Agamas

AN D
South Indian Vaisnavism

By
Dr. v. VARADACHARI,
French Institute of Indolagy, Poudzcherry.

Published by
Prof. M. RANGACHARYA MEMORIAL TRUST
TRIPLICANE, MADRAS—S.

Price : Rs. 50/-

first Edmon: February 1982

Copzes can be had of:

M. C. KRISHNAN,
41, Sunkuwar Street,
TRIPLICANE, NIADRAS-600005.
&
SRI RAMANUJA VEDANTA CENTRE,
10, South Mada Street, Tnphcane,
M “IRAS-600005.

VIDYA PRESS 41. Sunkuwar Strut Tnplrcane Madras-600005

 FOREWORD
It is an honour to be assrgiied the task of welcoming and
introducing this massive work by the renowned scholar,
Dr. V. Varadacharya. He has been working on this theme for
decades wrth admirable thoroughness and the present publication
embodies his lectures under the noble Trust in Honour_ of
the memory of the great savant, Prof. M. Rangacharya.
The Trust was brought into exrstence by the highly accomplished
and venerated son of the professor, the late lamented Prof.
M. R. Sampatkumaran. The book is being brought out by the
devoted and worthy cousin of the professor, Sri M. C. Krishnan.
The book does promote the lofty goals of the Trust in a
conspicuous measure
About the book itself, conSidering its vast scope, patient
scholarship and meticulous documentation, it is hardly possible
to pronounce a Just and adequate estimate. Luckily, such is
not the function of a foreword. The author starts With the
giddy and dim heights of the Vedic religion and advances
methodically to the delineation of recent Hindu philosophy and
religion, which are dominated by the Agamas. The Recent
Hinduism lS Agamic in character, whether it be Sakta, Saiva
or Vaisnava. Not that the hoary heritage of the Vedas,
Upanishads, the EpiCs, Puranas and Smritis is discardedfibut
it is subsumed and concretized in the livmg traditions of
practical HindUlSl’n. Our author takes the treatment to further
particularization and brings up to South Indian VaisnaVism.
The treatment is neatly introduced With a clear formulation
of the subject-matter. The validity of the Agamas was
sometimes questioned in the orthodox Hindu tradition itself
and hence the question of their validity is Considered critically
and exhaustively 1n the context of the ved1c traditton. The
dunensmns of the Agamas. thelr classrficatron and the principal
schools of the Agamtc rehgtor. l'eCCIVC thelr due conSIderatron.
Thrs dlscussion arnves naturally at the second focal point of the
work, the Vatsnava Agamas Thelr two-fold traditlon, the
Vatkhanasa and the Pancaratra, lS taken up 1n all the requxred
completeness We are gwen a full map of the Pancaratra
texts How the Splrll and doctnnes of thls Varsnava agamlc
tradltlon penetrated Valsnava hterature m general 1s shown 1n
great detatl The llvmg Hmdursm of recent ttmes centres round
WOl'Shlp. The prmc1ples and tec‘miques of WOl'Shlp m prlvate
and In temples recelve ample descnptlon, not excludmg the art
and scrence of the constructron and matntenance of temples
and the 100115 to be adored 1n them. How tlns conceptron and
practice of rehglon deeply entered mto the actual life of the
people m all aspects [5 brought out 111 the concludlng chapters.
The book, one may say, errs 1n its abundance. But 1t
welds the bewrldermg mass of data mto an Integrated desrgn.
All the old sources and all the wrttmgs on the Agamas by
modern wrlters are notlced and judmously put to use. By far
fins 15 the WClghthSt modern treatment of the Agamas. While
thankmg the publlshers, we are to hope for the rlght reception
to this altogether soltd contnbutton.

S. S. RAGHAVACI-IAR
MYSORE Professor and Head of the Department of
31—12—’81 Philosophy (Retd ), Umversrry of Mysore.
 PREFACE
The following pages contain an account of the origin.
growth and development of the Agamas with specxal reference
to the Va1snava kind. They are wutten after a deep study of
the original texts of the Vatkhanasa and Pancaratra.
Interest was aroused 1n me for a study of the Vaisnava
Agamas, when I went through Otto Schrader’s Introductton to
the Pancaratra and Ahlrbudhnyasamhlta and the Sanskrit
introduction to the Lakshmltantra edition of the Adyar Library
wrltten by my revered father Pandit V. Knshnamacharya.
These two are the only invaluable and authoritative sources for
the proper understandmg of the Valsnava Agamas.

While maktng a progressrve study of the Vaisnava Agarnas,

I received a call from late Prof. M. R. Sampatkumaran to
deliver three lectures at Tnpltcane under the auspices of
Prof M Rangacharya Memorlal Trust on Agarnas and South
Indian Vatsnav1srn. Accordingly the lectures were delivered
by me
Soon after, late Prof. M. R. Sampatkurnaran suggested to
me to prepare a work on the topic of the lectures dellvered I
agreed and began preparing to gather more information and
details on this subject. Late Prof. M. R. Sampatkumaran
asked me frequently to clarify certain problems Wthh are
necessarlly to be solved and settled sa’usfactonly. This was
really a hard task, ,smce I could find neither a scholar
who could be of help to me for suggesting the means to serve
this and nor any standard work, but for the two works (the
latter is only an introduction) whlch 1nSp1red me for I. . 1, up
.‘ U.

study of the Agamas. I dld not lose heart but managed to have
 V!

the matters cleared with the help of these two works and the
Sta\dard samhitas of the Vaikhanasa and Pancaratra. Therefore
the credit should go to late Prof. M. R. Sampatkumaran for
much of the contents and their treatment in this work.

While writing on this topic, certain matters crop up

demanding solutions that could have a veracity like that of the
already settled issues. With the available eVide ices no solution
could be arrived at The eVidences could only be studied and
concluswns be drawn for the time being, allowmg subsequent
alteration when more acceptable and satisfactory evrdences
become available.

To start with, mention must be made of the nature of

beginnings of systems and schools such as MuSic, Dance,
Drama, Grammar, Arthasastra, Silpa, Puranas, Kalpasutras
and others. Eminent sages have their names associated with
these, sometimes the same name occurring for more than one
branch or school The sages could have been related to each
other as master and pupil or indebted mutually or bearing
mutual influence. So the schools are taken to be interrelated
and interdependent too in some respect. When the idea of the
whole could have thus prevailed, it is not proper to treat one
system as fully derived from another, unless there is direct
evidence in support of it. The question of Sakta agama alone
to have been the precursor of other kinds of Agamas should
therefore be treated as idle. Equally baseless should be the
reason that agama should have had its home in India or outside
India. With our limited knowledge of the situations in the
remote periods, it is too early to be dogmatic for suggesting a
period or periods for the origin of the Agamas.

Suggestions have been made by some writers that the

Asturias are antivedic and should have risen under the impact
H? the wavs of life of the aborigines of India. It is to be
 VII

observed here that borrowing, whether, linguistic, religious or

cultural, is always from those who are Spiritually and morally
superior or politically dominant in power: minor impacts
could have been there on the cultured class coming from the
tribes but wholesale concept of the Agama way of worship
could not have emanated from the tribes: the Agamas must
therefore be treated as supplementary to the Vedas.

Ever Since the Agama mode of life and worship came into
vogue, there were host of writers on the Smrtls and Puranas to
denounce it as unauthoritative and anti-Vedic. However, the
Agama mode has come to stay stabilised and getting intertwined
with the Vedic practices. The reference to the linga in the
Taittlriyaranyaka 10. 43-47 should be taken to point to the
prevalence of ofl‘ering worship to the symbol (pratika) which is
as valid as Yantra representing a stage prior to the evolution of
idol (pratima)

Then there are the composrtrons of the Alvars. There are

shrines whose glory is sung by them and recorded in the
Nalayiradivyaprabandham. There are also the Agama texts.
Among these, the temples should been in existence for along
period before 7th century A.D. when the Alvars sang their glory.
The structures in most of these huge shrines, which were built
followmg the sculptural and Agamic directions, should be placed
at a period later than the Alvars. Whether these temples were
built accordmg to the Agama directions cannot be proved With
any degree of certainty. The shrines at Paramesvaravinnagaram,
Tirukkottiyur, Kudalur, Srirangam and others reveal through
their structures, that they bear the Agamic influences. ThlS
cannot be said of other shrines Besides, the two important and
well known shrines at Srirangam and Tirumalai have then
Vimanas named Pranavakara and Anandanrlaya. Neither the
Silpasastra nor the Agama texts envisage the erection of the
vimana of these kinds. It must he therefore, be taken that the
 Vin

Agama texts were not as ancient as the composrtions of the

Alvars and that even when they became composed, they dtd not
have their full impact on temple constructrons.

It is equally unsound to agree wrth the 1dea that the Vedas

do not contatn reference to female deitres who became Introduced
later unto the eptcs. The Tattttrtyasamhtta (1-8-6-1) refers to
Suva as Ambtkapau. The name Ambtka occurs as, the name of
the Jelly That ltke Stva, she could not have recetved worship
1n the form of idol 1s another pomt.

The Vatkhqnasa system 1s more ancreut than Pancaratra

11 :1, Bltrgu and others were the dtrect puptl» of
thc .anas. Yet, the texts whtch are now available under the
authorshtp of these are not in a language suggesttve of an anctent
kmd. They must be placed thus 1n the pertod about 6th or 7th
century AD

Regardmg l’ancaratra texts, the ancrent ones do not contatn

reference to temples or idols there. They contam much useful
maternal regardtng Jnana, Cosmology, Vyuha, Yantra, Hanna
and Yaga. The order among the texts may not be fixed a» a
text, supposed to be earlter mentions the text clatmed to he later
Yet, Jayakhya, Laksmitantra, Ahtrbudhnyasamhtta, l’arttma-
samhtta, Pauskara and Sattvata can be taken at present as
havmg been composed 1n thts order

Concepts and theortes of Vtststudvatta on the phlthOpllICJl

sphere tmpressed the Vatsnava communtty to u. very htgh degree
Temple worshtp has been, however, very pOpular. The result of
thts has been that the later texts on the Agamas Ignored to a
great extent the value of Jnana and Yoga padas and patd much
attention to the treatment of Krtya and Carya aspects, as temple
construction and worship of the tdols found much favour with
the peOple.
 With all the rich and ancrent back ground of the Agamas,
it IS strange to note that both the Vaisnava Agamas are in vogue
and practised only in South India, with few exceptions in some
places in North Indra. The Varkhanasa is less known in the
North than the Pancaratra. The reason must be found 1n the
far more numerous Visnu shrines situated in South India
celebrating as glorified by the Alvars.
These observations made above have validity only for the
present. Deeper study of each of the Vaisnava Agama text,
when undertaken will throw much light on many of these issues
requiring modification and alteration for the concepts and
theories now held as belongmg to this Agama tradition I have
the feeling that whatever IS necessary is not left out in 111118 work.
At most, this work could be treated as source book for further
study to be undertaken on the subject.

It is sad that Prof. M. R. Sampatkumaran is no more

to see this work released. I could not forget 1118 repeated
utterances of encouragement and support for completing this
work. I should thank also Sri M. C. Krishnan, the publisher
for his painstaking efforts to see the work through the press.

DR. V. VARADACHARI,
French Institute of Indology,
February, 1982. Pancho/terry.
 Srimate Ramanujaya Namah

PUBLISHER’S NOTE
The printing of this book, Egamas and South Indian
Vazsnavzsm, had almost been completed when a cruel fate
intervened and snatched away Prof. M. R. Sampatkumaran.
It is am1dst the gloom of his demise that I am compelled to
write this note
Three lectures on this subject were delivered during
February 1974 by Dr. V. Varadachari, currently of Institut
Francaise D’Indologic, Pondicherry, under the auspices of
Prof. M Rangacharya Memorial Trust (endowed by his dutiful
son, the late Prof M R Sampatkumaran). The rewsion of
these lectures for being printed and the necessary time requ1red
for editing and printing carefully a book of this bulk accounts
for the long delay in bringing it out.
The scope of this work and its approach to the subject has
been briefly, yet very succmctly, explained by Prof.
S S. Raghavachar in his foreword. The authenticity of the
Agamas has been questioned from about the beginning of the
Christian era. The ObjeCUOn 15 based only on one pomt viz ,
worship of God based on the supposed non-Vedic character of
the Agamas which recommend strongly the worship of particular
deities in an exclusive manner Idol worship marks the Agamic
mode of worshipping God. The objections against the validity
of the Kgamas have been refuted by Yamuna in his great work
Agama Prfimfinya and RamanUJa has made good use of the
Kgama texts in his expOSition of the philosophy of Visistidvaita.

The Agamas glorify several deities and there appear to have

been certain Agamas of the nastlka kind too. In course of time
only the S'Ekta, Shaw and Vazszzava Agamas survwed and the
rest became extinct. In this book Dr. V. Varadachari has ably
dealt elaborately on various Kgama texts and has devoted
detailed attention and emphaSis, particularly on Vaisnava
 xii

Agamas and the nature of worship in Vaisnavarte temples and

their effect on the religious life of the devotees of Visnu in
South India The Width and the depth of scholarship called for
in making such a study of the subject may very well be judged
from the works listed out in the Index. Dr. V. Varadachari has
done more than real serVice 11’] bringing into focus the Agatha
literature which had not so far been dealt with in a scxentific
manner.
Readers may be aware that this Trust has been, in its own
humble way, making significant contributions to the study and
propagation of the philosophy of Viéistadvaita, and the present
publication, the fifth m the series, is m fulfilment of a
commitment made in 1977 at the time of publishing the earlier
work, Sri Ramanuja’s Philosophy and Religion by
Dr. P. B. Vidyarthi.
It remains for me to express my thanks to Dr. V. Raghavan
and Sri C. S. Parthasarathy Iyengar (both of them are no longer
With us) and Prof. A. N. Parasuram who presided on the three
days of the lectures and conducted the proceedings. I am
greatly indebted to Prof. S. S. Raghavachar, who, in spite of
failing health had been good enough to write the foreword in
his inimitable style. The Triplicane Cultural Academy assocrated
itself with the lectures and the authorities of Sri Yadugiri Yatiraja
Mutt, Triplicane, Madras, kindly allowed the use of their hall
for the lectures I am under obligations to all who helped
in the printing of this book and to Sr1 M. A. Thirumalachan
and Sn A. Thamgachalam In particular. I cannot sufliCiently
eXpress my thanks to Sn M. N. Parthasarathy, M.A., Secretary,
Sri Ramanuja Vedanta Centre, Madras, for 1115 assistance in
getting this book ready

February, 1982. M. C. KRISHNAN.

 CONTENTS
PAGES
Foreword ill—1v
Preface V—lX
Publisher’s Note rx1—xu
Contents xru—xw
CHAPTER I
'

INTRODUCTORY .. 1—42
Vedas as records of the various aspects of the Hindu way of
llfC in ancient Indla—Purposes served by them (1) , Religious
aspect of life, nature of the derty, mantras, socral and cultural
aSpects—supernaturahsm, performance of the rituals (2—8) ;
rise of the Agamas, which satisfied the yearnings of people to
Visuallse the deity and offer worshlp (9-10) , Agama and tantra,
derivative s1gn1ficance, concept of God, as a supreme
delty (11—16) , Sankhya Influence and concept of sakti and
cosmology, liberatlon and the means for it (17—21) , the four
d1v1s1ons of the Agama, Jnana, Yoga, Knya and Carya, the
purposes served by each finitrzed form of God, concept of idol
and Idol WOI'Shlp and construction of temples to house It (22—26) ;
mantra, yantra, matrka, drksa, antaryaga, bahlryaga, bhuta—
suddhr, mandala, nyasa, mudra—forming part of the kriya and
carya drvrsrons (27—35) , 61(0th and endemic influences for the
use of the Agamas, home and date of the Agamas (36—42)
CHAPTER II
VALIDITY OF THE AGAMAS . . 43—56
Objections raised against validlty of the Agamas—five are
they m number as recorded In ancrent texts like smrti and
purana—they are answered—evidences from the same sources
(43—52) , evrdences in favour of Agama authorlty (53—56).

CHAPTER III
CLASSIFICATION OF AGAMAS 57—78
Saktr’s role 1n the theory and practise of the Agamas (57) ,
clasmfication accordmg to the posmon of Sakt1 and deity - the
Sakta kmd (58—59) , Saiva [South India and Kashmir] (60—66) ;
Vaisnava kind, their rise, temples, ev1dences from Sanskrit and
Tamil sources (67—73) , two subdrvisrons—Vaikhanasa and
Pancaratra (74—78).
CHAPTER IV
VAIKHANASA AGAMA 79—116
The names Valkhanas and Varkhanasa explained, greatness
of Vikhanas, validity of the Agama (79-87) , antrqurty of
 XIV

Varkhanasa,—popu1arity (88-91) ; nature of ultimate Reality—

means of worship—Yoga and Japa (92—105) ; the texts of Atri,
Bhrgu, Kasyapa and Mar1c1—br1ef account of their contents
(106—116).
CHAPTER V
THE PANCARATRA AGAMA . . 117—191
Five kinds of tantra accordmg to Visnusmrti (117-118) ;
the word Pancaratra explained—nine explanations are Stlgoested
—exam1nation of them and the acceptable among these (1 19—124);
cvrdence of Ahirbudhnyasamhlta (125—126) , Van Bultenen’s
explanation of the name and the way of its rise examined and
rejected (127—131) ,—non-ved1c and anu—xedic nature of this
Agama, suggestion for — reputation of them (132—134) ;
authority of this Agama (135—137) , Ten ObjCCth‘ 3 against
admitting validity, they are answerei (138—148) , proofs for the
Vedic character (149—151) ; objection based on the evrdence
based 0n the Brahmasutra, it 18 answered (152—161) , Validity
vmdzcated (162—166); Ol'lglll traced to ancrent sources (167—172);
ex’idences—explanauon for a passage from the Paripadal. a Tamil
classrc (173-181) , antrqurty of Pancaratra, literary and inscrip-
tronal evrdences (182—190) , exotic origin denied (190—191)
CHAPTER VI
PANCARATRA AGAMA DOCTRINES 192—243
Srddhnnta another name for Agama ItS d1VlSlOI‘lS (192—193) ,
ultimate Reality, tattvas, cosmology, sadgunya, its role in the
Vyuha concept (194-206) , Sub-vyuhas, Vlbhava and sub—
ubhavas “concent of vyuha (206-210) ; area, forms of God—
divme desccnts Saktt and Sn, Visakha Yupa concept (211-223) .
creation of misra and asuddha kinds (224—227) ; moksa stem: of
eelf—~xneans for— (228—230) , szcakala lelSIOl'], yoga, Nyasa
(231—219) . I)lSV)]lIthl’l, linguistic occultism—mantm—place
for this in upasam (240— 243).
CHAPTER VII
PANCARATRA TEXTS 244—290
The prmmry preachers of the Pancaratra doctrines (244) ,
Number of the texts, their date, nature of therr contents
(245 248) . Pauskara, Sattvata, Jayakhya, Ahirbudhnya and
Lakshnntantra represent the early tradition (249—267) ; lsvara,
Parama, Sanaikumara and Paramesvara belong to a slightly
later stage (268—278) , Padma, Vlsnutilaka and others come
ucxtt279 0.88) . Srmrasnals the latest among the (“IMHO—290).
 XV

CHAPTER VIII
AGAMAS IN VAISNAVA LITERATURE 291-343
Vaisnavism developed through the influence of the Agamas,
Pancaratra to a greater extent and the Nalayii-a divyaprabhan-
dham. The Visnupurana played a very notable part. The
doctrines of the Pancaratra are recorded in the Narayaniya
section of the Santiparvam of the Mahabharata. Place of
Jitante stotra (291—306) ; Yamuna’s contribution through the
Agamapramanya, his rejoinder to the opponents’ exposrtion of
the Utpatyasambhavadhikarana (307—308); RamanuJa’s
contribution (309—310). The works of Srivatsankamisra and
Parasarabhatta (311—317); Pillai Locacarya’s works (318—323);
works of VedantadeSika—speCial value of the Pancaratraraksa
and Saccaritraraksa (323—333); Manavalamamuni’s contri-
bution (333-335); works of later writers (335-343).
CHAPTER IX
AGAMAS AND TEMPLES 344-406
Building of temples, installation of idols and consecratory
rites are done under the influence of the Agamas of both kinds
(344—346); number of idols, qualifications for those who
perform the consecratory rites and daily worship in the temples,
difference in this respect between the two Vaisnava Agamas
(346—354); act of initiation, kinds of initiation (355—357),
Pancasamskara (357), Mantras and their kinds (358-360),
Temple construction (361—364); installation ceremonies-main
deity, Vibhava deities and secondary deities (355—369) , daily
worship (369—377); Sudarsana and bhaktaberas (377—378);
flower and food ofl'ermgs (379-380); speCific occasions for
worship (380), Festivals—definition of utsava—Kinds of
festivals, recitation of Alvars composmons in front of the deity
during processrons avabrtha, festivals for the devotees of God
(381—398), snapana (398—400); rites of expiation for the
shortcomings occurring during the conduct of the festivals—
Pav1trotsava (399-403) , conduct of people in temples
(403—406)

CHAPTER X
AGAMAS AND THE WAY OF LIFE .. 407-438
Influence of the epics, Puranas and Dharmasastras on the
behaViour of people (407—409) Ramanu3a’s Nitya (410) ,
Pancasnmskara and its significance, the Vaikhanasa do not have
it (410—422); extent of the Pancaratra Influence on the
practices of t‘- e Vaisnavas of Ramaruia’s school, performance
of Samdhya, Japa, WOl'Shlp of the deitv m the form of idol or
salagrama (422—432); daily practices of domestic kind
(432-436) ; observance of Srijayanti (437—438).

CHAPTER XI
CONCLUSION 439-515
The Pancaratra system alone has exerted its influence on
echonls of V'usnavism—Ramanuin (439—444) ; Madhva
(444—449); Nimharka (450-45); VaHahhacarva (455—459);
":1H m m ('1 (Mn—460); Caitanya (460—466); Viinanabhiksu
A671 : 01‘ cr V mm a sec!s (467—470) ; spread of Vaisnavism
through the regions of India~ exerti :g a sort of influence of the
Pancaratra in some areas—Tamil Nadu (470-476) ; Karnataka
(476-4803 : Andhra (480—483) : Kerala (483—487) ; Maha-
rastra (487—4891 : Gujarat (489—490) ; Madhyanradesh
(490—492) . Raizlsthnn (402—493) ; East Pumab (494);
"as' ".w (40 ‘JQM , T't'ara Pradesh (496—497); Bihar
.4 "-409‘: Bengal (498—499); Assam (500—501): Orissa
( "’Jn“ : 1m wet noon the near and far East Asia (502—504);
Vuisnawsm and Mnsxc—L'mguaaes used for the purpose Tamil,
Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Sanskrit. Maharastri, Guiaratl,
Hindi, Bengali. Assamese and Oriya (505—513); Significance
of the w n of idols for worship (513-615).
Bibliography s17~522
List of Abbreuauons 42‘» 5‘4
Index—List of Works Cited 525— 537
..
List of Writers 538 ‘43
“Al-5'31
(ilossau .

Punk: .. "3
m-
Agamas and South Indian Vaisnavism
CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

The Veda: represent the earliest extant literature in the

world They are four, under the names of Rgveda, TaJurveda,
Samoyeda and Atharnavea‘a They record many aspects of the life
of the people of ancrent India whose religious beliefs and
aspirations left an indelible mark on their somal llfe. Indeed,
the religious and seem] aspects became inextricably mixed up
Wllll each other But it must not be forgotten that the Vedas
deal primarily With the religious beliefs and practices of ancient
India
Whether the Veda: are regarded as eternal as Hindu tradition
believes, or as composed by a number of authors at different
periods and then codified, it must be admitted that the concept
of the Deity must have been an article of faith long before the
anoient Indians felt any urge to offer worship There was also
the realization that man has to depend on the Deity for
protection from danger and distress and for a secure and happy
life. To evoke response from a deity when a person offered his
prayer to gain any particular objective, or to offer thanksgivmg
for the fulfilment of the prayer, an offering of what that person
had With him was made Usually, the offering was made in the
sacred fire which was believed to convey it to the deity
Concerned The prayers are recorded in the Rgvcda and the ways
and means of the ofi‘erings to be made are treated in the TaJurveda.
The Samaveda helped in chanting those prayers so as to attract
the Deity As for the Athawaveda, it provxdcd the people With
the means to protect themselves against enemies and evil forces.
ASV—l
 INTRODUCTORY 3

others God then became identical with the mantra. Many

deities appeared thus to the same or various meditators and thus
many mantra: came into eitistence. Those mantras which were
of the nature of praise were also called rkr 15 Some of these
mantra: were used With or Without change when set to music
and sung and when making offerings to the deities concerned.
The meditator 15 thus a seer of the mantra (mantradrastr) and not
its author Those who have realized this are known as the Is”
for the particular mantras Hence some sages are considered as
the ref: for some fir:

The word ‘mantra’ is considered to have been connected

root ‘mtm'
With the faculty of thinking which is the sense of the
or ‘ matri ’ 15 When the rim occur in the Veda texts for
employment in sacred rites, they no longer have the denotation
of the faculty of thinking. Besides, certain passages which
convey senses other than thinking. are also called mantras So,
it is held that whichever passage is specifically mentioned in the
V?([ c texts as mantra must be named as such 1'1

Regarding the concept of God and the characteristic

features of deities in the Rgveda, the scholars of the West
contend that the religion of the quedn represents thatof a
primitive seeiety marked by the “spontaneous emotioaal
reactions of wonder, aweand fear evoked in man by natural
phenomena such as the Wind. the sun and the moon. Impressed
by these powerful and inexplicable forces of Nature, primitive
man reacted With emotional attitudes and behaViour to which"

15 For the definition of Rk, Saman and Yajus, qee Jaimim's

Pitrvamimfimsfi Sz'ttras. II 1 35-37.
16 The root 'matri' has the sense of 'secret talk ' (gupta-paribhfi-
seems that the word mantra ' must have been derived from thts
‘
sane) It
root The seer (mantradrasn) who received the mantra was the only
person who had received it and none else He alone had the sound
reflex and the sense of the root ' mam ' is apphcable here
17 Vida Savana'e Upodghfita to his Rgvedabhasya (p. 35)
4 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

the name ‘rcltgion' is giVenPtrsonvficatton ol‘ the

18

supernaturaland the anthropomorphtc concepts of Na'ure are

also held to have gtven rise to the Idea of God tn prtmt tve
society 19 Some scholars are of optnton that the Vcdzc tulture
was tnfluenced by magtc acts, lirttltty rttcs and othtr prtm t ve
mantl':statt0'ts of rcltgton The p.rform.tnce of these was
intended to sttmultte or prtxpitttte the pawcrs of Ntlttrc and so
was consxder.d as an obltgttory duty. A study of pllmlilvc
culture ts thus qmtc essenttal for understandtng Vedtc culture 20
These findtngs of the Western scholars could be accepted,
if theRgvcdrt conta us any wxdcnce to support them A sacictv
whtch ts called pr'mtttve ts dtsttngunh.d from a cmltzcd one
and. on til-S ground. ts lt hi to be tnl'crtor to the latter lt
order to dVOld thts ktnd of attttude towards that society, the
word ‘ pl'CillCtl'did ' is often used by modern writers.

