LESSON PROPER: 

PED 3: THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL CULTURE AND

ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
 Education has meaning and function to the extent that it is relevant to the society within which it exists. 3.
The teaching profession has function only to the extent that it is able to fulfill the needs of the society and
contribute to the development of people in the society. The Social Science Theories of Education and
Society Education and schooling are found within the context of society. Schools exist within social
context and any change within schools in terms of educational aims, goals, and objectives including its
contents are always in relation to societal changes. Society and schools are interdependent and provide
bidirectional influence to each other. Sociology as a science provides theories, concepts and principles
that help us better understand theories and principles that help shape and guide education. Education on
the other hand through its curriculum trains and educate the people with the necessary The Learner
knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that The School and its Curriculum are necessary for its (What to
teach? How to teach? continued Local Community maintenance, growth, and National development.
International/Global
 
Point for Reflection: 1. A teacher cannot separate himself/herself from the community of which s/he is a
part. S/he together with his/her teaching profession has a social dimension.
 
Three Social Science Theories that provides models of examining society which in turn provides the
bases for educational changes. The school through its curriculum trains and develops students into a set
of relevant knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.
 
Consensus and Conflict PHILIPPINE SOCIETY Theory
 
SCHOOL Depends on schools for the training and development of people and what it requires of its
needed human resource in terms of KSVA
 
INTERNATIONAL
 
The country participates, Dahrendorf (in Vega, Prieto, & Carreon, 2015,p.2) COMMUNITY adapts and
contributes to the global change by sending or allowing its Structural people free movement/
Functionalism access to social-economic cultural changes.
 
Consensus and Conflict Theory
 
Social Science Theories of Education
 
Interactionism
 
describes society as with two faces – consensus and conflict and that sociological theory should be
divided into two parts – consensus theory and conflict theory. Consensus is defined as the widespread
agreement among all members of a particular society. Consensus Theories view shared norms and
values as fundamental to society. It is the people’ shared norms and values that ensure the order, peace
and stability in the society. Consensus theories focus on social order based on tacit or implied
agreements. Any change that happens in a society is slow, gradual, and orderly. In Consensus Theory,
the emphasis is on social order, stability or social regulation. The theory is concerned with the
maintenance or continuation of social order in society in relation to accepted norms, values, rules and
regulations as widely accepted or held collectively by the society. It emerged out of social order, social
stability or social regulation. While conflict is a disagreement or clash between opposing ideas, principles
or people that may be covert or overt. Conflict theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups
over others. Social order is the result of the dominance and manipulation of the strong groups over the
weak. Social change is seen as occurring rapidly and disorderly as the subordinate group tries to
overthrow the dominant group, argued that the focus of the conflict theory is the heterogeneous nature of
society and the disparity, inequality in the distribution of political and social power. Groups that have
vested interest, and with political, social, and economic power wok for rules and laws, that serve their own
 
interests, to be passed to the exclusion of others. A struggle between the two social classes – the
dominant and the dominated; the powerful and the powerless- occurs. The discussion of the conflict
theory is on the emergence of conflict and what causes it. The theory emerges out of the incompatible
aspects of human society, its conflicts, crisis and social change. Conflict Theorists are interested in how
social institutions – family, government, religion, education, economic institutions, and the media – may
help to maintain the power and privileges of some groups and keep others in a subservient or subordinate
position. They advocate for social change resulting from the redistribution resources. In that sense,
people who support conflict theories are viewed as radicals and social activists, (Ballantine & Spade in
Vega, et al. 2015, p.2).
 
 
Issue for Conflict Theory in the Context of Education:
 
Karl Marx argued that society is characterized by class conflicts or the conflict between the bourgeoisie
(the rich owners of production) and the proletariat (the poor workers or working class). From this class
struggle or class conflict, interpreters of the theory posit that social change may emerge from this conflict.
 
How do schools contribute to the unequal distribution of people into jobs in society so that more powerful
members of society maintain the best positions and the less powerful groups are allocated to lower ranks
in society? What is the role of education in maintaining the prestige, social political-economic power and
position of the dominant group while maintaining the lower social position and status of the dominated-
subservient group?
 
On the issue of the role of schools in maintaining the dominance of the powerful over the powerless, Max
Weber argued that schools teach and maintain particular “status cultures” through which groups in society
with similar interests and positions in the status hierarchy are able to maintain their status, their power,
their dominance. Schools are often seen as rather homogenous in their composition of students and they
teach to those students thus perpetuating that “status culture”.
 
Conflict Theory and Education
 
Points for Reflection:
1. Schools for the Rich and Schools for the Poor and how it perpetuates and even farther the gap
between the rich and the poor
2. How can education address the class divide?
3. Examine the Philippine Society: a. Using the lens of Conflict Theory and identify issues and concerns
resulting from conflicts.
4 Functional Imperatives for all action systems. Those imperatives are:
 
1. Adaptation. A system must cope with external situational exigencies. It must adapt to its environment
and adapt environment to its needs.
2. Goal Attainment. A system must define and achieve its primary goals.
3. Integration. A system must regulate the interrelationship of its component parts. It must also manage
the relationship among the other 3 functional imperatives (adaptation, goal attainment, and latency).
4. Latency or Pattern Maintenance. A system must furnish, maintain and renew both the motivation of
individuals and the cultural patterns that create and sustain the motivation. The General Structure of
Action System by George Ritz, (2000 in Vega, et al. 2015, p.5) is presented below.
 
Action System is the behavioral organism that handles the adaptation function by adjusting to and
transforming the external world.
 
Structural Functionalism  Emphasizes social order and social stability and not social conflict  Explains
that society is made up of different institutions or organizations that work together in cooperation – to
achieve their orderly relationship and to maintain social order and social stability. The maintenance of
society emanates from internal rules, norms, values, and regulations of these various ordered institutions.
Modern Functionalist Theories of education have their origin in the work of Talcott Parsons (Ballantine &
Spade in Vega, et al. 2015). Parsons believe that education is a vital part of a modern society. Schooling
performs an important function in the development and maintenance of a modern, democratic society,
especially with regard to equality of opportunity for all citizens. In modern societies, education is the key
institution in a meritocratic selection process. Education also plays a significant function in a political
democracy. Schools provide citizens with the knowledge and dispositions to participate actively in civic
life. In an ever increasingly technical society, schools provide students with the skills and dispositions to
work in such a society. Although schools teach students specific
 
work skills, they also teach students how to learn so they may adapt to new work roles and requirements.
Functionalist and Conflict Theories have been criticized as being highly abstract and whose emphases
are on social structure and processes which are at a macro-level. Critics of conflict and functionalist
theories argued that while those two levels of analysis helps us to understand education in the big picture
or at a macro level, they hardly provide us with an interpretable snapshot of what schools are like on a
day-to-day basis, or what transpires in the classroom between teacher and students and between
students and students. Thus a theory which focuses on micro-level of analysis has emerged, (Vega, et al.
2015). Interactionist Theories Interactionist Theories attempt to make the commonplace, strange by
noticing, focusing their attention and observing the everyday-taken-for-granted behaviors and interactions
between students and students, and between teachers and students. It is what conflict and functionalist
theories do not notice, do not focus their attention to, do not question that is most problematic to the
interactionists. Provide examples here. Symbolic Interactionism Interactionist Theory is traced back to the
works of sociologists George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. They examined the ways in
which the individual is related to society through ongoing social interactions. This school of
 
thought, known as Social Interactionism, views the self as socially constructed in relation to social forces
and structures and the product of ongoing negotiations of meanings. Thus, the social self is an active
product of human agency rather than a deterministic product of social structure. The social self is a result
of social interaction mediated by symbols, in particular, language. The distinctive attributes of human
behavior is viewed as the result of individuals’ participation in varying types of social structures which in
turn is dependent on the existence of language behavior. Symbolic Interactionism is not only interested in
socialization but also in interaction. Interaction is significant in terms of (a) development of one’s ability to
think, and (b) development of one’s ability to express what s/he thinks. All types of interaction, not just
interaction during socialization, refine our ability to think which in turn shapes the interaction process.
Social Interactions
 
