptual Sequence of Sequence of
organisation occurrence occurrence sequence occurrence occurrence
Discourse General Specific General General General
Reference
A: adjunct; C: complement; O: object; S: subject; V: verb.
Example Texts.
Text 1
Use only three heaped dessertspoonfuls to a pint of water. Do not use the normal four.
Measure the coffee into a warmed jug. Add the correct amount of boiling water and stir

it well. Let it stand for a minute and draw the edge of a spoon across the top. Stand the
pot in a warm place for four minutes. Strain and serve it.
Text 2
Lunga arrived home from work and made his usual cup of coffee. He poured it out and
sat down to enjoy it. He took a sip and felt the coffee going down his throat. It was
strong and bitter, which was just the way he liked it. He smiled and began to relax.
Text 3
There are many different types of coffee. They have different flavours. The coffees of
Africa have a strong flavour. They are often very bitter. Blue mountain coffee comes
from Jamaica. It is a mixture of coffees and has an unusual taste. There is a wide range
of Brazilian coffee. It is not all good, but it has a harsher taste than other coffees.
Columbian coffee is strong and rich with a slightly bitter taste.
Text 4
The soil is prepared and holes are made at fixed intervals. Fertiliser is put into the holes
and the coffee seedlings are planted four to a hole. While the seedlings are growing,
they are carefully tended. When the coffee berries are mature, they are picked and dried
in the sun. They are then husked and broken up to obtain the beans.
Text 5
The coffee plant produces white flowers. Soon, the stigma receives pollen from the
anthers and fertilisation takes place. Seeds develop and ripen. When they are ripe, some
seeds find soil in which to grow. Under suitable conditions, a root bursts through the
seed case and then a shoot develops. The seedling grows into a small tree and produces
more flowers for the cycle to begin again.
Activity 54
Read the following texts and follow the instructions after the text.
Baking Chikondamoyo Cake
Two cups of mgaiwa flour are mixed with a teaspoon of soda and half a teaspoon of salt. An egg

or two may be added to make the cake richer. Warm milk is continuously added and the mixture
stirred until thoroughly mixed. Then a little oil is poured in a pot. The pot is rotated until the oil is
spread everywhere inside it. The mixture is poured into the pot, which is then covered with a lid.
The pot is put on fire and live charcoals are placed on the lid. Firewood is removed from under
the pot to reduce the heat from below. The pot is carefully opened when the charcoals burn out.
A fully baked Chikondamoyo – the cake that satisfies - is brown in colour. (text by Augustine Sikanda,Bed
Hum, with my modifications)
Analyse the key language aspect in this text, and re-write it so that it becomes instructive.
Baking Chimimina Cake

Peel ripe bananas. Pound them in a mortar. Add some flour, salt, soda and sugar. Pound them
together until they are thoroughly mixed. Grease a baking pan. Put the dough in the pan. Cover it
with a metal lid. Place the pan on fire with medium heat. Spread some live charcoal over the lid.
Leave it to bake. Remove the pot from the fire when the cake looks brown. Open the lid careful to
prevent ashes falling on the cake. Serve it after ten minutes. (By Steven Mwafulirwa, Bed Hum.)
Analyse the key language aspect in this text, and re-write it so that it becomes Narrative.
Bed making for a Patient

It is best for two people to share the bed making; this is quicker and less exhausting for the
patient. Strip the bed by gently removing each layer of bedding. Remove the sheet from
beneath the blanket, leaving the patient covered by a blanket. Loosen the under-sheet all round.
Remove all pillows except one. Roll the patient one side, giving support across shoulders and
buttocks. Make sure that the head is supported, and the patient is covered. Brush out any
crumbs. Attend to each piece of bed linen in turn, pulling it firmly, removing creases, and tucking
in tightly. Roll the patient over to the other side and repeat the process. Replace pillows. Lift the
patient into sitting position, and fluff up pillows. Replace top sheet and blanket. Complete the
work by tucking in the top blanket. (adapted from Dr. Robert Andrew and Dr. Kirk Hargrave. 1976. Family
Health: Care and management at home. London: Sphere Books Ltd. Pp.85-7
Analyse the key language aspect in this text, and re-write it so that it becomes descriptive,
human controlled process.

Activity 55
Read the following subjective description texts which use factual and mythical material. Fill in the
following table with appropriate words or phrases used in the two passages relating to each of
the senses. One example on each has been done for you. Note that some words may relate to
more than one sense perception, and against some senses you may not be able to find as many
as three examples in the passage.
Psg Visual auditory tactile gustatory Olfactory
1 thunder Hot months
1
1
2 Dark cloud tastes fragrant
2
2
Rain at Jenjewe
From early December, rain from Viphya Plateau falls on Jenjewe and other foothills.
The water floods the Kajivi, Kafulufulu and Kasito, and even beyond to the Lusangazi,
Lunyangwa and Lukonkhobe, sweeping down to the Rukuru, and down still to Lake
Malawi, leaving the air sweet. In July and August, strong winds across the lake carry
tiny water drops to form a cloud blanket over the plateau. The hot months of October
and November cook the clouds to release rain. From December, heavy rains fall from
Jenjewe, Enyezini and Elangeni to Ezondweni and Ekwendeni. Fierce lightning and
thunder, caused by a fiery cock that roosts in the caverns of Jenjewe and Mpharayi to
strike those who swear falsely, accompany the first rains. (text by Zamiwe Hara, BEd Hum,
with my modifications)
Activity 56.
Analyse the key language aspects of the above texts. Write a similar subjective description of
interesting natural processes, places, people or things in your home area. You can use stories

you have heard about mountains and rivers in Mulanje, Michesi, Zomba, Thyolo, Dedza, Ntchisi,
Njakwa, Misuku etc.
Information Structure in a Sentence: Theme and rheme
In Unit 3 we saw how an essay is structured in terms of the introductory, development

and concluding paragraphs. We also examined the structure of each of these paragraphs
and the essential components in them. Earlier on in Unit 1 we examined the structure of
a paragraph in terms of topic sentence and supporting sentences. In this section we
examine the structure of a sentence in term of how the information is structured to
convey the intended meaning.
Activity 57
Look again at the table after Activity 48, especially the row that shows sentence patterns. What
component appears in every pattern? Next to this, what other component appears most in
different patterns? If you were asked to define a sentence, grammatically, what would you say
is/are its main component(s)?
Now examine the following table. The first column is for sentence number. What would you say
each of the other two columns represents? Discuss your answers with your neighbour.
1 The chief gave my father this ivory bangle.

2 My father was given this ivory bangle (by the chief).
3 This ivory bangle the chief gave my father.
was given to my father (by the chief).
If you were dealing with only the first two sentences, it would be easy to see that they
have similar sentence patterns to those in the table of key language aspects. The second
sentence would fit the SVO pattern, with an added agent (by …) or simply and SVOA
pattern, while the first one has a slightly different pattern involving an indirect and a
direct object, described as SVOO. In both cases, however, the basic structure is similar:
there is a subject or noun phrase, and a verb or verbal phrase. As can be seen from the

patterns in the table, the verbal part is there in every structure; some structures even
start with the verb or have only the verb. In the old grammar these two parts, the subject
group and the verb group, were called subject and predicate respectively. It is the
predicate that we further divide in our sentence patterns by separating the verb from the
elements that follow it, the object and adjunct. The adjunct is a loose part that can be
placed anywhere in the sentence, at the end, beginning or middle. In the table of
Activity 57 above, the second sentence is an example of the passive construction where
the object, which is always a noun phrase, has been used as the subject of the sentence.
The other sentence analysis close to the subject-predicate one is that of topic and
comment. The topic, answering to the questions relating to who or what, is the part the
comment talks about. Accordingly, the comment is what is said about the topic. In
another functional analysis, concerned with how information is structured in a sentence,
these components correspond to theme and rheme, respectively. The theme, which
expresses what is called the known, or the given, is the first main or meaningful
component of a sentence. It is the main topic the speaker or writer wants to give
information about. The idea of theme is broader than topic in that a structural item such
as adjunct can be used as theme. The rheme, the remaining component after separating
the theme, carries what is called the new information.
In the first sentence of Activity 57, which would be common in books, the chief38 is the
theme or topic that something is going to be said about. In the second sentence the
speaker positions my father as the theme. Perhaps the speaker wants to show the high
status of his/her father, and of the family, in that the father has a bangle39 given by the
chief. In the third sentence it is the bangle (This ivory bangle) itself that is positioned as
the theme. Perhaps the speaker wants to show that the bangle is not an ordinary one; it
came from the chief himself. In this case it is clear that the bangle itself is not part of
38
Also called the logical subject, or the doer. In the second sentence the father is the grammatical
subject, while in the third sentence the bangle is the psychological subject.
39
In some societies in Malawi, wearing an ivory bangle signified that one is a chief or the chief’s
advisor.