Certtittly the sortety and culture 15 depicted in the Rgueda

are not pri ntttv: There Jre certain lcatur s which b.long on'y
to prtmiuve s-cicty and none of them are traceable in the
Rsveda There H nothimz ltke the ‘mana' of the Pttlynesitns,
the ‘mamtan’ of the N'th Am ricans. tyranntcal pl'dCllCtS
charactertzt-d by cruelty and rough behaw ur, head-hunttng [or
achieving a grt ttcr Sln’US, tattoo, taboos .tnd tot mlsm That:
are negative p‘- CH of tvtdcncc to prov; that the reltgton ol ti...-
Veda: is not prtmttivc

On the other h.-.nd. there are substantial picc s of eVIdence

to show that sonny tn the Valle pertod wa. c tiltzc-d Family
Me is well dtptcted wuh people strtvittg for and ltvmg a happy

18. Edward Narbeck' Religion H: Human Socrety p 24.

19 '\ acdonell‘ A VedIC Reader [or Stu tents, Introduction, p xvtu;
Max Miller. What can Indra teach us ? p 160
20. Cf I Gondt: Some Observattons on the Relatton betwoen gods
‘

and po mars tn the Veda apmpos of the phrase, s-thasalt sfmub " pp. t-tv,
1-107. S. Gnvanhage.
 INTRODUCTORY 5

and prosperous life 21 The ideal ofa rastra was quite familiar
to the people of that period 22 Homes, gatherings. garments
and the use of horses and chariots are frequently referred to,
suggesting an advanced and developed socrety on the material
plane 33 Words 24 like cfiru, :umangalih, saubhagalva and others
bring out the aesthetic sense of that society Fine poetry,35
Wllh attractive SimliCS, pomts to the literary excellence of the
Rgveda

Culturally. the standard of the Rgveda marks a well

advanced stage of society Acts 0f worship and prayer,
accompanied by offerings, c0nvey the friendly attitude of the
people tOWards the deitits The relation between a devotee and
his god as described reveals reCiprocal afl‘ ction and familiarity
between them 26 This can be compared only to the relation
which IS noticed in the cult ofbhaktz of later days Lastly, lofty
ideals of culture are suggested in the prayers ofl'ered by the
peOpie 37 All these show that the culture and religion of the
Vedas were well advanced and so could not have belonged to a
primitive soCiety.
Sup'rnaturaiism is an important element of religion, It is
a belief that there Is a reality over and above the forces of
Nature This reality is acknowledged by both preliterate and
civ1lized someties. So the worship of this reality as manifested
in Nature cannot be treated as Worship of Nature or anthro-
pomorphisrn or personification of natura| phenomena. Neither
the cosmic experience nor the awe and fear evoked in man by
natural phenomena could be taken as having given rise to the

21 RV X. 34. 85
22, Ibid IV 42.1: X 125
23 Ibid X 168
24 Ibrdl345.lil82.l{8533.
25 Ibid I85 7. l 113. 110; “1.8.9: 39.1. IV.51.B.
583.V116.664.X7l2
26 Ibid Ill 59 3 VI 54 4 . , VII,“ 6. VIII. 4B 9
27 Ibtd. VI 52. 5. X. 37. '1 ; 31’. XL. 18: Br. (19.1.2. 23:
6 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

origin of religion. Faith in the deity as governing the moral

order must be taken as accounting for Its rise.
Even if we concede that magic arts could have been
responSible for the rise of culture and religion in a primitive
society, it has no relevance for Vedic culture, The Rgveda does
not have any direct reference to such acts Whatever references
are there, suggestive of such practices in the Rgveda, and, more
Io, in the Tajurveda, may be deemed as survwals from a hoary
past. The Atharaavrda does con'ain many references to them.
It would be reasonable to take the major portion of the Atharaa-
add as compiled long before the Rgucda, but on this acuount it
would not be preper to trace the origin of religion to magic

Not only were the ancient people aware of the concept of

the deity, but tli ‘v had also knowledge of the distinct traits of
several gods Indra is depicted as a warrior, Agni and
Bi-haSpati as pI'lL'sIS and Rudn and Asvms as physiclans. Some
deities are depicted as passing through the air in their chariots
drawn by steed‘ 33 Their limbs and ornaments are frequently
referred to as dazzling.39 They are ofl‘ered seats made of sacred
grass,30 and served With milk, butter, grain and flesh of sheep
and other animals 31 The roma JUICO is fr—quently stated to be
an offering to deities 32
Such descriptions show that a particular god was conCeived
in the manner in which he presented himself to the seers and
that each deity Iiad some definite features with which he was
identified. Sometimes, while a particular deity is glorifed,
another deity is also brought in and extolled together with the

28. R. V. I. 35.3, 5 . II 12.1. IV 51. 5, V. 83, B , VII. '11 3.

2.9. Ibid. I 34, 9, 10 . Ii. 83. 9.
30. 11nd I.85.6,V.11.2.
31, Ibid. II. 33. 5 , II. 35. ll . III. 59. 1 . IV. 50, 6. 10 , VII. 83. 5.
32. Ibid. 11 12. 14.
 INTRODUCTORY 7
former 33 This is taken by the Orientalists as a feature of Vedic
deities whose “figures are indefinite in outline and defiCient in
indiViduality ”.34 However, it is difficult to agree With this
View Rudra is referred to as ‘Ka pardin ',35 which word means
one who has matted hair He is depicted as havmg the bow,
Pinak.i,36 in the hand The word, ‘pralzma’,37 occurs in the
Sense of the form of the god who is to receive the oblation. It
is not therefore proper to hold that the deities of the Vedas did
not have definite forms at all and much more Inaccurate is it to
treat the Vedic deities as lacking in indiVidualtty The deities
must have appeared before the seers With their distinct features
which were Identifiable to them and which were described by
them in expressions With which they Were quite familiar.

Though the gods appeared before sages through mantras and

Were dt'plcled by them, they went out of Sight afterwards.
When the sacrifice was required to be performed in honour of a
deity. the singers of the 1-1:: had to Invoke that deity 33 The 1-]:

which was already available, had to be r cued and chanted.

The mat of grass Wis already pr pared for the god to arrive
there and occupy v.39 This is enough proof to hold that the

33 R V W 57 10,11 where Indra is 10111”? mentloned With

Bthaspati, VII 63 3. 5. B for Mitra. Varuna and Saul; , of I 35.1. 7 .
1.38. 1133 2. V 83 3.6.54. VI.49 3,4. VII 61. VIII.29.
34. VedicReaderforStude-nts Introduction, p aux
35. RV.I 114.1. 5, V1.55 2. VII 83 8: IX 6711
36. S? III 61. XVI 51, T3 I B 6.2. Cf SY XVI 7 where he Is
referred to as blue-necked.
37 RV IX 130 3 The word occurs herein the sense of the deity.
A question 19 put as to who the deity is Ssyana explains the word thus .
' Devats havupattyogitvena miyate nirmiyate iti pratimrt ' The answer for
this is contained in the next hymn where the daily is mentioned as Sawtr.
This does not convey the sense of the idol and, as such. the word
‘
pratima ' cannot be taken here to convey that sense
38 RV. I1 33 5; VII.“ 2. 3. 4.
39. lbid. 1.85.7. “11.2.
8 mums AND SOUTH INDIAN vusuntm
Vedic seers were aware of the possession of physical forms by the
gods. Yet the Vedas do not containaspecific description of
the person of the deity. This is clear from the role that Agni
played in sacrifices. Agni is consxdered as the bearer of
oblations to the gods, which means that the gods did not appear
in person to receive the offerings. This made the Mimimtd
schools of thought argue that a god is only mantra and there is
no god apart from “.40 Supreme significance came to be
attached to the scrupulous attention to be paid to the uttering
of mantra: without the least maceuracyflv1
While the concept of divinity was developing on these lines,
there must have been growrng another tendency to evolve a
different c0nc'pt of the deity, of course basxng it on the
teachings of the thasfir2 The hatr. adhaaryu, udgdtr and
brahman, who were all connected With the performance at a
Vt'dt'c ritual. Were perhaps the only persons who were content
with the identifiestmn of mantra: With the gods Perhaps, those
who assisted them alsti held the same view. Others who were
Brahmlns. Keatrtyas and Vaisyas, and did not have actual
participation in such performanc:s, might have remained content
with this concept of God. The Vedantins. however, refuted It,
admitting physical forms for the dunes 43
Long before the development of the [ti/tam: and Purfirme
there must hav: been an Intense yearning on the ptrt of the
people to View .se the one stipreme God in person. Gad
however would not present Himself to one and all for the melt:

40 Cultural Heritage of India, Vol III. p 166

41. Vida Pfinmiyaiikrd 52, where the dangers of mispronouncmg
words in respect of syllables or accentuation are affirmed. Citing the
example of the disaster to the sacrifice: who mtaplaoed the accent: in
pronouncing the word, " Indrasatru ".
42 Chand. Up. IV. 16. 2.
43. This 18 discussed In the Devatfidhikarana of the Brahmas-ultras.
I. 3. 25-29. See also Ylslza's Nlrukts, VII. 6,1.
 INTRODUCTORY 9
asking, and so the followers of the Vedic tradition must have
b:en seriously considering a way to attain thetr chenshed
objective.
Again, though gods and men appear to be friendly
accord ng to the Vedta tenets, there ts no direct evndence tn
them to prove that man had an intense longing to Visutl ze the
one Stprem: Gyd That is, the doctrine of bhaut does not
appear to have developed then. Those who performed
the ~acrtfic:s had only the awareness of their dependence on the
gids for prottcuon and secu tty They and those also who
did not acrually le’llClplt: tn the tttualtsttc performances,
shouli hav had the concept of a Supr:me God and even might
htve dev.l ped a strong deSIre to see Him in person It Is thts
intense ltktng that ripened later tnto bhaku.
B there were Sfidras who formed the majority of the
sndes.
pfiinallon There were also Women who reprtsented nearly
half the people. BJIh these Were not qu3ltfied for the 5 My of
the Vedas and for that reasm had no competence to have the
fitness to p rform the rituals They were not hOWever. ltvtng
tn the dark. In a way, they ShDUld have known what God 15
B longing to the same community, they must have had abtdtng
fatth in what the sacrifictrs belt.ved. It must be no surpr se if
they, too, along thh the men of the twnce-born canes,
ch.rtshed a deep longing to Visualtz: God.
It is lo satisfy the yearnngs of these that the Agamax were
braug,‘ t tnto b mg. Tue word 'figama’ suggests that they came
later than the Vedas 44 Thty are held to be tntrlns cally valid for
the followrng reasons First. they are based on what the Vedas
telch. What IS adumbrated In the Veda: receives an elaborate
exposttton tn the Agamas. Secondly, the promulgators of the

44. Thu may also tndtcate that they were brought fromadtfl‘eront
p1 tce Slnce ' a ' means motton towards a parttcular place Irom a dtfietent
one.
ASV—Z
10 AGAEAS AND SOUTH INDIAR VAISNAVISM

Igama: are either the gods themselves or sages of great

credibility who were steeped in the Vadie tradition. Further,
the Jgama: contain references to the Vedas and enjoin the
adaption of Vedic mantra:
The word dgama is derived from the root, ‘gam ', with
‘

the preposition f6 ', The sense of this root, which means ‘to
go ', may also be ‘ moving (mentally) towards an object which
is to be gained’. In thts senSe, the word conveys the same
meaning as the word ‘ veda’. Besides, as the preposition ‘ a '
gives this root the sense of motion in the reverse direction, the
word ‘dgama’ can be taken to imply the handing down of
knowledge from teacher to pupil, and thus to denote traditional
(sampradfiya) knowledge. Then the word ‘ Egama’ can be taken
to mean what the Azania: stand for.
The Kgama: are also known as Tantras. The word ‘ tantra '
is derived in two ways. According to one view it is from the
root, ‘ tan ’, to spread, with the with suffix, ‘srran '.45 Hence
some scholars 43 suggest that ‘tantra ’ means the spreading out
of the cosmic energy in the person who practises it. Others"
take it in the sense of a system which elaborates the knowledge
evidently acquired from the Vedas. To vindicate the valldtty of
their system. the Writers on Tantra seek to split the word as
‘tan ’ and ‘ tra ' (spreading and saving), so as to mean that
Tantra gives an exposition of the matters taken up In the system
and also saves the aspirants who follow it from bondageflB The

ll"-i’rde. Sarvadba‘tubhyahgtran (493)

48. This sense 18 based on the root ' tan ' to spread, which must be
wtth reference to something centred 1n a particularplace The system of
Tantra believes that the universal energy ls latent m the mdwtduai He
has to practise yoga and enable his energy to Issue forth from his body.
4'1. Shaka and Shakta, p 1'1.

43 V1de
afifir figarauii memenfiama t

mat '3 area mmfiamfie’tfi u

(Kamzkagsma . Tantrantera Petals)
 txrnonucwonr 11
word is also traced to the root ‘taln” which means sustslnln;
or lendtng support, and hence can be taken In the sense of
ofi'cnng an exposttion 49 Yet others take it to mean
understanding.50
The word, ‘tanlm’, occurs in the sense of I lama.“ Is
evxdenced by the tttles of Works like $a$tttantra Tantravimtka
and others. It has acquired a specific sense in this ltt.rature.
It dacs not mean any Mum, but only the Tdnmka system.
An attempt is also sought to be made to specify the purposes
served by the Agama and Tantra The A’gama provndes the
aspirant wnh knowledge and Tantra saves him from bondsge.53
HIST 3‘3 H1"??? ":73 film} 38: 3

:13? Elm? fa==i mafimx’ figg'atr: ll

(l‘nlgaldmala quoted tn Tantras: Stud“: in Huir Religion and

Lthmmrr, p 2).
However, the two names have come to signify the same
system whose valtdtty ts held to be on a par With the Vedas,
Snflu 4nd Parana: It Is held that the Zgama: have special
Imp )rtance and valtdlty tn the Kalayuga.
3% gram amtzfifimi {Effiéum I

Er'fi: a 30va: mmnwaznm II

(Kuldrnananlanua)

49 Tam ls taken here as the basil.

5:) Isanaswaguvudeva commentary on the Hanulvagurudenped-
dhatt: IIIp 23.
51. V1.19 - —KEs‘lkEVrttl on the Artddhyayi (VII. 2 9) Kauylya's m.-
sdstra (XV 3) uses the word m thts sense. Cl
mfufiatufunmuimw‘tfim strum
(Nyaysbhayye. I. l. 26)
51. Porn fairly lcng hat of molten dealt mlh m the Tantra. no the
Sabdazahpadruma, p 185 and Vacaspatyn. pp Ole-818 and for thl
Jaws. Sabaakelpadrum. pp- 584—6 and Vasupuu. pp. 3333-3231.
12 sums AND souru mom VAISNAVtsu

The Agamat have an independent deVelopment of theory

and practice and should be taken as a system of philosophy and
reltgion based on the Vedas. The theoretical side represents a
continuation of the results of philosophical enquiries which the
Vedas deal with. The controversies and discussions which mark
these enquiries are left out in the Igamar. Greater attention ls
patd here to the cultural discipline which ls sought to be
mculcated through practical religion.
The matters which the Zgamar treat of could be brought
under four heads. namely, jfiana, "-ra, kriyfi and carya, which
stand respectWely for the knowlet. reality. yogic pract'cfi
for the realisation of the Ultimate Reality, preparation of
materials and their collection for the worship of the -
the religious practices.

The Sarhhttfi and Brahmapa portions of the Vedas could be

taken to form a unit containing a rich development of the
concept of God who ts to be worshipped through the
performance of sacrifices. The various hymns ol’ the gym“
were evolved at dlfi'erent periods In praise of the deities and
found ritualistice use in portions of the Tajurvcda and Samantha
which had relevance to the propitiation of particular deities
through sacrifices in which particular hymns were to be recited.
The explanatory portions of the particular rituals, which had
relevance. are found in the Brahmapa: forming an integral part
of those Rgvedr‘c hymns that were employed for the purpose It
Is only later that Vyasa edited the mass of Vedr': literature into
the four Vedas, and the corresponding Sarge/It'll, Brahmapa,
Aranyaka and Upam’sad portions.

The hymns of the Rgaeda were classified by Vyssa in a

particular order, taking into account the importance of the
roles of the deities in the hymns. The firsthymn which is in
praise of Agni, was not compOSed at first and so was not the
earliest. Any offering which rs made to any god is to be made
Only in the sacred fire, and so Agni is extolled in this hymn
 in'rnonucronit 13

which Vylsa placed at the beginning for that purpose. The

concept of any deity cannot therefore be taken to represent an
earlier or later stage simply on the ground whether or not he is
extolled in the so called nuclear portion of the Rgveda In fact,
which the nuclear portion is and which it ts not, cannot be now
discussed and decided, for the present classification Was made
by Vyssa long after the Vedas were compiled.

Two major aspects of the concept of the deity emerge when

the hymns of the Rgveda and others are given a thorough study.
[One is that all deitiesr are not different and distinct from one
\anpther, but represet y several forms of a Single Divine
hing 33 It is because of this aspect that the features revealed
depiction of some deities overlap All the deities are
real. Th the monotheistic tendency prevailed in the Vedr'e
literature as such. To represent the Vedte religion as polytheism
or henotheism is only to ignore this main aspect of the concept
of the Deity The Zranyakas and Upamsadr contain speculations
and discussions on this concept. The second aspect Is that God
is the soul of the mobile and immobile worlds, representing the
embodied livmg beings and anl matter respectively '4 These
two aspects became the fonndatmns of theism as developed in
the different schools of Hindu religion

There grew up a literature, during the period of the

deveIOprnerit of sacred literature represented tn the Brihmapa:
which took the shape of narratives, anecdotes and epics. This
was concerned With a critical enquiry into the nature, actlvltles
and relative positions of the various gods The concept of a
single divine Being was subjected to serious elucidation,

53. Cf. R. V. I. 184 , V. 4. l . x 121 Vide .

its: wrest agar squirt WT tear: fiflil'fi! unfit: Nirukta, VII 4.

mm
54. Vida:
en? mm t (R.V.I.115. l)
 INTRODUCTORY 15

enormous potentialities and capacities to keep every thing under

His control, to create the world and maintain it, afl'ording
protection and security to created beings. The Zgama: therefore
conceive of God as pOWerful (sakta) The power (sakti) which
God possesses is not external to Him, for in that case Hts
relationship to and control over it Will have to be explained,
which maylead to the undesirable admission of power (sakti)
being Independent of God For this reason, the Jgamas
recognize God as never dissociated from powar This power is
not inert like primordial matter (prakrtz); in which case, it
should occupy a very subordtnate posnion in relation to God.
Hence the Agama: describe this poster (.s‘akti) as animate. The
feminine gender of the word, ‘sakti ', suggests that this should
be a goddess ever assomated with God as His conSOrt. As such,
this goddess is named diiferently as Laksmi, Durga, Maya and
others. The Godhead therefore is a two-in-one reality.
Except for the S’rm‘ikta 55 and later portions of the
Makanfirayaniya Upaptsadfifi the Vedic literature does not
conceive of the co-presence of a female prtnCtple along With
Brahman or isvara Those UpamgadeY which subscribe to the
concept the female prtnCiple as constituting the Ultimate
Reality, are held to be of later origin This concept is also
indicated or elaborated tn the l’urfigmr and Itzhasar. In this
respect. the Kgama: maintain their own concept and tradition,
not shared by ancient Vedzc tradition
Admission of a Supreme Betty is closely connected With
problems like God's relations to the world in respect of its

55 This forms part of the K1111: of the Rgveda The word, 'Khila',
shows that it did not form part of the Egveda in the recensmn that is now
available Ewdently, Vyssa did not include it It could have been in
some other recension which has now disappeared. and so it has a loose
eXistence But on this ground, it cannot be treated as a later production.
56 Mahfinariysniya Upanisad. 10
57. They are Sitopapissd, Annaparpopamyad, Devyupanisad.
Sa ubhagyaiaksmyupanised and Sarasvatirahasyopamsad.
 inrnonucrosr 11

Since God and s’akri are non-dual, there cannot be anything

that could exist outside this Reality. If anything exists, it can
only be an emanation of the Reality To account (or the exist-
ence of the world, the Agama: give three cosmological accounts.
Each one has a definite purpose to serve.

The first account mentions three“ types of creation,

namely, pure (duddha)m1xed (rms‘ra) and impure (as‘uddha). The
pure type is represented by the emanatzons of Saints which are
intended to give relief to the selves in bondage. The mixed one
corresponds to the traditional kind which is described in the
Parana: and according to which Brahma. Visnu and Rudra have
their roles to play in the world to be created. The impure type
is akin to the eVolution of Prakflt, more or less based on the
teachings of the Sankhya system. S'akli is present in every
created product in some form or other.
The second account divides creation into six stages
through which it passes. Each stage is called a sheath (kos‘a) 85
The first is S’aktzltos‘a in which S'akti manifests itself. but remains
in its transcendental form Mdydkos‘a is the second. which
represen's the beginning of the material creation. The Prat-mi—
kosa is the third in which S’akti gives rise to deities with the
help of the three gupas. Brahma. Vtsnu and Rudra get their
consorts during the fourth stage called Prakrtikosa. Brahmlpda-
lease is the name given to the fifth stage. which represents the
evolutidn of the Sankhya categories. The bodies of all animate
beings represent the last stage called Jinakasa.

64. The Satklzryava‘da which forms the basis of the creation theory
requires to be justified while explaining the emanations of various forms
from the Ultimate Reality which 15 pure unsulited With the three gaps: of
Prakrti This is possible only by admitting certain dinsiona in. creation as
pure. tmpure and mixed.
65 These are different from the five irons of the Vedantihs: anus,
prfipa. manas, wfitdna and Enande.
asv—3
 turnoneeroar 19

namely| jagrat, (waking stage), ruapns (dream). rusupts' (deep

sleep) and tariya (transcendental state) The last one, bhueana,
consists of the material creation. Among these. earna and
mantra haveadtrect bearing on sound and its creation. The
other four are related to general cosmology. This account of
creation seeks to indicate that the physical world. which is
made up of the material nature and some nature, arises out of
the Absolute Reality, identified with Absolute Sound. Another
name for this theory of creation is ‘ adhvan ’ and the six courses
are called :44 adhvanazs.
While the above account of the third theory of creation is
concerned thh an admixture of sonic and material creation and
therefore is objective, there is another kind of evolution repre-
sented purely by sound!1 The first or primordial stage is repre-
sented by the Ultimate Reality (permit tauuam) and is in the
form ol'senttence. When this Reality entertains a will to create.
it manifests “it” as Sakn' It is also called May! and the root-
cause (karanabmdu). This shows that Salt“ is non-dtfiereut from
the Supreme Reality. The next stage to the evolution is the
formation of Nada which is tndisttnct sound possesstng light.
From the Nada emanates the supreme Hindu (Para), which
repr< sents the primary stage of creation. Out of this evolve the
lower Btndu and 3114. From the lower Binds a lower ktnd of
Nada 15 produced, representing the creation of the sound of
the letters; and the Bija is the source for the lanes: of the
material wolrd.
These two accounts of the third kind of creation have a
significant meaning. Other systems of thought hold sound to

11. Vld.
alisrmfmsrq «mar «invent t
straightener} «tit «magnate: s
treaties": amtq Email first? gm t
fwgnfii afterlife ear its“ eultfirm- a
tandem-kc. 1.1, s.
20 AOAHAS mo sou-m mom vmmvrsn
have sprung rrom Ekas'a, almfikdm, nayu and other sources. This
does not explain the important role which mantra; play In wor.
ship nor show how God could be taken as causing In mantras. A
better exposition is therefore attempted by the Kga'nds, Which
seek to trace the origin and development of mantra: from the
Ultimate Reality.
The indivtdual self (flu) is represented by the sixth kos’a
cailtd fin-leash: it IS therefore part of Abswlute Reali'y S'aln'
manifests itself in several kinds of evalutes which are insentirnt
and sentient, thelatter being represented by the selves. The
selves are admitted to be karma-ridden, and the evolution of
Sakti is only to help them in freeing themselves from bondage.
Liberation consists in the self obtaining proper enlighten-
ment about the essence of the Supreme Reality. in other words,
the sell has to realize tint it is part of Saktr' which is not d fi'-r-
ent from God The schools of Igrmms htve different inter-
pretations ofthe nature of liberation which is based on this
concept of the self being a part of and emination from S'akn'
The selfrnerges into s'akti and so has no existence apart from
God?2 Others hold that, being sentient, the self even then
has individuality, with transcendental existence 73
The self gets to this stage through enlightenment acquired
by divine grace which is called S'aklzbdta 14 a word indlCtllVC of
the role played here by s'alm'. Karma,jn‘ana and yoga are the
means to win the grace of the Divine.
The yoga section of the Agama: discusses the methods which
aself has to Mom to know the real nature of the Ultlmalc
Reality. They are based on the fogi-u‘atra: of Patafijait. The

73. Thisia quite appropriate, inasmuch as the self issue: out of the
autism form of Sakfi.
73. Same as under 70.
1'4. Alighting of grace is called Sakrtpata. a name gtvon tn the
Imam. Siemens and S'slttatstn. See The Warldas Power. 9. 213.
 tsrnooocroar 21

Agama: recognize that, within the human body. there are six
calcrar (or crrcles)75 wnh the names of Muladhtim, Svddhtrthana,
Mal-tipflm, Andhata, Vtsuddha. and A'jfia, placed one above the
other. the first one betng placed below the navel, and the last
at the top of the head All of them are satd to be in the form
of lotuses There are several ducts(nddi1) lnstde the body
among which an arterial duct is called Susumnl and is held to
be the most important. Ida is another important duct to its
right, while ngatd runs to its left. The Susumna‘ duct connec‘s
the Muhidhara With the Ajaa. Thejivadaktt ltes corled like a
serpent in the Mulddhfira.
The self has to adopt yogic practices to arouse this sleeping
S'a’cttwhich ts called Kundaltni and make it rise up through the
duct of Susumnd. pass through the ‘ ctrcles ', and ultimately
reach the Brahmarandhra, the middle cavny at the top of Sugumml.
At this stage. the self would merge with the Supreme S’aku‘ and
have a dtrect experience of bliss. In order to adopt this
method, the self has to practtse various poStures (Mama) and
carry out breath-control (prdpfiyfima). The Ida and Pifigald ducts
play a promtnent role tn prdnaydma. The method of yoga as
recommended tn the Agama: envrsagesa self whtch acquires the
knowledge of reality to find the Absolute in himself, since God
is not absent from anywhere and is not dtsttnct from Sam. The
aspirant is therefore requtred to have experience withtn himself
and. as such. this concept has appeal only to a limited number
who could adopt yogic practices
The next section ls called Kriyfipada, which ls concerned
with the maktng of images, construction of temples and instal-
lation of the tmages there. The gods are represented tn the Vedas
as dtsplaying or possessing distinct features so as to be definitely

75 lbtd . p 113 They may be pleXusos or centres of the involuntary

nervous aydem They are described as focal, paint: of powor in the body
of man which are only partially open'. (Studies in the ' Taumu' and flu
“Veda '. p. 79,)
22 ans-as AND sou'nt mutate vatsmvmt
identified and distinguished. Certain features displayed by
some gods were held in common by more than one deity. This
led to the formation of the concept of ‘ all-deities ' (vidnedeudbflfl
and to the evolution of a monotheistic tendency msktng the gods
as subordinate in position to a Supreme God whose various
manifestations they were taken to represent.
it is hard for an aspirant to have concentration on the
features oia god who is not present before him whenever he
requires. The need therefore arose to evolve a concept which
would admit of the form of the particular god who is to be
meditated upon. God has been conceived of by the Vedic seers
as all-pervading (:areavyapin) and also transcendental '1'!
Another principle which is involved in the conc.pt of God-
head is that He is also immanentTB. These aspects have made it
possible for evolving a new concept according to which God,
who is infinite and beyond all kinds of temporal, spiritual and
objective limitations, and who. for that reason, could not be
described and depicted accurately with the instruments of
measurement and evaluation that are finite, becomes accessible
to man by taking a physical body in the shape of an idol. Along
with the idol, there also came into existence the mystic diagrams
drawn to specific scales on metals or other materials with the
letters of the mantra relating to the particular deity being set in
specified spots.
This concept of admitting a finitized form for the infinite
Supreme Being is based on two assumptions. God can make

1!. I”. ill. II

11. Vida:
mi?“ tread smut mm: Fun:
Nirlyapa Umlsnd.
I

Kill. I.
mfiawrgaq l
(RV. X. 00. 1)

'II. haunt-m Unwind. VI. 31.

 tnraooocroa! as
Himself manifest at any time as His own will. The manifested
form is as much God's as the unmanifested one is. God pre-
sents Himself in this form for the sake of Hts devotee, and so
God's presence in the idol cannot be questioned. Secondly.
God's immanence. when it is displayed in the idol, cannot also
be explained away. Therefore. the finitized form of God as
idol must be taken to have been known to Indians from very
ancient times on the authority of the Agamas.