Ability to think
 
However, not all forms of social interactions require mental processing or will involve our ability to think.
They are NonSymbolic Interaction or in the term used by George Herbert Mead, the conversation of
gestures which does not involve thinking. Blumer made the differentiation between those two basic forms
of social interaction, namely (1) non-symbolic interaction which does not involve thinking, and (2)
symbolic interaction which require mental processing, (Vega, et al. 2015, p.11). Principles of Symbolic
Interactionism 1. Human beings, unlike lower animals, are endowed with a capacity for thought. 2. The
capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction.
 
3. In social interaction, people learn the meanings and symbols that allow them to exercise their distinct
capacity for human thought. 4. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on distinctively human action
and interaction. 5. People are able to modify or alter the meanings and symbols they use in action and
interaction on the basis of their interpretation of the situation. 6. People are able to make these
modifications and alterations, because, in part, of their ability to interact with themselves, which allows
them to examine possible courses of action, assess their relative advantages and disadvantages, and
then choose one. 7. The intertwined patterns of actions and interactions make up groups and societies.
Symbolic Interactionism is based on the following premises by Mead: 1. People act toward the things they
encounter on the basis of what those things mean to them. The word things refer not only to objects but to
people, activities, and situations as well. 2. We learn what things are by observing how other people
respond to them through social interaction. 3. As a result of ongoing interaction, the sounds (or words),
gestures, facial expressions, and body postures we use in dealing with others acquire symbolic meanings
that are shared by people who belong to the same culture. Example: The handshake, a symbolic gesture
which is not simply a mutual grasping of hands, palms, fingers but conveys the symbolic gesture of
greetings among Filipinos.
 
The importance of thinking to symbolic interactionists is reflected in their views on objects. According to
Blumer, there are three types of objects: 1. Physical objects – chair, tree, Vans shoes 2. Social objects –
student, mother, boyfriend, girlfriend 3. Abstract objects – such as ideas or moral principles (All human
beings are created by God and therefore everybody must be given equal rights and must be treated with
respect and dignity.) Objects are seen simply as out there in the real word. What is important is the way
they are defined or interpreted by the individuals experiencing those objects. Such interpretations lead to
a relativistic view that objects may have different meanings for different individuals. Example: a shoe for a
shoemaker may be his source of livelihood or an expression of his artistic talent; a shoe for a poor kid
may be a source of frustration for not owning a pair; a shoe for a teenager may be a source of pride, a
status symbol. Related to the idea of the self as a social construct is the concept of the looking glass self
put forward by early symbolic interactionist theorist, Charles Horton Cooley. The concept of the looking
glass self suggests that we come to develop an understanding of who we are and who we are not, a
selfdefinition, on the basis of the words or actions of others towards us. The looking glass self forwards
the idea We see ourselves as others see us. A student may acquire the idea that s/he is smart or dumb,
likeable or unlikeable, pretty or ugly from what others tell him/her; or how others make him/her feel about
 
himself/herself. Cooley explained that we use other people as a mirror into which we look to see what we
are like, (Farley in Vega, et al., 2015, p.12). Questions for Reflection: 1. Who are you in the eyes and
words of other people? a. Do you accept your own self-image as presented to you by others without
question? b. Do you like what you see in the mirror? 2. What is your interpretation of the following and
reflect on the effects of your interpretation on your behavior? a. A kind-hearted teacher b. A teacher
known for failing students; or a teacher known for passing all students despite absences and failing
quizzes and exams c. A classmate who is very active in class d. A classmate who smokes and into
fraternity/sorority From: Vega, V.A., Prieto, N.G. & Carreon, M.L. (2015). Social Dimensions of Education.
Q.C.: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Socio-Cultural Phenomenon Influencing Education Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is the phenomenon of multiple groups of cultures existing within one society largely due
to the arrival of immigrants. The term is often used to describe societies, especially nations, which have
many distinct cultural groups resulting from
 
immigration. The presence of many cultural groups in a society can lead to anxiety about the stability of
national identity, but it can also lead to cultural exchanges that can bring benefits to the cultural groups.
When different cultural groups collaborate with each other, they can accomplish many great works in
literature, arts, philosophy, technology, fashion and all other human endeavors that celebrate the richness
of the talents and intelligence of humanity. Multiculturalism is also defined as a policy that emphasizes the
unique characteristics of different cultures, especially as they relate to one another in receiving nations.
Multiculturalism is a systematic and comprehensive response to cultural and ethnic diversity, with
educational, linguistic, economic and social components, and specific institutional mechanisms.
Multiculturalism is viewed as a model of democratic-policyresponse to culture and ethnic diversity
because it corresponds to the ideal of culture of peace based on respect of diversity, as well as
universally shared values and norms. 3 Interrelated Referents of Multiculturalism 1. Demographic-
Descriptive when the word multicultural refers to the existence of linguistically, culturally, and ethnically
diverse segments in the population of a society or state. 2. Ideological-Normative when the word refers to
the management and organization of governmental responses to ethnic diversity (assimilationism,
differentialism and its extreme forms of exclusion, apartheid, ethnic cleansing, and genocide).
 
3. Programmatic-Political when the word refers to the specific policies developed to respond to and
manage ethnic diversity. Multiculturalism and Multicultural Education Multiculturalism refers to the
evolution of cultural diversity within a jurisdiction introduced by its selection policies and institutionalized
by its settlement policies. With the evolving and growing presence of diverse cultural groups in a society,
there arise the need for Multicultural Education which is an emerging discipline whose aim is to create
equal educational opportunities from diverse racial, ethnic, social class and cultural groups. It supports
the idea that students and their cultural backgrounds and experiences should be the center of their
education and that learning should occur in a familiar contact that attends to multiple ways of thinking.
Multicultural education is a tool for establishing pride and confidence among students in their unique and
special backgrounds. This theory concentrates on the need of including notions of race, class and
diversity while teaching. According to James Banks (in Vega, et al. 2015), the goal of multicultural
education is to transform the school so that male and female students, exceptional students, and students
from diverse cultural, social class, racial and ethnic groups experience an equal opportunity to learn. A
key assumption of multicultural education is that students are more likely to achieve when the total
classroom climate is more consistent with their diverse cultures and learning styles. Other goals of
Multicultural Education:
 
To help all students acquire knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function effectively in pluralistic
democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and communicate with peoples from diverse groups in order
to create a civic and moral community that works for the common good. To help students acquire the
knowledge and commitments needed to make reflective decisions and to take personal, social, civic
action to promote democracy and democratic living. Related goal is to help all students develop more
positive attitudes towards different racial, ethnic, cultural, and religious groups.
 