the new information because the speaker seems to have it and shows it to the listeners
as he/she speaks.
Activity 58
Examine the following six texts representing different levels of sophistication from the core to
advanced. Examine what basic elements the core text has and what is added in each text as the
level moves up to advanced texts.
1. Umsa jumped out of a car. She rushed into the bus stage. She talked to a security guard. She strode to
the ticket office. She went to the counter. She missed her bus.
2. Dingi and Dinga walked along a path. They stopped at a mango tree. Dingi plucked two mangoes. A
dog barked fiercely. She ran back and Dinga picked three stones to chase the dog.
3. A group of youth crossed the bridge and went into the Botanic Garden. They put their bags under a
tree. A short boy addressed the group in a screaming voice. They sang Christian songs and danced.
Then, they started chanting, crying and falling. Next, they brought out snacks and drinks from the bags.
After the meal, they cleaned the place and walked away.
4. Some tourists climbed to the top of the observation tower at Vwaza Game Reserve. They viewed the
elephants, buffaloes and hippos. Suddenly, a man fell over the tower. The guide hurried back down the
stairs. The tourists followed him more slowly. They gathered around the man. He rose to his feet,
smiled at them, and walked to the bus.
5. Three men arrived at a bank in a tinted green car. Their clothes were black. Two of them hurried into
the banking hall. One went straight to the front of a queue. He was tall and stout. The other, short and
thin, raised a gun as the tall one commanded the teller to hand over all the cash. In a blitz, three
security guards snatched the gun, knocked the man over, and commanded the tall one to raise his
hands, as the manager set off the burglar alarm. Before the police arrived, the other man had quickly
driven off.
6. It was a foggy and rainy night. The road was wet and slippery. Visibility was poor. A minibus turned the
corner near the Linthipe bridge. It was very fast. Swerving, it hit a car and rolled onto its side. Another
minibus, which had been following closely, drove into it. Soon, a bus came and carried the injured

away. The police came and examined the minibus. Two tyres had burst.
(Texts adapted from a class handout of either Pedagogical Grammar or Discourse Analysis which did not cite the
source)
Below, drawn from the texts above, are elements that can be used to describe levels of
sophistication. Compare what you discovered in your analysis with these. Note that the first in the
list represents the core.
Now examine the text after the table and describe levels of sophistication used. After finishing,
compare your analysis with that of your neighbour.
Theme 1. Text thematises subject or topic, and pronouns referring to it; subject has one
actor/doer throughout;
2. Text thematises subject with more than one doer; thematises pronouns referring to
both doers, one or the other doer;
3. Text thematises different subjects/doers in different sentences; other subjects/doers
are introduced within the paragraph;
4. Text thematises a specified group (e.g. Three people…); thematises unspecified
group or actors (e.g. Tourists…); thematises part of a group (e.g. One of them…
Some of them…); then thematises another part (e.g. The other…The rest….)
5. Text thematises an expletive or dummy subject (It… or There…)
6. Text thematises other elements apart from topic, subject or doer, (e.g. adjuncts
adverbials, verbs, or even a state or emotion);
7. Text varies thematisation from sentence to sentence, to bring variety.
Rheme 1. Has one action (dynamic verb);
2. Has two/three/four…actions
3. Has one state (stative verb followed by one adjective);
4. Has two/three/four…states, or several items in the object.
5. Has two clauses; has a full sentence within it (another clause with its own subject);
6. Has actions happening before another, past of past.
7. Has parallel action (two actions happening same time, linked by as, while or
meanwhile)
Other 1. Has same type of sentences (same pattern);
2. has varied patterns
3. Has varied lengths of sentences

4. Includes description, giving different sensual effects;
5. Uses substitution and ellipsis
Activity 59. A
Read the following passage and describe the levels of sophistication.
Pyramus and Thisbe

(an extract)
Once upon a time, the deep red berries of the mulberry tree were white as snow. The change in colour
came about strangely and sadly. The death of two young lovers was the cause. Pyramus and Thisbe, he
the most beautiful youth and she the loveliest maiden of all the east, lived in Babylon, the city of Queen
Semiramis, in houses so close together that one wall was common to both. Growing up thus side by side
they learnt to love each other. They longed to marry, but their parents forbade. Love, however, cannot be
forbidden. The more that flame is covered up, the hotter it burns. Also love can always find a way. It was
impossible that these two whose hearts were on fire should be kept apart. In the wall both houses shared
there was a little chink. No one before had noticed it, but there is nothing a lover does not notice. Our two
young people discovered it and through it they were able to whisper sweetly back and forth. The hateful
wall that separated them had become their means of reaching each other. “But for you we could touch
and kiss,” they would say. “But at least you let us speak together. You give a passage for loving words to
reach loving ears. We are not ungrateful.” So they would talk, and as night came on and they must part,
each would press on the wall kisses that could not go through to the lips on the other side. (Edith Hamilton.
1942. Mythology. New York and Scarborough. Penguin, p.101)
Activity 59. B
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow..

The Return of Mwenembe
Junju is a village under the foothills of Nyika Plateau on the road to Livingstonia Mission. Before it are
Nchenachena, Lura and Khowe, and after it Phoka Court and Kaziwiziwi. It is here where in December
Mwenembe returns from the lake to a hill also called Mwenembe.
In a dark eerie night, amid the howling wind, thundering hill and lightning strikes rending thick clouds,
heavy rain floods the Kaziwiziwi and Junju, floods big rivers from the plateau, the Rumphi, Runyina and
Ruviri, and floods the Rukuru, sweeping away dust and jigger fleas to the lake - a gigantic fish that
guzzles waters of the North and Centre to micturate them down the Shire. In the morning, fragrant with
fresh soil washed clean by the storm, and with air from the forest of ripening nthona, yellow berries like
blackberries, people find trees bowed towards Mwenembe, and those that could not bow in time, ripped
off. They take stock of their livestock to find a chicken or goat has disappeared, if nothing worse
happened. From then, the hill is always crowned with a dark cloud to intimate that Mwenembe is in
residence.
From the day Mwenembe returns, people quickly start planting seeds after they complete preparing their
gardens. The start of planting is also announced on a clear day by the thundering of Mwanda, a hill to the
west of the plateau, patrolled from Lake Kaulimi on the plateau by the Vwira - the mystic snake that
punishes anyone killing animals for gain. Different crops thrive, such as maize, millet, potatoes, cassava,
beans, and peas, as well as delicious fruits: pineapples, oranges, guavas, peaches, mangoes and
bananas of different tastes. Coffee is grown everywhere, especially at Nchenachena. Only on Chipumba,
another foothill, do people grow wheat, for no one dares to scratch the evergreen visage of Mwenembe.
From the day the hill is crowned, people stop driving heads of cattle down the Mwenembe from Nthalire
across the plateau. They narrate how recently a recalcitrant butcher, bent on making money at
Livingstonia, stamped his hoofs on Mwenembe; he and his servants were, as if in sleep, swept and
deposited at Mweyeye, far beyond Junju, never to see their animals again.
In July there is another storm at night. Trees bent eastwards towards the lake, and the cloud is lifted on
the hill. People know Mwenembe has gone for visitation to the depths of the lake around Mlowe, Salawe,
and Rualwe, where during this season in 1946 the Vipya foundered. (Memories from my brief stay at Junju in
the late 1960s when my brother-in-law Mr Dickson E B Hara was a teacher there.)
Questions