The various deities were worshipped by the Vedic seers bv

making offerings of ghee, butter and other materials in the
sacred fire, whenever specrfic desires were needed to be fulfilled.
The worshipper was well aware that his particular desire would
be granted if a particular deity was worshipped The relation-
ship between the worshipper and the deity was based merely on
this understanding. People who used to know this and realized
it. must have felt in course of time that there existed between
them and the particular deity an intimate relation which was
drawing them both close to each other. This gave rise to the
feeling ofdependence on the god, which developed into one of
affection. Affection gradually resulted in the rise of devotion
in man for the god. Man could not then live aloof from that
deity. He desired to ofl'er his oblations to that deity in the
fire. it is not unnatural then that he should have desired to see
his god before him. A devotee should, indeed, expect to
perceive his god in a form which his finite senses could easily
comprehend The form with which the god presented himself
to his devotee, must have been cherished as his essential form.
Those who had Visionsltke these of the same god would not
have allowed that attractive figure to go away from their sight.
They Were not sure of having it again, if it vanished from their
presence Naturally. they should have taken steps to shape. out
of any material they had. whether mud. stone or metal, a
figure that would represent that form in the idol carved out by
them So it is the devotion of the worshipper that has brought
about the concept oi the idol and idol worship.
24 nouns AND scum moms vatsmvrm
The seer who used to feel that his transactions with a deity
whom he worshipped by making offerings into the sacred fire
Were ended after that act of worship was completed. did not
any longer ponder over the identity of that deity, as there was
no need thereafter for continuing the worship When that
duty was represented in an idol. the deity was always there
before the worshipper, attracting his mind and senses Emo-
tions surged into hts mind. taking the forms of gratitude for the
favours received and attraction to the beauty of the person of
the deity. The m nd was enraptured with the raVishing beauty
of the god. The Worshipper could no longer allow himself to
forget that form or ignore the presence of the deity there.
The idol it God Himself. Awareness that God is supreme,
possessing countless qualities, powerful. amiable and easy of
access to the worshipper. gives rise to affection and passionate
longing for God. Naturally, the worshipper would erect a
place for keeping the idol, decorate that place and see that
nothing affects its sanctity This is the starting point for th: rise
of the section called Kriyapada in the Igamar.
Steeped in the Vuir'e traditions. the seere could not Ignore
the significance of the Vedic mantra: which, on being repeated by
them, brought forth the deity before them The mantra: were
therefore used for all purposes connected with the worship of
the idol.
The feeling of attachment for an object fills the human
heart and arouses there a desire to keep that ohject well-secured
in a safe plate. When that feeling is enlivened by the spirit of
devotion, attempts are made by the owner of that object to
beautify it and enshrine it in a place that is also embellished
with all artistic detigns in consonance With the beauty of the
object. EVery possible attempt is made to adopt all devices for
the main purpose of provtding that object with a charming
envir wnment, It is in this sense that Hindu iconography.
sculpture. painting and architecture are said to have had a
divme origin. Thele fine arts were primarily intended for God.
 INTRODUCTORY 25

The selection of the proper site for the erection of the

temple, excavating it, preparation of the bricks, raising of the
basement and other preliminaries are dealt With in detail in the
K'nyfipdda Choice ofstones. erection of pillars, building the
halls and construction of the temples are then deseribed. The
temple is treated as Pumsa, the humanized Supreme Being The
cosmos is conceived to be present abstractly and also in concep-
tion 79 So, the temple ts constructed With specific numbers of
halls, courtyards and other structures, with all the deities
represented there in the form of images and specified places.
This explains why the sanctum sanctorum is called 'garbhagrha‘.
The Size of the towers, the storeys in the towers and the
temple structure should be uniform. but In proportion to the
size of the chief idol to be enshrined in the temples, Rules are
given for the selection of stone, wood or metal for making the
idols. After the idols are carved. an initial ceremony called
adhzvara is to be performed. Then the eyes are carved for the
idol followed by an elaborate process of installation. Af'er
this. the idols become sanctified and fit for worship. Methods
of «Airing daily worship to the deity are then treated. Veda,
mantra: are to be recned while attending to all this work.
Similarly. every person is required to offer Wul'shlp to God
in his residence. The procedural details for this purpose are
also contained in this section of the Zgamar The idol, the
ralagrdma, the Iniga and the mystic diagram are requirzd to be
worshipped in the house in accordance with the aptitude,
capacity and economic conditions of the worshipper.
The fourth section which is called Caryaplda prescribes the
rules for carrying out the daily routine of the aspirant and for
attending to the Worship of God in temples and houses and
conducting general, private and public festivals Most of the
texts of the Agamar contain a more detailed exposition c! this

79 For a treatment of this. sea M.A.Dhaky: 'Prasada as eonmoa'

in Brahmavidya. XXX, pts. 3 8r 4..
“iv—4
 turnooocsons 29

The first step to be adopted before actually beginning the

inner or subiecttve -n ode of worship is the purtficntion ol' the
elements In the body of the aspirant (bhfitasuddhtfie This consists
tn Imagining the earthy element of the body being absorbed
into the subtle element characterised by smell (gandka-tanmatrtl);
which is to be merged in water, which in Its turn in
the subtle element characterised by taste (ram-tanmaha) and so
on till lhe body gets into the mind, that into life and that into
matter Matterts to be absorbed tn the Supreme Being. In
the reverse order. a new body is gradually Imagined to be
crested, a body which is made up of pure sauna, so as to be free
from the impurities which arise on account of the rays: and
tumor of matter. This new body then gets fit for Worsbtpptng
God.
The human body, which is made up of matter, is regarded
as impure. The ancient texts tend to depict the body
as reprehensible.37 The question that would generally be
ratsed tn the context is as to how the perfect Idol or dugran of
God, sanctified by the utterance of mantras, can be toucned by
thetmpure hand ol man and oflered worship There Is no
answer to lhls questton to any anotent work except what is
suggested tn the Kgamae. By this process of bifiIa-suddht. an
aspirant ts made to imagine that he gets “Ci of hts Impure body
and obtainsapure frame With which he could offer WJrshlp
to God This at once suggests that the body Which has become
perfect and flawless through thts mental process It fully quali-
fied and competent to offer worship. Hence the Igama: have
gone beyond the Vedas tn suggesting that the human body is not
so detestible as it is held to be. One should rather attach value
and respect to the body which acquires the unique prlnlege in

86 Vacaspatys. pp 4686-1: Shaktt and Shhkta. op 281-289: The

World as Power pp 152-3 Hananvaaurudevapaddhau, Part 111 97 99.
Manu as are co named tn the Saba—la Upanlsad. Ii.
81. the . VP I 1 7-823 . Vi. 1. 17-18.
312. Vll. 2. 42 ; VII. 15. 41-48 ; XI. 8. 33: XI. 2k 1.:
 tnraonucress 3t
restralns the self from falling a victim to vice and fixes its stten-
lion on the deity. Generally, it takes the shape of s dtagram drawn
on paper, engraved on metals or cut on crystals and stones. Tantra:
vary in design according to the deities they represent and whoee
mantra: have then syllables written or carved there in specific
places. The yantm is satd to be the body of the deity whtch is
mantra itself.

Vlde:
amt Iraqi their tram" ia'é‘ra F: l

keratin!" aft mafia‘lfimr a

(Cited in S'abdakalpadruma, Pt. IV. p. 13.)

While mandala: could be used (or any deity. the yastm ls

conCcrued only With a particular deity All yantra: have s
common edging cslled bhipura, Wthh is a quadrangular figure
with four doors on each side. These doors are Intended to
isolate the yantra from the outside world. The worshipper
medttates upon God and arouses Him Within himself. He then
transfers Him to the yanlm which becomes Hts body. The yantra
us then no longer gross matter It becomes fit to be worshipped.
This transference of God into the yantra is stated to be
Pranapratisthafio as the deity ts infused With life there.
The yantm becomes thus the concrete presence of the deity.
The syllables o! the mantra of the deity are still there.
representing the deity. Meditation. repetition of the mantra
and the act of Worship are all done With reference to the yantra.
Though concretized, the deity is not Visualized in the yantra by
all the aspirants. Hmce this principle of the yantra ts extended
in tts application to the idol of God which represents Run in
physical form, acceptable and attractive to the eyes and mtnds
of the aspirants. The idol. made of stone. wood. minerals. or
metals, does not have the syllables of the main carved on it.

90. ths ; The Tat-tires: Studies in their Religion and Literature. p. 00.
 mrnonucronr 41

Idols in temples 116 and to the Paficarfitra doc'rines 111 The

Harivan‘zs‘alle refers to the temple of Indréni where the goddess
was worshtpped by Rultmtnt The Bhagauata refert to the vyfiha
doctrtne of the Pdficaratra,119 the and form,120 worshlp,
temples 131 and tdnmk intttauon 122 Many Purina: contain
glortficauon ol‘ the holy places where temples are described 133
All thts evrdence could not be summartly dismissed as
baseless The glorification of the holy places Could have been
included In the Durfinas at different pertods, but long before
such accounts were composed, the temples should have been in
eXIstence, though not tn their present form The Bhfigavnta
referstorome holy places hke the rtver Gafigfi, Kuruksetra,
Natm'ét and others In the same context, the places where the
1d 'Ils of V snu are enshrmed are g1 \rlfied and shoWn as sp=cial1y
suttuble for worshtp 12":

abow from the Ramayana mentmns also the

A passage otted
names of dellles other than Vusnu, lndlcal'ng that they also

115 VP. V 18 53
116 Vlde
“Karat nf‘am %a mafia it gale? a I

anfia fiat are?) fGEIEIlEFt‘ maker a u

Mob VI 2 26
117 Mbh XII 342—359

118 Hanvams‘a, 11 59 33, 34

119 BthS 45.1{40 21

120 Ibtd X 5'! 44-50. X 84 ll

121 Ibrd X 53 39-49. X. 79 12-15
122 ”Nd XI 4 47-55. XI 11 3'1, Xl.27
123 The Vfimana. Skfinda Mfirkanrleya. Varaha. Brahma and Padma
Purfinas glonfy Ttrumalat, the Saura glonfies temples of Sure, the
Brahmanda treats of Ki Eat and Ahoblla. the Skfinda glonfies Badartkilrama
and so on A reference may be made here to TA (X 43-47) whtch deals
wtth the worshtp of Stvalmga
124. 812. X 79
ASV—6
42 AGAMAS AND souru INDIAN VAXSNAVISM

received worship in particular places. The passage in the

xlfafmbhfirata makes a general reference to the gods, which shown
that delilcS other than Visnu had their idols In temples for
worship. The Purdue: contain references to the temples of
these gods All this indicates that idol worship, as enjoined in
the Igamar. must have been very ancient The structures to
house these demcs could have sprung up later, of which alone
the Parana: have references and descriptions.
it must mt be surprising, if referenees in the Ramayana
to the various spots in hermttages for many deities should turn
out to be lgamic without any tinge of the use of
yantra: and Mnmka mantras. The vyfiha doctrine of the Pa‘ficayatra
refers to the names of Krsna and the members of His family.
This may be a later addition made at the end of the Dvaparayuga.
01'. those names, which should have been in vogue long before
that period, could have been given to the members tn the family
of Krgna, just like the name ‘ Visudeva ’ Anyway, the Mahii-
bltdmta which must have taken a specific shape by 3000 B C ‘25
should Justify [his date as the lowermost limit for the
prevalence of the Agamic doctrines

128. V. Veradacheri :

wwrnrai‘afiqa éfittr 1V. 1-14.

 CHAPTER II

VALIDITY OF THE ‘XGAMAS’

The authenticity of the Agamar has been questioned from

about the beginning of the Christian era. There was objection
to their validity in a general way and also to that of particular
kinds of Agamas The whole objection is based only on one
potnt, namely, worship of God.
These who raise this objection. rest their arguments on
the supposed non-Vedic character of the Zgamas The word
‘
non-Vedic ’ means that which is not Vedic, not based on what
the Vedas stand for By ‘Vedic' the Veda: and the Veddfzga:
are meant These are concerned with the performance of the
rituals enjomed in the Kalparfltra: in accordance with the
procedures recommended therein on the basrs of the Brahmanar.
They do not uphold the exclustve worship of any Single deity.
On the other hand, the rituals have different deities to be
worshipped accarding to the nature of the rites It is seen-
legious to offer Worship to a deity in any ritual in which he is not
to receive worship, in the place of another who is to receive it
The Agamas which recommend strongly the worship of
particul II' d’lIICS in an excluSive manner, go against the Vedic
concept of del’les Again, the Kgama: miss the Vedic concept
of God Idol worship marks the Kgamic mode of adoring God
The Veda: nowhere refer to the distinct concrete form of God,
nor do they speak of adoring that form God is transcendental
and also immanent, and so could not be comprehended by any
one as havtng a finttized form. There is nothing in the world
which can represent God, for whatever exists is neither tran-
scendental, nor subtle enough to be immanent. Hence it is a
sacrilege to conceive the idol or any other form as God
 VALIDITY or THE AGAMAS 4S

gestures and sexual intercourse Ftve Important detestable

practlces are set out below -
mama net Hist am aren‘t get ignite a l

trams-4%: she's t‘rfir Faerim’a‘afi I

amttwafi fici‘a ammo: génq |

Guprasda'hancfantm, VII,

It ts also argued that the ortgtn of the Agamas ls to be

tolely traced to the practices of prtmtttve tribes. Those
who base their rituals on Vedic authority, would not accept
the Zgamas as validI notto speak of followmg the practices
lnd down to them- The ltfe of the primitives Is not
governed by law or custom, nor based on ethical standards.
Head-hunttne vindictive pursuits and gruesome practices
characterize the ltfe of primitive peopl-s The Agamat, it IS
asserted, took their use among them or at least arose under the
a rong lt flu—“nee of their practices and so cannot be held as Valid.

[‘h‘ obrt‘ians noted abwe lose ground, when it is

rem unhered thzt the Iqamar are very near the Vedas, rather
ham on the Vedas They ettc the Vedas for nuthortty and so
1

cannor he treated as npn-Vedtc or antt-Vedto What 15 treated

tn the Vedas need not be treated in other texts New concopts
end theories could have been evolved as a result of Vedtc influ-
ence, and they do not, on that account, become non-Vedic.
llte “hole ofthr Veda, the Smrtz texts, the conduct of those
who know the Vadax, the conduct of the good and the satisfac-
tion of the self become the sources of a'harmaflae All these
cannot be declared to be thalid, because they are not treated
or mention--d tn the Vedat. The thEmsa school seeks to
defend the Vedic authortty for certatn practices which do not
have (1er01 Vedtc ssnctlon, but are dealt thh only in the 3771]“.

128 MS II 6
46 AIAMAI AND sourn mom VArsrsAvrsu

texts. In such cases, the source or these practices is Inferred to

be some passage of the Vedas-.127

Similarly, the monoth eism of the A’gamas is a concept derived

from Vedic sources The At'taraya Brdhmarm makes an emphatic
statement that, among gods, Agnt is the IOWest and Vrsnu
the highest.123 It is evident from this that Vrsnu, being at the
head of the divine beings, must have been held then as not only
the Supreme Deity but also as one who is preferred to others for
worship. This concept was developed in the Kgama: which
is a proof to show that they are not non-Vedtc For the same
reason, idol WOI'Si'llp, as enjoined m the A'gamas. needs to he
treated as a religious act which is a logical extensron of the
monotheisticttndencv. This is enough to concede that idol
Worship rs not non-Vedrc According to the Varivaryaraharya.
the Agamar are Smflr texts and are to be treated as supplements
to the Upanisads.129
Secondly. it true that the Igamas enjoin a special initia-
rs
tion (Jilted-vinyl as conferring a qualification for performing
worship. It becomes an additional qualification for those who
have upanayana. Such specific initiation is not non-Vedic, but
in a Vedic practice, as it is enjoined also for performing certarn
laCI'IEC’S, Here the agent who rs already qualified to perform
the ritual by virtue of having had upanayana, rs required to
undergo a spectral initiation.130 Thus the special rnrtratron is
rot confined to the Egama: alone.

127. Mimarhsa-si'ttras I. 3. V1d91 Tantravirttrka on I 3 2

128. Vide-
«in? inraruan‘t Brain Fang: RHHWW an?
Wt 31111: I A Br. 1.1.1.
129. Varrvasyurahasya, 5‘! 8. Cf. Medhusudanasarasvatt: Presthuna-
bboda. p. 16
130. MIerhsd-Sutras, X. 6. SI : X. 8. 12 , XI. 2. 59 , x1. 4. 20, 21
K11. 1.25. Cf. Pris. 1V 1. 9, 10.
 VALIDITY OF THE mamas 49

down to Vedtc texts. Idol worshtp, whtch the Kgamas recom-

mend, should be looked upon as dertvtngr tts authot tty from the
Vedtc ptacttces themselves, though the Vedtc texts may not
make a dtrect recommendatton to that effect The Kgamas
enjotn also worshtp of gods In fire and medttatton through yoga
and. as such, Could not be taken to go agatnst Vedtc authortty.

Any figure made out of any uatertal cannot receive

worshtp The presence of the detty thl have to be Infused into
the Idol, for whtch purpose Vedtc mantra: are primarily
employed Thts rttual cannot be called non-Vedtc For the
purpose of ensurtng the Installation of the immanent God tn the
tdol or yantra, prattsthfi ts requtred to be done Mantra, nyasa,
bhmas‘uda’ht and mudra are qutte necessary to ofi'er worshtp to
God who has taken Hts abode tn 3 fintttzed form

Mantras are clasmfied tnto btJa. pznda, san’yfii and nada.

Thts has full relevance to practical uttltty, as they requtre to be
changed accordtng to the detty whose adoratton ts to be under-
taken. Thts ts not meddling thh Vedtc mantras. A change to
mantra tnvolves the tntrodnctton of alterattons in the case-
suflixes, number and other parts of the words occurrtng tn the
Vedar, so as to sun those mantra: for application in the
particular contexts. Thts ts sancttoned tn the tharhsa.
the:
urfieumwfitaqqtuiamtéa: I

3:: star'tzfi FREE?! mnmu‘tfia: u

(jaimmiya-nyayamlla. IX. 1. 1).

Such a change has the sanction of the grammartans also.

Vide:
tsfiztnmafiet: uu’rsraq u

(Kityiyana's Vartttka, cited by Patafijall in the Paspas'lhm'ka

of his Mahibhdsyaj
ASV—7
 VALIDITY or THE AGAMAS 51

of such syllable sounds must be taken as indicative of the

pro-Vedtc character of the Agamas.
Similarly, nyfisa IS a practice which may be traced to Vedlc
texts 142 Karanyfisa and afigulmydsa form part of many of the
datly reltglous practices like the adorattnn of .tamdhyfi. Either
the nyisa must be traccd to a Vedtc source to defend this datly
practice or practices of ramdhyfi must be traced to Rgamic
sources

The drawtng of mandala: and the worship of yantra: could

also be traced to Vedtc sources 143 LtkeWtse, mudrfi which Is
gesture conveying one’s intentions, is traceable to the S'atapatha-
brfihmana 144

Lastly, the Zgama: are condemned for enJomtng cruel

practices It IS true that they do so They do not stop there.
They recommend the slaytng of the enemy The Veda: also are
not free from rituals for such purposes ”5 If such practices
arc clatmed to be not cruel on the ground that they are enjoined
by the Vedar, tt H not possrble to Justify the exptatory rites 146
(pravas‘cttta) which are to be performed to get freed from their
thl results The Vedas also recommend certain practices for
malevolent sorcery (abhzcfira),147 slaytng143 and enchanting

142 §Br VII 5 2 1?. Altareya lranyaka, III 2 l 2. III 2 5 2.

143 $Br I 13. v1 1 l 6. x1 '1 1,
1 Kauhkasmra LXXVI 21.
The lotusltke drawtngs of cakras are descrlbed 1n AV X 2 32,34.
144 the 331' III I 3 25

145. SBrIH91,7. V54.1. X11713 Cf RV.X1271

148. lpastamba Dharmasitras. I 9 26, 27.
14'! SI' 7 3, Vlde
a"; It; WT first} are; {Fa Etta: muffin
7'}!
1

IV 27.

143. RV. VII. 104, x 1.45.

52 “muss AND SOUTH INDIAN Varsuavrsm
others.149 The Veda: also are not free from sensual prac-
tices-150 Since many of these practices are traceable to the
Vedic texts and the rest could be explained as having arisen
under the influence of the Vedie rituals, there is no need to
look to primitive society as the Source for all these practices.

The authority of the Hgamas is strongly upheld by Jayanta-

bhatta. who flourished under King Sankaravarman of Kashmir
(883—902 AD) He Is the author of the Nydyamafijari, a
treatise on the Nyaya system and the Agamfidar‘nbara, an alle-
gorical play. In the former, he divides Kgamas lnto two kinds,
one opposed to Vedas and the other not opposed to them. The
A'gamas of the Buddhists and others are opposed to the Vedas and
so are invalid. Others are not opposed to the Vedas, but enjoin
practices which are subsituted for the Vedic practices. Being
an exponent of the Nydya system which believes Veda: to be the
composition of God, the author admits the Agama: as valid, as
they are also the compositions of God. People who have been
following ways of life based on Vedic authority, also follow
Kgamic practices. That these practices are opposed to Vedlc
practices is not a strong ground for rejecting the authority of the
Kgamas. The scheme 0" the pramapas and the aim in life
(purusartha) to be attained are common to all the Agama: and,
as such, their validity does not sufi'er because of the mutual
references comradicting each other’s practices. If injury
(him-a) is enjoined in the A'gamas, the same found in the
is
Vedas also, and so both are equally valid. All Zgamas are band
on the Vedas. It IS possible to trace, through inference, the
authority for certain practices which are not based on Vedic
and Kgamic sources.151

149. TBr. II, 3. 1. 10.

150. Cf. Va‘madevya upfisana in Cltfind. Up. II, 13. 1. 2,

Cf. Aitareya lrapyaka, II. 3. 7. 3
151. Nyfiyamafijari. 139635-645.
54 ACIAMAS AND SOUTH I‘IDIAN VAHNAVIDM

On the Other hand. the Karma PurEpa153 condemns several

reltgmus schools for thetr practtces. Kamila, Nfilttla Vfima,
Bhatrava, Pfirm, Pas‘nma Pfificarétm and Pds‘upata are men-
ttoned tn thts cn-tttectton it B true thtt some of these schools
Were adopting: reprehenstb‘e and dtsgusttng practtces The
question of th~tr gotne agatnu Vedtc authortty is not the matn
concern, As layanu pomted out, they Were objecttonable to
good taste. The nrrtmcw enJomed by the Satva and Vatknava
Agama: Were fl'" from them. They Were perhaps tncluded tn
the condemnatton as they followed a different cosmology and
theology not traceable to the Vedar. The passage tn the Kfirma
Parana should have meant only this; and while ltsttng the non-
Vedtc schools, the Saiva and Vatsnava schools were also clubbed
along With them In theltght of the evtdence and reasoning
given already tn defence of the validity of the Agamas, this
adverse crtttclsm should he understood to relate only to anti-
Vedtc schools for their enjomlng objectionable practices or for
their lack of implicit subtervience to Vedtc authority

The Bhigmmta Parana, on the contrary, recommends the

ignmic mode of worshtp which ts referred to by the other name
' tanlrilca '. One should take to the injuncuons of the Vedas to
b-come free from the results of karma. He who would tear
away the knot of the heart must worthtp Krtna accordtng to
the rules laid down In the Tantra: He has to recetve the grace
from the preceptor and gutdance from him to purSUe the Rgamte
course. He must adore the Supreme Detty tn a form whtch ts
to hts ltktng. B’lfilflffldd/fl and dedtcatton of htmself to God
should follow next

153 Vida
Satirist mfi’s anti i‘tta finfanq l

mart-5i qtgqé thrfa...... ll

(Karma Purina, II. 16. IS.)

 VALIDITY or THE AGAMAS 55

Vlde '
afiififia gia'lfir filmfisfifiafibfi I

Emma? 6511?: for? fiaarzfi mgfiw: II

a: snag aqunfiu fitfiré’tfi: warrant: I

fitfifirqafié mafia-a a fitment ll

gangsta ararvfififi Hafimmm I t

HETg‘éfimww-Ehfififimfiar swarm: ll

53?? égamgfia: urméanarfigfir I

five' Fatima-r siwragarafisafiafiq II

(Bh Xl.3 46 -49)

Elsewhere, both the Veda and Tantra are stated as being

followed for adoring the Lord
=‘r
Hart 3136i new? nzrtra‘tqaawm I

trafa 33mm? 'II' Fmraa‘t E'T "

Ibid XI 5 28

In?! Fazarzt‘mtra’i: 3111:: éfifiarl‘afia: I

aéqfigwua: FEE: wa‘t fiaau’tfiaari II

Ibzd XI 27. 49.

Those who denounce the authorI'y of the Agama: may refuse
to accept thls testtmony on the ground that the Bhfigavata is of
late ongm. In that case, the cv1dence of the Kfirma Purina
must also he discountenanced. The dlfliculty hes m ascertaining
the probable penods when the Parana: as a whole or any of
them In particular was comptlcd.154 It must, however, be

154 Abhmavagupta (C. 1000 A D ) cues passages from the Bhfigavata

(XI 20 17), menttomnqt he portion as ekddaga-skandha m hIs Gitarthasangmhd.
the commentary on the Bhagavadgita, (XIV 8) This shows that at a pet-10d
before the tenth century, It was held to be authontatwe.
56 AGANIAQ AND e('lUlH lNDlAE VAl‘lNAViS‘H

admitted that there were accretions to the originally compiled

text: from time to time. but even here the dates when such
additions where made are not known. The tw0 Purina: noted
above make ‘lpcctfic references to the Kgama: and the mode of
worship based on them. This makes it clear that the Kgama:
Were at least available when the Purlpas, like the two above
mentioned, were getting finalised. Therefore, the validity of
the Figama: Is a settled fact, and it must be said that the way of
life which the Hindus lead at present ls chiefly guided by Rgamlc
precepts and Vedic authority.
 CHAPTER III

CLASSIFICATION OF AGAMAS

The Igama: advocate the adoration of particular deities to

the exclusion of others who form part of the retinue of the
principaldetty. More than one deity enjoys the priVilege of
such prominence The Vaisnava, Sakta, Saiva, Ganapatya,
Svayambhuva and Candra are most well known kinds glorifying
particular deltlcs. The Pssupata, Kalamukha. Cina and Jaina
are aiso held to be types of Agamas. The Saura also is added to
the list Of these, Pfisupata and Kalamukha are to be brought
under Saiva, and Gina and him are of the fistula; kind. Visnu,
Saktt(standing for the female princtple identified With Durga
or Parvati), Siva, Ganapati (Vinayaka), Brahma, Candra and
Surya are the prinCipal deities glorified. In course of time, all
of them have become extinct, except those of the Snkta, Saiva
and Vatsnava varieties

Among modern scholars who have been making an intensive

study of the Fi'gamas, there is a tendency to treat the Sakta
Jgama: as the earliest among the Tantra: and as influencmg the
development of other Kgamas, though not their origin While
arrivmg at this conclusmn, the role played by Sakti in the other
A'gamas is stressed All the three Zgamas, Sakta. Saiva and
Vaisnava, agree that Saktt plays a prominent role. While Saktt
Is the prominent deity tn the Sfikta Agamas, the other two
recognize Sakti as never dissociated from Siva or Visnu The
questionis one of the position occupied by Sakti Whether
she has an independent or dependent status, the fact remains
that she has to play a significant role To arrive at thts conclu-
Sion, there is no need to look upon the dependent nature of
Sekti as derived from her status. Every Vedic deity is looked
Agv ”8
 CLASSIFICATION or AGAMAS 59

The texts of this Zgama speak of the system as delivered by

Devi, listened to by Siva and approved by Vasudeva (l.e.,
Krsna treated as the brother of Devi) Sometimes, Devi listens
to the discourse of SW: The derivation of the word ‘ Agama '.
is therefore given as rismg (ti) from Siva or Devi, reaching Devi
or Siva (ga) and approved (ma or mata) by Vasudeva 153 They
are classified as dakstna based on the Vedas, Smut: and Parana: '
Mme, relying on the Vedas and Tarmac, and imam, havtng the
authority of the Vedar and the utterances of the preceptor The
texts which are called A'gama: are seventyseven in number, five
called as S’ubhagama, Sixtyfour as Kaula and tight as Mts‘m. The
Igama: of the dakszna variety declare that Tantra is part of Veda
which is vzdyd and Kaula is the philosophy 159 Those who do
not observe the rites of the Vedtc kind are disqualified for the
Sfikta cult 160 Important works on the Sakta system are the
encyclopaedic Prapaficaslra attributed io Sankaracarya,
Laksmanadesika’s S’firaddttlaka, Bhaskararaya's Vanvaiyaia-
Maya and Lamb-.raha.rranfima-bhfi;ya. Krsnfinanda Kgarna Vigiéa’s
Tantrasara, Pi‘trninandahamsaparivrayika's S’ritattvactntfimapi
and others Laksmidhara's 0497—1539) commentary on the
Saundaryalahari contains valuable information on the cult of
Sakti

The Saiva Zgama: hold that 3in is the Supreme Deity ever
assocmted Wllh Sakti, identified wtih Devi or Parvati Several
schools are mentioned as coming under this head. They are

158 Vida
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ngalamata Cited Ibid p 2.

159 PrJnntosani. 70. Mahmiirvanamntia,I 13 19 . Maharudrayfimala.
I 15. II 2

100 Pasupatismras, I 23 14; Sabina-tantra. In. 26

6O AGAMAB AND SOUTH INDLAN VAlSNAVlSM

Saiva, Piéupata,Karumkaelddhinta and Kapahkaflfl Kala-

mukha replaces the thll'd one 1n another hst163 Th- Vi'figama.
one of the texm, enumerates Samfinyadawa, Pfirvas‘atva,
Misraa‘awa and S'uddhas‘awa 133 Vfima, Pls‘upala, Soma, Lfingala.
Bhairava, dedla and Nakula are the schools enumerated
elsewhere 134 Perhaps Lingalas and Nnkulas represent the
Nakulidapddupata The acceptable classlficauon falls under
three heads, namely, Pfiéupata, Siddhanta or Salvasiddhanta.
and Pratyabhufifi

Lakult (105-30 A D) 13 sad to have taught the Padupan-

:fitra: to hm puplls These were commented on by Kaundmya
(c.600 A_D) Pan Jiva, yoga, m'yarna and duhkdnta are the
p.inciples standrng respecuvely for the Lord, self. meditation.
dlsc1plme and mokga reSpc ctrvely. Sadyajata, Vdmadwa, Aghora,
Tatpumsa and ”find are the five mantra: taught by Lakull
Prapaaals to be meurtlted upon. Immediate umon (rfiyujya) Wllh
Siva Is the goal It :3 wrong to assume that the rules of caste
and orders are notobscrved, for the Sudras and women are
excluded from mmauon according to thrs system 165
The .S’awauddhfinta admits three sections In Its Again!!!
They are Vzdyfi, Kay? and Yoga. The first ls concerned wtth Pan,
pas‘u'and pa‘da ‘ Pan" ls Paramaélva havrng the five actlvttreq
of creation, maintenance, dlssoluuon, glvrng mokga and obscu-
rauon: He Is the Instrumental cause of the world The paeu 13
the self which lsatomlc 1n 512:, while [Mia 15 pOWer which Is
impunty karma, mayfi and restramt The second section deals

161 Bhamati on r5"mixkara'a Brahmasatrabhasya, II 2 37

182 sfibharya. II 2 35

183 XI D 5502.

184 See Virnmrlrodaya, I 22

165. Pa4upatrsfttrasw1thKaundmya': Bhfisya, pp 78-79.
 CLASSIFICATION OF AGAMAS 63

is pure lummosity and spanda is vibration, that 15, activity.