4 Approaches to accomplish the goals of Multicultural Education
 1. Contributions Approach. Ethnic heroes and holidays are included in the curriculum. Heroes, holidays,
and food become a special focus on a particular day; recognizing the contributions of various groups.
2. Additive Approach. A unit or course in incorporated (a unit on women in history), but no substantial
change is made to the curriculum as a whole. Special units and topics about various groups are added to,
but do not fundamentally alter the curriculum.
3. Transformation Approach. Students are taught to view events and issues from diverse ethnic and
cultural perspectives. Curriculum is changed, so that students see the world from the different perspective
of various groups.
4. Social Action Approach. Going beyond transformation approach, students not only learn to view issues
from multiple perspectives but also become directly involved in
 
solving related problems; promotes decision-making and social action in order to achieve multicultural
goals and a more vibrant democracy, (Sadker & Sadker in Vega, et al. 2015). 
 
Multicultural education is grounded on the ideals of social justice, education equity, and a dedication to
facilitating educational experiences in which all students reach their full potential as learners and as
socially aware and active beings, locally, nationally, and globally. Multicultural education acknowledges
that schools are essential to laying the foundation for the transformation of society and the elimination of
oppression and injustice. Multicultural education is a progressive approach for transforming education that
holistically critiques and addresses current shortcomings, failings and discriminatory practices in
education. Interdisciplinary approach
 
Ideals Underpinning Multicultural Education  Every student must have an equal opportunity to achieve
his/her full potential.
  Every student must be prepared to competently participate in an increasingly intercultural society.
 Teachers must be prepared to effectively facilitate learning for every individual student, no matter how
culturally similar or different form themselves.
  Schools must be active participants in ending oppression of all types, first, by ending oppression within
their own
 
 
Globalization
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and convergence of activities and forms of life
among diverse cultures throughout the world. It is fundamentally the closer integration of countries and
peoples of the world which has been brought about
 
Financial
 
Information globalization refers to the increase in information flows between geographically remote
locations. Cultural globalization refers to the growth of cross-cultural contacts where people of the world
get a better understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity and plurality. Globalism refers to the
universal, internationalist impulse that the world is connected; refers to the connection among cultures,
nations, and peoples. It embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to consume and enjoy foreign products
and ideas, adopt new technologies and practices, and participate in “world culture.”
 
Political
 
Implications of Global Information Society to Education Globalism
 
Industrial globalization, Trans-nationalization refers to the rise and expansion of multinational and
transnational enterprises. Financial globalization refers to the emergence of worldwide financial markets
and better access to external financing for corporate, national, and sub-national borrowers. Political
globalization refers to the spread of political spheres of interests to the regions and countries outside the
neighborhood of political (state and non-state) actors and the potential formation of a global citizen
movement.
 
 
Demand for widening the education access for all Lifelong learning Global versus local cultural
developments Creations of new educational networked organizations (ex. Global virtual universities,
virtual schools, multinational educational consortiums). Changing of educational management from
hierarchical institutions to equal distributions of network organizations, from commanding to negotiating.
Demand for more flexible and general skills (ex. Meta-skills like problem-solving, searching information,
learning skills, etc.) Core Values for Global Education  Peace and non-violence
 
Social justice and human rights Economic well-being and equity Cultural integrity Ecological balance
Democratic participation
 
Core Skills and Competencies for Global Education
  Self-worth and self-affirmation
  Affirmation of others, including cultural and racial differences
 Critical thinking  Effective communication skills (including active listening)  Non-violent conflict
resolution and mediation  Imagination (the ability to envision alternatives)
  Effective organizing Globalization and Its Impact on Education The impact of globalization and the way
the system should respond to the needs of globalization would require to be studied under two broad
heads:
1. The needed reform within the educational system like content, equity, excellence, stc.
2. The fall out of globalization will entail determining strategies relating to the impending
internationalization of education, finance-related issues, and privatization of secondary and higher
education. Needed Reforms in Education 1. Content of Education
a. Curriculum Up-gradation. Advances in information technology have revolutionized among others the
 
b. Finance-related issues. In order to be part of global configuration, the requirement of funds for social
services including education will increase manifold. For this purpose, it is necessary to augment
government funding for education.
 
c. Privatization of secondary and higher education. As a corollary to the suggestions about reducing
public investment in secondary and higher education, plea has been made to hand over these sectors to
private institutions. It has also been suggested that institutions beyond primary basic education should
increasingly depend upon tuition fees, the philanthropy of the general
 
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
 
The Member Countries 1. Brunei Darussalam, 2. the Kingdom of Cambodia, 3. the Republic of Indonesia,
4. the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, 5. Malaysia, 6. the Union of Myanmar, 7. the Republic of the
Philippines, 8. the Republic of Singapore 9. the Kingdom of Thailand 10. the Socialist Republic of Vietnam
ASEAN was created as an organization in 1967 with the aim of helping to bring about a Southeast Asian
region of peace, freedom, and prosperity for their peoples.
 
 
Aims and Purposes:
1. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the region through
joint endeavors in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a
prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian Nations;
2. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the
relationship among countries of the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter.
 3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the
economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific and administrative fields.
4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities in the educational,
professional, technical, and administrative spheres;
5. To collaborate more effectively for the greater utilization of their agriculture and industries, the
expansion of their trade, including the study of the problems of international commodity trade, the
improvement of their
 
 
Computers in education disable us because:
 
Effective teaching all but disappears. Good Teach teaching requires a personal connection more
effectively (teacher-student). Internet is unmonitored, filled with erroneous information, political
propaganda, and phony research Reach and The Digital world remains divided. Technology amplifies
economic disparities, teach awarding clear advantage to children from more wealthy high tech homes
attending students wealthy high-tech schools. Make the Students risk becoming anti-social. Many world
our youngsters surf the internet, but are classroom unable to form personal connections. The Internet is
home to many countless narrow-interest groups that fragment society instead of unifying it. Computers
are a health risk. Computer use Turn is associated with increased eye strain, latchkey repetitive motion
injury, and the obesity kids into connected that comes from a sedentary lifestyle. kids
 
Fundamental skills are sidelined. As spelling and grammar tools correct student writing nd computer skills
replace engagement with books, real learning is compromised. Tomorrow’s workers may become
powerless automatons. Though computers have little to show in the way of educational effectiveness,
support for technology in schools remain high. Most parents and business leaders believe that computers
offer Get ready for the future
 
essential workplace skills – an important, if not academic goal. The public also believes that computers
and Internet provide a window on the latest information, and that somehow computers make education
more efficient and more enjoyable. Lewis Perelman (in Vega, et al. 2015): There is a strong case of
education transformation. Knowledge acquisition is no longer something that happens only in school. Now
it occurs everywhere and is lifelong. With the growth of hypermedia and networking, learning can happen
anytime, anywhere. Schools are no longer needed and they are getting in the way of the truly necessary
changes. We see a future where teachers and learners continue to embrace and integrate educational
technology and use it to improve teaching and learning. The following are some of the possible outcomes
of the process of change:  Multimedia learning resources available via information networks will
proliferate and become an essential feature of education.  Learners and teachers alike will have access
to powerful portable computing devices that will be wirelessly connected to network resources.  Learning
will increasingly take place in authentic contexts and focus on authentic tasks. Students will work on real
problems, finding their own answers. Technology will be on tool in that process.  Students will become
active learners, collaborating with one another and with more experienced members of society, to seek
out information and gain knowledge.
 