1. What similarities can you notice between the passage on Jenjewe and
Mwenembe?
2. How is Mwenembe related to rain, wind, lightning and thunder? What about to
the Vwira of Lake Kaulimi?
3. What/who would you say Mwenembe is? Explain why.
4. Recently in 2006 around June or July, a plane flying low in foggy weather
because of an engine problem crashed near Nchenachena. How do you think
local people would explain this?
5. Give the meanings of the following words used in the passage: foothills, eerie,
howling, rending, guzzles, micturate, intimate, visage, recalcitrant, and foundered.
6. …a recalcitrant butcher … stamped his hoofs on Mwenembe. What exactly did the man do?
7. Describe levels of sophistication in this passage.
Activity 60
Read the following short story and answer the questions that follow.
An Incident at Chirunga
By Zondiwe Mbano
Her high heels knocking on the wooden tiles, Phyera jauntily traversed the floor to a chair in front of 1
a low round table where students read magazines and newspapers in the library. Immediately,
whistling, jeering and cheering swept across the tables and shelves. Such reaction to a mode of
dress simply because it frees a little more of the body from the oppression of clothes seemed
especially strange when everyone was sweltering in the afternoon heat of early November. 5
Moreover, after ten years of Zasintha40 - ushered in when people voted out the Lion with his
marauding crocodiles – were Malawians not entitled to enjoy all the freedoms dangled about: of
dress, of movement, of speech, of silence…?
Yet the savants of Chirunga were not mildly disturbed by this sylph, surprisingly from remote
southern foothills of Viphya plateaus, far far away from the city of Kabula where ladies’ shops 10
display summer fashions of crazy designers from Paris, Rome, London or New York. Her top was a
40
Zasintha: literally, things have changed, is from a slogan claiming socio-political transformation of Malawi from
1994

skimpy red camisole, hanging well above the navel decorated with silver dots; her slinky purple skirt
was so short that it easily slid up as she sat cross-legged on the chair, exposing her blue knickers.
Standing outside her carrel, a buxom mature education student in her forties, struggling with her
first degree because a mishap in her late teens had forced her out of the college, could only 15
lament, ‘Children, they don't know!’ From one of the study tables, a bespectacled fourth year
Literature major from the lakeshores of Rukuruland, in dreadlocks, thought otherwise as he
intoned, ‘Bakufidako tabam’mphara’, commending the freedom of dress for providing bachelors
opportunity to see what used to be reserved only for conjugal bliss. Then, he added: ‘They say, if a
dog does not respond to a whistle he is fatally deaf.’ An indigenous philosopher from Mwera hill, 20
wearing a goatee, found occasion to posit his truth: ‘Freedom of dress is not the same as freedom
of undress. Therefore, people should not perpetrate human wrongs in the name of exercising
human rights.’ The other students sitting around the study table nodded, impressed not so much by
what he said as how he couched it. On the counter, two male library assistants whispered to each
other, obviously not sure how to handle the situation. 25
Being immediately after lunch, the library was not full; yet the spiral stairs from top and lower floors
were already filling with people coming to look at the strange sight. Meanwhile, a mature
Economics student with a double chin, said to be connected to one of the shareholders of the ruling
party, and to be the proprietor of a lucrative business of a morgue and coffin shop, was whispering
to a few rowdy boys behind shelves, promising them a beer party with plenty of roast chicken and 30
meat if they fixed the girl. It is more than likely that the situation would have gone out of control if
Phwiya, a sturdy chemist from Muloza drift, pursuing an honours degree, did not intervene in his
own way. He stomped his way to where Phyera was now blithely browsing a magazine, whispered
to her, and taking her by her left hand, walked with her down the stairs, out of the library, and
through the corridors to female halls of residence. Although a known jester - which made his 35
nickname, Phwiya, more popular than the actual name, Grantiano - he seemed serious from the
way he strode from the shelves of Chemistry abstracts.
Somewhere along the pavements, perhaps to limber himself up, Phwiya took a furtive look at
Phyera: her glossy hair seemed frozen to her small head; lower, inside her top that left out a 40
greater part of her fully developed breasts, he did not see anything that could answer to the name
bra. With a pert smile, she promptly responded by scanning him from the top: his unkempt hair, his
scanty beard, and his faded brown T-shirt with arms deliberately ripped off, and the front of it

inscribed with: You kiss a smoker, you lick an ashtray. Although not very sure what the well-known
joker was up to, she was in full control of herself; even when he had whispered, ‘Sister, leave this
place,’ and gently led her out of the library, her decision to co-operate was because she was 45
satisfied the blitz had been accomplished.
Born after twins - a girl, Goli and a boy, Nyuma - and before a pampered boy who was the last-
born, Phyera - one who clears the tracks of twins, as the name suggests - learnt to wrestle with
everyone in order to get her rightful share. As was expected of a child coming immediately after
twins, she was often peevish and could throw grand tantrums. As she grew up, she took an 50
aversion to her mother's tendency to glorify suffering in silence, as if life was solely for building a
repertoire of melancholic narratives. In the college, perfecting the discipline of suspending unbelief
with the three years’ study of drama helped to exercise her courage and resolution.
Hand in hand, painting a perfect romantic picture, they now headed for Kamuzu Hall - named after 55
the Lion, who established the university and with his own money funded the construction of this hall
of residence for female students. Although Phwiya, who had spent much of his school life at a boys’
seminary, did not seem to have intuition for girls’ subtle messages, it was doubtful whether with
such provocation even a celibate could muster enough will power against ancestors agitating for
immortality in his blood. So some boys watched through the library windows, and others who failed
to hold their curiosity followed from a distance. Girls going for afternoon classes whispered, and a 60
few nodded their approval as they met the two along the pavements.
Hand in hand, they slowly climbed the stairs to the third floor, apparently enjoying every step even
though Phwiya’s flip-flops frequently got entangled in his long oversize jeans. Four first year girls
going for the Friday afternoon classes, which many disliked, looked askance at the pair. A female 65
cleaner on the ground floor, carrying a small water pail and walking barefoot to protect her shoes
while mopping floors, whispered to them, ‘Waonjeza’, meaning Phyera had gone overboard.
Hand in hand, they now approached the door of room 17 on which was written the names
Mafunase and Phyera. Funase, a fifth year Law student with whom Phyera spend long hours
discussing problems of women, liked tackling issues only at intellectual level. It used to inflame 70
Phyera to listen to her arguments against any commitment to action. Phyera saw in her the making
of a lawyer, who, for money, would use all her intellectual acumen to defend known criminals until
they are acquitted, and would go home with a smug smile.

A week before, in the Little Theatre, a meeting of girls, poorly attended by only seventeen out of
hundreds in the college, ended with no agreed plan of action though many spoke strongly against 75
the oppression of women in general and girls in particular.
‘Ten years of democracy,’ stressed Madalo, a curvy short girl in a maroon blouse and tight jeans,
‘and we are still so inhibited. How long must women dress like lepers, covering the entire body with
clothes, in overpowering heat? Dress depends on weather and occasion; dress depends on mood,
guided by one's best instincts. Why must we shroud our natural beauty - to shield men with sick 80
minds? '
‘Yet boys are free to dress in whatever way,’ butted in Faida, a bundle of flab almost bursting from
a red T-shirt and khaki shorts. ‘In the library, in front of women, they remove their shirts, leaving
bare pectorals. And in the name of sports, they walk about in flimsy pants, flaunting their huge
endowments.’ The other girls broke into laughter, which brought relief to the otherwise serious 85
atmosphere in the room.
‘Yes! I’m not joking.’ continued Faida, a student of Political and Administrative Studies. ‘And just
think about it. They behave in the most primitive, most dangerous way. They ride buses by
clambering monkey-fashion on the carriers, around the college, the town…’ She was already
breathing hard, perhaps from rising anger or from tiredness for supporting a heavy weight on two 90
legs.
‘As scholars in the highest institution of learning we cannot simply watch our rights being trampled
upon,’ said Dumbechi, dressed in a lilac caftan with square and octagonal patterns of pink and
olive, exuding the confidence of erudition in her third year of Law. ‘We must disabuse ourselves
and the women of Malawi of old traditions and beliefs whose place is six feet into the earth.' 95
Several girls spoke, listing miseries of women or girls, but no one suggested action, which
prompted Phyera to redirect the discussion.
“I propose that tomorrow, Saturday, girls go to breakfast dressed only in knickers and bras,” she
said, abruptly.
To this, Faida, greatly pleased with the proposal, added that they must carry an aerosol can to fire 100
into the eyes of any male coming threateningly close to them. There was clapping and laughing,
and someone from the back shouted that boys will now understand that girls take the same
bachelors degrees, not Spinster of Arts or Sciences. As the noise died down, Funase stood up,
looking serious with her high cheekbones.
“Girls, let’s be responsible. Let’s not rush into precipitate action. Consider how the boys will react to 105
such dress. Do you want to give the police reason to invade the campus with teargas and live