Mahesvara has self-dependent power thch evolves the variegated
world of Nature, havmg prakfis‘a as the substratum for mani-
festatIons and vzmars‘a as the process of manifestation gomg on
in thIs substratum This manifestation ls called abhisa which is
real The subject and object of knowledge are both manifesta-
trons ofthe Supreme Being, Mahesvara The phenomenon of
knowledge [5 like the rise of two waves of the sea of untversal
consciousness. One of these has the capacity to reflect and the
other is free from it. The former represents the self and the
latter inert matter. On account of nescrence. the self feels bound
and consxders Itself to be a separate entity Final release con-
sists in the recognItIon by the self that It Is Identical wtth
Mahesvara This 15 called Pratyabhzjfifi and hence the name of
this subgroup of Tnka170 The manifested world Is analysed
Into thirtysrx tattvas whlch the Stddhfinta admtts
The concepts of Inavapfiya and S'aktopfiya explain thatjfifina
and karma together constitute the means for getting this recog-
nlilon 171 Karma_ enJmnrd In the Vedas. Is \0 be done wrthout
CXpLCllng rewards for It
173 The Agama and Spanda aspects of
Tnka are not completely left out In the Pratyabhzfltfi system
~-9 Is not actually the name of a Kashmir
‘Pratyahhzjna
school of Sarvtsm, but only of an aspect of the Trzka school

1'10 VIde
Hemefitzi unataeg 5&2} eaafiwaq I

am eutma‘flna we
C
7% astrfaaq u

metal mar smear-err waiter Her:

estatum‘fieit Fara agqrraé I

am HI nerfittsrratrt a marai‘nl‘a fiui‘a: l.‘

Suvadrsti. IV. 118-20.

1'11 VIde Abhmavagupta Bhagavadgitirthasangraha,on III 4.

1'12 IbId XVIII Z.

64 AGAMAS AND q(")UI‘H INDIAE VAlSNAVISM

The Saiva Igama: were given a monistlc interpretation by

Tryambaka (c. 400 A.D.); the Sivadrsti of Somananda (850 A D)
gives for the first time a systematic exposition ofthe system
He was therefore the founder of the school His son and pupil,
Utpaladeva, composed the Pralyabhyfifl mm: and the Tsvara-
pratyabhyfia-kanka With his owu glosses thereon The greatest
contributor was Abhinavagupia (c. 1050 A D) His Tantrdloka
is encyclopaedic in range, dealing With all the schools of
Kashmir SaIVism He commented upon Utpaladeva and
many Saiva Agamas and wrote glosses on what others had
written on them The Mfilznivyaya-udrttika, Parammfikfi-vrttt,
and Paramfirtharfira could he mentioned in this connection

The place for Sikti is thus prominent in the Sakta Agamas

only Iis intpnrtarce in others is in subordination to God It
plays an important role in Kashmir SaiVism The S’aivan’a’dhfinm
in South I"dla has received a powerful impact from the concept
ofS'aktt tn the Sakta Agamar, as a result of which Parvati has
gained prominence along wtth Siva and bears several names
The Vaisnava A'gnmar glorify Vtsnu as the Supreme Being to
the exclusion of other deities They treat the Ultimate Reality
as not mere Visnu but Visnu with Sri While there are several
mm is for Visnu, the use of the word ‘ Vaisnava ’ as an epithet
for these Igama: shows that they must be c‘OSely related to the
Vedas where He is mentioned primarily by this name

Most modern scholars in India and abroad hold that

both Visnu and Rudra occupy subordinate posrtions in the Vedar
and that VaisnaVism as a religion arose later than Sawism. 173
This View requires careful examinaiion

The Vedas (particularly Rgveda) have gained their present

form through the efforts of Krsnadvaipeyana who acqulred the

173 Vide B K. G’zswami ‘Bhakti’ cult in Ancient India:

Introducnon, p XVII
 CLASSIFICATION or AGAIfiAS 65

title of Vyasa174 The need to arrange the Vedat, under the

direction of his father, Parasara,175 must have been felt because
all the Veda; during that period must have been mixed up so
that the clear dlsllllcllon of each Veda could not be
made So VVBsa was asked to arrange them in order. He
pickcd out the rkr and prepared the Rgneda and similarly the
other Vedas, Brahmana: and other portions, following some
princtples 176 Certainly. the arrangement of the hymns was
not made in the chronologlCil order or with reference to the
superiority of one deity over another It ts therefore futile to
attempt to find out which rk: were composed earlier and which
liter Equally hard Is it to determine thlht-l Rudra or Visnu,
fiavrtr or Varuni was the eal'lle‘l. deity adored by the ancient
SeLrs oflndia So the questlnn of the rrldllve prominence of
anv deity in the Rgvada cannot be answered Visnu and Rudrs
could have been held in high regard then. In the absence of
eVidence to the contrarv. it IS not proper to assume that some
deities were prominent in the Rgzveda and lost their posmon later
to Vlsnu and Rudra who thus emerged into pre-cminence after
haying occupted subordinate posmons earlier
Again, Surya, Varuna, tha and others are stlll objects of
worship, though not With as much veneration as Visnu and
Rudra It is not possible to pick out the specific trans of the
duties from the Rgveda. smte all of them have hymns addressed
to them and are offer. d ohlnlions iii the sacred fire Yet, aclose,
comparative study of the few hymns addreSScd to Visnu and
Rudrn Would show that people deptnded more On these deities

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VP 111.4. 13.
Asv—9
66 AGAMAS AND SOUTH moms varsnntsu
for their security and well-being than on others While Vlsnu
offered protection to the people provrdtng them With the means
for happy ltvrng,177 Rudra was looked upon as a terrible deity
ready to award punishment to wrong doers Naturally, the
sages prayed to Rudra for pardon and for gifts enabling them to
had a prosperous life With krth and Rim 1'18 ThlS explanation
could be ofi'ered to Justtfy the continued primacy which Warm
and Rudra have been enjoying

While studying the nature of Valsnavum, it becomes neces-

sary to take ”110 account the development of the Vrsnu cult in
the source book: Apart from the Vedas. there are the epics, the
Purina: and othtrsuch works. The dtficulty of getting evrdence
to determine the anuqutty of the cult is 1mmenseI smce the
dates of these source—no \ks are yet to be fixed With a fair degree
ofaccuracy The tradition of the Hindus, however, fixes the
periods of these sources at a very ancrent date Modern
researchers find these dates unacceptable However‘ it must be
ad nitted that dates as arrived at by modern research also have
their own limitations as regards accuracy The date of the
compilauon of the Mahabharata may not be far later than the
beginning of the Kaliyuga, when the war described in the eplc
was fought. This date 18 fixed at 3102 B C 179 The Ramayana
which is crted180 and whose author ts men tonedlsl tn the
Mahabharata must be more ancient and definitely before the
beginning of the Kaliyuga The Parana: are held to be the
compositions of Vyasa, the author of the Mahabharata, and so
are to be plaCcd about the beginning of the Kaltyuga The
Bhagavadgrtfi forms part of the Mahabharata

1?? RV. I 154

1'18 Ibrd 11.33.
1'19 809 under {a 125

180 Mb}: Drags. c XLIII BS. 88

181 [bid 85
 CLASSIFICATION or AGAlviAs 61

At the same tune. It ts necessary to take rnto account the

accretrons, losses, changes and mterpolations which have
entered rate these texts from trme to time. The Mahabharata ls
sand to have been avallable in Its present form from about the
begrnnrng of the Chrtstran era 133 Thrs. however, does not
prove that further changes dId not take place after the pertod.
It can only be sand that by the beginning of the Chrrstran era the
two epics were available more or less rn therr present forms and
known by therr present names The same must be sand of the
Bhagavadgitfi and the Purinas. Currously enough. the Pumper
have undergone several changes whrch make It drfficult to
Identify their genurne porttons The Vrsnupurana rs mentroned as
a Varsnava text In the Tamll classrc. Mammekhalaz,183 whlch ts to
be placed much earlier than 6th century A D . when Buddhtsm
flourished unhampered at Kafici before the renaissance of
Sarvrsm and Valsnawsm there under the patronage
of the Pallava rulers Thls Parana must have become well known
before the Tamrl eprc was written It Will not be wrong to
place rt two centuries at least before 4th century A D, when
the Mnmmekhalaz was written

The Bhfigavatapurfina presents a problem regarding rts date.

lts contents are undoubtedly very old The sptrrt of devotton
to God premeates it But the text .5 not mentroned by Sankara
(8th century AD) and Ramar'ura (1017-1137 AD) This,
however, I: only negative evrdence The stnupurfina was then
available to serve the purpose of upabrnrhana134, and the other
Purinas, because thetr contents were more or less the same,

13?. Weber Indran Literature, p 136

183 Kadal-valmen purfinam, Manrmekhalar. XXVII. 98
184, the
screen an: firfiaaatafiqruiai aaitnnlinmasrega-
antenatal arfimmaiqarwrfiswfifim l
63 AGAMAS AND scum INDIAN vusnnrsm
might have been ignored. The Bhfigavala can therefore be
placed ilong With the stziupma‘pa It must however be under-
stood thas th. Bhagavuta185 contains references to certain
occurrences which the Mahabharata treats.
There were four currents of thought on Godhead. all of
which were promoting salient and dominant traits which later
on came to be identified as displayed by Visnm These were
about Visnu, Nfirfiy na, Bhagavsn and Visudeva, the theistic
charaCter of which could be traced to different sources Visnu
is already a Vedic deity Nariyma gets glorified in the Mahabhq-
rata ‘Bhagavan' is the Lord of the Bhagavadgitd, l’igpupuraqa
and BhEgavafa studeva is prominent in the Vunupurfina Omnl—
presence, omnipotence, readiness to come down to sufferers,
offering them relief from their misery, displaying miracles to
convmce them of His greatness and Willingness to forgive the
sinners and even those who offend Him are some of the features
of the Deity who is Widely mentioned in the sources listed
above. These tratts have made it posuble to regard all the four
names as standing for one Deity, so that the specific features and
concepts found assocmted With each in the respective sources
came to be attributed to that one Deity. The quion of these
currents has already taken place in the source books, which
must be looked upon as records of the concepts when they took
a definite shape.

The Vedas do not refer to any of these names except Visnu

and perhaps to Narsyana The marlgaladlokaJeB the Narayae
(ilya SCCl10n187 and other passages in the Mahabharata refer to

185. 311 Vll.1 44. also so. fa. 154.

133- strum?! aims-a at fiat when I

iii ama’i and ash autism ll

15:. Mbb. Sana. cccmn— CCCLx.

 CLASGIFICATION or AGAMA! 69

the name ‘ Nirayana ’ Bhisrna refers to Kisna as Brahman,133

Nariyani,139 V snu190 and Vasudeva 191 The universal form
(vzs‘vmfipa) which Kl'Snl displayed to Arjuna is referred to as the
form of Visnu in the Anugitfim of the M'ahfibhiirata. Yudhls-
thira calls Krsna as Bhagavin 193 Markandeya refers to having
been informed by the Deity whom he noticed during the cosmic
deluge that He was Nfirfivana 194
Though Krsnai does not openly speak of Himself as Brahman
in the Gita, the expressions used have an Upanlsadic tinge and
suggest that He is Brahman 195 He is identical with Visual”
and is Hari.197 He is the best among souls. Purusottama.193 an
appellation that could apply only to Brahman He is identical
With Vasudeva 199 The word. ' Nfirdyapa ’. does not occur, nor
is Krsna Identified With Bhagavan, though the speeches of Knna
are introduced by the Words, “ S'rl Bhagavdnuvfica "
Visnn is identified in the Visnupurazm with Brahman,“
H1ri,201 Bhagavanzoz and Vasudeva 203 The Bhagaimla

138. [bid Blfisma LXV 54 56

189 [bid Bhisma 50
190 [bid Bbisma B3
191 [bid Bhisma 87
192 [bid .li'vamedhika. LV 3 6
193 [bid Sfintl XLI'V 1'1
194 [bid Vane, CXXII 4, 5.
195 3/1 G IV 13,24, 25' V 25
196 [bid Xi 21
197 [bid XI 9
198 Ibid. VIII 1. X 15
199 [bid X. 37.
200. VP 1, 22 61-83.
201 [bid 1 22 63
202, [bid. VI. 5. 69 . 79.
203. [bid. VI 5.15, 80. 83.
70 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAB VAISNAVIS'M

Identtfies Krsna wrth Bhagavan,204 Nitrnyana,205 Hart”6 and

Vlsnu 30'! Nfirfiyana ts tdentrfied wrth Vlsnu203 m the Baudhfiyana
Dharmas‘fitra (c 500 B C )

The prlnctpal role assrgned to Vtsnu In anctent texts like

the Vedas, Is one of helping suffering humantty He Is a pro-
tector of people 209 rn general, of the embryosmo and of
conceptronZII In particular, thrs marks Hrs efl'ort as mmnly
Intended to saw: hetv gs and objects that have come tnto ex“!-
ence Welfare of the people thus attracts His attentton,312 for
whtch alone He descends down to earth takrng up a form of
utmost punty unsullled by the defects 0‘ Prakg-t: 213 H19 dwtne
descents are many, and the gods too cannot vnuallz Him
except In tnese forms.214 All gods are under Htl control, and
so He 15 the greatest among them Yet H. gets associated wrth
Indra to help hrm m hts undertaklngs 215 There IS nothln‘;
whrch ts not pervaded by Him and It can be sand that He Is
everything the LIIIIVCI'SC ts Hts body 318

204 B): XII 12 3

205 Ibrd X l4 l4. XII 12 3
206. [brd XII 12 3
207 [Ind X l 65. X 45 44
208 Baudhnynna Dharma Sutra, II 5 24

209 SBr]Z‘3,XIV115
210 RV VII 36 9
211 lbrd VII 36 9, X 41 91
212 Ibrd VII 100 4
213 Varaha Parana LXXV 44, 45 .

21.4. the
wait nevi: area as: ararfir wan I

araarig 2153!} aqéfia fighter: u

VP.I 4. I1.
215 RV.I 151- 5, VI 89
216 lbld.I.154. 6 , IV. 18. 11. V1.69 , VI. 120. 26.
 VALIDITY or THE AGAMM 71

He tookthree strides217 for the well-being of the world and

provided those who Were attached to Hlm wrth accomodation ln
distant lands ltke Uru and KstttZlB (that appear to be located ll]
Mesapotamta) This act, along wtth rescutng the world from a
cosmtc deluge. has won untque fame for Hts descents as
Vara'na319 and Vimana 320

He 18 ever nssocrated wnh Sri, though the Vedtc hymns as

such do not have a reference to this associattonfiZl This asso-
ctatton conttnues even durtng dtvme destcenttt.222
He Htmself creates the World 323 and, pervadtng tt astta
Inner controller!“ protects tt from tnsecunty The sacred
rttes are tdenttfied wnh Htm who IS also the only receiver of the
offertngs made there 325

The and form of worshtp, whtch Seems to be not known to

the became knowu tn the eptcs 336 and, more So, in the
Vedae,
Purinaszm and parttcularlv, the Vlsnu and the Bhfigavatd

217 RV115415
218 Ibld VII 100 4
2191b1d1617,lITl,V7710 TSII131.Bh,IS7
220 RV I 154 Vamana should be consrdered along wtth
Trtv1krama 311 I3 19
221 The Srisflkta whtch forms part of the ngeda Kbtla glonfiea Sri
' Khtla ' ISexplatned as follows
tiara =trtr mfinraaratafifig I‘
f‘stsafit mafia U‘flififiafi 1175!-
urnnati’rttwa am Hafizma‘tsfiqtmi’ra mental-«mat Fem-cac II
Unmattz‘manda on éri Sfikta Cherudeva Sdsm Feltettatton Volume.
(p 5'12)
222 VP I 9 142-146.
223, Ibld I 1 31
224 Br U III 7 3-23

522.$Br1413c{BhGV29
226 See under In. 116
227 VP VI 5.86; 3h. X1, 3. 49. 21.12.
72 A’UHM‘AS AND scum meme VAISNAVISM

among them, recommend strongly the path of devotlon223 in

preference to those of jfifina and karma. Karma, Itself, becomes
somethtng dtiferent from what It ts tn the Vedtc texts The act
of wors'mp,339 rendermg servrce to the Lord 330 and H15 mm 331
and ofl'ertng Whilt‘VCr ont ha5232 and also the acts of devotton,
together thh the results EXpELIEd of thetn,233 at the feet of the
Lord. have been made part of karma Stotmr composed tn
languages ltke Prikrl234 are aIIOWed to be used, a feature
proclaimtng the democrattc approach of Vatgnavtsm. The Lord
ts pleased wrth any ktnd of ofi'enng, hOWever lusrgntficant It
may235 be, and He proclaims that Hts devotee wrll never
perish 236

The temples tn whzeh the worship 0! the Lord In one? Is

conducted are mostly srtuated tn South Indta Each ancrent
temple of anu has tts greatness (sthalamahatmyal recorded In
the Pum‘gzas 397 Hoary antiqmty t: clatm d for most of them

228 VP III 14 26,3/1 XI 1] 25

229 V-de
.
amfiat'fiq.
3‘ o 4‘

ear war I

Ramlnula's Bltauuvadgitnhhagra, IV. 25

Harlan}Faerqrngewrttaaétwfaafifnfafififi‘iqétfa—
fitfiratrfrettfagw I

Vedarlhasamqraha, p, 2.3
730 8/: Ill 29 ll 19, XI. 29
231 Mbh A€Vamedh1ka,XVl 23. Manta Stotra,l 15
232 Bit X 8] 2-4
233 Jim] VII 8 26 XI 3 28 VP 3” 8,6 19
234 Ibm‘ In: 27 4'1 See 11/: t: IX .2 fornot—ntmrattc approach
235 Bh G IX 26.
236 Ibrd V1 40. 1x 31
237 The Sauna Pura'na refers to temples of Stva. Vankatadn is
referred to m the Va‘mana, Stands, Ma'rkapdeya, Varuha, Brahma and
Padma Purfinas The Brahmrrnda refers to Ahobtla and Kafici
 CLASSIFICATION or AGAMAS 73

Whether this can be upheld or not, it is not irrational to

recognize the contrlbution made by such accounts in the
Purina:
A reference to some of these shrmes is found tn Tamil
classrcal texts such as S’zlappadtkaram,338 and Partpdda1339 and
others Other such Works Include Akanlnilrufi'io PuranErmru, 241
and Kalzttolraz 243 They descnbe Vtsnu graphically, depicting
Hun to be the foremost, and contain allusrons to the dlvine
descent243 of the Lord

The above-mentioned aspects of Vatsnavrsm are dealt with

In the Vazsnana Agamas There could have been mutual indebt-
edness betWeen them and the epics and Purina: Which are found
to make use of certain doctnnes forming the fundamental
principles treated tn the Agama: In the long history of the
development of Hindu culture which rs of an all-embractng
character, the various branches of knowledge could not have
men In nsolatton nor undergone deVelopment and flourished
wrthout Influenctng one another

The Vazspava Kgama: reveal certam peculiar trans Firstly,

the Supreme Reallty ls Vtsnu wrth Sri and they are insepa-
rably assoctated wrth each other 344 Secondly, other derties
are held to form part of the retlnue of Vlsnu Thirdiy, the and
form of worship gets detailed treatment whtch Includes the

238 Ttruvarangam. I. 10 156. Tlrumala1. tbza' I 6 1-30. both, 11nd.

II 11 35, 51
239 Ttru'niltru'iicolal, lbld XV 11. 1, 14
140 Shrines of Kuhn and Balarima, 59, 175
241 Shnrtes of Knna and Balarsrna, 56, 58
242 Shrues of Kara and Balaramu, :8. 105.
243, Silappadlkaram, XVII
244 LT. II. 16 . XVI. 31 ' Abs XLVIH. 229.
ASV—IO
74 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

erection of temples and conducting private and public festivals.

Lastly, they enjoin the worship of God in the household 345
The Vatsnaaa Zgamas are of two kinds, namely, Pfificarfizra
and Vaikhanara The former is more liberal In its outlook and
practice than the latter Tanmka practices have exerted a very
deep Influence on the Pfificarfitm, while the Vaikhanasa is free
from it. Naturally, tc‘mhzka mantra: have no role to play lfl the
Vatkhdnasa Agama

The Vazkhfinasa Zgama perhaps arose earlier than the Pafica-

firm on account of its pure Vedic links The followmg passage
indicates this conclusmn
mgfinami‘uaq
“Emmet afifiié’t l

firéfixruarnfiarfi§sa :3 grr n

a?! u’lafimfsreé 1181’ ‘51

sfiaafi’tzw: I

a raft arfir mat?! a mutt} am It

afimafia (was? mm? ME

mama gaffe: {rial §tmgauq u
I

3.4. LXV 117—119

It said that Vazkhdnasa is .S’risaura (or a holy s‘a‘stm) called

Is
‘
Ekiyana ’. When Hart was worshipped in olden times in
accordance With the system called Vaikhauam, all the groups (or
stores) of ltvmg beings attained the presence of Hart There
was (then) no paradise nor hell, and no birth and death The
Lord uttered the best Vazgnava system, Pfiflcarfitra, to safeguard
the holy system and also for (preservmg the mode of) worship
during danger.

245 Fans 32 , Pas. III 32 . SA 81 . KA. 15

Vida
fifi'fil Fiat martian? 531% :1 ii I

Pairs XXXVI - 414 a

 CLASSIFICATION or AGAMAS 75

Here the word, ‘ Siisastra ', may be taken to mean ‘ a holy

system ’ or ‘ a system in which SH is dealt wlth’. In the former,
case, ‘Sri ',is only an honorific and in the latter, it indicates
that the system is intended to glorify Sri The word, ‘ ekdyana’,
means the only one or unique path for salvation. This is
the Ekfiyana system mentioned in the Chandogya Upanisad343 as a
subject of study among others This is said to be the name 01’ a
recenslon of the Veda which is now lost The following passage
is said to convey what this recenSion stood for.

afia fiaraqa a: wafer l

amt: Weir await: Faster n

TA. III 127

According to this passage, 3 person becomes immortal here
by knowmg Him to be thus, that is. as depicted above in the
Purusaifilcta The word ‘veda’ IS to be taken in the sense of
Worship (upasanafl‘fl As it is said here that there is no other
way available to get makga, this method, namely, the worship of
Visnu called ‘ Purusa ’, is to be adopted
In the passage cited above from the Vazkhanasa Agama, it is
evrdent that worship of the Lord takes the worshipper to Him.
It is not. hOWever. stated there that all the selves had obtained
moksa, but only that they had gone near Hal'l (S’rt'harulnmdhya).
This means that they, if they had not really obtained moksa, or
other selves who were still waiting to be sent to the mortal
world to have the experiences of the results of their past deeds,
would be coming down to earth By then, the S'ris‘fima might
be lost, and so the Pancarfitra was brought into being The
latter is declared to be the best Vaisnava system and intended to

246 Chu VII 1

2.4. VILZ 1

24'! Vida
fiqagtrmfi emaifiwfi 315!qu l

(Vtkyskira's passage Cited in the Sfibhdsye. p. 53.)

76 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

safeguard the Vazkhanasa system. The word ‘praha ’ must

indicate that Pafi'carfitra was uttered by Hart
The word, ‘ ekayana ’, 1n the passage crted above, presents a
dlfliculty The PdflcarEtra and not the Vazkhanam IS believed to
be based on the Ekayana which rs also called Rahasydmnfiya 248
The references to this in many textsZ49 are not easy to reconcile
With the sense of the passage cited above from the Vazkha'mzra
Zgama However, this statement is a good piece of ev1dence
for the Pincan'iha being closely allied to it.
There is again a reference250 in the Pfificamtm tradition to
the ofl'ering of the efligy of a beast made of flour (pustapas'u) in
the sacrifice where an animal is to be slain and ofiered. A
similar r1te, With the name, stnuyaga.351 is referred to in the
Vazkhanasa Egama, It Is not clear whether It originally formed
part of the Pfificaratm tradition or was adopted mainly on grounds
of kindness to animals Anyway, this sacrifice lends support to
believing that both Elgama: have the same tradition, though the
ritual is CDJOIDCd as a means of expiation In the Vaikhinasa
There is also another way of explaining the above passage.
The Ekdyana recensron must have been the basrc foundation far
the development of the concept of absolute devotion (parama-
ka‘ntrlaa) The Vaikhanqra must have developed out of thls
reeension and, in this respect, has to be regarded as akin to the
Paficaritra The latter had a specific development With prov:-
sron made for the yantras and tfinmka mantrar which are absent
in the former. The tw0 do not haVe much divergence in the mam
concepts of Valsnawsm An Uflanigad called Sitopamsad alludes

248 SS I. 16

249 Vide'—Il xx 209. 13.1 18.19.40.

:50 Mbb Santz.cccr.v.
251. jK. 99,
 cussrncurots or AGAMAS 77

to Valkhinasa (and not Vtkhanasa), a sage who is an exponent

of such important doctrines as those relating to the three
powers, zccha,_7n5na and knyE, and others, whtch are treated
only In the Pdficarfitra system ThlS work, though perhaps
relatwely late, seeks to show the sage Vtkhanas as assocrated with
the Pancarfirra system 352 An approach on the basts of thrs
reference may JLHllly the passage 1n the Samfirta‘rcanddfitkarapa353
Yet the frequent references to the Pfificarfitra as based on the
Ekayana recen51on,254 cannot be easily explained away
The followmg verses from the Pafioaratra Kgama lend sup-
port to the concept of absolute devotton of the Vazklzfinara 255
Fan E‘rtarraareer it a wmraiagazfi‘t I

USEFTFFHHEQ Haitian earn? armatfirn: u

stelawfitfir i'fi'taf answer '3? firm I

ntcgafia if egtafir argiaeanaaa u

Paus XXXVI 2605—2623.

That the Vatkhanaras do not worship any other derty and

worshlp Vtsnu out of' a sense of duty and wrthout expecttng any
results, makes rt clear that they niust be followmg the Ekayana
recenston.
The Bhfigavata contatns a reference to Vtkhanas havrng
prayed to the Lord for descendrng do wn to the earth and to the
descent of the Lord 1n the farmly of the Sittvatas.

252 the —-S;topamsad Translatton by Mam Damelou, Brahmawdyfi

XIX, parts 1-4, pp 321-327
253 SA. LXV 117-119

254 Same as 249

:55. Parts reads ' ekayana’khya' mstead of 'varkhfinasikhyfi ‘. It Is
not clear whether thls c1tauon as noted In SA. Introduction, p.xxu. 15
really taken from an authenttc text of Paus.
78 AOAMAS AND sourn mom VAISNAVISM

Vide :
Fmaarfia‘t firearm? mar aefirafir wear-ti $3: I

x 31 4b
The word, ‘
must be taken to man Brahma who
Vzklzarms ’,
made a request to the Lord for the dtvme descent on earth 256
Vallabhncarya, the founder of the S'uddhadvaua system of Vedanta,
takes this word to mean Vtkhanas. the sage and founder of the
Vazkhdnasa system 357 Thls interpretation would support the
sense of the passage ctted above in the Samfirtarcanadhzkarana
Then the Pancarfitra system must be admttted to have sprung
long after the Vazkhanasa Yet the problem remains unsolved
Brahma ts mentioned 1n the Viszmpurfina and BhagavataZSB as
havmg approached the Lord and made a request to Htm to de-
scend on earth The word ‘VtLhanas’ means Brahma besides the
sage wrth that name The expressron, vzsvaguptaye ’, means
‘

“ for protec mg the universe " Thts protection, as far as the

descentof Krsna ts concerned. was desired by the gods to be
efiected through tightening the burden on earth The Pdficarfitm
doctrines receive exposmon through the Lord, but the main
purpose served by His descent is fulfilled only through the
removal of the evil forces, and so this achievement, which ts in
consonance With the request made of Hun by Brahma. should be
considered as of primary significance In feet, all the divme
descents of the Lord have served thts main purpose It 1s not
therefore appropriate to take the passage as being In favour of
bringing the sage Vtkhanas tnto the picture, Ingenuity, how-
ever, plays the shut role tn these Interpretations the context,
however, does not support them

256. VP V 1 54-58. 31.1 X l, 20 The Interpretation of the word

‘Vtkhanas' as meamng the sage Vtkhanas and found In the
Introductton, p XVIII, of SA. 15 wrong
257. Vallabha on El: X. 31 4b
2.58. VP. v.1. 14. 28 , Eh, X. 31. 4b.
 CHAPTER IV

VAIKHXNASA XGAMA

The Vatkhanasa Agama describes the method of worshipping

Vlsnu and prescribes the way oflife for those who adopt the
Vat'khfinasa-smra. This is based upon the Vedic sources and
derives support, for the doctrines which it preaches, solely
from Vedtc texts The worship of Vlsnu tn the and form is
stressed
The word, Vazkhanaca ’, Is very old , occurnng in the early
‘

literature of Ssnskrtt 1t Slgmfies the vdnaprasthfiirama which a

student who had completed the study of the Vain: Could take up
even wuhout gettmg married 2559 The sage, Saubhart, who
entered into the householder’s ltfe to be happy with a family,
though he used to pracuse medttatlon, renounced It and entered
tnto the ufinapraszha order and followed the way of hie prescrib-
ed in the Vatkhfinasa mode and became a recluse 260 Here the
word, ‘vaikha‘nasa', 1s used In the sense of dunes to be

259 Vlde VP III 10 15

260 V1de
aarwgfi‘a’a §arfiaffiwranfiwfkwmfi firmer
afiaqaaaqm: qfiqfinfital‘atreuwmh amt‘tw
Brahma I

1me 1v 2 130

Here the word ‘valkhanasa' 15 only the name of a class of hermtts

Cf Prthu took to thts way of his and practised penance
811.111. 12 43.
as approved bytho hermtte (vatkhdnasas). Ibid. IV. :3. 4.
80 AIAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

performed by a vinaprastha (who is referred to by the word

‘vailr/m‘nasa‘). Kalldasa refers to thls order of hfe 1n the
Abbyfifinadfluntala 351 'The commentator, Srimvasacirya (Val-
khinasa) refers to the Vazklzfinasavrata mentloned here as a hard
observance of those who practlsc penance 262 Here, ll must be
taken to mean an act of penance and austerity (s‘rimanakadharma).
Anyway, the word. ‘valkhinasa', 1n the above conttxts, does
not appear to stand for the follower of the Vaikhdnara Zgama
The word has been explained as ‘ belonging to or followmg
Vlkbanas, a sage who "dug" wrthm hrmself and medttated upon
God’
Vlde
armafimé antfig'flégaqu
(EFHEEI'T

mamf‘aw a‘tl‘l‘a arrangtaaa‘t fig: n

5'}! IntroducnonP XIX

23L dee
k . 6
Emma fimaur Hamsterarea‘rwrtr‘tfa nan-rear firirraaaaq I

await-er nfiimraamfirtra‘t Paarurf‘a mi zfimfiarfir: It

That some women remamad unmarned and spent then his as hermns
rs 1nd1cated here
262, Vlde
“Earner“: ENE“? gsaar‘t aafEfirfi:
113%} c5233 36% team: I

era-arm qufiuré aaraanarfirar: I

Q’rimvssicarya's com. rbtd

Cf.
EFVW’ERI fiééfimer I

«Hafiz end fiamanfi Fewer: II

MS VII. 12.
 VAIKHANABA AGAMAI 81

Here the root ‘khan ' means to dig, to go deep into. and is to be
taken to lay bare what lies hidden (gfidhfirthaprakfisana).
He moved among the bards
VrdP
(emit asr n’tnierr infirm trta: wtrq l

Elfin Grimmer strafingfirqeait II

are" filfitfififi awe a wrafifleafirm n

M l d.