Teachers’ roles will tend to shift from the sage on the stage to the guide on the side. Instead of conveying
information, they will help learners make use of new information tools to find, analyze, and synthesize
information to solve problems, to think creatively, and to construct their own understanding. Education will
become a lifelong process, important and accessible to all, and schools will become centers of learning –
not just for children, but for all members of the community. The artificial divisions of grade levels will
disappear. Education will increasingly focus on authentic performance-based forms of assessment.
Student will be judged by their ability to find out and use information to solve genuine problems, The
boundaries separating schools from each other and the community will blur or disappear. Using distance
learning technologies, including the Internet, students will learn from teachers at other locations and
collaborate with students at other locations. Teachers will learn alongside students. Students will learn
from other students or from other members of the community. Communities will change as technology
enables collaboration over distances.
 
Gender and Development Gender is one of the universal dimensions on which status difference are
based. The term gender is often mistakenly interchanged with the term sex. Sex is a biological concept,
while
 
gender is a social construct specifying the socially-culturallyprescribed roles that men and women are to
follow. Gender shapes the lives of all people in all societies. It influences all aspects of our lives, the
schooling we receive, the social roles we play, and the power and authority we command. Population
processes – where women and men live, how they bear and rear children, and how they die – are shaped
by gender as well, (Riley in Vega, et al. 2015). Theories of Gender Development
 
 
1. Peace Education: A Transformative Response to Major Societal Changes
2. The Need for Education for Sustainable Development
 
The Teacher in the 21st Century Society The buzzword in education is lifelong learning. The term evolved
from a human society that is becoming even more complex characterized by technological innovations,
free movement of people, goods, and services, and an information-driven-society. It assumes that with
the right knowledge, skills and attitudes, one will successfully adapt to such an environment without being
dependent on formal schools and teachers. Lifelong learning is a continuous process by which one
equips oneself to seize learning opportunities throughout life, and through which s/he broadens his/her
knowledge, skills and attitudes, and enables him/her adapt to a changing, complex, interdependent world,
(Learning the Treasure Within, International Commission on Education. UNESCO, 1996 in Vega, et al.,
2015).
 
The International Commission on Education envisions education in the 21st Century as anchored on the
Four Pillars: 1. Learning to Know
2. Learning to Do
3. Learning to Live Together
4. Learning to Be Learning to know implies learning how to learn by developing one’s concentration,
memory skills and ability to think. It includes the development of the faculties of
 1. Memory
 2. Imagination
3. Reasoning
4. Problem solving
5. Ability to think in a coherent and critical way. When individuals know how to learn on their own, it is
assumed that they will develop knowledge and skills needed to function productively in the 21st Century.
Learning how to learn presupposes the following learn-to-learn skills:
1. Learning to read with comprehension
 2. Listening
3. Observing
 4. Asking questions
5. Data gathering
6. Notetaking
 7. Accessing
 
FOUR PILLARS OF LEARNING
In order that the essence of the four ‘pillars of learning’ be appropriately interpreted, a brief snapshot
follows of what each relates to in term of educational context.
 
Learning to know
This type of learning is radically different from ‘acquiring itemized codified information or factual
knowledge’, as often stressed in conventional curriculum and in ‘rote learning’. Rather it implies ‘the
mastering of the instruments of knowledge themselves’. ‘Acquiring knowledge in a never-ending process
and can be enriched by all forms of experience’. ‘Learning to know’ includes the development of the
faculties of memory, imagination, reasoning, problem-solving, and the ability to think in a coherent and
critical way. It is ‘a process of discovery’, which takes time and involves going more deeply into the
information/knowledge delivered through subject teaching. ‘Learning to know’ presupposes learning to
learn’, calling upon the power of concentration, memory and thought’, to benefit from ongoing educational
opportunities continuously arising (formally and non-formally) throughout life. Therefore ‘learning to know’
can be regarded as both a means and an end in learning itself and in life. As a means, it serves to enable
individual learners to understand the very least enough about the nature, about humankind and its history,
about his/her environment, and about society at large. As an end, it enables the learner to experience the
pleasure of knowing, discovering, and understanding as a process.
 
 Learning to do
This pillar of learning implies in the first place for application of what learners have learned or known into
practices; it is closely linked to vocational-technical education and work skills training. However, it goes
beyond narrowly defined skills development for ‘doing’ specific things or practical tasks in traditional or
industrial economies. The emerging knowledge-based economy is making human work increasingly
immaterial. ‘Learning to do’ calls for new types of skills, more behavioral than intellectual. The material
and the technology are becoming secondary to human qualities and interpersonal relationship. Learning
to do thus implies a shift from skill to competence, or a mix of higher-order skills specific to everyone. ‘The
ascendancy of knowledge and information as factors of production systems is making the idea of
occupational skills obsolete and is bringing personal competency to the fore’. Thus ‘learning to do’ means,
among other things, ability to communicate effectively with others; aptitude toward teamwork; social skills
in building meaningful interpersonal relations; adaptability to change in the world of work and in social life;
competency in transforming knowledge into innovations and job-creation; and a readiness to take risks
and resolve or manage conflicts.
 
 Learning to live together
 In the context of increasing globalization, emphasis on this pillar of learning. It implies an education
taking two complementary paths: on one level, discovery of others and on another, experience of shared
purposes throughout life. Specifically it implies the development of such qualities as: knowledge and
understanding of self and others; appreciation of the diversity of the human race and an awareness of the
similarities between, and the interdependence of, all humans; empathy and cooperative social behavior in
caring and sharing; respect of other people and their cultures and value systems; capability of
encountering others and resolving conflicts through dialogue; and competency in working towards
common objectives.
 
 Learning to be
This type of learning was first conceptualized in the Report to UNESCO in 1972, Learning to Be (Edgar
Faure et al), out of the fear that ‘the world would be dehumanized because of technical change’. It was
based on the principle that ‘the aim of development is the complete fulfillment of man, in all the richness
of his personality, the complexity of his forms of expression and his various commitments – as individual,
member of a family and of a community, citizen and producer, inventor of techniques and creative
dreamer’. ‘Learning to be’ may therefore be interpreted in one way as learning to be human, through
acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values conducive to personality development in its intellectual, moral,
cultural, and physical dimensions. This implies a curriculum aiming at cultivating qualities of imagination
and creativity; acquiring universally shared human values; developing aspe! cts of a person’s potential:
memory, reasoning, aesthetic sense, physical capacity, and communication/social skills; developing
critical thinking and exercising independent judgment; and developing personal commitment and
responsibility. It is important to note that the four pillars of learning relate to all phases and areas of
education. They support and interpenetrate one another and should therefore be applied as basic
principles, cross-cutting themes, and generic competences for integration in and across subject areas or
learning domains.
 