bullets? What will happen to us, chased to town or locations, in knickers? Do you want to fall prey
to rapist vendors swarming the town, to rapist policemen?” queried Funase. ‘And let’s not forget the
heinous things currently happening in the country. Everyday, you read: a man hacks wife on the
head, a man chops off wife's hands, men gouge old woman's eyes… What threatens men so much 110
that they resort to fighting women, often their wives, with pangas? Is this the freedom people died
for?’
When Funase - lanky, in a violet suit with faint russet and yellow floral designs - sat down, it was
clear that the idea to organise action that would reverberate beyond the borders of Malawi had 115
been dealt a paralysing blow. Already girls started walking out. After this, it was difficult to gather
them again while assignment deadlines breathed fire from departmental notice boards and the
examination timetable glared at students, showing the first papers in three weeks to come. This is
when Phyera decided on a lone coup.
Hand in hand, at the door to her room, but now they had to disengage for Phyera to open the door. 120
She produced the key, opened, and went in. After hesitation, Phwiya also entered and was
immediately embraced by perfume. Then, standing two steps inside, leaving the door ajar, he
delivered his oracle from Sapitwa peak: “This is your room. Here, you can remain naked, as long as
you want. But, when you decide to come out, make sure you are properly dressed.” He said this in
a quavering voice while avoiding looking directly at her. 125
“Okay…” she breathed, smiling, but before she could say more he disappeared, chased perhaps by
his own injunction or something else. He shambled to his room in the Postgraduate Hall,
desperately trying to extricate himself from the haunting melody of her smile, her soft touch, and
her perfume, fresh as the fragrance of the first rain on parched land, and the rhythm of her stiletto
heels tapping in his heart.
130
Soon, many versions of the incident spread. One even narrated how a nympho, literally naked,
pursued a boy to the book stacks, dragged him to her room where they locked themselves up for
an hour. Such narratives were popular with boys so tensed up by assignments and examinations.
However, after Phyera’s victory, it was becoming clear that the girls’ freedom of dress could no
longer be truncated. Boys had to learn to peek nonchalantly at increasing minis, deep slits, slinky 135
slacks, and bare backs and tummies, or risk spraining a foot after missing a step because of
gawking at a girl. (2045 words)

140
Questions
Answer the following questions with information from the story. Give brief answers, not complete
sentences.
11. 1. What two reasons are given why Phyera’s mode of dress should not disturb
the savants of Chirunga?
__________________________________________________________
12. 2. State whether the following people approved or disapproved of Phyera’s
dress:
13. The buxom mature Education student
_____________________________
14. The Literature major from Rukuruland
_______________________________
15. The indigenous philosopher from Mwera hill _________________________
16. The Economics student with a double chin __________________________
17. 3. Give two examples of violence against girls shown in the library
_________________
18. __________________________________________________________
_______
19. 4. Why did Phwiya take Phyera out of the library?
______________________________
20. 5. Give two examples which show that Phyera was outspoken in her family?
__________
21. __________________________________________________________
_______

22. 6. ‘Hand in hand, painting a perfect romantic picture…’(p.2) Would you say Phyera
and Phwiya were in love? Explain.
__________________________________________
23. _______________________________________________________________
24. 7. What two problems are highlighted about the girls meeting in the Little Theatre?
__
25. ________________________________________________________________
_
26. 8. What two dangers did Funase warn would happen if the girls followed Phyera’s
proposal? __________________________________________________________
27. 9. Why did Phwiya deliver his oracle ‘…in a quavering voice while avoiding
looking directly at her’?
______________________________________________________
28. 10. Why would you say Phyera’s ‘lone coup’ was victory for the girls?
______________
29. ________________________________________________________________
_____
30. 11. ‘One …narrated how a nympho, literally naked, pursued a boy to the book
stacks, dragged him to her room where they locked themselves up for an hour.’
31. What is the sentence pattern in the above sentence (VO, VOA, SVO, SVOA,
SVC, SVA?)
____________________________________________________________
32. By examining the rheme, would you say the sentence above is sophisticated?
Explain why. _____
33. ________________________________________________________________
_____
34. 12. Write a words or expression from the passage that describes each of the senses:
35. Visual: _____________________________________________________________
36. Auditory:
___________________________________________________________

37. Tactile:
_____________________________________________________________
38. Gustatory:
__________________________________________________________
39. Olfactory:
___________________________________________________________
40.
41. 13. Summarise the story by focussing of situation, problem, solution and outcome.
42.
43. 14. Here are two judgements from the story. Read them carefully and decide which one you
would support. Write a paragraph in support of your chosen judgement. Or if it can be
organised, in pairs or groups of three or four, prepare a ten minutes oral presentation to
support your chosen judgement.
44.
45. A. Phyera is a carefree girl whose brave action has brought full enjoyment of
freedom of dress among the girls of Chirunga.
46. B. Phyera is a naïve41 girl who does not foresee that her seductive dress will
mentally rape innocent boys such as Phwiya, and will bring pandemonium at
Chirunga.
ACADEMIC WRITING: THINGS TO CONSIDER
A. Communicative Functions and Content

• Why are you writing: to describe, narrate, report, define, argue, persuade, compare,
evaluate…?
41
showing lack of experience, wisdom or judgement.

• What content will you discuss? What problem do you want to expound? What exactly do
you want to say about this problem? Have you already gathered relevant information, or
you need to beef up some areas with more reading? What important points do you want
to raise in your discussion? What authority do you have to back your points?
B. Rhetorical Skills
Organisational principles: paragraphs
Introductory paragraph: Do you have brief background information? Do you have a
general statement? Do you have a thesis? Do you have a statement of contents of
the subject matter or questions that you want to tackle directly? Do you have
specific method of development? Do you have a disclaimer?
Development paragraphs: Does each relate to the thesis or main idea in line with the
statement of contents? Does each further develop the subject matter or elaborate
the problem? Does each carry a main or central idea? Is the main idea well
developed according to topic sentence and supporting sentences? Is there
coherence and emphasis in the way the points are presented? Within the
paragraphs are alternative points, contrary views or counter arguments,
acknowledged? Are the alternative views, contrary views, queries finally
counteracted, resolved, answered, or disposed of? Are they synthesised within the
main argument (thesis + antithesis = synthesis)? Are there clear transitions
between paragraphs, linking one paragraph to another?
Concluding paragraph: Does it recapitulate the problem discussed? Does it restate the
thesis? Does it recap the solution with the most successful outcome? Does it
neatly wrap up the discussion? (Not raising new points or ideas?) Does it show
areas that may require further investigation?
Method of development
• Are the points organised according to sequence of occurrence or conceptual
sequence? Are they organised to achieve clarity, persuasiveness or emphasis?

• Are the paragraphs developed deductively (general to specific) or inductive
(specific to general)? Or are they mixed (starting with specific examples or
cases, leading to general statement, them elaborating it with specific
statements)?
• Do the paragraphs develop by comparison and contrast, analogy, classification,
enumeration, definition, chronology, or spatially?
Acceptable Reasoning
• How logical and comprehensible are your thoughts? Are the examples or
analogies sufficient, relevant and clear? (Not farfetched, ridiculous or
confusing?)
• Are the arguments not riddled with flaws, fallacies and simplistic reasoning?
• Are the opinions reasonable? Are they supported by well-known facts, factual
statements that are well substantiated? Are they supported by authority? (No
evidence of wild claims, exaggerations, baseless assumptions, mere slogans, or
prejudices?)
• Are the ideas expressed original, or recycled common place ideas?
The Process
• Did you go through the whole process of writing: data gathering, planning,
drafting, writing, rewriting, editing (by yourself or someone)?
• Did you proofread your work before submitting it (reading aloud to yourself)
C. Forms and Styles of Writing