The name of the sage occurs as ‘Vikhanah’ ‘ Vikhanas’, and

‘Valkhanasaf He rs consrdered to be Brahma In his dlvlne
descent.253
Three passages from the Vedas are cued to support the
achlevernent of the sage Vlkhanas, as an exponent of the Wall
cuit —
1
star: mama-12m} Rum? I

at 53m EMT? aréa an

RV I. 155 1.
“ Acqulrc the food of Soma which belongs to you Offer wor—
Ship to the great warrior and to Vlsnu who desrre to recewe
praises from you " The great warnor 1s Indra 234 In hid
Vtmfindrcanaltalpafiss Mariel oltes this and remarks:
aiurfgwaéfia f‘fi‘rrzta: fifizafizfa f‘aamé I

This means that only Vrsnu IS 10 be offered worship every day.“

2 Earaé a?! {3 am wafir l
3% {ma quairSFg u
263

263 “Ch fi'flfi'ffil‘ fififl'fi: I

Vazyastka Nrgbentu
264 RV I 155. VI 69. VII 99.

965 VK p, 503.
286. Introdnctxon to VK. p. 2
asv—ll
 VAlKI-[ANASA AGAMAS 83

evldenced above The exponents of the Vaikhdnara systems

declare that they follow the Varkhfinasa recenslon.
Vlde :
3m? aware-rain art-«(r fitfasri :3- an; I
a? g §tcrr=rél marfizfir aafitqr fig: a
S A. Introductton P. XIX

Thts Is Perhaps the name, ‘ Aukheya,’ came to be

not correct.
forgotten when that recenslon came to be called after Vtkhanas
who become acelebrated figure through his contrlbution to
Vedtc rituals Thts IS evident from the following passage :—
33 3am? Feta“: ar‘terrasrgatrwur l

stut'le'r Hafié‘i an} Fataafi an: ll

Commentary on the Vazkhdnara-s‘rautasmra.

The followers of Vtkhanas are stated to be dear to Indra”1

and regarded as the seers of mantra: 372 They are acceptable
for guidance not only for the hermtts tn thetr conduct, but also
for worehxppmg Vrsnu 3'13

2'11 Tlindta Brahmana, XIV 5 7

2'12 the .
k
mama-n: inert WWGTlfiir amen: l

Samawdhfina Brahmana. I. 17.

2'13 Vlde
3% §Ifiraé as? a“! afi: Q’Rfii’lfa'a': t

filter unis-3'63?! mar tam? fiarturr II

araqtmmefi it fiarfifi a afaor: I

HFHFI'FE‘WEEHIEFEHT %araarfi 3' n

utqsrtafin'e‘fig mafifisgtaw: I

wasn‘t n'lzrfi‘ 1mm: criminal a an; n

V. K. Introductzon, p. 4.
84 AGAMAS AND :10qu INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Vtkhanas himself rs the author of Dharma, Grhya and Sr auta

Sfitra: whlch he claimed to have compiled under guidance and
instructlon from Vignu 274 He 13 identified with Brahma who
Is credlted With the authorship of the Sfitra:,275 Be51des the
ceremonial aspect, these Kalpasfiha: enJom the worship of
VIN!“ 373 The directions given here for the worship are stated
to be m consonance wrth the contents of the Vedas-.277

The Tandya Brahmapafi'm jazmmiya Brahmapafim ngaya

BrihmapaZBO and Tazttzriya Zrapyaka 281 mention the name,
Valkhinasa, for reference The Dharmasiitra: of Baudhfi-
yana,332 thL Grhyariura: of Agmveéazai3 and Baudhayana 284
and the S’mulasfitraa of Baudhéyana 285 and leanyakc§1n233

NTfWI% :3 mm; mm g Fawn 31%: u

Hg: :Trmgariur a% a: warm I

auriamarrge'r afimrfianfiaau I

[bid pp 3. 4
275 Vrde
ear 3 fi'mrr gfit: I
Ibld. p a.
3'18 See under 213
277. Vrde
Héé‘ffirartrfiq‘r Ham Faugtgarfaitfiqr: I

VK p 480.
7.78 Tandya Brahmana, XIV. 9 39
279 jarmmiyabrdhmana. 1.9 3
280 Argeyabrfibmana, I 62
281 TA XXIII. 3
232 Baudha'yana Dbarmasatra. II 6 16
283. Agmveea G rhyasfitra, II B. 5.
284 Baudhnyana Grhyasfitra. II 9 17
285. Baudhayana Srautasfitra, XVI 24 8
286. Hzrenyakefl Snutasfitra. XIX. 3. 14.
 VAIKHANASA AGAMAS 91

devotees of Vlsnu. Hence the Bhfigaaata: must be different from

the folloWers of the Pfir‘ieardtra. They should be the worshippers
of the Lord described as ‘Bhagavan' tn the Viszmpurdna and
Bhagavadgilfi. Or they may be the Vazkhdnaras. This tdentifi-
cation requires stronger evtdence. If It is admitted, the
Vazkha‘nasa system may be taken to have been In vogue at the
beginning of the 7th century A D

The Avanluundari of Dandin (c. 675 AD.) refers to the

worship of the Vatkhfinasa kind in the followrng passage:

fit a fimai’amai‘ai‘fi Fazii wraanfirag

marg nithg I

This gives the latter half of the seventh century as a period

during which the rites according to the system of Vikhanas were
being observed 297

The Vaikhanasa Zgama: are mainly concerned with worship

of the Lord in aconcrete form. To that end are detailed the
selection of a Slte, building of the temple, choosrng materials
like wood and stone, production of the idols of various kinds,
their installation, method of worship, private and public
testtvals, and exptatton for ths stns of omtsston and commission.
Apart from Vtsnu, other deities like Rudra, Siva. Devi,
Vmiyaka, Sanmukha, Sfirya etc., are required to be
worshipped.398 The reason given for the worship of Rudra in

W
Interesting '—
anatuamrgari’rarai eraahiea‘t traergurr
nFaeiEa aaaqeargi'eq I «at anaii‘eg at: 132:: l

3K. xvn.

297 V1de'-Avantisundari, p. 135,

298. 10!, V. 3.4. V; VK. xx.

 VAIKHANASA AGAMA! 93

cannot adore HIm. While He is Invoked, He compresses HIs

exPansIve form out of kIndness for HIS devotees, Just as the
peacock does its tail-plumes Vtsnu shines m the heart of the
devotee who medltates upon HIm as the fire in the forest blazes
forth In a particular place there 301 The words of Mirkandeya.
which are cIted here, are worth noting:
flwrfiva'
A
flaw meted magwfi
,.
I

“mama? fit A
91% if? warmer ll

u'airgqtrtrur Foxes" Ila? mrfa iii“: I

SA XXXI. 66, 67 a.

Knowledge of the Ultimate Reality Is admitted by all the

schools of thought as the means of obtatnmg freedom from
bondage. The Reality must be known as it Is, WIthout there
being any room for uncertaInIy or delusuon Such knowledge is
called tattvajfiana. Reality, which is refer-ed to by the Word,
' taztva', Is taken differently by dIflerent schools of thought.
The VIéIgtadvaita schiol lecognvzes three tattvas, namely, cit
(sentient) acIt (Insentlent) and Tamara (God) The Vutkhfinara
Agama offers a Very direct lfltcl‘pl’elallnn The Veda: declare
Nirfiyana to be the Supreme Tatum So the word tat ' must be
‘

taken to refer to VIgnu The Paramfitman is the object of

ldltvajfifina, Ihe IndIVIdual self Is the knuwer and the Veda:
represent the knowledge of Mtwafiifina
Vide'
are: mam-crime are": qtaam‘t
aiai Humor.- tIt: ef‘a 9.3%:
mum
met:
aemma‘ an era:
I
I

flag-Ia: I
aura; WUUFHI' ém. Sharer" mar, gait
firai‘nl‘a flairfea‘t atelier I

73'. p.492

301. SA XXII 59-85

 VAranMSA tAGAMAS 95

placed on the potter's wheel, is not drstinct from the Jar. plate
and other thlngs made out of it The medltator can thlnk
of such forms which are dlfl'erent from and also Identlcal with
Brahman Vlsnu takes the form which is taken to represent the
sakala aspect, for the purpose of creation, protection and
destrucnon of all bengS
Vlde :
aé‘au'rcq'm'l‘t: «mafia Héqfrrfil' W110! -
ézfifafiant’l‘fl waf‘a l

VK. p 493

Srt, who Is eternal and whose form is not mantlested,

belongs to firm as HIS power (sakn). She is ever in agreement
With Hrs Wlll. She Is ever in the form of bllSS. She is in the
form of primordlal matter (mfilaprakrtz) 303 She is the cause for
the Lord taking to any activny.307 This concept is to agree-
ment wuh that m the Tantras.
The Lord (Bhagavan) could be Worshlpped in four ways,
namely, Japa, huta, arcana and dhyamz 303 Japa is to be done,
madntatmg on a mantra of Vlsnu Performance of agmhatra and
other such ntes comes under hula (hama). The thtrd ls offering
worship to God In the Idol 1n the temple or house, following
the method of the Vedas. Dhyana conststs of medltatlon on
God through yoga Among these, arcana Is the means to attain
all oblectlves. The Lord becomes fivefold for thts purpose with

306
Flt a Eran arafitfaar mammal? smrurrstmur-
Hrartmqar Fam‘tmgatrrgtwr f‘aammqna'l mangrf‘aaqr
356': |
v K. pp 493-4
307 Ibld , p. 494.
308 Ibrd. p. 508. Here the word. 'samurayapa' ll used to moan
worshtp
 VAIKHANASA AGAMAS 97
Prakrtits both senuent and insentient.314 The former la
the Self thch is ever assocmted wnh a maternal body and gets
affected by It as a result of the deeds done by tt before getttng
Into It. The selfmIgrates from body to body and suffers the
results ofIts deeds. Insentient prakrh is represented by the
products of matter such as the fiVe elements, mInd, senses and
other such thlngs. The process of creatton Is stated to be due
to God's WIll, but 15 not descrIbed as such.315

There Isaglortous descrIptIon of VIsou who pervades the

enllre world and remaIns there as its Inner controller. The
unIverse Is concered as [-115 body, several things in the created
world becomIng the IIthS.
VId e '
utmewf‘a: Shier? é mfiq: :1: qre‘ eager? eta-35m?-
ail Fm a‘fir eq‘Ta’TwmturrFa eeaa‘tsui qara’tfhmfit
marge: natures? ERR-Jet qrarfefir: 33151 alert-138’:-
I

nn’tfiimmarfea firfir ERG” agarfitf‘uar Hilta'i‘

J.K. p. 100

ThIs resembles the followmg dhyfinas‘loka In the stnusahasrandma

suggesung that one must have been borrowed from the other,

314 Vlde
err ngfhféar earth Q‘afifiafif‘a, «Qatar traffi-
fia‘tgfiagrm‘qwar Fear awn Shani?” Qafif‘a
I I

VK p 494.
315 There 13 no reference In the Varkhanasa texts to the theory of
creatton KA menltons that Brahmi was asked by Vlsnu to create the
world (XXXVI. 5 to '1). VK. states that creatton ls effected at Brahman's
wtll. (p 495).
asv—IB
9B scams AND sou-m moms VAJSNAVISM

though it is not posmble to fix the prtonty or postertonty of

either :
:1: ma
uiuarfiqffizrqgtf‘aa 3217':fo if 955!
Simifljriflfiflfl' 511313an qafi my: arfin‘qfia‘: I

ennui aw Faeé gtfitfil‘h’ fiti‘nmafiEEE:

fast tuner é Fagaraags’r fatgn'tii amfit u

or
fiat? W? 3 I15 armfi‘fr‘mtfirfirmwfi I

if?! aim wean? Fm‘tfiw eras-gr: u

fifliu‘fi £31532: i‘atfirzrwa't '1'? i“: t

K e
martmwaqwa am maraaa’r‘a: ll

Paus XXXVI. 101-102

The selves are dlstrdCled by the Lord‘a maya and. being

subjected to the sw.ay of pusswn, anger, avarice and others,
commit sinful deeds whtch brtng them to this world again and
again.
These sufferings could be avmded once for all only by God's
grace which could be obtained by Worshipptng Him
the :
amend Harare: assent é-rrtmmgwm'la I
agqrnarq
umamaeara marge-mm Eamai n‘taafa era
H‘tSFtr I

5 l 0
man Hermann nFama caretanaztgm‘t unaqtttafi
Haifa l

VIE“. p.507.

The worshippmg of Vlsnu is enjomed as the means of

obtaining sccunty from the dangers of the world and freedom
tom bondage. Here agate worship of the Lord in the form of
100 AGABAS AND somivi mums varsuavrsu

resembling a human being encompassing the entire world.330 A

similar treatment IS given to the Giyatri mantra 321 There is
then the representation of the syllables in the Gayahinya'm
Each syllable has a preSiding deity. The japa of this mantra
thrice a day is declared to yield manifold benefits commencing
from long life and ending With final release.”2
Before eXplaining the process of meditation, the nature of
the human body, its protection, development and attributes are
Set forth 323 The three qualities, sattva, raja: and tamar, are
then described With reference to their features and the effects
they produce in human beings.324 As long as the self is encased
in the phySicalbody, there are three states of consciousness
through which it gets experience, namely, waking, dream and
deep sleep The state of transcendence is also attainable.325
The Lord is present in the central portion of the body where
blazes forth a fire of golden hue in a triangular form The
bija’ksara, replia, shines there With bindu and nada The Lord is
present within it as YaJfiamfirti.326 There is a cakra With twelve
spokes in the navel. The self, which is under the influence of
merit and sin, revolves there, resting on the Vital airs, like the
spider amidst its web. There is the Kangalmi .i'aktz' above the
navel. covering the cavtty of the susumafi nadi. The heart which
is situated above the navel. has a brilliant flame as of the orb of
the sun in the midst of which there is the form of Visnu, shining
like the rising sun, with four hands. two of which hold the
discus and conch, the third in abhaya pose and the other.

320 Ibid. p. 485.

321 [bid pp 487-488
322. lbid pp. 489-491.
323 [bit]. pp 498-498.
324. Ibid. p 499.
325. Ibid.
328. Ibid. p.500.
 VAIKEANASA AGAMAS 101

bedecked with ornaments, resting at the waist. He is with Sr!

and Bhfidevi and a retrnue. Narayam rs also present within the
orb of the moon and shining at the tip of the nose. Vasudeva
shines in the upturned lotus at the top of the susumnd n64i.33'1
Vrsnu who rs present in the heart must b- meditated upon.333

The ducts (nadi) are stated to be 72,000 in number, of

which 24a, ptfigala, ausumnfi and eleven others are prominent.
The first three of these play an important role in man’s contem-
plation and, even there,Tthe .rusmunfi is held to be the path for
obtaining final release. These fourteen are spread over the body.
Besrdes the five vrlal airs (prapa and others), there are five more
With the names of nfiga, karma, kfkara, deuadatta and Mann??-
jaya 3Z9 Among them, pm‘pa rests between mouth and nose, be-
tWeen heart and navel. and betWeen the two great toes; apa‘na in
the navel (Le , 1n excretory and generative organs), vyana in the
Jotnts, udrzna In the throat, samana all through the body, naga in
the throat, karma In the eyes. krkam 1n the stomach, devadatta
throughout the body and dhanafijaya all over the body.330
Althoughjapa, home, arcana and dhyana are declared to be
the four courses for pleasmg God, the Vazkhdnasa Igama stresses
the significance of arcane whlch wrll accomplish all that one
likes to achieve.
Vlde
3W??? Haitiaraé eater
(VIC. p.509)
Yet the path of meditation ls described at great length.
Unlike in the yoga system which treats the separation of the self

321. (bid. pp. 500-2

328. Ibld. pp. 602-3.
329. Ibzd. p. 503
330 lbrd. pp. 605-8.
 VAIKHANASA AGAMAS 103

Pratyfihfira 1s of five kinds. The senses are withdrawn from

therr objects The aspirant finds everything to be like himself-
The Vttal alrs are made to fill up the eighteen vulnerable spots
tn the body and thereby mamtarn complete cessatton of external
acuvrty 336 Dhfimna ts of etght ktnds, namely, fixlng up stead-
fastly the mtnd, control of fikas‘a both wvhrn and wrthout,
control of the five elements and keepmg the bltssful body of
God tn the heart 337

Dhyfina ts of two kinds, according as the mgkala and sakala

forms of God are medttated upon The former IS not avatlable
even to the gods and the latter lS ofthenzrgupa and saguna ktnds.
Through medttauon the aspirant Vtsualtzes God as havrng
supreme bltss for HIS form 333 Meduatmg upon God as the
store of ausprcmus quallues, Yajfidmfirll, Vlsnu and
Narayana, ts of the latter kmd wrth four subgroups havmg one
for each at tnese forms 339 Samfidln ls deep contemplatton m
which the self and God are m the same plane As a stone that
is not hot becomes heated by the sun's heat, the self acquires a
flawless and blissful nature on vrsuanzrng God and conttnues to
experience Narayana As long as such a self remains in this
world, It gets all ktnds of siddhzs and ts practically released
from bondage though embodied (fivanmukta) 340 Thts stage of
feeling and expenencmg the bltssful state of final release, whtle
yet alrve tn thls world, 1s not attatnable by any means other
than yoga. Smc- .t ts satd t'nd' lht: self gets all szddhu, thts stage
1s not the same as m the Advazta system

There are four states 1n the mental activity of man. They

are the wakmg (Jagrat), dream (wapna). deep sleep (susuph) and

336 [Did pp 514-515

331 Ibrd pp 515-518.
338 lbld pp 516-517
339. Ibld pp 511-519.
340. Ibid. p. 519.
104 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

transcendental (luriya). The eflects on mental acthities during

these are respectively external knowledge, internal
conscmusness and enlightenment 341 The qualities are dharma,
jfia‘na, azs’varya and uairagya which each of the five deities
possesses 34?
The state of moksa is one of intimate union of the self With
God.
Vide '
fetch: Higszmicgmq
33‘. p 30
That this state should characterize the concept of moksa is
jusufiable, because the self, which emerges from prakrtz, that
is, Sit ever assoCiaied Wllh God, should naturally get back to
the place of emergen3e, of course, Wllh this difference that it
returns rid of all reSidue of karma and With full enlightenment.
The place to be attained is called Vaikuntha, which, trUe to
its name, cannot be deformed or maimed by any force. It is
far above the three called Pramoda, Sammoda and Kmoda in
the descending order, the last representing the stage wherefrom
the regions called Visnuloka begin. Visnu is the deity in Kmoda,
Mahfiwsnu in Pramoda. Sadawsnu in Sammoda, and Vyapin
who is Niiayana in Vaikuntha. The names of the three
regions leading to Vaikunma have Significance in the sense that
they provide room for the enjoyment of divme bliss 343

Among the pupils of Vikhauas, four, namely, Alri, Bhrgu,

Kasyapa and Mariel, gave out their own versions of the
Vazkhdnaxa Agama which they had studied under Vikhanas.
Unfortunately, only a portion of each version is now extant.

341. K p 52,
342, SA 37 3, 1K p. 52
343. VK. pp. 494-495.
 VAlKHANASA AGAMAS 107

These texts are written mainly in verse, as in the case of

Atri and Bhrgu, but those ofKisyapa and Mariei are in prose.
All of them reveal a high level of literary attainment
In their contents, they are Similar and, if there is any
leergence, it is only in the more elaborate treatment of some
t0pics in one than in another Among the four diViSions into
which these contents are grouped, it is the knya [Jada that has
received more attention than others, Garyfi receiving some
treatment The duties of a vfinaprastha which are generally
known as those of the naiklzfinasar, the Significant posttion
which Vikhanas held in regard to rituals and the lack of empha-
SIS on the importance of the ascetic order indicate that the
Vazkhfinasa Zgamais ritualistic to the core in its outlook and
conception How best the life here could be lived in strict
conformity to Vedic traditions and how efl'ectively the Lord
could be worshipped have received attention tn these works. In
fact, the ascetic and the va‘naprartha are excluded from ofliciat-
ing as priests for certain rituals 351 The other twa divisions of
the Jgama receive only brief treatment.
In gener’tl, the texts deal Wllll the methods of construction
of temples and making images Installation, consecration and
worship of the deities receive detailed treatment Special cere-
monial baths are described With minute details. Festivals, both
private and public, get procedural treatment, indizating the
purposes to be served by conducting them Special emphasis is
laid on the ways and means of performing the rites of purifica-
tion and expiation
The S’rauta rituals receive Spcclal emphasis and all of them
are declared as representing the various ways in which Visnu ls
worshipped 353 Naturally, the various types of prlelta like the

351. SA. XXX 141:.

352. See under 315 sap".
 VAIKHANASA AGAMAS 109

from H.355 Some of the acts Whlch are CUJO'flCd for worshlp
are peculiar to their Zgamas, For instance, mandala, nyisa and
the positions of the syllables in mantras are mentioned.356 The
ducts (midi), bmdu and other aspects of some creation 357 are
treated with reference to medttatton Sr! is considered as the
power (faith) of Vtsnu.353
The opinions of Others descrtbed as ‘ knit ’359 are referred
to. Perhaps, these persons were offerings different directlon
to certatn practices which could not be efl‘ectwely carried out,
for Want of materials or facilities mentioned in these 134'“
texts

Though havtng an easy flow of graceful expressions, archatc

forms 360 are not absent tn these texts This does not at once
Indicate that they should be very ancreut. Such expression!
are generally met with tn the eptcs and Purina: and also in the
Kalpasfitms Their presence “I these texts could be explained
on the ground that the authors of these works were 53!“ “"3"
were practtsnng rituals
The sages Martel, Bhrgu, Am and Kfisyapa, are very
anctent and, as it ts generally admttted. many of these texts
must have taken thetr rlse m North India The authors of the
Kalparfitms mostly hatled from North lndta. Curtously enough,

355 See SA Introduction, p XXII

356. VK pp 282-3 285 338. 485—491 SA LX '11. 12,

35'! VIC
pp 500-505
358 Vrde .

film?! fiql‘a: afi: wwfimwr artist I

tbtd. pp. 403. 4_

359 [bid pp 103 182,190,488.

380 KA X. 41 , SA. LXXIX. 18.
110 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

the Vatkhanasa Zgama as such Is not well~known in North India.

This is perhaps because the Kalpasmras of Vikhanas are followed
by a handful of people who belong to the Tazttzriya recenSion
of the Krsna Tajurveda which is popular only in South India
where the mode of worship in the temples must also have been
derived from the Vazkhanara Agama Most Vaisnava temples in
the south are at present governed by the Vatkhfinasa tradition.
Perhaps, these texts were more popular among the Tamilians
Words of Tamil origin are found in some texts 331
The Samfirta‘rcanfidhzkarana, which forms part of the
Atrisamlzztfi, has 83 chapters containing about 5,000 slokas
Twmtyfive chapters of this work are concerned With architectural
details and eleven with the rites of expiation One full chapter
(83rd) is devoted to the worship of the sun The priests who
attend to the worship of God in temples, are reqUired to be
kept in contentment, as otherWise the locality where the parti-
cular temple ts Situated would be VlSlt:d With misery 352 The
gain: and pravara of 47 different families are mentioned in a
separate chapter (63rd) The colophon of this work refers to
this text as taught orally by Airi (Amprokta) The printed text
has a suppiementary Ciapier called Rathapranstfivzdhz as belong-
ing to Purfizantra, one of the but works of Atri

The printed text has an Appen iix I containing Six chapters

representing a versron based 01 a dil‘f rent maiuscript Bhrgu,
Kasyapa, KngIrasa and Atri reCeived teaching about the highest
d/iarma, the Supreme Betty and the method of worship from the
four faces of Brahma respectively hang the east, south, west
and north quarters 363 While mentioning the various branches
of learning, those of the Buddhists and laws are also

361 Karapdikfi: VK p. 88 . CUHI, ibi'd. pp. 154. 293,

362 SA. XLIII. 115-118.
363. Ibid. p, 4'14.
112 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The name of .S’atvaszddhfinta ts gtven for 28 kinds. The

Pfis‘upata and Tamale are of stx and ntne ktnds reSpecttvely.375
The system of the Buddhtsts, Nyfiya and others are then enumer-
ated. The names of the texts of the Pdficarfitra and thos= of the
four sages of the Vazkhanasa are gtven For the latter together
the number of flake: ts stated to be 64,000 and the number of
texts as twentyfive 376 The nature of realtty and the etght-
ltmbed yoga get treated tn the next two chapters 377

There ts the Appendtx lI whtch deals wtth the nature and

geography of the world and has only one chapter called
Bhuuanakos‘aoarnana as taken from Atrt’s st/zutantra At the end
of the prtnted text, there ts a chapter numbered as etght,
belonging to Atrt’s authorshtp and entttled Dumaksatraprfiyas-
ctttam'd/tr'

The tnf'ormatton contatned tn two appendtces ts very useful,

Yet the mentton of adhvfi, which ts generally treated tn the
other Igamar, s’Ekta, S’awa and Péfirarfitra. does not establish N
to be a genume doctrtne held by the Vatkhfinara system

Among the texts of Bhrgu, the KrtyEd/ztkfira has 39 chapters

containtng about 4000 sloka: Worshlp of God ts of three ktnds '
in the mind, in the tmage and tn the sacred fire The first ktnd
mun not be taken as medttatton, but as offertng worshtp tn all
its details mentally concetved The second ls carrted out thh
respect to the tdol whtch ts tnstalled The thtrd ktnd conststs
in mentally conceivrng G0d as seated amtdst the sacred fire and
maltth ofiertngs to Htm to that fire378 The worship of the idol
is the best among the three 379

375 Ibrd pp 488-6. 5-11

376. Ibrd. pp 487-488
3'17. Ibul. pp. 488-504.

318 K}! I. 5-12.

379. Ibtd. I. 13, 14 I.
 "mum“ nouns 113

Expiatory rites are dealt with in five chapters. It is also

shown how to get over minor lapses during worship without
undertaking an elaborate expiatory process. There are
references to the treatment of the topicm the context in the
Tajflidhikfirafiw Nrmkmdhtkdraiial and Kht'lfidhikdra 333 The
opinion of Angiras is Cited more than once 333
Bhrgu’s Tajfiadhzkflm contains 51 chapters, of which
expiatory rites cover six. The main subject-matter is the
worship of God according to the directions contained in the
Vaikhfinasa system The Pmktrpddhikfim of Bhrgu is a supple-
ment to MarICi’s Vtmanarcanakalpa and Atri's Samfirtfircanfidhi's
karapa It contains 24,000 s‘laka: in 37 chapters The greatness
of the Vat'khanasa system, offences (apacfira) and the nature of
sin are treated here. Some of the slokas in the last chapter are
identical With some in the Manurmrtt, Bhrgu is mentioned as
the propounder of the doctrines of the Manwmru'. He may be
perhaps identical With this Bhrgu. Six chapters of this
Prakimfidhzkt‘r‘ra are devoted to expiatory rites. The Khiladht‘lcam
of Bhrgu has three sections called jflana. Imya and yoga, dealing
respectively With the talll’ajflfina, practice of worship and
meditation on God.