 
TODAY’S EXPECTATIONS OF LEADERS
 
 To meet all challenges in everyday operations
 To move the entire school toward accomplishment of the established mission
  Leadership though collaborative efforts of all stakeholders
  To encourage and empower all participants to analyze their situation and improve their actions to meet
the goals established by the stakeholders as a group.
 
Barth’s Assumption about School Change:
 
1. Schools have the capacity to improve themselves, if the conditions are right. A major responsibility of
those outside the school is to help provide and support these conditions for those inside.
2. When the need the and purpose is there and when the conditions are right, adults and students alike
learn while energizing and contributing to the learning of each other.
3. What needs to be improved about schools is their culture, the quality of interpersonal relationships, and
the nature and quality of learning experiences.
4. School improvement is an effort to determine and provide, from actions inside and outside the school,
conditions under which the adults and youngsters who inhabit school will promote and sustain learning
among participants.
 
School Culture and the Hidden Curriculum Hidden curriculum is a type of curriculum that is not
deliberately planned but has a great impact on the behavior of learners. Peer influence, school
environment, media, parental pressure or total absence of it, societal changes, cultural practices that
students experience, see, and interpret may influence students’ behavior, academic motivation, values,
beliefs, attitudes, and many others. The following is an excerpt from the dissertation of Maningas, G.
(2016). It is a reflection on an issue echoed by the participants in his study.
 
Creeping Hidden Curriculum. . . A Threat to Students’ Academic and Personal Development
 
Papasa ako kahit hindi ako magaral masyado. Wala naming bumabagsak. Sabi nila mahihina kami pero
ipinapasa naman nila kami. That is the voice of one of the participants that compels us to look into. Over
the years of their schooling, there are negative beliefs and values that students developed. They may be
considered as unintended outcomes of the curriculum. Through the lack of professional and ethical
competence of some teachers, some students have acquired undesirable thoughts, feelings, and actions
that threaten their academic development and the formation of the character of the learners as envisioned
by education. McLaren (2003) defines hidden curriculum as unintended outcomes of the schooling
process. Critical educators recognize that schools shape students both through standardized learning
situations and through other agendas, including rules of conduct, classroom organization, and the
informal pedagogical procedures used by the teacher. Coming to the fore through the participants’
narrative is the sneaky influence of hidden curriculum in the behavior of students. The participants’ belief
that they are going to pass even if they do not study because no one fails anyway, or teachers simply
guess the grades of their students are transmitted to students by the total physical and instructional
environment, governance structures, teacher expectations, and grading procedures.
 
Through the tacit ways by which hidden curriculum facilitates the construction of knowledge and behavior,
negative beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are strengthened or the positive beliefs, attitudes and behaviors
are modified in the process. Such is the power of hidden curriculum that when left undetected threatens
the intent of the written, official and intended curriculum. The hidden curriculum finds a powerful medium
in the teachers and classmates in the classroom. Through their verbal and non-verbal communications
transmit the message consciously or unconsciously. However, not all byproducts of the hidden curriculum
are bad or negative because we have also seen in the narratives of the participants, that through the
verbal and non-verbal communications of their teachers, they have acquired a sense of hope and belief in
the potential to succeed in life. Through their teachers’ encouraging and supporting words and gestures,
they found the motivation and inspiration to strive harder. And we need to find more of them in our
classrooms so that the true nature of education will be materialized in the lives of our students. As Freire
(2005) said: “Education is a tool by which people could learn more about their capacity as human beings
– to enhance the knowledge that they already have.” For students to succeed through education, it must
be based ad weaved around the Ethics of Justice and Ethics of Care and implemented within the context
of the Ethical Classroom. Justice is about fairness which implies that we give our students what is due
them and that is nothing but the best education we can offer them. Care is about concern and sensitivity
to their needs and feelings. They become particularly important for
 
students from the economically-disadvantaged families who see education as their only means by which
they can liberate themselves from the complex web of their poverty. Anything less than that is an injustice
committed against them. The de-motivating elements due to lack or absence of personal and professional
traits among some teachers, when viewed in relation to the personal goals of students to help their family
is elevated to ethical and moral discussion. The lives of the students and their poor families are
intertwined with curriculum, instruction, teachers, school administrators, peers, classmates and all
available resources in the society. Denying poor students to improve their human condition in life through
the lack f competence and dedication to their learning and development can be viewed as a violation of
the ethics of justice and ethics of care, setting the condition for structural violence in the classrooms. Thus
there is a need to establish a Culture of Justice, a Culture of Care, and a Culture of Ethics in our schools,
in our classrooms.
 
The Culture of Petiks, Hayahay, and Chill-chiil lang in the Classroom
 
Kasi po nakikita ko sa mga kamag-aaral ko noong high school na sapat lang ang kanilang ginagawa at
hindi sila masyadong nahihirapan. Kaya ayun, naging kapareho na din nila ako na petiks lang. Nakita ko
sa mga classmates ko na petiks lang sila.
 
The existing problem in the classroom is one of being petiks. Other participants use the term hayahay,
chill-chill lang, all describing a general condition of complacency. Participants enter into a context of
learners who are lacking in academic motivation. They observe their classmates’ behavior, they see and
observe its consequences and in seeing them, they decide whether it is worth imitating or not. In their
observed consequence, they see that it is favorable to them – hindi nahihirapan. For students who are
lacking in academic interest and motivation, petiks behavior is an attractive possibility for them, thus they
imitate. This situation also poses dangers for those who are with high academic motivation. In the long
run, they will imitate the behavior of being petiks or hayahay. Continuing with their high academic
motivation in a class of petiks and hayahay is like going against the tide, paddling against the current of
the river. It is just a matter of time before they become hayahay too. Over the years of exposure to the
culture of petiks and hayahay in the classroom, mediocrity becomes the norm thus a culture of petiks,
hayahay, chill-chill lang. As Bandura (1991) argued, our behavior is purposive and regulated by
forethought. We form beliefs from what we think as desirable or not on the basis of what we see. From
our observation on the actions of others and its ensuing consequences, we see possible behaviors. The
culture of petiks and hayahay may also be seen as a micro representation of what James Fallow (in
Teodoro, 2009) see as damaged culture or Jocanos’ (in De Leon, 2011) view as reflection of pwede na
yan mentality.
 