• Are you writing a report, a letter, a memo, an agenda, minutes, an article, essay,
a dissertation, a proposal, thesis (for a higher degree)?
• What is the acceptable style or format of presentation: front page, title page,
acknowledgements, abstract, table of contents, title, heading, subheadings, bold,
underlining, numbering, figures, tables, text page, margins, justifications, fonts,

spacing, citations (included reference), extended notes (footnotes, endnotes),
use of Latin citation terms (ibidem, op cit, loc cit, passim, et al, etc), references,
bibliography ? Is the system used consistently?
• What is the level of formality: politeness, tentativeness, withdrawing to the past,
indirectness, no personal references (first or second person: I, me, you), no
contractions, short forms, or abbreviations (don’t, can’t, exam, e.g. etc), use of
passive voice (be+stem+ed)?
• Does your style of writing demonstrate sophisticated command of all elements,
which work together to convey a distinctive perspective with a distinctive
voice?
D. Linguistic Skills
• Have you used correct punctuation: capitalisation, commas, full stops, colons,
semi-colons, dashes…?
• Have you used acceptable spellings (according to Malawian Education
standards of correctness? English English vs American English): e.g. colour,
centre, practising, learnt, cancelling, programme, instil, defence, jail,
flammable…?
• Are words correctly used: verb forms, verb-noun agreement, tenses, aspects,
first-, second-, third person singular or plural…?
• Are sentences correctly constructed? According to acceptable patterns (SVO,
SVOA, SVOO, SVA, SVC)? Is thematisation (theme and rheme) effectively
utilised to achieve fluency, lucidity of thought, emphasis, coherence,
connectedness, cohesion…? Are clauses (independent, subordinate, noun,
adjectival, adverbial) and phrases (prepositional, participial, noun) correctly
constructed and positioned?
• Is vocabulary effectively used? With precision? Familiar collocations, chains
(house, door, room, window, lawn, garden) and choices (house, building, home,
family, occupants)? Used with knowledge of denotation or connotation (not

distortion)? With knowledge of objective (plain or scientific) or subjective and
affective (imagery and metaphoric) meaning.
Sample Examination Papers
UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI
CHANCELLOR COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS
END OF FIRST SEMESTER EXAMINATION
YEAR ONE
PROGRAMME :
DATE:
Time: (3 HOURS)
STUDENTS’ NAME and REGISTRATION NUMBER:
This paper has five sections. Answer all questions. Write your answers on
the spaces provided on the question paper.
Section A: Evaluating factual and opinion statements 15 marks
Evaluate the following statements by indicating which category would best describe the
statement. The categories are:
A: A fair opinion D: A factual statement that requires
B: A biased opinion verification
C: A well-known fact E: A false statement or fiction

1. A big crocodile can eat a small boy or girl. ...........
.
2. Ghana beat United States of America during the 2006 World Cup because
Americans are hopeless at football.
............
3. Since Government removed vendors from the streets, cases of theft have gone down
in towns and cities. .....
.
4. The little hen heard the sun falling and reported this to the cat, who in turn reported
to the dog, and soon there was panic in the land. .....
.
5. The richer you are the happier you are since money solves all problems. . . . . . . . . .
..
6. It is a fact that the first man, Adam, was a monkey because it is well known that
human beings descended from monkeys. . . . . . . . . . . ……
7. Chakufwa Chihana, who died in June 2006, would have been the best president of
Malawi because he was so brave as to challenge the Lion of Malawi. . . . . . . . . . . .
.
8. Vendors and pedlars make our streets look narrow and crowded. ...........
.
9. If Government banned scanty dress, rape cases would greatly reduce. . . . . . . . . . . .
.
10. Many parliamentarians in Malawi do not have the required academic
qualifications.. .
11. Duped again by cunning Hare, gullible Donkey entered the house of hungry Lion to
receive a fatal hug. ..........
12. Although some quacks and traditional healers claim they can cure it, HIV/AIDS has
no known cure. ...........
.
13. The building of the mausoleum and the large attendance during its unveiling can
indicate that many people in Malawi respect Kamuzu Banda. . . . . . . . . . ..

14. It is inconsiderate to block roads when demonstrating because people in emergency
situations or unconcerned with the issues are inconvenienced. ...........
.
15. A phased free primary education started in the early 90s, during the MCP
government. ...........
Read the following passage and answer the questions in Section B, C and D.
The privilege of blackening one's stool is not granted to every dead chief or queen-mother 1
without conditions. The honour is merited only on the fulfilment of certain conditions on the
part of the occupant of the stool. The blackening of the king's stool is regarded as the
greatest honour that can be conferred on a ruler; thus in many Akan states only the stools
of kings who proved to be true leaders are blackened. 5
No royal person's stool is preserved unless he died while a ruler. A destooled chief is the
last person whose memory anybody wants to keep fresh. He must have broken a taboo or
committed a serious crime to merit his degradation. He may have committed adultery with
his servants' wives; he may have bought and sold slaves who are considered as heirlooms
to the stool; he may have used the oath unreasonably; he may have cursed people. All 10
these crimes can deprive a chief of his regal powers. Once this happens, he becomes, in
the eyes of the people, more insignificant than a commoner who has no right whatever to
become a chief.
However, a chief may 'die on the stool', and yet not have his stool blackened; this is
because one must die 'a good death'. Sudden death through an accident destroys the right 15
to have ones stool blackened. So does death through an unusual disease such as leprosy,
lunacy, epilepsy and dropsy - which, if discovered in time, is a cause for destoolment. The
only exception here is death in war, which magnifies one's fame and dignity. But even
here, if it is found out that one fell when retreating, or running away, from the enemy, one is
regarded as a treacherous and infamous leader who should be erased from all historical 20

memory. A chief who suffered from an unclean disease, but got cured before dying, is said
to have been involved in a personal difficult war with the disease and emerged triumphant.
Such a chief is worthy of respect. Suicide is, perhaps, one of the worst deaths a chief could
undergo. Under no condition whatever will the stool of a ruler who takes away his own life,
or is killed by a 'fetish' be consecrated. (372 Words)
(from The Sacred Stools of the Akan, by Peter Sarpong, in P. A. Ogundipe,
Practical English Book 5)
Section B: Reading Comprehension 28 Marks

Answer in short phrases; complete sentences are not necessary.
47.
48. 1. What title would you give to this passage? __________________________(4
Marks)
49. 2. Mention two specific conditions that must be fulfilled for a chief's stool to be
blackened? _______________________________________________ (2 marks)
___________________________________________________________ (2
marks)
50. 3. What idea in paragraph 2 does paragraph 3 refine and develop?
51. ________________________________________________________________(2
marks)
52. 4. Apart from committing a serious crime or breaking a taboo, what else can cause
destoolment? ____________________________________________________(2
marks)
53. 5. Two words from paragraph 2 and 3 have a similar meaning to blackened, as
used in this passage; these words are: ________________(2 marks)
_____________(2 marks)
54. 6. What example of dying ‘a good death’ is given in paragraph
3?_________________
55. ________________________________________________________________(2
Marks)

56. 7. From the contents of paragraph 3, how do you think a person killed by a fetish
(line 23/24) dies?____________________________________________________(2
Marks)
57.
In number 8 and 9, put a circle around the letter (a, b, c, d, e) of your chosen option. (2 marks)
58. 8. Which of the following do you think is the best description of a destooled chief?
59. (a) A chief who is more insignificant than a commoner.
60. (b) A chief who has committed a serious crime, e.g. adultery with his
servant's wife.
61. (c) A chief who has broken taboos.
62. (d) A chief who has been deprived of his regal powers.
63. (e) A chief who dies 'a bad death', e.g. from leprosy, lunacy, epilepsy, or dropsy.
64. 9. Blackening of a chief's stool depends:
65. (a) entirely on the chief himself.
66. (b) partly on him, and partly on circumstances beyond his control.
67. (c) entirely on the people's opinion of him.
68. (d) partly on whether he was elected by the majority, and partly on whether he
was free of corruption and initiated social economic developments.
69. (e) entirely on circumstances beyond his control.
70. 10. Do you think the Akan people would blacken the stool of a chief who died of a
sexually transmitted infection?
Explain.______________________________________
_______________________________________________________________(4
Marks)
71.
72. Section C: Structure, Grammar and Vocabulary (20 marks)
Answer in short phrases; complete sentences are not necessary.
73.
74. 11. ...thus in many Akan states only the stools of kings who proved to be true
leaders are blackened. (line 4/5)