Kisyapa's jflinaka/ida prose and contains 108 chapters.

is in
While recommending the worship of the idol, it Is said that here
the eyes and mind get delighted through such worship and
perfect remembrance of God becomes pOSSlbie. This gives rise
to devotion and faith He who has faith and devotion has
complete success in all endeavours 334 There is mention of
nine kinds of regions named Vaisnava, Brahml, ‘Raudre, Aindra,

380. Ibld. XVIII. 68

881. Ibid. XIX, 124
382. Ibrd. II. 238: XI 08: xxx. 1“.
333 lbid. IX. 69.19, XIV. 388,111.
384. 1K. 1). 4.
asv—IS
114 immune AND son'rn INDIAN VAisNAVIsu

Garuda, Bha’utika, .Ttsura, Rfiksasaland Paisaca; Only.the first

is to bel"chosen for the erection' of a temple.335 How the
villages and towns are to be formed is detailed in four chapters
(14-17) The person who iS devoted to God; must set apart one
third of his property for the maintenance of his family and
spend the remainder for building a temple and maintaining it
333

Ani‘ong the five forms the unchanging and highest one is

'

Brahman called Visnu His form is characterized by bare

eXIstence and is subtie. He is then pariless The question that
would rise then is regarding”the'f0rms of Satya, Acyuta, Purusa
and Anthddha, it is said that these are only the created forms
of Visnu, like the shape of the Written characters (tzpz) The
characters are only the symbols of various sounds 337 Close
union of the self With God‘ marks the stage of moksa 338 TWelve
chapters are devoted to expiatbry rites
Martci’s Vimfinfircanakalpah which is written in prose, has
101 chapters of which A0 are devoted to the construction of
temples, six to the daily worship, three to the bath, eleven to
the conduct of festivals and installation of other idols, nineteen
to the acts of expiation, one to the deities in charge of the holy
fire-pit (agmkunga), four to the code of Epractices, fourteen to
tattua and one to the extent of the Vaikhfinasa texts
The text opens with two stanzas of benediction in honour
of God as Srtnivlsa who gets a glorious description Marlci is
the narrator of this text. At the outset he speaks of the means
of getting final release God (Narsyana) must be worshipped
with the mantra: taken from the four Veda: in a manner pre-
scribed by them. Finally, that self which adopts this way of life,

386. [bid pp. 12l 13.

388. Ibid. p. 31.
381. lbid. pp. 52, 53.
388. Ibid. p, 30.
 varxmmasA seams 11

would reach His place.339 Passages from the Rgueda, Taitu'riya

Iranyalca, Aitareya Brahmana and Taitttrzya Upanisad are cited
to show that Vrsnu is the Supreme Being 390 Worship of the
Supreme Being (Parama Pumps) 15 called ‘Vimandraana’,391 which
explains the title of the work.
The results Whlch accrue by this Worship are stated to be
equal to those of performing Agmhatra even for those who do
not do it and all-round prOSpenty for those who do 392 Marlci
declares he wrll set forth the way of doing thts worship, which
he denotes by the name, ‘ Krzydmarga‘ ', suggesting that this text
ls devoted to the Imya aspect of the Agama: 393 This is evident
from the large number of chapters (1-40) devoted to the proced-
ural details regarding the construction of the temple and
installation of images there. On thls account, it Is not implied
that the caryfi aspect ts not glven Importance Chaplets 41-85
discuss this matter Specral mention must be made of the
detailed treatment given to the conduct of festlvals394 and to
the acts of exptatton 395 Nineteen chApters which detail the
latter, indicate the pro-Vedtc character of the Vatkhanara system

389 VK p 2
390 Ibld pp 2-3
391 [bid p 3 The word. wmana' whtch means the story In the
‘

structure of the temple, 1ndtcates that God must be worshtpped tn I temple.

392 Ibid p 3
393 the
initur finzrrtrrii Pinata} aemfir I

Ibrd. p 5.
has seven chapters for this The very title, Knyadhzkan. suggests
m.
KA
the unportance gtven to knyi ' SA.
394 VK L-LIV [CA has two chapters, x1v&xv1.
SA LIII-LVII 1K LXXXVIIl-XC.

395. VK. LXI-Lm. KA has twelve chapterl. ICE-XXII.

SA. LXVI-Lxxx. 1K. LmIV -Cm.
116 AGAMAS AND sourn INDIAN varsmvrssr
in particular and of the Kgama: in general. Treatment of tuna,
yogic practice and maksl shows that thejfizz‘na and yoga aspects
are not ignored tn Vaikhdnara 137124.395
These texts of the four sages lay great stress on the practical
side, such as the construction of temples and worship of the
idol. Architecture and iconography [CCCIYC greater attention in
the Samfirtfircanddhtkarapa of Atri and the Vzmdnfircanakalpa of
Matter Whatever be the topic, the jfifinakfinda of Kasyapa
glVCS a complete and logical treatment.

This title may seem to be Inappropriate to the work of

Kisya pa For it is not taztaajfifina that receives treatment here.
On the other hand, the practical side of the lgama gets elabo-
rated, and the word, ‘jfiéna’, has relevance to the knowledge
of this sweet The trtle thus gets us justrfication The nature
of reality is dealt within this work in a casual manner,397 while
its treatment is more detailed to the work of Mariel The yoga
and vary! aspects get brief treatment in the works of Martel and
Bhrgu. The works which are lost might perhaps have conveyed
more information on thejiiana and yoga aspects
It
is true that Vedic mantra: alone are prescribed in these
texts for every ritual, In addition, mantras are cited from the
Mantraprasna of the Vaikhfinasas.

398. VK. LXXXV—C. The appendix ln 3}! has a chapter on yoga.

391. M. p. 2,
 CHAPTER V

THE PXNCARXTRA XGAMA:

Validtty and Antiquity

The Paficaratra Igama, which is mainly concerned with the
worship ofGod in temples and houses, treats also ofphilosophy.
linguistic occultisrn (mantra) and the theory of mystical diagrams
(yantra). It is based on the Ekfiyana recensxon of the Sukla
Tajurueda and so is Vedic in its foundations. Vedic mantras arc
frequeptly used. Yet ttreveals a liberal and progresswe out-
look 1n throwing open its portals to all, irrespective of caste
and sex, thus bringing within its fold even those who are
excluded by tradition from the study of the Vedas Conse-
quently, mantras are created for their use and also for others.
These are called tanmka mantras, It is the Vaisnava initiation
(diksa) that confers on the aSpirants the necessary quallfication
to part1c1pate directly or otherwrse in the ritualistic
performance of worship.
A passage in the Pfificaratra text, Vtspuramht J, defines the
word ‘ tantra ’ as that which expounds all objects and protects
pe0ple from fear 393 Flve tantra: are enumerated as derived from
Vasudeva They are Vaikhanaca, Sattvataj s’tkhin, Atkinn‘ka and
MElaka 399 Accordlng to the first, Visnu must be worshipped
at all times. The family has to be looked after by the worship-
per with what he gets unasked The second is also known as
Bhagavata Paficaratra. The third refers to that system the

398 VS H 10.35

399. Ibtd. II. 31-39.

118 AOAEAS AND sown lumen wusnnis-
adherents of which worship Vlsnu twlee a day and take to
agriculture, trade and cattle-breeding as the means of liveli-
hood. The Aikfinhka system is adopted by those who worshlp
Visnu once in a day, render sauce to the tWice-born and live
on begging. The Malaka ls taken up by those who worship
Visnu through thought, word and deed, and live on what is
obtained unasked and on what they get from their pupils 400 A
slightly difiereni claSSification is offered by Atri, but it ls not
complete as regards information on the last We BeSides, the
third one is called Tirtha Instead of S'ikhznfim
It not possible to ldentlfy the systems of .S'iklun, Aikdntika
is
and Milo/ca I: is also doubtful whether there were systems
With these names. These may not be names of any particular
systems, but of groups who were identified thus for their
distinct practices The S’tkhm may refer to a group who wear
the tuft and do not remove it except when they enter into cero
tain orders of recluses 403 The Arkantika may refer to that
group which depends exclusively on Visnu for getting moksa and
for other purposes as well.403 The identification of the
Mfizakas is not easy

400 Ibid 11.26-35

401 SA Appendix,l 3.

402 SKS Brahmaratra. V 33b-42 P V Kane: History of Dharma-

.ffistra Vol II Part II pp 939-41
403. Vida
I?! 313% emit mrmtvufi smear Wf‘a
firm
1::
Initial will": I

Yatindramatadipikfi. p. 11.
Vida :

nfmararxaqu we unaa‘tsfir 1ft $15??? a

crrr‘rsrrra‘t I

Ibid.
Cf. Vedantakanka veli, VIII. 18. 19.
 PANCARATRA AGAMA 121

first three refer to the knowledge of the three gape: of matter,

the fourth relating to non-material Nature and the last to the
transcendental nature of Brahman The Pfificaratra system is
said to treat of these matters and hence the name 410 A second
explanation refers to the names of five persons who presented
the doctrines of the systems after which the sections are known,
making the total number five The names of the sections are
Brahmardtra, s’rvarfilm, Indrarfitra, Nagardtra and Rsirfitra.4n

The explanations offered to the word, ‘pafica ’, come under

the third group The fivefold manifestations of God by means
of His Pan, Vyaha, Vibhana, Antaryamin and Ami forms may be
meant by this word 413 A second Interpretation is that Brahma
propitiated Visnu for five nights in five ways near the five
weapons of the Lord and hence the name.413 According to'a third
explanation, Brahma lost the Vedas to the demons, Madhu and
Kaitahha. He approached Visnu with profound grief and
requested directions as to how He is to be worshipped. The
Lord asked him to offer worship {or five nights With the Dnada-
s‘fiksam and astfiksara This way of worship became known as
Pfificarfitm 414 The fourth and fifth explanations take the word,
'pa‘fioa,’ to mean the fivefold clasSification of the daily routine
and the five sacraments respectively 415

410 Sabdakalpsdruma. III. p 13

411 Bbfiradvija-samhita, ll 12.

412. Vlde '

atuqeifinfiamari‘qfiwurq n

castrated aes'i rité‘rmaum; I

11115. XI. Bab-84!.

413. SA Appendlx. 111.

pp 480-481. Hoke: Bb-Dn.

414 KA. XXXVI. 11-143.

613. Sohrader, pp. 24-25.

asv—IG
122 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The sixth interpretation is based on the number of sages

who propagated the doctrines of thesystem, Sandilya, Aupagi’t-
yana, Maufijyayana, Kausika and Bharadvaja, who were incar-
nations of the five weapons of the Lord, propitiated Him
through penance. The Lord appeared before them and taught
to each one of them for five nights the Ekfiyana Veda, also
known as Rahaxyfimna'ya Hence the system is reputed as Pfifica-
rfitra 416 According to a seventh explanatiOn the five topics that
are dealt with in the system gave the name to it. The topics are
reality, the means of getting moksa, devotion, yogic practice and
the objects of the world.417

The eighth interpretation accounts for the name of the

system ‘ Pfificarfitra’ by referring to the pranava as having
arisen from five sourCes. Brahman is held to be undivided and
the other four are from mEyE. From Sankarsana (or Balarama)
arose ‘a’; from Pradyumna, representing Prajfifi, ‘u’, from
Aniruddha who is of the nature of Prayrt‘a‘, ‘m'. Krsna is the
remaining source Thus, pranava arose from five sources It
represents the Pfificarfitra system 413 Lastly, the system gets
this name as it arose for living beings of five kinds (four castes
and an inferior caste) for whom it was1ntended.419
Before examining how far the explanations cited above are
acceptable, it is of interest to refer to a sacrifice named
Paficaritra mentioned in the S’atapatha'brlhmana (XIII 6 i I)
Purusa Narayana is stated here to have had the idea of
performing this sacrifice which lasted for five days in order to
acquire superiority over all beings In a preceding chapter of

416 IS XXI 519-533

417 Schrader. p 24

418 Aniruddha S 1 39a, Gopalatfipaniya Upamrad.

419. Animddha S I 39b.
Cf. Bharadwaj. K. D.. The Philosophy of Rainamya. pp. 18-19, awe
 PANCARATRA AGAMA 123

the Brahmana (XII.3.4 ), it is shown how He sacrificed Himself

and became the whole world. The rite, Agm’stoma. was perform-
ed on the first day, Uktlzya on the second, Att'ratra on the third,
Ukthya on the fourth and Agnistoma on the last day. This is also
called in the context by the other name, ‘ Pummmedha.‘ The
commentator, Harisvamin.420 notes that Purusa desired to have
all the sentient as also the insentient beings under his control,
and knowmg that Purusamedha had to be performed to achieve this
end, performed it. Then he became Narayana. This sacrifice
has a bearing on the Purusasfilcta‘lZl of which the seer is Narayana.
The act of ofl'ering Purusa as the Victim in this sacrifice. Purugaq
medha, is symbolic in character and is found represented by a
similar act in the Purusaszzkta
The word, ‘rdlra', name, ‘Paficarltm', of this
in the
sacrifice does not mean night, but the whole day (ahorfitra)
which begins With one dawn and ends with the next dawn. This
name has a bearing on the name of the Piificaratra system.
Without gomg into the meaning of the words which constitute
the compound word. ‘Pfificaratra‘, it is poSSible to find the basis
for naming the system after the name of the sacrifice, ‘Paflca-
rfitra ’ This sacrifice shows how PuIUSa became Narsyana, the
Supreme Deity havmg control over the sentient and insentient
beings Here is a reference to the Vyfiha concept involving self-
manifestatlon. The Paficara‘tra sacrifice provrdes thus the
philosophical interpretation of the fiVefold manifestation of God
by means of His Para, Vyfiha, Vibhaua, Antaryimi’n and Area
forms. This explanation accords well with the statement that
He composed. out of the original salt-Ira, the Paficars'tra

420 fiatapatha-brsbmane with Com. Mldhyiindine edn. p. 120.

421. RV X. 90. 11-14,
 PANCARATRA AGAMA 125

It will not he, therefore, correct to connect the name,

‘ Pificaratra ', with the number of forms which God assumes or
With that of the dlv1sions of the routine of the day Though some
kind of Justification could be oflered for this theory, it Will not
be correct either to connect the concept of paficasamrkfira With
the name of the system.
The statement in the Ahzrbudhnya-samhttl 423 that the
Pancarfitra system was formulated by Visnu I-Iimselll gave rise to
the theory that the Lord Himself taught the Sittvata system to
five sages for five nights (literally, ‘ ahorfitm ’ or simply ‘ day ').
And this is one of the explanations given for the name,
‘Paflcaratra '. There could be no doubt about ‘ five ’ being the
meaning of 'pafica ’, but the Interpretation given to the word,
'rfitri’, must be late in orgin. Found in the fsvarasamhrta424
it clashes With the five diwstons of the Sanatkomara-samhtté‘
called ‘Ratmr', named after Brahma, Siva. Indra. R51 and
Brhaspati HOWever, this could be resolved by taking the five
sages to be included among the [sis and by admitting that there
were also others like Brahma 'and Siva who had acquired
knowledge of the Pdficarfitra tradition
Ahirbudhnya teaches Narada 425 that there are five systems,
namely, Trayi (representing the three Vedas), Sdfikhya, Yoga,
Pfis'upata and Pa‘ficara‘tra. among which the last mentioned alone
prov1des the means for obtaining liberation This statement
should have made the sages take Paficaratra alone as the perfect
system by the side of which the other four pale into ihSignifi-
cance To make this clear, the sages understand the word,
‘ra'm’, to mean ‘becoming dark or obscure '. In order to
proclaim the high status of the Pfificardtra, they have taken the
word ‘paflcu' to mean many things. Yet all those interpretations

423. Ibzd.
434. 13. XI 519-534.
425. Abs. XI. & XII.
126 AGAHAS AND sou-r3 mums varsmvrsu

are late in origin and seem to have no direct bearing on the name
of the system Nor is there anv justification (or taking the
word 'ram ’ in the sense of knowledge. Lichise, there is no
need to trace the rise of the prapaua from VyE/za All other
interpretations do not seem persuaswe The Vazkhfinasa texts 433
also seek to explain the Significance of the name by attaching
importance to the words constituting the name. This also must
be taken to represent a later attempt to Justify the name
through the component parts of the compound
It is worth conSIdering in this context the Views of Prof.
J. A B van Buitenen 437 on the name, ' Pa‘ficaratra ' The
learned professor adduces eVidence to show that the‘connotations
attributed by Indian scholars to the ward are not tenable. He
ofi'ers some pla-usible pleas to take this name in a difl'erent sense
and to Justify its significance in a different setting
The Pfincan‘itra textS, which are available at present, have
more ofa ritualistic character than philosophlcal The Kgama-
prlmapya of Yamuna, the earliest work which Vindicates the
valrdity of the Pdfirara‘tm, touches only the ritualistic aspect of
the system The philosophical portions of the Jgama texts
should have found their way into them in later days.
Even here, the ritualistic contents, which show the growth
of many concepts for several centuries, could not be traced to
a Single source. The attempt, made by Indian scholars, to
connect the name of the system With the Pazcara'tra-rattra to
establish its non-yajfitc character, indicates the eagerness of the
scholars to establish, for the Pfificara‘tra rituals, a link with the
Vedtc rituals.
On the aide of the philosophical background, the Mahd-
bharata (Maksa-dhmma-paraan) contains two accounts of the

426. SA, p. 480, KA p 411

427. Introduction to lgamaprlmdnya, pp, 6-16.
 PANCARATRA AGAMA 127

Vyfiha doctrine. Nara, Nariyana, Han and Krsna, all of them

being the sons Dharma, belong to the earlier concept The
later development, as found in the second account, seems
to be based upon the theistic Sefikhya doctrines preached in the
epic. In the background of these dectrlnes, there arose a
difi'erent conCept of Vyfiha in which Purusa, the Supreme Being,
firm, menus and ahankzz'ra play a prominent role With the names,
Vasudeva, Safikarsana, Pradyumna and Anlruddha. The earlier
concept is replaced by the later one.
Names like Pafieayajfia, Paficakilakartrpati and Pancaramka
are used by Narada to address the Lord, Yet, no convmclng
explanation lS ofi'ered about what the word, rim ’. means and
‘

why the word ‘ pafica ’ is used with it in the name of the system.

The learned professor therefore turns to other sources to get

at the sense of the name. The Brhatkathfi-.§loka-:arigraha of
Budhasvamin represents a recluse as a pafiearlmka and also
CDJOll‘lS that a recluse must not stay In a Village for more than
three days and in a town for more than five days 433
Vide:
Items} afiqflrfi trainer gfir: 3% l

{Fa “Yemeni ad a: warfirl‘a l

1b: 22- 220

A prosperous farmer is represented in this context to have left

his profession and gone in quest of moksa He is reported to
have sald :
a
surarwmqarfi firfirér ingest? Ire I
§reuafinlfwgsfiezr area aranw arfia it II
Ibzd lb 63

The professor observes on the strength of these and similar

references in the same work of Budhasvamin that the wordI

428. Th1 15 mentioned also 1n the Brabmepurdna. H. 34, 49.

128 mums AND sown INDIAN VAisisAvrssi

‘pfimaratra’, could have been coined to denote a person who

becomes a recluse and stays in a towu for five days only.
EVidently, such persons should have been wandering sages and
recluses The Vedic rituals did not necessarily form part of
their practICes The farmer refers to himself as a Vaiéya. He
has taken to the way of life of ascetics and so is referred to as a
pdficfira‘mka He vistted the holy places of the Hindus and
Buddhists and at last became a Buddhist. “ A Pdficarahika in
this very large sense is therefore an itinerant religious recluse
who follows the five-nights rule regardless of doctrinal allegi-
ance " Pa‘marfitra must have been associated originally With
devotional religion Later, the word ‘Pfiacarimka' must
have been formed from this word in this general sense and must
have meant a follower of five-nights rule, pa‘mardtranurfirm The
name, ‘Pigcamtra’, should have meant thls tradition which its
adherents followed.
In courseof time, the devotional element of such votaries
must have come to characterize a tradition associated with the
name of Visnu, The name ‘ Pfiacarfitra ' must have been invest-
ed With speCIfic features Which substituted for the Vedic rituals
Rgamic pracuces. It is thus quite likely that the name ‘ Panca-
rfitra’ owes its origin to this rule of five-nights The several
explanations, which are ofl'ered in the Sariihztar of this school,
are mutually contradictory and appear to be based on no
reliable tradition.
The findings of the learned professor deserve very careful
study It Will be prudent to agree With him in treating the
several explanations contained in the Sarhhitfi: as not very
convtncing One is left only with speculation No eVidence,
outside the texts which ofl‘er these explanations, is forthcoming
All the same, it seems difficult to subscribe fully to the views
expressed by Dr. van Buitenen.
The formation of the Word ‘pfiacarfimka’ requires expla-
nation. It is formed from the word, ‘pai’icaritra', with the
 m3 PANCARAIIA AGAMA 129

addition of the suffix. thak, according to the Astadhyfiyi-rfitra,

" tatra niyuktab".429 Then the word means one who is engaged
in ‘pfificarfitra’. This word also is a Compound of the dvigu
kind, meaning a group offive-nights There are words formed
like this With a numeral as the first member and ‘ ram ‘ as the
second member For Instance, ‘a'vrrfitra', ‘trirfitm‘, ‘das‘arltra'
etc All these occur one after another in Apastamba-srauta-
517174 430 The word ‘mrfiha’ occurs in Manurmrti431 and the

word ‘paficarazm’ also is found in the same work 43' Besides

the words, ‘ tnrfitra ' and ‘das‘aratra’, are too well-known
for their occurrence in the texts on Dharmas‘istra in the sense of
the number of days during which pollution (Esauca) is to be
observed.

It isSignificant that the word, ‘ram', occurs in these

compounds to justify the Hindu concept of the duratlon of a
day which ends With the explry of the night follow1ng it. The
day therefore starts with dawn and ends with the night which is
to be followed by the next dawn Thus, the word ‘ratri'
means here ‘day and night’ (alumina) The compound thus
formed conveys several senses For instance, the word
‘m'ratra’ means a period of pollution which covers three full
days including nights, as in Manusmrt: The word ‘paficara‘tra ',
later in the same work, means a period of five days. Thts word
is repeated here. The king is required to fix the price of
commodities at the expiry of this period, that, is once In five
days. Here this word does not convey any specific sense except
that of a group. The words, ‘ dmrfitm’, ‘mrfitra' and others
which occur in the vastamba-s'rauta-smra, refer to the number
of days during which specific sacrifices are to be performed.

429. Asgfidhyfiyi, IV. 4. 69.

430. Apastambasreutasiitra. XXII. 14
431. MS, v. 80.
432 Ibid. VIII, 402.
ASV—17
130 AGAMAS AND sourn INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The Words, ‘ekarfitnka‘ and ‘piz‘flcarimka ', occur in the

Mahabharata,433 where recluses are directed to stay for a day
in villages and for five days in towns. These Words are used in
the very same sense in the .s‘loka cited by the learned professor
from the Brhatkathfis‘lokaiar'zgmha (The professor, by the way,
must have used the expresSion ‘three nights ’ by oversrght in
the place of ‘ one night '.)

The word. ‘paficaritra', has thus merely the sense of a

group of five nights with no specific connotation attached to it,
such as that of the period of stay for a recluse in a town or a
period which should‘ cover the performance of a sacred rlte
The Mahabharata and S'lokaiangraha use the words, ‘par’zcarfitm'
and ‘ekaratra’, in the sense only of duration of time They
do not intend them to be the names of any groups of people
If We are to conclude that the name ‘pfificam’tn‘ka ’ was corned
later on to denote itinerant reeluses, then ‘ekaratrzka ’ could
have also been coined, unless there is the suggestion that the
recluses moved and stayed only in towns The word,
‘
Pfificarfitnka ', occurs in the Hargacanta 434 of Bhatta Bana
in the sense of a particular group of persons professing
particular doctrines and leading a specific way of life, as it is
clear from the names of other groups in the context who could
be identified from the practices and doctrines which they
followed, This Work was written in the first half of the 7th
century A.D., that is, before Budhasvamin (c 900 A D )
The farmer who refers, according to Budhasvamin, to the
restrlcuon for the stay of the recluses, is not known as a
‘pafloarmnka ’, butts referred to by that name The writer knew
of the practice and custom of the recluses. That he became
a Buddhist later, after Visiting the places dear to the Hindus and

433. Mbh $Ent1, CXC 3.

434. p. 237.
 THE PANCARA’I’RA mama 131

Buddhists, does not at once suggest that recluses who observed

this principle of ‘pamaratra ’, must have been following the
rule of five-nights. regardless of doctrinal allegianee This
prinCiple has been in vogue long before the rise of Buddhism.
Nor does the name, ' mha’ra ’, given to the resting places built
after the period of the Buddha for the stay of the Buddhist
monks during the rainy season, deserve specific attention, The
mhfiras could have been built to house the itinerant recluses of
Buddhism, but the rule, that the recluses should not travel
during this period, is too well known> under the name, 'Safikalpa',
or rather ‘ Ciiurma‘sya-sankalpa ’. The order of reciuses and the
principles governing their lives were not invented by the Buddha.
In fact, he was an inheritor of Hindu ideals, He did not teach
any new religious doctrine, but laid greater stress on some of
the ethical doctrines which were already kn0Wn to the people.
Thus it seems that the learned professor's thesrs cannot be
accepted, as it is based on unverified principles and assumptions.
The Sacrifice called ‘ Paficaratra Sama ' is already stated to
have been the baSlS for the name of this Kgama The ritualistic
aspect of this connotation of the word, ‘ pfificaratm ', does not
affect the name which the Vaisnazm Kgama assumed later.
There is parity betWeen this aspect of the Igama and that of the
Rgvsda. Both had only the ritualistic aspect at the beginning,
Philosophical speculation arose later, both in the case of the
Vedas and this Agama Authenticny cannot therefore be denied
to this .Zigama.
It is suggested that the non-yafinc aspect of this sacrifice
should have been a later development under the influence of
Buddhism and Jainism. This also is open to doubt. That is,
there is the symbolic representation of the sacrifice in the
Paficaratra-raura. This is intentional. Sucha representation is
found also in the passage of the Ghandyoga Upamsad435 where

485, V. 18. 2.
132 AGAHAS AND soon! INDIAN vstsmvrsm
the chest, hair and heart of the worshipper are imagined to be
respectively the altar, darbha grass and the Glrhapatya fire
Hence, the Pincaratra Agama must not be taken to have intro.
duced the symbolic representation of the sacrifice. The Upam-
,rad ts found to contain already this feature
As regards thereplacement of the earlter vyfiha of Nara,
Nariyana, Krsna and Hart by the latter, it must be borne in
mind that the Ekfinttdharma is said to have disappeared several
times and evolved agatn and again.436 On the last occasion,
which rs identical With the rise of the Pfificarmm tradttlon, a
new vyfiha was evolved in which the four manifestations of God
find representation, allowmg the mind and ego to have their
due place In the scheme through their presiding deities
Thus, an explanatton has to be given for the rise of the
Paficariha doctrine, offering a twofold meaning for this name.
One hrs In the doctrines which were preached by Brahma, Siva,
Indra, Naga (or Brhaspati) and R51. According to the other,
the word ‘pav’ica’ stands for an aggregate having the five limbs of
abhtgamana, upfidr‘ina, tjyfi,ruadhyaya, and yoga Wllh refer-
ence to ritra
‘ ’
which means ‘ ahordtra
', these five convey the
sense that the daily routine should be dwtded into five parts
havmg these names
The name ‘ Paficaratra '_ in Its latter Sigmficance. ts appli-
cable to the system With special reference to the practical srde,
that IS, the rituals The words, ‘I'Jyfi ' and ‘suddhyaya', bring
out the Vcdlc foundations on which this daily routine is based.
It is to vindicate this aSpect of the system that Vedanta Desika
wrote the Pificardtra-raksfi.
Vide :
wastaauafisufi aghfimfim I

sfittmrrsrfiaerv-cr Benefit-é emffiar u

(p 44, Adyar edn.)