The emerging tendencies of participants to be mediocre (sakto lang, petiks, hayahay, chill-chill lang),
tendencies to avoid being at the bottom of the class but not wanting to go above the average level of
academic performance is in stark contrast with Singaporean students who are among the top performing
students in the world along with students from Canada, Finland, Japan, and South Korea in the Program
for International Student on Assessment (Mehta, 2014). In explaining how Singaporean students pursue
learning, Tan and Yates (2007) asserted that the influence of Confucian Culture pervade the beliefs and
values of Singaporeans. The Confucian culture encourages hard work and effort in the pursuit of learning
so much so that students work by the motto: No pain, No gain. The importance of education and diligence
is stressed by the parents and children. Therefore, the willingness to work hard especially in academics is
extremely important to students, (Tan & Yates, 2007, p.471).
 
School Culture
 
Maningas, G.M. (2016). The phenomenon of sakto lang academic performance: a grounded theory of
incongruent low academic outcome and high academic self-concept. Doctoral Dissertation. Philippine
Normal University.
 
Successful schools emerge from the direction of the principals who see the school organization from a
holistic point of view. Seeing the big picture is what principals do when they understand and are able to
communicate and shape the values, beliefs and attitudes of faculty and students. This allows them to give
guidance to the future of the organization. Culture can affect what teachers discuss in their classroom, in
the faculty room, etc. Cultural beliefs and attitudes impact school improvement to the point that teachers
and students internalize those beliefs and make them personal values. People new to the school must
learn the culture or face sanctions employed by the school. Students and teachers must not become
totally socialized to the culture or else the organization will run the risk of stagnation. A deterrent to a
positive school culture is teacher and principal mobility. The loss of key members of any organization
always impacts on the improvement of the organization. It is the principal’s responsibility to provide
direction so that the school culture becomes a positive force in allowing the school to become the best it
can be. o Principals interested in modifying or changing their school culture must identify and understand
the current culture. Cultural change must be done carefully and with some hesitation.
 
o Principals must understand that actions support deeply held beliefs. It is important that they address the
beliefs of all the stakeholders is school improvement is to occur.
 o Principals must be open to constructive criticisms and the willingness to confront their own beliefs
 
Changing the school culture for school improvement must be the target, not change for change’s sake. At
any point in time, the image of the future will evolve and the principal that can adapt to internal and/or
external threats is the person capable of creating a dynamic school culture, (Senge, in Seinfert &
Vornberg, 2002, p.95).
 
Bosworth’s Strategies for Changing School Culture (For the School Leaders)
1. Establish a program of rewards for positive behavior
2. Communicate core values by modeling appropriate behavior
3. Celebrate staff, student, and community accomplishments
4. Use staff development for teachers and students that allows for giving and receiving praise
5. Assure that teachers and students learn to optimize the opportunities to demonstrate respectful
behavior
 6. Communicate expectations in clear and concise manner
 7. Provide development in conflict and negotiation skills. The School Improvement Model of School
Culture (Cavanaugh & Dellar, 1997)  The nucleus of the model is composed of the values and norms
held by individual teachers. These values and norms
 
 
form the elements of the school culture as they are exchanged among all the faculty members. Should
this fail to occur, there will be an absence of school culture. Teachers working in isolation have no way of
solving school-related problems. The factors that cause schools to improve academically and culturally:
Teacher efficacy. It is about the value teachers place on schooling and the level to which they will work to
accomplish the goals of the organization. The teachers’ values are given credence by their participation in
the school community. Collegiality. It is concerned with and among teachers’ interpersonal relationships
and their need for empowerment. With collegiality comes support from principals and other teachers
which in turn provide educational confidence in the teaching and learning process. With this confidence,
teachers become willing participants in classroom research and innovation. Most of all, they trust each
other and the principal to help with problems and listen when mistakes occur. Collaboration. Focuses on
teacher-to-teacher discourse in the formal setting of the school organization. This aspect of school culture
provides the consistency in instruction that students must have to be successful. Moving from class-
toclass and teacher-to-teacher, students’ learning experiences are enhanced by a unified curriculum and
a variety of instructional strategies. Shared planning. Assumes that teachers know and understand the
school vision and their willingness to participate and implement the school’s targets. This type of
 
planning provides a unity of purpose for all stakeholders. Teacher participation in decision-making
mandates that teachers know and understand school policies, procedures, and most of all the school’s
future direction. Being equal partners in decision making provides the motivation for teachers to pull their
share of the load. 5. Transformational leadership. Focuses on the principal’s willingness and capacity to
support teachers and programs. Principals must be willing to divest themselves of some leadership
responsibilities to focus on the school and community. This does not mean an abdication of responsibility
by the principal, but it does mean a sharing of that responsibility with the entire school community.
Sharing of responsibility should cause individuals in the school to develop leadership skills by capturing
the energy and expertise of the professionals in the organization. 6. Emphasis on learning
 
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
 
From Administration and Supervision to Instructional Leadership Studies on the quality of education here
in the country and abroad brought to the fore renewed interest in supervision coupled with quality
monitoring. Goddard and Richards (in Llagas, Corpuz, & Bilbao, 2016, p.28) describes the renewed
interest. Supervision has been a neglected area of education management for a long time. During the
1970’s, the word inspector or even supervisor had a negative connotation and even became a taboo term
in some countries. Inspection was seen as an old-fashioned, non-democratic institution as a few countries
got rid not only of the terminology but also the supervision service itself. Since the beginning of the
1990’s, there have been renewed interest in issues of quality and therefore in quality monitoring and
supervision.
 
Weber (in Llagas, et al., 2016) pointed out that instructional leadership includes both management and
supervision. He underscored that “beyond the direct contact with teachers (supervision) and the control of
support services for instruction (management) leadership duties include some overarching
 
concerns such as defining school goals, setting standards, and influencing learning climate. It includes
both the tone and the substance of a leader’s relationship with faculty, students, and community.
Leadership is authority invested in a trusted person and thus qualifies as a kind of moral and
transformational power over the organization, (Weber, in Llagas, et al. 2016). The leadership process is
interpersonal and dynamic with the following functions:
1. Setting school academic goals
2. Maximizing effects of instructional organization
3. Hiring, supervising, evaluating teachers
4. Protecting instructional time and programs
5. Setting standards for achievement/setting tone for learning climate
 6. Monitoring achievement levels/evaluating programs
 
The instructional leader is expected to be familiar with all levels of instruction in the school. S/he is likened
to a conductor who knows the qualities of each instrument in the orchestra. The instructional leader relies
on collaborative planning with teachers, parents, internal and external stakeholders. S/he is focused on
two domains: (1) curriculum management and (2) staff development. Hiring, supervising, and evaluating
are interactive functions and concerns of instructional leadership. Hence, the instructional leader is
expected to possess competence to observe teachers, to offer advice as needed, listen to the problems
encountered, and make formative as well as summative evaluation of teacher performance. Monitoring
achievement levels and evaluating program is a challenge to instructional leaders. Setting high
expectations for students is a challenge to teachers and instructional leaders. The instructional leader is a
‘physician’ of the instructional program, keeping a finger on the pulse of the process, by knowing the
program objectives, looking for symptoms of health or problems, and prescribing remedies for weak or
troubled areas. Re-conceptualization of Supervision to Instructional Leadership Supervision was re-
conceptualized to instructional leadership in the late 90’s. Supervision services became part of quality
monitoring in the educational system. Monitoring can be defined as an internal management process of
continuous control of inputs, processes, and outputs in order to identify strengths and weaknesses,
formulate practical proposals
 
for action to be taken and take the necessary steps to reach the expected results. Monitoring system is
classified into: 1. Compliance monitoring
2. Diagnostic monitoring
3. Performance monitoring
 
1. Educational Leadership. The ability to lead in crafting a shared school vision including the development
of curriculum policies and practices.
 