75. Give two words or phrases that can replace thus in the above sentence
____________________________ (2 marks) _________________________ (2
marks)
76. 12. No royal person's stool is preserved unless he died while still a ruler. (line
6)
77. Re-write this sentence, using the conditional if. Your sentence should, as far as
possible, convey the message of the above sentence.
________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ (4
Marks)
78. 13. ...thus in many Akan states only the stools of kings who proved to be true
leaders are blackened.
79. a). Write down the subject of the above
sentence._______________________________
80. _______________________________________________________________(2
Marks)
81. b). Write down the main verb of the above sentence.
___________________________ 2
82. 14. Two other phrases in paragraph 3, apart from unusual disease, are used to
refer to diseases such as leprosy and lunacy, these are:
________________________(2 Marks)
______________________________________________________________(2
Marks)
83. 15. The only exception here is death in war... But even here...( paragraph 3, ).
84. (a). What idea does the first here refer
to?___________________________________(2)
85. (b). What about the second here?
_________________________________________(2)
86.
87. Section D: Note-making . 12 marks
88. Read the passage again and make notes in the framework provided

89.
90. 1. Blackening:
__________________________________________________________
91. ___________________________________________________________________
___3
92. 2. Conditions for blackening.
93. (i)_________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____
94. ___________________________________________________________________
___4
95. (ii)_________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____
96. ___________________________________________________________________
___5
Section E: Summary 25 marks

Read the following passage and summarize it by capturing each of the following elements:
situation, problem, solution, and outcome. Remember that a summary should not be more
than one third of the length of the original passage.
In the autumn of 1919, I was asked by a doctor of my acquaintance to examine a young lady who
had been suffering for the past four years from severe pains in her left breast and pelvic region, as
well as a chronic respiratory condition. When making this request he added that he thought the case
was one of hysteria, though there were certain counter indications which had caused him to examine
her very thoroughly indeed in order to rule out the possibility of some organic affection. The young
woman was married, but living apart from her husband, in the home of an aunt. Our patient had had a
promising musical career interrupted by her illness.
My first interview of this young woman of twenty-nine years of age did not help me to make much
progress in understanding her case, nor could I glimpse any sign of the inner vitality I was assured
she possessed. Her face, in which the eyes were the best features showed the marks of severe

physical suffering; yet there were moments when it registered nothing, and at these times I was
reminded of the faces of victims of battle traumas, whom it had been my melancholy duty to examine.
When she talked it was often difficult for me to hear, on account of her hoarse and rapid breathing.
As a consequence of her pains, she walked with an awkward gait, bending forward from the waist.
She was extremely thing, even by the standards of that unhappy year, when few in Vienna had
enough to eat. I suspected an anorexia nervosa, on top of her other troubles. She told me the mere
thought of food made her ill, and she was living on oranges and water.
On examining her, I understood my colleague’s reluctance to abandon the search for her symptoms. I
was stuck by the definiteness of all the descriptions of the character of her pains given me by the
patient, the kind of response we have come to expect from a patient suffering from an organic illness
unless he is neurotic in addition. The hysteric will tend to describe his pain indefinitely, and will tend
to respond to stimulation of the painful part rather with an expression of pleasure than pain. Frau
Anna, on the contrary, indicated where she hurt precisely and calmly: her left breast and left ovary;
and flinched and drew back from my examination.
She herself was convinced that her symptoms were organic and was very disappointed that I could
not find the cause and put it right. My own increasing conviction that I was, despite appearances to
the contrary, dealing with an hysteria was confirmed when she confessed that she also suffered from
visual hallucinations of a disordered and frightening nature. She had feared to confess to these
“storms in her head”, because it seemed to her an admission that she was mad and should be locked
away. I was able to assure her that her hallucinations, like her pains and her breathing difficulties,
were no sign of dementia; that indeed, given the intractable nature of reality, the healthiest mind may
become a prey to hysterical symptoms. Her manner thereafter became a little more relaxed, and she
was able to tell me something of the history of her illness and of her life in general… (555 words)
(excerpt from The White Hotel by D M Thomas)
END OF PAPER. WISHING YOU ALL THE BEST

UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI
CHANCELLOR COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS

END OF SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION
YEAR ONE
PROGRAMME:
DATE:
Time: (3 hours)
STUDENTS’ NAME and REGISTRATION NUMBER:
1. This paper has five sections: A, B, C, D, and E, covering… pages.

2. Answer all questions.
3. Write your answers on the spaces provided on the question paper.
4. Question E should be written on answer sheets provided.
Section A: (15 marks)

Read the text and answer the questions that follow.
Making Chilembwe Mask

Collect a heap of sisal. Scrape it and weave the threat on a mat. Mix two bags of
charcoal and a quarter pail of milled maize bran. Pound them together until thoroughly
mixed. Put the mixture into a large tin. Add some water and stir the mixture
thoroughly. Immerse the sisal threads in the black mixture for a few minutes. Dry it in
the sun for a day. Weave the threads into a hessian with loose threads at the ends. Take
long flexible sticks. Curve an animal structure the size and shape of a cow. Cover the
structure with the hessian. Take the chilembwe structure to liunde, ready for gule-
wankulu, the great dance.
By McLoud E Nkhata, BEd (hum)

From the text, analyse the following key language elements:
1. Verb form (stem, stem+s, stem+ed, be+stem+ed?):

____________________(1mark)
Examples:_____________________________________________________(1mark
)
2. Verb type (dynamic or stative?)
:___________________________________(1mark)
3. Sentence Patterns (V, VO, VOA, SVO, SVOA, SVA, SVC?)
_______________(1mark)
Example
sentences:____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________(1
marks)
4. Discourse Organization (Sequence of occurrence, or conceptual sequence)
________________________________________________________________(1
mark)
5. Discourse reference (general or specific) ____________________________(1
mark)
6. Communicative purpose (Narrative, Instructive, Descriptive: characteristics, Descriptive:
human controlled process, Descriptive: natural process)
__________________________(1mark)
7. By changing relevant key language elements, re-write the text so that it becomes
descriptive (human controlled process). 7 marks)
(Space for writing to be provided here)
Read the passage and answer the following question for Sections B, C and D. ( 55 Marks)
The thief who had been knocked down had now recovered himself; and both together
fell to belabouring poor Joseph with sticks, till they were convinced they had put an end

to his miserable being. They then stripped him entirely naked, threw him in a ditch, and
departed with their booty.
The poor wretch, who lay motionless a long time, just began to recover his senses as a
stage-coach came by. The postillion, hearing a man's groans, stopped his horses and
told the coachman he was certain there was a dead man lying in the ditch. 'Go on,
sirrah,' said the coachman; 'we are late and have no time to look after dead men.' A lady
who heard what the postillion said, and likewise heard the groan called eagerly to the
coachman to stop and see what was the matter. Upon which he bid the postillion alight
and look into the ditch. The postillion did so, and reported that there was a man sitting
upright, as naked as ever he was born. 'O J-sus,' cried the lady, 'a naked man! Dear
coachman, drive on and leave him'. Upon this the gentlemen got out of the coach; and
Joseph begged them to have mercy upon him, saying that he had been robbed and
almost beaten to death. 'Robbed!' cried an old gentleman, 'Let us make all the haste
imaginable, or we shall be robbed too'.
A young man who belonged to the law said that he wished they had passed by without
taking any notice; but that now they might be proved to have been last in his company;
and if he should die they might be called to some account for his murder. He therefore
thought it advisable to save the poor creature's life for their own sakes, if possible - at
least if he died, to prevent the jury's finding that they fled for it. He was therefore of the
opinion to take the man into the coach, and carry him to the next inn.
The lady insisted that he should not come into the coach. She threatened that if they
lifted him in, she would herself alight: for she had rather stay in that place to all eternity
than ride with a naked man. The coachman objected that he could not allow him to be
taken in unless somebody would pay a shilling for his carriage for the four miles, which
the two gentlemen refused to do. But the lawyer, who was afraid of some mischief
happening to himself if the wretch was left behind in that condition, said no man could
be too cautious in these matters, and that he remembered very extraordinary cases in the
books. He therefore threatened the coachman and bid him deny taking him up at his