430. Mbh. Sam: ccccvm.

 THE vacuums AGAMA 133

The division of the full period of ahoratra is treated in the

jayEkhya—sar‘nhitfi437, perhaps belonging to the oldest group
among the Pdflcaritra works
Thatthe ritualistic contents of the system could not be
traced to a Single source, must be admitted The Pdfiearatm-
sattra, described in the S’atapatha-Brahmazia, provided the
system With the concept of the period of five nights. In this
sense, the classification by the name of the system gets justified.
The greater significance, attached to this source, is due to the
unassalled supremacy and overlordship of Visnu. The system
drew sufficient Inspiration from this for its philosophical back-
ground. At the same time, the ritualistic aspect of this :attm
is reflected in the treatment of the acts of Visnu as having the
nature of performing the sacred ritual as enjoined by the Vedas
themselves However, how and when the classification of the
daily routine into five parts arose cannot be proved with
evidence Perhaps the five parss of the day, prfitab, samgava,
madhyfihna, aparfihna and .m‘ yam as named In the Dliarmasistrasfi33
influenced a similar attempt at diurnal division for the purpose
of worshipping God
In this context, it is necessary to criticise the
followmg statement of Prof Hazra “ It is more reasonable
to hold that the original non-Vedic as Well as anti-Vedlc
ideas of the Pdficarfitras were permeated through the Sun‘iht‘i
tat-439" it is unfortunate that many Indian scholars have been
encouraged to hold views such as these. under the influence of
the Western Orientalists Ideas and practices such as these
could be held as non-Vedic, as they do not form part of the
contents of the Vedas. There is, however, no Justification to

437. ]3. ch. XXII Pars. IX. 161-178

433. Apartrka on Yaflevalkyesmrti’, pp. 464.
430 Upapuraaes, p. 110.
 THB PANCARATRA AGAMA 135

society is shown to have been advanced in progress and

oiVilization in very early days, It is needless to believe in a
cleavage of Hindu sOCiety as postulated by the Western
Orlentallsts and their Indian followers. Hindu somety has been
culturally one and the same, havmg provmon for diversity at
various levels of thought and practice

It must be thus conceded that there are no anti-Vedic ideas

and practices in the Agamar. Non-Vedic ones are, however,
there, as the Vedas are not to be looked upon as an encyclopaedia
treating of all aspects of the life of society Many Concepts and
practices should have been in vogue even with people professing
Vedic culture, that were not recorded in the Vedas. On this
ground, the Igamas, which deal with them, could not be
treated as non-Vedic or anti-Vedic.
The same explanation holds good for the philosophical
background of the lgamar which arose With explanations for
rituals The schools of Vadlnta, which drew inSpiration from
the Nyaya and Sankhya doctrines, changed those borrowed
materials to suit their needs. The same feature is found in the
Igama: The Sankhya doctrines, preached in the Moksadharma
section of the Mahabharata, were changed to sun the Igama
doctrines in the Pfificarfitra Sam/mar.
The Pfificarilra Agamn regards Visnu With Sri as the Ultimate
Reality. For the purposes of creation and for worship, Visnu
manifests Himself in three forms called Safikarsana, Pradyurnna
and Aniruddha. It is said that Visnu is Vasudeva from whom
arises Sankarsana standing for the self From Sankarsana arises
Pradyumna representing the mind. From Pradyumna arises
Aniruddha representing the ego (alimhlrdm).44z All these con-
stitute the fourfold vin/za There are the divine dcscents called

442. Mbb. Stink. CCCXLVII. 82-40.

136 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

avatara: of the Lord which are also enshrined in temples. The

Lord is also present everywhere inside all living beings as
antaryfimin The self will have to devote itself to the observance
of the five daily duties, such as abhtgamana and upfidina.
Worship is to be done both in the temple and in the house.
Such is in brief what this Xgama teaches.

The authority of the Pfificaratra Zgama has been questioned

by adherents of different faiths The question or validity in the
case of the Vaikhanma A‘gama is not so serious, as it is based
excluswely on the Vedas. Even if Vlkhanas is not held to be
Brahma,443 the authority of the Egama tradition known by his
name cannot be questioned, for he himself was a Vedic seer and
his doctrines are hence valid. The same cannot be said of the
Pancaratm Though expounded by Narayana Himself who is
identified w-th Visnu444, it cannot be readily admitted as
intrinSicall} valid like the Vedas which are not the work of any
author or authors, human or diVine
The main ground for any objection of this kind is that the
Pancaritra doctrines are not only not based on VL'dlC authority,
but preach many a practice which is pronouncedly anti-Vcdic
The Kfirmapurfigza mentions this system as one among others
which are outside the. pale of V.dic culture and so deserVing
ICJCOIIOD.445 Meditithi on Manu (X 22) has :1 Similar remark on
this system,

443 Vide
it start a
%' EREI‘IH'HT: l

Taittnfiya iranyaka (I 23)

Brahms, who was performing penance. shook his body The

Vaskhfinasas arcse from hts nails. The word 'Vaikhanasa' II from
‘ Vikhanas ' which illustrates the phonetic change of metathesis.
444 Mbh. Sm: CCCLIX. 95-68.

445. See under In. 153.

138 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN vusuavrsu
are not dented the paficasamskfira. Thus, an additionai or
Spec1‘fl’c 1nit1at1on1s enJomed by this A'gama as obligatory, while
the V'e'dlc tradltron does not prescribe any such thing
Thirdly, asacorollary of this paficasamskfira initratlon, it
follows that those who are otherwrse totally drsqualified for
understanding the act of worshipprng God get adequate qualifi-
cation The upanayana rs notenJorned for those who are not
twrce-born. On these grounds, 1t rs evident that the Paficaratra
tradition lays down rules for practlces which can be clarmed
to go against the Vedtc tradition.
But if Nariyana Himself has expounded such doctrines
golng agarust the Vedlc tradition, how can He be justified in
dorng so, as He is thus contradicting Hls own statements :—
gfawaa't nfiarar I

stnudharma 6.31
“ The Vedas and Smrtz: are only My commandments"

Elia: ailitzirar Eta: I

36' (XV 15)

“ I alone am to be known through all the Vedas "
It is not pOSSlbie to believe that the Lord Would have
preached the Pfificarfitra contradicting I/edtc tenets

Fourthly, another argument agatnst the Pfificaritra system [.9

set out in the Utpattyaxambhavfidhzkarapa of the Brahmasfitras.
This section contains the followrng tfitras —-446
errfiae’marq I (11 2 39)

aa e553: arturzr I
(11240)
fisrmarfwfi arr «affirm I (11.2.41)
Famfaitarsr I
(11.2 42)

446. The Brahmasutras g1ven here are numbered as 42 to 65

according to to the Sribhfisya of RaminuJa.
 THE PANCARATRA AGAMA 139

The Agama declares that the self called Safiikarsana is born

of Vasudeva, the mind called Pradyumna from Samkarsana and
the ego called Anlruddha from Pradyumna.
Vide:
WIHEEIIUTTH; qtfiatqargrgfiarq deficit Hm shah
we, £156“!qu figfififi aft errata, amrqffiaflilfi
Sims: aura {fit I

S’ribhdsya on II.2. 39.

The self has neither birth nor death
Vide '
=r awe Fairer? air wife's; I

(Katha Upam'sad. I. 2. 18)

In the Xgama passage cited above, the self is stated to have
birth Hence the Agama of the Paficarfitra system cannot be
valid. This is conveyed in the Sfitra (II 2. 39) clted above.

That the mind called Pradyumna arises out of the self

named Sankarsana cannot be admitied, because the breath,
mind and all the sense organs are stated to spring from Brahman.
VldeZ
ire—stratum srrur‘r uaerre‘figurfin a I

Mundaka Upanisad (II 1 3)

The self which is the agent cannot be the source for the mind.
This objection to the Paficarfitra doctrine that admits the rise of
the mind from the self is conveyed in the Sitra (II. 2 40)
If the adherents of the Pm'imra'tm system seek to interpret
the rise of the self and mind as stated in II 2. 39, by taking
Sar‘rkarsana and Pradyumna as Vasudeva Himself in His essential
characteristic of knowledge, the lmposs1bility of origination is
not contradicted, that is, the objection stands undisturbed.
If all the four represent only Vasudeva, the rise of one from
another cannothe admitted as also the plurality of the divine
manifestations. This is the sense of the Sands, II. 2. 42-45..
140 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

ththly,
the Pancarfitra positlon prescnbtng Idol worship
stands contradlcted on the strength of the Vedlc passages whrcb
prescrtbe the ways of obtatmng release. The Supreme Reallty
rs to be meditated upon.

Vlde:
went at at new: airmail mam? firfizwrfaam: l

(BrU. II. 4. 5)
(0' the self is to be seen, llstened to, reflected upon and
contemplated upon.)
The pranaua must be medrtated upon.
the :
afiffirfiagargfiugwrefia u

(0le I. 1. 1)
(One must medltate upon the Sa‘ma chanttng of the syllable
‘ 0m ’
)

These four sfitras together form an argument directed

against the validtty of the Piz‘ficaratra system

Slxthly, Sandtlya, It 15 said, learnt the Vedas, Its/Mus,

Purina: and all other subjects requrred to be studied. He could
not find, from what he had learnt, the final means to get what
was good for hlffl, He felt miserable at the 447 He prayed to
God who gave htm the Pfificarfitra doctrines
Vlde '
ara‘tar errata; fierwrefimermfiatr: I

garfa mu arerrfa arrafiarwgarfir a

a §9rg rmég (men Fem start!
Erzftmr'l uqiurfir ita Falafif‘awfir II (Fan? 1.3.4)

447 Thrs bears close l1keness to the treatment of a smular theme m

the BhfimawdyE—pmkarana m ChU (VII 1).
 THE PANCARATRA AGAMA 141

swag uurar’t stage: were; 35:: l

arrangement FHETI sii‘ete‘tq
tangent "448
The foregoing passages reveal that Sandilya had doubts as to
the utility of studying various subjects. He could get full
satisfaction only from the Panoara‘tra doctrines This attitude
of Sindilya questions the usefulness of Vedic study and, as such,
the Pfificarfitra doctrines should be constdered as anti-Vedic,
thus losing their validity.

Seventhly, the Pfificaratra system is not included in the

traditional list of subjects studied
Vide —

gtrvmrrun'tniat afittrars‘firi‘flfi: I

air: Ntatfit Faerie? utter a swear it

Tajflavalkya Smftt (L3)

Eighthiy, the Pa'ncaritra system is called Sattvata. What does
this word mean ? it is a system belonging to the Sattvatas, who
are said to belong to a particular community called Vaisya-
Vratya which includes Sittvata, Sudhanvi, Kcarya and others 449
Those who are devoted to worshipping an idol and earning
thereby their livelihood, are called Deualakas Those who do
this work for livelihood Without initiation are Karmadevalakas
and those With initiation are Katpadevalakar. Both are unfit for
any rcsponsrble work in religious rites They are to be kept at a
distance from enlightened soc1ety There are two more kinds of

448 Riminuja mentions this in continuation of the prewous flokas

Clted from the PaJS I 3-4 Sudarsanasuri notes that thts sloka IS the one
followmg I 3-4, but it Is not found in the present text of ParS I 3-4
the .

miter anew: fiat sati‘qafifitfirgmfiqfifi

swag zmretttfiti‘a I

(Srutaprakdnkfi on 11. 2, 42.)

449 MS X 23 See Medhatttht on Ibid. X. 22, 23
142 AGAMAS AND sou-m mom! vatsmvrsu

Dwain/car, all of whom are not consrdered to be real Brahmine.

In fact, they are treated as outcastes.450

Ninthly, what is offered to the deity, whether flowers or

food, must not be taken by any one and must be thrown awry
in water. Acts of expiatlon are prescribed for taking such
offerings which are called technically nzrmalya 451
Vide :

fifirfiré uaafi 361i manurfir at I

afim’isqi‘nf‘a site's azqqei’m afifia II

SKS Sinarfitra.V.48,49.

The name ‘ Salivata ’, the description of Devalaka as a priest

for worship and the practice of taking nzrmalya prove that the
Pdmanflra Zgama deserves severe condemnation and so Is totally
invalid.

Finally, the derogatory expresswns found in the Vatkhanam

texts against the Pancaratra Kgama and in those of the Pfifica-
ratra against the Vazkhfinam are to be taken into account while
considering the question of validity. The Vaxkhanasa which is
based on the authority of the Vedas, should be conSIdered as
not only valid, but also ancrent The Pfificarfitra Zgama, it is
argued, must therefore be treated as later in origin and
unauthoritatwe.

450. lgamapnimfinya, p 8

451 Vide'
Ewart gratis? ga'gf‘afiq fife-rugged I
mi‘a‘éei Fani'ai gases" atrium? Hirer n

Cited In SR. p 82 as taken from the Brahmapurfina

Cf Pars XII 36b. 37:: , VII 44a for the puma {acre View See Das’
gupta S. N History of Indian Philosophy III ch XVI for an account of
obyectwns of th1s kind
 THE PANCARATBA AGAMA 143

The Vaikhiinara texts frequently refer to the Pa‘ficarfitra

practices as non-Vedic, tfinmka and as harmful to the people.
The Vaiklzfinasa system is claimed to have been taught formerly
to Vik'nanas by Narayana Yajfiavalkya and others introduced
into it the mantra: of the Ekiyana recension when there was
some danger to the system

The Vatkhanasa is called Saumya and the Pdficarfitra, Zgnoya.

The latter was revealed by Vasudeva to safeguard the former.
The former must be adopted for offering worship in Villages and
cities, in palaces and private houses The latter should be
confined to forests, hills. the seashore, banks of rivers and the
confluence of holy rivers and the sea. That system which was
adopted at first for excavating the ground for the construction
of the temple must be continued to be adopted for subsequent
purposes. The other system should not be brought in on any
account
Vide
f‘ ker mmrf‘qfiq
are? uaamram
O l‘
era l

Era §ZITFEFEIETF3 a @qlfifififitq II

SA LXXVIII II

If an attempt is made to mix up one With the other, the king-

dom or administration of the locality Will suffer 452 If an
adherent ofthe tanmka system touches the idol or enters the
sanctum sanctorum of the Vazkhfinasas, relnstallation and
reconsecration must done according to
be the Vazkhinasa system.
If the Vatkhlnasa mode is to be adopted in atemple which is based
on the Pfifiraratra Igama, there is no harm. But the reverse
W111 be attended with grave consequences Those who meddle
with the Vazkhfinata mode Would go to he]l.453

452 SA. LXXVIII 2-12, VIC '17

453. SA. LXXVIII. 18-24.

 PANCARATRA AGAMA 147

s
aeefiramsm. .
a FeIFeIar
aregernaq II

afir armies? errata? Emma: I

VtS.XXXIX.275b—277e.
At the same tlme, It is stated that the two must not be mixed
up With each other.
Vlde '
Heme; Héfi'lfia'fi Fl gfififire‘tefiq I

Ibid.285b
The Vazkhfinasa system 15 stated to have been expounded by
Bhirgava (Bhrgu or hrs descendants) for the well-being of the
Vazkhfinasa: This must not be adopted by the twrce-born either
for their private or public worship.
Vlde
fi-tarraqf‘ganfiu was? mfiarfirffiaq I

mafia? Feaé‘rfitrewfitsfi it II m Ibid 289b-290a

Those who take to the vfinaprastha order are stated to be of two
kinds. namely, Vaikhinasa: and Sfita: The latter ofl‘er worship
according to the Fi'gama taught by Bhargava Bhrgu, it is said.
expounded thls [game for the prahlomasafi‘
Vide
It?! 33mm: item: filfifilflfl‘lfiifilz I

ufiranui‘eamizx 3mm H’Ffiifl'fifiq II

V35 XXXIX 295.

The systems of Pfiflcarfitra and Vatkhanam must not be mixed up
as this would lead to total destruction
Vide
«qu def aa asdmgsfa’tfwr: I

aaeierti’rfim as? fii’filfii’fifl': II

”H.297.

456 One IS and to be a pratxloma 111 seen! status, 1f he 15 born of a

htgher caste woman and a man of lower caste.
148 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

In many respects, the .Zlgamas differ from each other, and so

diverse results happen when the practices prescribed by them
are adOpted. The deities who are installed by the procedures of
drfl‘erent Agamas, would get enraged when the ways of WOI‘Shlp
get minted up, and would bring rum to the worshlppers
Vlde
nfiaé name? Ha'rfismmfii
=35! I

“Eneraemasfiai aenrasqfizara'ha u
umrawri‘qar: Eta-Fae Heuraaféar: I

hargw‘tfia era‘ Ramadan: u

find 302,303.
Elaborate rules of exptatlon are prescribed when the practices
of the Pdficarfitra system get mixed up With those of the
VatkhfinasafiST

Thus, both the Vaikha‘nara and the Pdficarfitra Agama:

prohibit the adoption of the practices prescribed in each other.
On this ground, It is contended, the Vaikhfinasa ls held to be
valid, leading to the declaration of the Pificaratra Agama: as
lacking authority.
Rightfrom Yamunacarya who wrote the Agama-prfimanya
defending the validity of the Pa‘ficaratra. scholars have been
putting forth fresh grounds to malntain it.
The Pfificarmra system was revealed by Narayana Himself
Vlde °
wrflrrfii’l fie?! 3751’ aTtT‘IuT: @5131
Mbh Sfinu CCCLIX 68a
I

{=3 nétqi‘asrq' ageiqemfr-aratr o

Hhufitnfii an qratrsrrgirfaaq u

attramrgfi‘iafivi artq't meega: II

Ibrd. CCCLvm.62,63a

457. VIS XXXIX

152 mamas AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

When God declared that s’nm‘ and Smrn are His command-
ments and that He could be known only through the Vedas, what
is meant is that the Vedas are of supreme validity and the Sm rlt'
comes next to them when it does not clash With their authority.
Otherw1se, the epics, Purina: and the host of kindred works
would have to be treated as of no authority Like the sigma
which was taught to his disciples by Vikhanas 0n the basis of
the teachings of the Vedac, the Pfificarfitra Agama too was
revealed by God Himself to sages and, as Vyasa put it, this
A‘gama, revealed by God, represents the quintessence of the
Upam’sadt The validity of both the Agamas cannot therefore be
questioned.
The Utpattyasambhavidhtkarapa forms part of the second
chapter of the Brahmasitrar called Amrodhadhyaya Here it is
shown that the concept of Brahman as developed in the first
chapter cannot be controverted by any concept of any other
system whatsoever. This must imply that this adhtkarana dealing
With the Pfificarfitra system, should be interpreted to prove that
it is not authoritative This is claimed to be pre-supposed by
the ahthor of the Brahmarfilras.
The View of Sankara on this adhrkaraga is contained in his
Brahmasfitrabhfisya, which is the earliest available commentary.
He interprets the sfitras here as refuting the View of the Pfificarfitra
system, that the self called Sankarsana is born out of the Supreme
Being, Vasudeva. His objection is directed only against this
doctrin e. He admits openly that the other aSpects of this A'gama
are not refuted.
Vlde
attract: uftsazrinrar stfista: (truism Guitar EI'
u‘tssit
arrenmrurawfimw aqenafiua ast farrfimfi' (It. 2. 43)
I

This is because the Upamsadr recognise this self-manifestation 435

witmaarerrrraé a afirfin‘fit and.) 2. 2. 42.

465_. ChU. VII. 26. 2.

 rnn rANcAaA'rIA AGAMA 153

Nor is there any objection to worship as prescribed by Abhs‘q

gamana. Even if Samkarsana and others are to be treated as
gods, then there will be four gods to be recognized which goes
against the Pfifiearatra tradition that Vasudeva is the only one
Supreme Deity. If they are qualities, namely, knowledge etc.,
then this amounts to treating, for example, the same ‘Sankarsana'
as a person and also as his quality. This position is
inadmissible. Besides, Sandilya is stated to have given up the
study of the Vedas and taken to that of the Pafiearitra system.
This goes against the authority of the Vedas.
From this, it appears that Sankara is not against the
Pificarltra Kgama as such, except for the doctrine that the self,
Samkarsana, arose from Vasudeva. From the name of the
adlu'kamna and the first film there, it seems that the entire
objection against the Pa‘fieayatra tradition is based upon this
contention only.
The Visistadvalta thinkers treat this adhs'kampa as conveying
not merely the objection to the Pfiflearfitra tradition, but also
the answer in favour of its validity. The first two sfitras repre-
sent the primafizeie view and the next two show that the Plim-
ra‘tra Agama is valid. There are certain adhikarapas466 in the
Brahmasaira: which are of this kind in containing both the
objection and answer for the particular concepts or theories
treated therein.
The first :fitra (11.2 39) which refutes the statement of the
Agama that the self in the form of Sarhkarsana is born, is based
on wrong premises: for this A'gama does not state anywhere

466. ' Adhikarapa ' ts thus defined .—

i‘smfi fitmfiat fiwmnitatq l
WEI Hm? mfisi‘smmi £33313; il
$abdakeipadruma I. p. 37.
Cf. jasdhiksrana II. 3. 19-42 . Ssmbandhfidbikarapa m. 3, 20-12:
Simpsrayadbrkerapa III. 3. 21-31.
ssv—ZO
 rm: “new!“ AGAMA 155
Vide '-
emi‘atfim weenie: guts: to I

a filfitfiaa‘l qmi’fia fiifiaa: ll

Pars. II. 19.

This passage runs counter to the one which refers to the birth of
the self, and so the latter passage should be taken to mean that
there is no birth for the self from Vasudeva or for the mind from
the self. ‘Birth' must be taken in the sense of self-manifesta-
tation. as is done in the case of the Upamsad passage :
afil'fiflffih agar firsnaé
(TA 111.13.i)
Regarding the 5mm, 11.2.42, it must be noted that his
interpreted differently in different systems of thought. The
particle ‘ca’ in it does not have any additional sense of argument,
but only the sense of objection or contradiction to what is
contained in the p1ev10us firm. It is claimed to mean that
what ls taught in the Pincaritra Kgama stands contradicted.
This contradiction should use only from the Vedlc passages as
referred to in the sinus, 11239-40. Such passages as the
Chandagya Upamgad (II and Brhaddranyaka Upamsad (II 4.5.)
1)
CDJOID meditation as the means of getting moksa. The Pincu-
ritra texts. on the other hand, prescribe worship of God,
primarily in the form of the idol. Hence a contradiction to
this Igama prescription is held to be found in the Vedas.
This kind of interpretation does not stand to reason, for
the very aim of the Agamar is not to prohibit the method of
meditation. but to prescribe idol worship as an easier way which
could be practised by all without distinction. So it is not anti-
Vedic. Ramanuja’s interpretation which is based upon that of
Yamunacarya, seems to be reasonable. That the self is born is
contradicted in the Agama texts is the sense of the film 11.2.42.
The objection of Sankara is not justified. If the four
manifestations of God as Vasudeva, Samkarsana. Pradyumns
156 AGAMAS AND sourn INDIAN VAISNAVISM

and Anlruddha are quite independent of one another, there is

the question of more than one Supreme Being But these are
only the manifestations of the same God and so have only
functional differences The other objection which is based on
the adoption of the Pa’i‘z’canftra Kgama by Sindily‘i is not also
tenable. for Sandilya did not question the validity of the Vedas He
could not obtain satisfaction from them, which is an indication
of his difficulty to get it This does not suggest his irreverence
towards the Vedas. and as such the [gum tradition is not
opposed to the Vedic tradition. Hence no objection could be
raised against the validity of the Plficardtra Zgama on the ham
of this adhtkarana, which aims only at stlencmg the objection
that was entertained against its validity at the time when the
Brahmamtra: were composed by Badarayana.

It is interesting to note in this connection the Views of some

other schools of thought on this adht'karagta Bhnskara, the
eitponent of the Bhedabhedaua‘da, treats all the mm: in this
ahhikarazia as directed against the validity of the Pfificardtra
Jgama. While interpreting the Sfltra. [I 2.41. he questions
the propriety of taking the self, mind and ego as the self and
notes that the episode of Sandilya is directed against Vedic
authority

Madhva, the exponent of the Daatta school, takes a

different attitude This adhzkamna ls, according to him. not
directed against the Pificardtra Kgama. but against Saktaism
and Saivlsm The rise of the world from Sakti cannot be
admitted, nor should DeVi, Tripura and Bhairnvi be treated
as the source of the world. Siva also is not the cause, If
knowledge is held to be the cause, then that itself, being the
Supreme Reality. could be admitted to create the world. The
Vedic passages declare Visnn as the cause, and so any other
interpretation stands contradicted, as it is Opposed to Vedic
authority. It is a matter of opinion as to how far this
Interpretation could be admitted.
 ms PANCARATRAA AGAMA 157

The previous adhikaratza called Pas‘upatyadhikarapa (111.2.

35-38) is devoted to the rejection or the systems which are
devoted to the Worship of Siva It 15 not the Pas‘upata system
alone that is meant there, but all of them, including the system
of Saivism.469 Hence this adhikarapa cannot be concerned with
Saivism Treating it as directed against Saktaism is meaningful,
but the Sakti cult is not totally free from the principles of Siva’s
worship In a way, this cult may be taken to have been
condemned 1n the previous adhtkarana itself, though not fully
Anyway, Madhva's intrepretation is original, and avoids the
difficulty Wthh Sankara and Bhaskara Were required to face.
namely, partial acceptance of the validity of the Pificarfilra
doctrines, The Vlslstadvatta interpretation is sane and sound in
that the objection to the validity of the Pfificaritm Egan"! is
noted and the refutation of this objection is admitted.
Treatment of a puma facts view and its rejection at the end in
one and the same adhtkarapa do not afl'ect the unitary 00m”?t
of the adklkarana
Nimbii'kd, the exponent of the Suibhfimka-bhedfibheda-vada,
interprets this adhikarana as containing the refutation of the
system of the S’dktas. Sakti cannot be the cause, as no efi'ect
could be produced by it without the control of Purusa over it.
The sum 40 (which is numbered by him as 43) means that Sakti
cannot be the cause, If Purusa is the agent The satra 41
(numbered as 44) admlts Saku to be the cause, if it rests in
Brahman. That Sakti could not be admitted as an independent
cause is conveyed in mm 42 (numbered as 45), as it is contra-
dicted by .S’rut: and Smrtt In this context, it is curious to find
that Kasmirabhatts, the sub-commentator of Nimbarka's Brahma!
sfitra-bhfisya which is called Vedfinta-pirija‘ta-saumbha, follows the
Visistadvaitic interpretation in his Kaustubhapmbha Nimbirka
thus follows the line taken by Msdhva

469. Tattvamfirtimja, p.552.

158 mamas Aim sou-m INDIAN varsmwsu
Vallabha, the founder of the S'uddhii‘doat'ta school of Vedanta,
notes that this section is against the school of the Bhagaaatas.
He holds that objection is taken against only one aspect of the
Pdfiaa'ritra doctrine, namely, the rise of the self, Samkarsana,
from Vasudeva. While interpreting the mtra, II 2.44 (according
to his numbering), he writes that the objection against the
Paflearflra cannot stand, if all the four oyfiha: are of the form of
knoWledge and the origin of the world. Objection would how-
ever be valid, if all are to have absolute independence.
As regards the objection raised here on the paSSage of the
Kgama which mentions the birth of the self, Saiiikarsana, from
V-isudeva, it is difficult to understand what made the exponents
of the schools which are opposed to the spirit of this adhtkarana,
ignore a passage of the Tailliriya Upanisad(IlI.13.l). While
the word ‘Jayate’ used there is not objected to with reference to
Brahman’s birth, objection is raised when it is used Wl'b refer-
ence to the self. By taking the sense of the root, 'jam’, as
standing for ‘pradurbhfiva’, it is quite easy to note that ‘birth'
means only emergence or manifestation. Only what already
exists will make its appearance Similarly, the root, ‘nas’, mean-
ing ‘adars‘ana' denotes disappearance and not destruction or
annihilation. As such, when the self is said to be born, what 18
meant rs that it has been in existence even before its appearance
which is pOBSlbiE only as encased in aphySIcai body. Hence
' Seminars vna ’ is a word used to refer to a deity who has
emerged from Vasudeva with a body and also to mean the self
(firm) which it controls.47° It is in this sense the followxng
passage is required to be understood :—
uzr: agar aster: seafasefiirn sharpest-res? :{qu i
(Nirdyapiya Upamsad 1)
Regarding the objection that the Prim-alarm Zgama is not
included in the list of subjects which are intended to be studied.

4'10. LT VI. 13.

 run Pancnnaru AGAMA i59

it must be understood that the list enumerating fourteen subjects

in the Tfijflavalkya-smrn' (1-3), Is not exhaustive, for there is
another list471 which mentions eighteen subjects, adding four
more, namely, qurueda, Dhanuroeda, Gandharva and Arthasistra.
Its/Lam: are also included here. Similarly. the Zgamas are to be
considered as a subject of study. and their absence from the list
does not declare their invalidity.

The word, 'Sfinaata’. did refer to aVaiSya tribe which

became elevated in social status by the birth of Krsnalnit.
Butit came to denote the Pfificarfitra system and hence lost
its pejorative sense, The validity of the system does not lie
merely in Its name. It is the doctrine that proves its validity.
Therefore, the word 'Siz‘uvata‘ is derived in more than one way
so as to make it deserve the name of the system One of them
connects it with the Word, ‘Sat‘, which means Brahman. Those
who believe in It or do work (Le. worship) for II are called
' Sattaantab ' Their system is called Silicate.
Vlde
ere-L mi are: agar: stream: l

0:. arfiatam Mfiefimfite ml and an Hfia'd

again «match at Hrfiaes:
Parasarabhagta : Bhagauad-guga-darpapa on
Visqurahasranima, S'loka 54.

The second way ol’ explaining it is by taking it as delighting

those who adopt it.

Vide-
enaufir (gt-ml?) urfirara; (ms)

4'”. VJ”. 1H. 3. 28-29.

160 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVIsu

A third way is by taking the word ‘Sil’ in the sense of the

Supreme Being :—
Vide:
are; (ntmem) a méemta'ifir arr GREEN:
mew? an HETWNWEI'I': n
(Ibid.)