2. People Leadership. The ability to work with various stakeholders. Misfire the respect and cooperation
of people and promote the development and effectiveness of people within the organization.
3. Strategic Leadership. The ability to explore complex issues from global perspective, to manage and
educational enterprise, to focus resources and motivate people in the realization of the shared school
vision. Reinventing the Principalship This is a review of the functions and competencies of school leaders
in basic education: the principal/school head, head teachers/department heads, and teachers-in-charge.
Under the umbrella of educational leadership, the school head/principal is on the frontline. S/he is a
leader in a learning organization as designer, steward and teacher. As a designer, the principal
encourages building a shared vision/mission on how to deal with critical issues. As a steward, the
principal is committed to and responsible for the vision, manages it over self-interest. As a teacher, the
principal fosters learning for everyone in the organization. As a leader, the principal is a team player,
fosters team learning and collaborative problem-solving as the school culture develops trust, supports
innovation and creativity, (Senge, P. in Llagas, et al. 2016). Functions, Responsibility and Accountability
of School Heads (RA 9155 of 2001, Governing Act of Basic Education):
 
1. Setting the mission, vision, goals and objectives of the school.
2. Creating an environment within the school that is conducive to teaching and learning.
3. Implementing the school curriculum and being accountable for higher learning outcomes.
4. Developing the school education program and school improvement plan.
 5. Offering educational programs, projects, and services which provide equitable opportunities for all
learners in the community.
6. Introducing new and innovative modes of instruction to achieve higher learning outcomes.
7. Administering and managing all personnel, physical and fiscal resources of the school.
 8. Recommending the staffing complement of the school based on its needs.
9. Encouraging staff development.
10. Establishing school and community network and encouraging the active participation of teachers’
organizations, non-academic personnel of public schools, and parents-teachers-community associations.
11. Accepting donations, gifts, bequest, and grants for the purpose of upgrading teachers/learning
facilitators’ competencies, improving and expanding school facilities and providing instructional materials
and equipment. Such donations or grants must be reported to the appropriate district supervisors and
division superintendent; and
12. Performing such other functions as may be assigned by proper authorities. Promulgated at the start of
the 21st century, policy makers believe that the enumerated functions and responsibilities need to be
 
 
Sergiovanni (in Llagas, et al. 2016) proposes a reflective practice perspective initiating that administering
which includes the principalship is a moral craft with three dimensions: (1) heart, (2) head, and (3) hand.
 
Organizations become institutions as they are infused with value, that is, prized not as tools alone but as
sources of direct personal gratification and vehicles of group integrity. This infusion produces a distinct
identity for the organization. Where institutionalization is welladvanced, distinctive outlooks, habits and
other commitments are unified, coloring all aspects of organizational life and lending it social integration
that goes well beyond formal coordination and command.
 
The Heart, Head, and Hand of Leadership The heart of leadership has to do with what a person believes,
values, dreams about, and is committed to or that person’s personal vision. The head of leadership has to
do with the theories of practice each of us has developed over time and our ability to reflect on the
situations we face in light of these theories. The process of reflection combined with our personal vision
becomes the basis for our strategies and actions. The hand of leadership has to do with the actions we
take, the decisions we make, the leadership and management behaviors we use as our strategies
become institutionalized in the form of school programs, policies, and procedures. Blumberg (in Llagas, et
al. 2016) emphasized that bringing together head, heart and hand in practice would result to transforming
the school from being an organization into an institutional culture. Institutionalization happens in an
organization over time, reflecting the organization’s distinctive history, the people who create and embody
interest in developing its own culture.
 
Institutional Culture Selznick’s conception of institution is similar to the more familiar conception of school
as learning community. To become wither, the school must move beyond concerns for goals and roles to
the task of building purposes into its structure and embodying these purposes in everything that it does
with the effect of transforming school members from neutral participants to committed followers. The
embodiment of purpose and the development of followership are inescapably moral. Reinventing
principalship accepts the assumption that leadership is not a right but a responsibility. The test of moral
leadership is when the followers and other stakeholders believe in the competence, and well-being of the
leader who encourages and support empowerment of the followers for the benefit of the school.
 
 
The Principal and the Servant Leadership Principals are responsible for ministering to the needs of the
schools they serve. The needs are defined by the shared values and purposes of the school’s covenant.
They minister by furnishing help and being of service to parents, teachers, and students. They minister by
providing leadership in a way that encourages others to be leaders. They minister
 
by highlighting and protecting the values of the school. The principal as minister is one who is devoted to
a cause, mission or set of ideas and accepts the duty and obligation to serve this cause. Ultimately,
his/her success is known by the quality of the followership that emerges. Quality of followership is a
barometer that indicates the extent to which moral authority has replaced bureaucratic and psychological
authority. When moral authority drives leadership practice, the principal is at the same time a leader of
leaders, follower of ideas, minister of values, and servant to the followership. The Principal and
Accountability to the State, Community and Stakeholders School Heads or Principals are responsible for
transforming schools to nurseries of the citizens of the state, (Article II, Section 1, Code of Ethics). They
are accountable to deliver quality education and report such educational outcomes, not just outputs of the
teaching-learning process periodically. This is their personal accountability to the state, the community
and stakeholders. As they perform their role, functions and responsibilities, they are guided by the Ethical
Standards in the Code of Ethic of Professional Teachers and the provisions of RA 6713 Establishing a
Code of Conduct ad Ethical Standards for Public Officials and Employees to uphold the time-honored
principle of “public office being a public trust. As an instructional/curriculum leader, the school head has
the overall responsibility in setting up an efficient and effective instructional system at the classroom level.
Instructional leadership will enhance the creation of a school environment conducive to learning and
develop a synergy in the school
 
community. With the responsibility as an instructional leader goes the accountability of the school head to
the school community and other stakeholders, (SBM-TEEP, 2000 in Llagas, et al, 2016).
 
 
Instructional Leadership and Supervision Models Model 1. Supervision as Inspection (Pre-1900) 
Supervision of teachers was duly the function of administrators as managerial routines.  The supervisor’s
function is to instruct poorly prepared teachers to conform to standard practice in the organizational
administration.  The focus of supervision through the school masters who have unlimited powers to
establish criteria for effective instruction.
 
 
Model 2. Democracy in Supervision (1900-1960)  This model used scientific means of supervision. 
Supervisors were specialists and must have the ability to analyze teaching situations.  The use of data-
gathering devices and tools was introduced.  Teachers must possess certain skills to develop new
methods and materials for instruction.  The influence of John Dewey was very prominent during this
period. Model 3. Supervision as Leadership (1960 to early 1990)  Leadership was guiding organization. 
Supervision to lead mutually accepted goals, extending democratic methods, improving classroom
instruction, promoting research and professional leadership.
 