peril: for if the poor man died, the coachman would be indicted for his murder; and if
he lived, and brought an action against the coachman, the lawyer would willingly take a
brief in it. These words had a sensible effect on the coachman, who was well
acquainted with the person who spoke them. The old gentleman, thinking the naked
man would afford him frequent opportunities of showing his wit to the lady, offered to
give a mug of beer for the fare.
Joseph was now advancing to the coach where, seeing the lady, who covered her face
with her fan, he absolutely refused to enter, miserable as he was, unless he was
furnished with sufficient covering to prevent giving the least offence to decency - so
perfectly modest was this young man. Though there were several great coats about the
coach, it was not easy to get over this difficulty which Joseph had started. The two
gentlemen complained they were cold, and they would not spare a rag; the man of wit
adding, with a laugh, that charity begins at home. The coachman, who had two coats
spread under him, refused to lend either, lest they should be made bloody; and the
lady's footman asked to be excused for the same reason, which the lady,
notwithstanding her abhorrence of a naked man, approved.
It is more than probable that poor Joseph, who obstinately adhered to his modest
resolution, would have perished had the postillion not stripped off a great coat, his only
garment, at the same time swearing a great oath - for which he was rebuked by the
passengers - that he would rather ride in his shirt all his life than see a fellow creature
lie in so miserable a condition. (755 words)
(from Henry Fielding, ‘Joseph Andrews’, in The Language of Prose, by Robert Miller and Ian Currie; with some
alterations to make the passage more comprehensible.)
Section B: Comprehension 30 marks

Answer the following questions, basing your answers on what is stated or implied in the passage.

97. 1. How many thieves were there? Was Joseph one of them?
___________________
98. __________________________________________________________
_2 marks
99. 2. List the passengers who were in the coach before they picked up
Joseph? _______
100. ____________________________________________________
_______2 marks
101. 3. Between the postillion and the coachman, one was the conductor and the
other was the driver. Who was what?
102. Postillion ______________________ Coachman
___________________2 marks
103. 4. ...he was certain there was a dead man lying in the ditch. (par. 2, line 3)
What was the postillion certain about: that the man was dead, or that someone was
lying in the ditch, or both? Explain:
_________________________________________
104. ____________________________________________________
_____2 marks
105. 5. Briefly state the objections each of the following people had against
rescuing Joseph from the ditch.
106. Coachman:_________________________________________________2
marks
107. Lady: _____________________________________________________2
marks
108. Old gentleman: _____________________________________________2 marks
109. 6. What argument of the lawyer produced a sensible effect on the
coachman? (par. 4 line 10) And what was the result of this sensible effect.
___________________________
110. __________________________________________________________
_____2 marks

111. 7. What is suggested about the coachman by the statement: who was well
acquainted with the person who spoke them? (par. 4 line 10)
__________________________
112. __________________________________________________________
2 marks
113. 8. Roughly, how much did a mug of beer cost? Explain.
______________________
114. ____________________________________________________
_______2 marks
115. 9. Mention two people whose actions are not motivated by self-interest,
and in each case state the actions.
_______________________________________________
116. __________________________________________________________
2 marks
117. ____________________________________________________
___2 marks
118. 10. How do you think Joseph's nakedness would afford the old
gentleman frequent opportunities of showing his wit to the lady? (par. 4 line 11)
_________________
119. ____________________________________________________
_______2 marks
120. 11. One person is shown to be a hypocrite who has no compassion.
Who is it? Explain his or her hypocrisy and lack of compassion.
_______________________
121. ____________________________________________________
______2 marks
122. 12. Which one of the following statements would be the most appropriate
moral of the story? Briefly explain why.
123. a). Lawyers like threatening people with their legal knowledge.
124. b). Women tend to exaggerate things.
125. c). Businessmen are hard-hearted.

126. d). Real love involves sacrifice.
127. e). Avoid helping people you don't know.
128. __________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________2 marks
129.
130. Section C: Structure, Grammar and Vocabulary 13
marks
131. 13. What simpler words can replace belabouring and being in the sentence:
...and both fell to belabouring poor Joseph... had put an end to his miserable being.
(par.1)________________________________________________________2
marks
132. 14. Explain in simple language what the following expressions or statements
mean.
133. ...prevent giving the least offence to decency. (par. 5 line 3)
134. ____________________________________________________
____2 marks
135. ...obstinately adhered to his modest resolution. (par. 6 line 1)
136. ____________________________________________________
_____2 marks
137. 15. …the lady's footman asked to be excused for the same reason,
which the lady, notwithstanding her abhorrence of a naked man, approved. (par.
5 lines 7)
138. Write two words or expressions that can replace notwithstanding as
used here.
139. __________________________________________________________
_2 marks
140. Write down an earlier statement of the lady that her abhorrence refers
back to.
141. __________________________________________________________
_______

142. __________________________________________________________
_2 marks
143. 17. They... stripped him entirely naked, threw him in a ditch, and
departed with their booty. List down the verbs found in this sentences.
_______________________
144. __________________________________________________________
3 marks
145.
Section D: Summary 12 marks

146. 18 Summarise the passage you have just read by using the following
format: situation, problem(s), solution(s), and outcome. Remember a
summary must be less than one third of the length of the original passage.
Section E: Essay Writing 30 marks
Answer this question on the answer sheets provided.
Here are notes on the subject: Comparing Malawi under the leadership of Kamuzu
Banda and under Bakili Muluzi.
Malawi Under Kamuzu

1 The country gained independence after more than half a century of British rule.
2 Agriculture system was developed, which made the country self sufficient in food for most of the
years.
3 Tobacco greatly contributed to economic growth and the Kwacha was a stable currency.
4 Secondary education expanded with the introduction of day secondary schools in every district, and a
phased free primary education started and went up to Standard 2 in 1994; The University of Malawi
with five constituent colleges was constructed, offering degrees and diplomas, and many teachers’
and technical college were opened.
5 Tarmac roads were constructed from Nsanje to Karonga, linking the cities and main towns; and
through the Roads Dept and self-help, access roads to small centres and villages were constructed
and maintained.

6 Women and school children were forced to dance for the president wherever he went; and everyone,
including school kids, was forced to buy MCP membership cards.
7 Kamuzu was eulogised as a demigod, proclaimed life president; and anyone viewed to have political
ambitions became an enemy fit to be meat for crocodiles.
8 Many educated people were either detained or lived in exile; the country was terrorised by the Youth
League and MYP and experienced excesses of regionalism.
9 With the rapid population increase, the fall of tobacco prices due to anti-smoking lobby, and the
international sanctions against poor human rights every sector of the economy experienced great
hardships.
10 The Catholic and other established churches, courageous leaders, and the international community
spearheaded a fierce campaign against the oppressive system.
11 After putting up a brave fight, Kamuzu gracefully bowed to internal and external pressures, facilitated
the introduction of human rights and democracy, and peacefully handed over power to Bakili, the
peoples’ choice.
Malawi Under Bakili

1. Malawi made strides to consolidate democracy and human rights after three decades of one-party
dictatorship.
2. A new constitution guaranteeing human rights, limiting to two five year presidential terms, and
providing for checks and balances in government was put into effect.
3. The economy was liberalised, many government companies privatised, and the country
experienced a great increase in small businesses.
4. In many routes, public transport improved with the liberalisation of operations that increased the
number of minibuses.
5. Access to primary and secondary education improved with extension of free primary education to
cover all classes, and the increase in private schools and introduction of community day secondary
schools; Mzuzu University was opened and the introduction of parallel programmes in the
University of Malawi significantly increased access to tertiary education.
6. Malawi opened up to African Union, SADC, COMESA and many international organisations and
groupings, and fully participated in efforts to bring about peace and international co-operation.
7. Tense competition for political offices and the misunderstanding of freedom brought vandalism and
high levels of crime, as many were robbed, beaten or killed by thugs hiding in the ruling party; the
police did little to stop this, and even perpetrated crimes against people, e.g. by teargassing,
shooting and killing people demonstrating.

8. Due to poor funding, standards of education and hygiene in towns and cities swarmed by vendors
plummeted; moreover, deterioration in the road conditions and a general laxity in enforcing traffic
laws brought many accidents, killing so many people.
9. With the collapse of the tobacco industry, escalation of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and suspension of
international aid due to poor governance and high corruption, the country almost ground to a
standstill.
10. Led by the main Christian churches and vibrant civil society organisations, the people waged a war
of mass prayer gatherings and demonstrations in cities until they stopped attempts to extend
presidential terms to three.
11. After successfully campaigning for his successor, the president failed to gracefully hand over
power to his successor.
•
a). Using any of the above notes and your own, write a comprehensive plan of the essay:
Comparing Malawi under Kamuzu and Bakili. Do not write the essay. (10 marks)
b). Using your plan, write a powerful introduction of the essay, incorporating all the elements of
an introduction: general statement, thesis, and statement of contents with a disclaimer. Your
introduction should be one paragraph long, written on one page of the ruled paper provided.
(20 marks )
END OF EXAMINATION. Wishing you a merry Christmas and a happy New Year.
Year.
Alternative question to Section A
Section A: Paragraph Writing by Ordering Jumbled Sentences.

15 marks.
• The following 9 sentences have been deliberately mixed up.

• Order the sentences to form a well written deductive paragraph, using your knowledge of
topic and supporting sentences,
• Write only the letters of the sentences to show your organised paragraph.
A. To begin with, the functions of a newspaper are to inform, educate, and entertain people.
B. In conclusion, therefore, a newspaper should not support a political party if it is to fulfil its functions in
society

C. Consequently, it will have good sales only when the party is popular, but might easily fold up when
the party loses popularity.
D. These functions cannot be easily fulfilled if a newspaper supports a particular party.
E. It is not good for a newspaper to support a political party.
F. Because of this problem, it cannot maintain quality, which may also negatively affect its sales.
G. Another problem is that the paper may not be able to recruit the best personnel because it will be
forced to employ people because they support the particular party.
H. For example, it will exaggerate the goodness of the supported party and the badness of other parties.
I. Such a newspaper is likely to misinform the people by backing the position of the supported party and
misrepresenting that of other parties.
(original paragraph written by Richard Chongo, Agness Wizi, Emmie Mpaso, Angawone Kumpukwe and Ted
Nkhata, Ist Year Bachelor of Education Humanities, May, 2006)
The correct order should be: ……………………………………………………………
Suggested Answers for Exercise 49 from page 106.
A : A fair opinion
B : A biased opinion
C : A well-known fact
D : A factual statement that requires verification
E : A false statement42
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. C
5. C 6. D 7. E (Fiction) 8. B
9. E. 10. A 11. E. 12. D
13. B 14. A 15. E 16. A
17. C 18. E 19. B 20. E
Suggested Answers for Exercise 51 from page 117.

1.Hypothesis contrary to fact 2. Making evidence for cause and effect (Post
42
Note that some of the False statements may simply be false, while some may be fiction – coming from
Literature.

hoc..)
3. Call for perfection 4. False analogy
5. Hypothesis contrary to fact 6. Circular reasoning
7. Does not follow (Non sequitur) 8. Undistributed middle
9. False analogy 10. Irrelevant appeal to sympathy. (Ad
misericodiam)
11. Red herring 12. To the people (ad populem). Poisoning the well,
could also be accepted.
13. Does not follow (Non sequitur) 14. Hasty generalisation
15. Begging the question 16. Circular reasoning
17.Call for perfection 18. Poisoning the well
19. Two wrongs make a right 20. Does not follow (Non sequitur)
21. Begging the question 22. False analogy
23. Does not follow (Non sequitur) 24. To the people (ad populem).
25. Circular reasoning 26. False analogy
27. Does not follow (Non sequitur) 28. Unqualified generalisation (dicto simpliciter)
29. Red herring 30. Hasty generalisation
Suggested answers to Question on An Incident at Chirunga on Page 136

1. November heat, and freedom of dress
2. Disapproved, approved, disapproved, disapproved
3. Removing shirts, and walking about in flimsy pants
4. To protect her, or to get her away from trouble
5. Wrestled to get rightful share; did not want to suffer in silence
6. No. It was just the manner in which they walked; Phwiya was not that sort of
boy.
7. Poor attendance, and ending in no planned action.
8. Would be shot or teargassed, and would be raped
9. The hand in hand walk was already having effect on him
10. From them they freely dressed in whatever they wanted; and the boys did not
threaten their freedom.
11. SVO. Yes, has a state, two actions and a third in a full clause.
12. Visual: details of dress, colours etc eg. skimpy red camisole hang above the
navel…;
Auditory: shoe knocking the floor, noise of other students, eg. rhythm of her
stiletto heels tapping…
Tactile, descriptions of her tight dress, smoothness of her touch etc, eg. slinky
skirt, her soft touch…

Gustatory , mention of breakfast, taste of beer and roast chicken, promising them
a beer party with plenty of roast chicken and meat;
Olfactory, can of aerosol, description of perfume in her room, also and her
perfume, fresh as the fragrance of the first rain on parched land,
13.
Situation
• Malawi, University, Chirunga, library, Little Theatre, Kamuzu Hall, Room
17
• Ten years after Zasintha/democracy, freedom and human rights, three
weeks before exams, Friday afternoon, November sweltering heat
• Phyera, Phwiya, students in university (eg Funase and Faida), savants of
Chirunga, the Lion,
Problem:
• Girls cannot enjoy freedom of dress because boys threaten them, while they
themselves dress in flimsy shorts and no shirts
• Girl cannot agree on action to correct the situation during meeting in Little
Theatre (Phyera’s suggestion to go to breakfast in pants rejected)
• Phyera is about to be harassed for exercising freedom of dress
• Boys feel mentally raped or sexually provoked by Phyera’s scanty dress
Solution:
• Meeting in Little Theatre to discuss problems of girls and women in general
• Phyera goes to library dressed scantily
• Plan of boys to fix Phyera
• Phwiya rescues her from harassment by taking her to her room
Outcome:
• Standard set, now girls dress as they want - no longer intimidated by boys
• Phyera safely led away from the library to her room

These are notes to be used to write a summary by presenting them in continuous prose.
REFERENCES
Afolayan A and H E Newsum. 1983. The Use of English: Communicative skills for
university students. Essex: Longman.
Claunchy J and Ballard B. 1992. How to write essays: a practical guide for students London:
Longman.
Ezor, E and Lewis, J. 1984. From Paragraph to Essay: A process approach for
beginning college writing. New York: McGraw-Hill Company.
Govier Trudy. 1985. A Practical Study of Argument. Bermont, California: Wadsworth
Publishing Company.
Hamilton, E. 1942. Mythology. New York and Scarborough: Penguin.
Kahane Howard. 1984. Logic and Contemporary Rhetoric: The use of reason in
everyday life. Baltimore, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Little, P. 1973. Communication in Business. London: Longman.
Kneale, Pauline E. 1999. Study Skills for Geography Students: A practical guide.
London: Arnold.
Richards. J. C and Schmidt, R. 2002. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics. Essex: Pearson Education.
Thornbury, S. 2006. An A-Z of ELT: A dictionary of terms and concepts used in English
Language Teaching. Oxford: Macmillan.
Williams, R.1982. Panorama: An advanced course of English for study and
examinations. Essex: Longman.
Wyrick J. 1984. Steps to Writing Well. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.

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ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS:

A HANDBOOK FOR COLLEGE

Why make notes?

Secondly, making notes facilitates understanding; this is so because it enables you to

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 2

Skills involved in note-making.

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 3

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 4

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 5

Check the answer2

Thirdly, it is important to understand relationships between ideas as the lecture or

Some of these are as follows:

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 6

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 7

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1. What this clearly shows is that…

1. Main points ---These should start close to the left margin;

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 11

a) Subsidiary points---These should be indented to the right,

i) Details or examples---These are indented further

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 12

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 13

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 14

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 15

Finally, to improve comprehension and memory, and thereby enhance understanding, it is

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 16

In reading, it is important to take note of different ways paragraphs are developed by

Accordingly, the subsidiary points are contained in supporting sentences - specific

1. Mothers have more love for children than fathers.

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 17

Model 1: Deductive Paragraph

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 18

Model 2: Inductive Paragraph

Model 3: Topic Sentence in the Middle

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 19

1. Those marking addition: in addition, and, moreover, furthermore, also, additionally…

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 20

Passengers on Spaceship Earth

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 21

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 22

1. In brief, in short 7. Of course, naturally, obviously

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 23

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 24

Further work on note-taking and note-making.

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 25

Reason for purifying water:

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Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 27

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 28

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 29

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 30

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 31

Zondiwe Mbano, Language Handbook, 2008 32

Further Example Passages

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