 
Use of clinical supervision was premised on the principle that teaching could be improved by a prescribed
formal process of collaboration between teacher and instructional leader. Incorporated the cycle of
supervision which consisted of as pre-conference, observation and post-conference. Supervision
embraced the concepts of being developmental (professional growth plans), teacher empowerment, peer
supervision, transformational instructional leadership.
 
Model 4. Standard-Based Supervision (2000 -)
  Emergence of standard-based reforms to raise academic achievement, new curriculum standards,
teacher standards, school heads standards and high-stake tests.
 Supervision focused on teaching-learning standards for improvement of teaching-learning outcomes.
  Changed the view of supervision from inspection to participation, from bureaucratic to democratic and
from evaluation to support. With the standard-based supervision, the main goal is to improve both
teaching and learner performance. School heads act as collaborative, supportive instructional leaders that
continue to evaluate teacher performance and mentor teachers to reflect and improve instruction. Thus,
the ultimate goal of supervision is the improvement of teaching-learning, thus, schoolteachers also
become teacher leaders. Instructional leadership is a joint responsibility of both the school heads and the
schoolteachers. While the school head is
 
responsible of this role over the schoolteachers and staff, the teachers assume this role among their
peers and students. To address these responsibilities, the Department of Education (DepEd) developed
the National Competency-Based Standards for School Heads (NCBS-SH) and the National Competency-
Based Standards for Teachers (NCBTS). These two documents are the foundations upon which the
instructional supervision roles of the school heads and classroom teachers are anchored. Perspectives
for School Heads as Instructional Leaders Instructional leadership embraces actions that the principal or
school head makes or delegates to others to promote growth in students’ learning which include (a) the
clear statement of school’s vision, mission, and goals, (b) support for learning resources, (c) support for
professional development of teachers, and (d) creation of a Professional Learning Community (PLC). As
instructional or curriculum leaders, their major tasks include:
 1. Ensuring curriculum quality and applicability
2. Integrating and aligning the curriculum
3. Implementing the curriculum efficiently and effectively
4. Regularly evaluating, enriching, and updating the curriculum 6 Fundamental standards that define what
principals should do, (United States of America National Association of Elementary School Principals,
2001):
1. Lead schools to place student learning at the center.
 2. Set high expectations and standards for the academic performance of learners and adults.
3. Demand content and instruction that ensure student achievement on agreed upon academic
achievement.
4. Create a culture of continuous learning for adults connected to student learning.
5. Use multiple sources of data as diagnostic tool to assess, identify, and apply instructional improvement.
6. Actively engage the community to create shared responsibilities for student and school success.
Instructional Leadership is driven by the National Competency Based Standards for School Heads
(NCBS-SH). DepEd in 2012 through the Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda (BESRA) developed the
NCBS-SH as the common standards for all school heads. The development was guided by the following
basic principles.
1. Function-based. The competencies are based on school head functions as stated in RA 9155 or An Act
Instituting a Framework of Governance for Basic Education, Establishing Authority and Accountability,
Renaming the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) as the Department of Education
(DepEd), related laws and DepEd policies.
 2. Responsive. Competencies are applicable in any range of context: big or small school, city or rural
school, culturally divergent groups.
3. Impartial. These are applicable to any school head, regardless of position item, gender, age,
experience and other personal circumstances.
4. Coherent. These are clear and logical.
5. Valid. All performance indicators are research-andexperience-based.
 
The National Competency-Based Standards for School Heads (NCBS-SH) Domains and Descriptions
National Competency-Based Standards for School Heads(NCBSSH) Domain 1 School Leadership
Domain 2 Instructional Leadership Domain 3 Creating Student-Centered Learning Climate Domain 4 HR
Management and Professional Development Domain 5 Parent Involvement and Community Partnership
Domain 6 School Management and Operations Domain 7 Personal and Professional Attributes and
Interpersonal Effectiveness Competencies and Behavioral Indicators under Domain 2: Instructional
Leadership
 
Competencies Assessment Learning
 
Indicators for -manages the processes and procedures in monitoring student achievement -ensures
utilization of a range of assessment processes to assess student performance -assesses the
effectiveness of curricular/co-curricular programs and/or instructional strategies -utilizes assessment
results to improve learning -creates and manages a school process to ensure students’ progress is
conveyed to students/parents/guardians regularly Developing and -develops/adopts research-based
school using programs programs/adopting -assists in implementing an existing existing programs
coherent and responsive school-wide curriculum -addresses deficiencies ad sustains successes of
current programs in collaboration with teachers and learners Develops a culture of functional literacy
Implementing -manages the introduction of curriculum programs for initiatives in line with DepEd policies
instructional -works with teachers in curriculum improvement review -enriches curricular offerings based
on local needs
 
 
 
Instructional supervision
 
Manages curriculum innovations and enrichment with the use of technology -organizes teams to
champion instructional innovation programs towards curricular responsiveness -prepares and implements
an instructional supervisory plan -conducts instructional supervision using appropriate strategy -Evaluates
lesson plans as well as classroom learning management -provides in a collegial manner timely, accurate
and specific feedback to teachers regarding their performance -provides expert technical assistance and
instructional support to teachers
 
Perspectives for Classroom Teachers as Instructional Leaders The new view of instructional leadership is
no longer limited to the function of school heads. Those who remain to be in the classroom as classroom
teachers or master teachers are also considered as instructional leaders. Sometimes they are also
referred to as teacher leaders and more specifically, instructional leaders. Teacher teaching behavior and
student learning outcomes are the two main foci of school heads’ instructional leadership. Ideal teaching
is defined by a set of standards contained in the National Competency-Based Teacher Standards
(NCBTS).
 
National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) Domain 1 Social Regard for Learning Domain
2 The Learning Environment Domain 3 The Diversity of Learners Domain 4 Curriculum Domain 5
Planning, Assessing and Reporting Domain 6 Community Linkages Domain 7 Personal Growth and
Professional Development Teacher Leaders perform the following roles: 1. Instructional Leader. As an
instructional specialist, teacher and master teachers help colleague use effective teaching strategies.
They assist their peers in various aspects of teaching like assessment in learning, development of
instructional materials or doing action research. They become mentors to novice teachers. 2. Curriculum
Leader. As a curriculum specialist, teacher leaders understand 3. Classroom Leader 4. Learning Leader
5. Peer Leader 6. School Leader
 
The Teacher as Leader
 
The Principal as Leader of Leaders the Principal and Instructional Leadership
 Instructional Leadership Defined
  Instructional Delivery Systems o Inquiry Instructional System or Cooperative Instructional System o
Problem-Based Instructional System o Concept Attainment Instructional System o Classroom Discussion
Instructional System
 Instructional Collaboration
 Evaluation of Instruction o Two-Hat Theory of Instructional Evaluation o Results-Based Supervision as a
Model for Instructional Evaluation o Democratic Supervision as a Model for Instructional Evaluation
Integrity and Ethics for School Leadership  Ethical Conduct  Core Values and Ethical Decision Making

  Ethical Leadership