This word ‘Sauaats ' may mean a despicable person in its

conventional sense. When it can yield another aCCeptable
sense, through etymology, the latter sense should be
preferred,‘partlcularly when the conventional One could be left
aside. Otherwise, the word Eriryaé-TZ which is grouped here,
along with the word, 'Sfitznata', should mean a low-born man,
while the conventional senSe of a learned teacher is to be
preferred.

The word ‘dwalaka’ refers to thOSe who are not initiated

according to the Pafitaritm rites and who worship deities like
Rudra.
Vide '
mailman it ‘“a
sewagqa‘lwz l

Cited in the Igamaprimfipya p.72

Vide
i‘sra%=naa‘t: '{Eil'a'ifilififii at aria; i

gear nfiaw‘fg “Ft 3 harem: agar: u

KA XXXVI 32,33.

Thus, there is no stigma attached to the priest who offers

worship m the temple according to the Pancaritra tradition, and
hence invalidity could not be attributed to the Pfificaritra system
on this ground.

412. IS. X. 23 Cf. 19amapram§pys, pp. 68-11.

 rns PANCARATRA AGAMA 161

Nirmilya is prohibited to those not devoted to

God 4'13 Sandal, unguent and others which represent m'rmllya.
are applied to the holy idol of Vignu and become purified.
They purify the devotees of Visnn who take them. So it is
sinful to refer to it and food ofl'ered to Vlsnu in degrading
expressions.474 When these are efl'ered to Visvaksena, they
become defective as nirmdlya, and so they could be partakeu
before being ofl'ered to Visvaltsena. by the devotees of
Visnu.475 Hence the Pfificaratra A‘gama does not lose its vali-
dity for prescribing the partaking of 'm'rmfilya‘.

Lastly, the authority of the Pificaratra system cannot be

assailed on the ground that the Vaikhanam system contains
vehement attacks on this A'gama. That the Vat/china“ is based
on Vedlc authority cannot be an argument in favour of its
superiorlty OVer the Pancaraha, since the latter is also based on
the Vedas to a limited extent and this can be used as a defence in
its own favour. Mutual recrimination is noticed in the texts of
both the Agamas, and so it is not easy to settle the authority of
one at the expense of the other. It would be prudent to treat
each one as valid without reference to the other. In all proba-
bility such passages which condemn the authority of each
other should have got Into these texts at a later date. Vedinta

473. ParS’ XXXI 197-199.

4'14. Vnde. .lgamapramanya, pp '14-'18

475. ParS‘. XXVII. 24b, 25a VS. offers a men mterprotatton.

Nrrmalya maregect when offered to other demos (XXIX 12). This text
refers to the View of some scholars who hold that what 1: offered to Vrsnu.
must be taken by H19 devotees. (Ibid. XXIX 13a) Cf. Narediyssamhlta
XXIV. 80b 81.
The followmg passage 1n It is worth nothing:
had ugqsigtmtq
fieu‘t earn-aw I

fisfiae’temcu {and fitasitfiw {53: ll

1!. 122b, 123s

Asv—Zi
 rHa PANCARATRA AGAMA 163

Vide :

mart-fitment mt I

(Sayaaa on will.)
This is illustrated by the following passage :
agarésq‘tqrma are? $5 at ggwr: I

S.P.Br. x1.5.4.s.
The rk cited above is of a general nature. The gatha and
kumbya given above are treated as particular firs. All the three
are metrical and are of a definite length and so are held to be
within limits (mita).
{Er a‘t‘sfrran strum: (YES. 1.1.1 1)
is a yajus passage.

unit we? art‘s: mam utter ms. 11. 5 9.1.)

is a nigada which is stated as of the nature of addressing
another. Then there are arthaoia’ar which are referred to here
as vJ-tha yak.
Vide
fissiarqr art a (mama? wfiarmf‘mmfi
ET Eta? Eur arfi
(Taittmya Bid/Imam [11.5.3.1)
The yajur, mgada and Pfthl mils together constitute one whole
and are treated as yaju: itself, but the formation hereis not
regular and so is said to be not within a particular limit (amita).
3. The Prapana is uttered as part of the Sima chants as in
afifitfir Hfii‘ a
This is not true (arma) . that is, it is a lie.
Here the Tajurueda and Sfimavsd'a are referred to as inferior
to the ggmda. The latter alone has regularity, while the Taju:
has no regularity and the Sims is only music and has no
relevance to reality. The purpose of this passage is not to
ridicule or condemn the Tajurneda and Simaveda, but to show how
164 scams mo sou-m moms VAISNAVISM

superior the Rgveda is to both of them. A passage of this kind

ocournng in the Arapyaka of the Rgveda, illustrates how Contra-
dictory passages occur even tn the Vedas This does not prove
the other two Vedas to be invalid

Similarly, the Sa‘mhveda ts condemned by treating it as

belonging to the departed souls and contrasting It With the
Rgaeda which is said to be dsvine and with the Tajuraeda stated
to be human Hence tts sou id is impure.
Vide :
sagas”! seams mam
ears-«Pr t

Hrnfieeg firsa: {Hffiifltgrfififiz II

MS tv 124

The passage which mentions Sandtlya to have been dis-

appornted tn not getting at the truth by Studying the Vedas and
to have become enlightened by studying the Pfificaritra doctrine
must also receive the same interpretation. The reference to his
dtsapporntment with Vedic study ts not intended to devalue the
Vedar, but to extol the Pfificarfitm Agama.

Similarly. it is satd that, when weighed agarnst each other,

the Mahabharata was found to be heavy, while the Vedas Were
light- Thts is only praise conferred on the importance of the
Mahabharata at the eXpense of the Vedas
the '
avert lute} fiat utter Awaiters: t

Gfllfl%: gtfs‘tfirsgmnrfifie‘t get u

”Er—3
a 336% st Feramfit erefisi‘amr l

nears gee-ma nermtan’lf‘taq It

Mbh itch. 1.297.299.

Thus these statements convey that while a parttcular text is
intended to be extolled, other texts are given an apparent
condemnation. This must be treated only as arthava‘da, and so
the texts which are condemned cannot be treated as
 ms PANCAnAnA mam 165

unauthoritative. The mutually recrlminatory passages in the

Pdrfcaratra and Vatkhc‘inasa texts can only show that each of these
Kgamas is valid, without getting afiected in the least by such
condemnation.

The Pificarfitm Agama should not be treated as

unauthoritative, because of the alleged deceitiuiness of
Visudeva as stated in the passage :
firgfiarrfitafia atai‘al‘zstfécgar l

stufté nega’ aafiafir Edit-52% was I

(cited In the Zgamapramifiya p. 23.)
The Pfiflcaratra Igama was revealed by Naraysua who is
identified with Visudeva and glorified in the Upanigad: 1“
omniscrent and compassionate, and so evil designs could not
be attributed to Him.

The Vedas, are claimed to be intrinsically valid by not being

the composition of any author. But their authority could be
questioned, as they too contain contradictory passages like
works of human authorship. ‘73
Vide :
1. «Farr?! shafirsi Earfit I

anfirrfir $133151 Izmi‘a l

2. afar-r gitfirl
“3&3 gilfir I

3. afifififié‘a!
fififi'a I

We may resolve the contradictions by treating the first set of

passages as giving rise to difl'erent results when the practice is

476. P V Kano - sttory of Dbarmasfistra. Vol. II. peril, pp. 1104-

1205 (1)A1taroya Brahmapa, IV}. 1. 4. SP. Ir. Did. (2) Aliareya
Brahmana. V 5. 4, Tsutmya Brahmlpa. II. 1. 42.
 ran PANCARATRA sows 169

offering in person. He blamed the king for discarding the

animal sacrifice and using the effigy of an animal made of flour
in its place. Besrdes, the Lord did not appear before him.
Brhaspatt refused to associate himself further With the perfor-
mance of the sacrifice The sages, Ekata, Dvita and Trita. the
mind-born sons ofBrahmTa who were present there, recounted
their vain attempts to visualize the Lord in spite of severe
penance, they could not see Him}:81 Brhaspati was then
convinced, and he helped Vasu in completing the sacrifice
From this account, it is clear that King Vasu was following
the princrples of religion as set out in the Piflcaratra doctrines.
Brhaspatt learnt about them only on the occasion when the
sacrifice was performed by Vasu It is only posstble to say that
Brhaspati agreed to continue hrs participation in the sacrifice,
when eonvrnced of the value of the Paficaratra doctrines by the
sages; and In this sense, he was also an exponent of these
doctrines.
An account of the visit paid by Nirada to Svetadvtps gives
some information about the Pdficaratra Agama. Narada went
to an island called Svetadvipa and found certain persons who
had no sense-organs, dld not take food and Were motionless.
They emitted fragrance. He saw there the three sages, Ekata.
Dvita and Trita. They told him that at the conclusion of their

481 These are stated to be sons of Brahms (Mbh Sim: CCCXLIV. 6).
There are hymns in RV, SY and SV for winch they are sears.
the RV 1X.33,3 4. 10 1 3. Their hymns glorify Vtsnu. Ylske
derives thetr names In different ways
0
item enlarfir at ummriari‘ufimt
0
iiara'eei‘tumeh
Nlrukta IV. 3.
About the madoquacy of penance, v1de :

a WWEWT thfifirfifi’i was I

new state gee a? 2i Fair?

Mbb. 3m.
n
CCCXLHI. 25.
ASV—ZZ
170 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

penance for a thousand years, they were adVised by an incorporeai

voice to go to Svetadvipa and meet the holy persons there.
Accordingly, they did so, but could not see anything there.
being blinded by iight of extreme brilliance They could not
see the Lord, but wlth divine grace they again performed
penance and beheld men white in complexion, resembling the
moon in lustre, and ever uttering mantra: with folded palms.
This was mental Japa All of them Were of the same uniform
splendour. Suddenly, a flash of light appeared before the Sages
who saw a group of people uttering the word ‘namah’ The
vtswn of these sages became blinded by their extreme
brilliance Only the following sloka whlch they were uttering
was heard by the sages
Vide
Esra awaiting: atria“ Eastman
5r l

“£35353 Es’fittr HEISEN‘ {Gist It

A breeze was then wafting fragrance. Those persons were
conversant With the fivefold division of time (paficakdla) and
they were excluswely devoted to Hari (Visnu) and worshipped
Hir'n With great devotion through mind, speech and action.
The sages felt that the Lord should have presented Himself
h:fore them, as thev heard those persons utter words Indicating
the Lord‘s presence These sages, however, could not behold
the Lord Those persons did not observe the presence of the
sages there A veice addressed the sages asking them to wait
till Tretfiyuga. The sages were doing japa from then onwards.
As yet, they had not seen God and they informed Narada that
he too could not do so

However, Narada went to Sveiadvipa and praised Harl,

addressmg Him and using several expressions such as ‘Paficaratg
rika’, ‘Vaikhanasa'. ‘Srlvasa‘, ‘Vasudeva’ and others. The Lord
appeared before him. Narada praised Him. The Lord said
that even Ekata and other sages could not behold Him After
directing him to go away from that place, lest his presence
 THE mucus-mm AGAMA 171

should dlsturb the devoted life of the persons there. He went

out of sight 433
Narada wunessed then those persons entering lnto the Lord.
This Is called vtlaya. which is described in the bhntas'fiddlli
process Visudeva Is declared to be the soul of all beings,
Sarhkarsaha the self, Pradyumna the mind and Anlruddha the
ego 483
In the brlef period when Narada beheld the Lord, the latter
gave bun an account of His dwlne deseents. Eksta and others
were born as monkeys when the Lord lncarnated as Rama.
Narada learnt that the Lord had four forms (Visndeva.
Sarhkarsana, Pradyumna and Anlruddha). The Lord referred
to Himself as Sattvata Instead of as Krsnsfi“

After the Lord disappeared, Narada went to Bsdarlkisrsma

and learnt the Placardtm doctrines from Narayana. Vyasa ls
stated to the epic to have gone to the Milky Ocean and returned
to the hermitage 435
The doctnnes of the Péficara‘tra A'gama are set forth by
Vyasa Anlruddha IS the lord of creation 483 Nara and
Nirayana explain the glory of Bhagavin 437 The descent of
God as Hayagriva and the Ekantzdharma are well depictedfim
The Lord Is stated to be the expounder of the Pfi‘iicaritra.
Vlde .
qrertrerezr era-flu alter a mare: (war I

Mbh yam. cccux. 68.

482 [bid CCCXLVI

483 lbld. CCCX‘LVII.
434 [Did CCCXLVIII. 55.
485 Ibld. 62-80
486 Ibtd. CCCXLIX. 69
‘87 Ibtd. CCCLIV.
488. Ibld. CCCLVH. ‘17-'15 . CCCLVHL
172 Aasnss AND sou-m INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The contents of Chapters 342 to _359 of the S'Entiparvan

show how the Pdficarfitra doctrines arose from Narayana and
were expounded through the ages The statement that
Valkbanasa obtained them from Phenapa suggests that the
Vaikhfinaea system is ancient and Was not different. as It is held
now, from the Pfificarfitra. Valkhanasa was taught the Eka‘ntt-
dharma by Phenapa, and this is called Pfificaratm 439

The accounts given in the Vazkha‘nasa texts are confusmg.4r90

Vatkhanasa ts said to be Sris‘fistra, havrng the name 'Ekfiyana'.
In another context, Yajfiavalkya and others are stated to have
scented danger to the Vatkhzz‘nasa system and created another In
which the Ekayana mantra: were freely used 491 This came to
be known as the Pfificarfitra If this be the case, either the
Vaikhanasa system (which was also called Ekiiyana) should have
been using the Ekayana mantra: and as such could not be different
from the Pdficarfitra, or the former must not have been based on
the Ekdyana recension. When the account given in Chapter 358
of the S’finhparuan is considered, it seems that the Vatkhfinam
was the forerunner of the Paflearatra Perhaps these are not two
systems with minor difl'erences, but only one and the same
system with dtfl’erent names. That this is probable
is evidenCed by the use of mantra: in which the names of
Vasudeva, Sarhkarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha occur.493
At least, the second and third belong to the Pfificarfitra.
Vasudeva is not given prominence in the Vatkhanasa system

The account given in the Mahabharata refers to bhz’itajuddhtfifi

but there is no reference to yantra and mudrfi The Eka‘nttdharma

489 [bid 81

490 SA LXIII 11'!

491 [bid LXXV'IH 4

492 Ibtd LXIV, p 392

493 Mbb. S'iintl. CCCXLVII. 23-31.
 THB “Noun-rm AOAMA 173

which was expounded and promuiagated by severai authorities

at difl'erent periods, should have been practised exclusively by
the descendants or pupils of Vikhanas who developeda vyuha
doctrine conSisting of five deities—Visnu, Purusa, Satya,
Acyuta and Aniruddha 494 As the dharma continued being
expounded and developed, the Krsna cult should have given
rise to the caturvyiiha concept winch forms part of the Pdfirarfitra
but is not noticed by the Vatkhanara system. The Vaikhfinasa
may have had its development in a single family professing the
Vazkhanasa-smra, and so was not adopted by others. The
Pdficaratra, on the other hand, had to appeal to every large
community which had no speCific doctrine for worship.
it isat this time that the two systems had to assert their
indiViduality and superiority over each other in a spirit of
riValry The texts in both the systems therefore contain
passages of mutual attack, and these should be treated as
interpolations made by those who were interested in advocating
their own doctrines it is thus that we find certain passages
which contradict one another 495 When Viewed without bias.
the No systems seem to have had the same source, though their
development might have been in slightly different directions.
it is said in the Mahabharata that Editya got the
Ekfinttdharma from Jyesg‘na. He taught this at the beginning of
the Tretfiyuga to Vivasvan and it passed on from Vivasvfin to
Menu and from Manu to Iksvaku 493 This Ekantidharma consists
in the practice of devotion excluswely to Visnu. To be
devoted, one has to carry out the act of worship which is of
various kinds and is brought under karma- or hiya-yoga according
to Patafiyali, the author of the Yoga-satin: 497 This dhama can

494 15 IV lab-14a.
495 SA LXV 117. LXXVIIIA, VS mm. 216. 279.2851»
496 Mbh Sfinti CCCLVIII. 41-53.
497 BhOJavrtti on YS. II. 1
 ran PANCARATRA AGAMA 17!

day. The name of the storm is taken from the first sloka which
has already been quoted in the earlier account of the visit of
Narada to Svetadvipa and which begins with the words.
” Juana ta ”,
Some of the concepts of the Pancaratra system are found
here. For instance, God has six auspicious qualities which are
the foremost among His countless qualities 501 The three
vyfihar. Samkarsana, Pradyumna and Anlruddha, have each two
of these qualities 50?- The number of nyahas 503 and the divisions
of the day504 are also mentioned The doctrine of self-
surrender 505 which has a SpeCIal importance in the Pfificaratra
Agama, is referred to frequently. The Lord’s figure is gloriously
depicted and the left hand of the Lord holds the club which is a.
particular feature of the idoi.505
The date of this work cannot be settled. The opening
stanza could have been there from the very earliest times. This
is treated as a mantra in the Pfificaratra texts,5°T some of
which 503 contain an exposition of it. By itself, it does not
convey any particular concept of the Zi'gama. The stotra as such
could have been composed during the period when the
particular concepts became fully developed. It cannot be late
in origin. as most of the Pfificaratra 509 works refer to it and
cite passages from it.

501 litantc Stotra II 30 . V Z.

502 bed IV. 5
503 bed II SI IV 5
,

504 (bid. 18. 19, 32 , III. 3 . IV. 9, 10.

505. Ibzd V. 4, B
508. [bid II 4. 5, 22
501 LT. XVII. 20
508. AhS. L111.
509. Ibrd. LT. XVII. 20: GS. XIII. 22313-22“.
176 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The Visnupurfipa contains some of the doctrines of the

Pdficaritm system Vasudeva is the Supreme Lord.510 He is
present everywhere and everything rests 1n Hum
the.
Héfiréfi anti} 6 aaeafifir §a 2m: I

HERE att§%afa fial‘fi: (Iii-um n

VP. I 2.12.
The word, 'Bhagaviin ', refers to Vignu. possessing the wt
qualities ofjfiina, t‘akh. bala, ato‘varya and tejas without a tinge
of any blemishes.511
Vfide .

firamfi‘fiaé‘vafia'fia’aiufifia: I

wateremqarrsarfit Fear €agmrfif31= l!

VP. VI 5 79.

Vlspu with Sn 15 the Supreme Realtty Sr! is never wlthout

Him.
Vlde:
firfifiwr amma‘r Fatah: a'itfiwrlirfl‘ I

an" Gama Ersatasfifié Pasha: II

VP I 8 17.

She is Tusti and Saktl.

Vrde
Harm? wafiaaen‘kgf‘fié‘m mail?!" |
Ibid 1. 8 l7.
airman-h trarrqrffit: mfifififitfiféfifi" "
Ibzd. I. 3. 29a

510 VP VI. 5. '15, BO, 82.

51]. Ibid. VI, 5. '14, 78I 85
 THE pANCAitArnA AGAMA i7?
She awards mokga to the selves.
Vide :
“Eran nztfitar gaféizn a {Fruit i

mewfimr a it‘s eé fagi‘mrfim't

1m. 1.9
II

120.

There is mention of the four manifestations of God in Dyfiha

form 513

Visnu pervades both matter and the selves and Is the Self
of all Both the animate and inanimate beings are enveloped
by Visnu’s power which sustain: them. This poWeris of the
nature of these.
Vide '
narfisat‘wfit aurtr't fiamsmefiqfi: t

saw? a gnifia Hi3! qatemiaarr ii

fisgsrswi tier-3% g5} :iaaam I

an}: Era gmmawufi (iterate a II

VP. it. 7. 29, 30.

rafiat: mfi: am i‘aiscn‘t:
umagzqienfiq i5"
Ibid‘ n 7 32s.
These doctrines which belong to the Pfificaratm system, are
dealt with in this Purina Its date must be before the fourth
century A D., as a reference is made to it in the Manimekalaififl
a Tamil classic composed about the third century A D.
Strice these doctrines are of ancient origin, they could have
been incorporated in this Parana, but the indebtedness of the

512. Ibrd V 58.

18

513. That S'ri is the source of matter and solve: is admitted by both
the Vailchanasa and Paficaratra [games Vida '—VK. pp. 493-494. LT,
8. 3-25 514 See fn. 183
ASV—23
 178 AGAMA! AND SOUTH INDIAN ursnmrsu
Pancaratra texts to it, at least for some of them, cannot be
completely ruled out.
The tenets and some of practices which pertain to the
PJflcardha are mentioned in the Bhfigauata God is sfitfvatim
pati, the leader of the Sittvatas 51‘ The fourfold manifestation
of the Lord is frequently referred t0516 He has Sri as Hts
consortSl'! and has the srx qualities 518 Reference to the
self as ‘Jivakoia’519 indicates the author's acquaintance With. the
Pificarfitra doctrine. There ls no method other than prapam to
get moksa 520 This Purina is doubtless late in origin and
contains references to the Manila: mode of Worship 531 But
this Is not of much helpln determining the an'IqUIIy of the
puripa:
The Vtsnua’ltarmottara,szz s’fipdtlyasmrttfiZS Pura‘na: like
Padma,534 V6mha,535 Garmjafiza nga527 and VfimanaSZB and
the Itzhfisasamuccay0539 contain topics dealt wtth in the

:15 Ibid 312 I 2.14,

518 Ibrd. I. 5. 31.
517 115sz 16.30.
513 Ide a 36
I.
519 Ibld x 82.48.
520 Ib1d.x1 12 15
521Ibzd XI 11 37 Abhtnavagupta (C 1050 A D ) mentions the
‘ name
Bhfigavata ' and tts eleventh skandha and quotes the 17th flake m the ZOth
chapter m hts commentary on 812. G
522 Part III
523 Cited 1:: RTS I. p. 424
524 Uttarakhaztda ch. LXXXVIII.
525 LXVI ll , max. 259.
526 I 137,
527. H. Y
528. XIII-XVIII.
52.9. Cited m PR. pp. 104, 149 (Adyar edn‘).
 rm! PANCARATRAA AGAMA 179

Pfifirarfitra texts. The dates of these works have not been fixed
with any degree of certainty. It is therefore hard to find out
whether the Pfificarfitra texts are indebted to these sources or
whether what they say on these doctrines should be considered
to bear the Influence of the figamas.

The ancient Tamil classics contain a graphic description of

the gods, particularly Visnu. The account is identical with
that given in Sanskrit workrlilte the stnupurfina. The Pan'-
pfiga! which is a collection of small poems composed about the
beginning of the Christian era, has six pieces devoted to the
praise of Visnu. Among them, the third selection is said to
refer to Visnu as glorified in the Agamas.
Vide '-thmz'u ahanra kélvt anazttmum
Pan'plgal III. 48.

The word ‘kélm‘ is taken to mean Zigama. The four vyfiha

manifestations of Vasudeva. Samkarsans, Pradyumna and
Aniruddha are mentioned in the folio wing lines :—
s’mkatkfiri karuflkan usual,
Pankatpaccai pant/can mi a1.
Ibsd. III. 81 12

The two passages cited above require some consideration.

The word. 'ke‘lm’, in the first passage need not necessarily mean
‘Agama'. much less the Pfificaré‘tm The Vaikhfinasa Zigama too
glorifies Visnu exclusively. It may mean any text like a pura‘qa
or some other kind of religious literature,
Whilcinterpreting the second passage, the commentator,
P V. Somasundaranar, writes that the two lines refer to Visu-
deva, Samkars ma, Pradyumna and Aniruddha respectively, as
they can be identified from their colours, black, white, red and
green. He bases this identification on the blaclc complexion o!
Krsna, who is treated as Vasudeva (son of Vasudeva), and the
white one ui Balarama who is the Same as Samkarsana and who
180 AOAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

is taken to be Adisesa descended on earth Vasudeva is,

however, not Krsna, but the primeVal Lord. The colours of
the tour deities are given differently in the Pa'ficarfitra texts.
According to one version,530 they are white, red, yellow and
black, and another531 has it that they are white, blue, yellow
and black The second version mentions that Simkarsana’s
colour is similar to that ofmdranila, a sapphire which is blue
in colour.

These two lines of the poem may, however, be taken to

denote the four deities through their representation by their
colours, without Considering discrepancres in the colours ofthe
deities as given in the different versnons The Pdfiuarfitra
doctrines should be taken to have been popular in Tamil
Nadu long before the beginning of the Christian era as the
Pan'pa‘dal is taken to have been compiled about the first century
A D 532

Such a date may not be accepted by some scholars who

would ofi'er a difl'erent interpretation. The colours may Stand
for the compiexron of the Lord in the Kyla, Tnta, Dnfipara and
Kali yugas respectively. The Vaikha‘nasa533 and Péficarfitra 534
texts and the Bhdgaoata 535 make a reference to this concept.
If this interpretation is regarded as forced, the conclusion Will
not be in favour of the prevalance of th. Péflcarfitra doctrines at
the beginning of (or prior to) the Christian era, but it may accept
the prevalence at that time of a concept of a general kind which
is not characteristic of any particular Agama

530 31: XI 5 20-32

531 LT. X 21-33.For a slight dlfferencc 1n the account, see
lanavalamahamum Tattvatrayabhfisya, p. 103
532 See Introduction to the Pars.
533 VK p 103
534 35' V 32-92, of LT. XXXVI. ”~63.
535. See under fn. 513,
 run PANCARA'I'RA AGAMA 181

The same work refers to the shrine of Vignu at

Tirurnaliruficoiar near Madurai in Tamil Nadu. It mentions the
biack-compiemoued Krsna and white-coloured Baiadeva.53o
The banners of the two deities help to identifying them.
Similarly, the temples of Krsna and Balarama are referred to in
the S’tlappadzkfiram 537 and Puranfinfiru 533 In both these works,
the two deities are identified by their complexions and also by
their banners.
The mention of Baiareme in the above texts may suggest
that the Pfiflcarfitra concept rs meant here. Or Baiarama could
have been respected, as He is considered as representing an
incarnation of Visnu. So the cult of Valsnavmm may be
indicated here Particularly, we have to take into account the
fact that the Vaikhfinasa form of worship is adopted in the
temple at Tirumaiiruficolal where both Krsna and Baiarima
receive worship. Or this need not indicate the prevalence of
the Vaikhanam A’gama during the period, for the Vaikhlnam
Kgama does not attach importance to the worship of Balarime
and Krsna as supreme deities
A composrtion of Tlrumangal thvar Is held to refer to the
Pfificarfitra Agama m a passage 539 where the words. ‘ aram 11171..
occur. But this may refer to any text that is based on the Vedas.
The Azhvars refer to the different compiexlons of God in
different yuga: 540 They mention the five weapons of “$11,541
including the club (gada‘) which has to be held in one of His
hands according to the Pa‘fiearfitra tradinon,543 and by a

536 Panpfidal, III. IV, XV

537 Krgna and Baiarama Silappaduzzrerh. V. I 111, 1'12.
538 Purandm’u‘u, 56.
539 Penya Tirumozhl X 6 1 See com by Ponyeveeeinplliai.
540. For instance, Tzruccandewruttem. II.
541. [bid 24, 97.
542. LT, XXXVIII, 54.
 nut PANCARATRA AGAMA 183

whom Vssudeva and Arjuna are adorable This would mean

that Vasudeva and Arjuna Were considered as fit to be worshipped.
Posing a question as to why the word, ‘Vssudeva’. could not be
taken as derived from the word. ‘Vasudeva' With the suffix~,‘an'.
according to the Astadhyfiyi (IV I 114) In the sense of offspring.
Patafijali, the author of the Mahfibhfigya, remarks that the word
‘Visudeva' here is the name of a god and not that of a
Ksatrtya, the latter sense referring to Visudeva, a Ksetrlys.
Vide :-
k K
as" asthma" éusr 6am:
Mahabhasya on tbtl.
The Kfisikfivrui offers a clear explanation :

é§srr Qaarfifisrea a eafim‘mr

The word ‘Visudeva' which then Is required to be taken as

the name of God is derived In the Padamafijari :-
aaeafitfi; Ha‘fif‘aagewsurf'trttrrena um éar
Here the author, Haradatta, mentions that Vasudeva is the name
of the Supreme Being (Paramdtman) He adds further that
when it is said in the Kfiszki that ‘Vasudeva' is not the name
ofa Ksatriya, It is Implied that it Is not a patronymle. The
compound ‘Vdrudevfiguniibhyarh‘ is of the dnandna type and must
have the word, 'Arjuna' as rts first member because of the less
number of vowels, according to the rules
WHQ‘H‘II I

and
«swam-Ir l
(Astddhyiyi, 11.2.3334),
But in accordance with the Vflrur’ki,
mafia? a
(on 11.2.34).
l84 AOAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN Vatsnavtsn

the word ‘Vasudeva’ denotes one Worthy of respect and so is

placed as the first member.“8
This evidence proves that about SOOB C., the period of
Panlni, the word, ‘Vasudeva’, already meant the name of a
the name ofa
person who ls showu respect. That it ts not
ltved about 150 B C-
Ksatrtya is made clear by Patahjalt who
One can say that Panini may not mean God, but only the son of
Vasudeva But it cannot be wrong to hold that Patafijalt must
have been followmg a tradition to which Pantni also belonged.
‘Vasudeva' is the name of God and not of Vasudeva’s son alone.
As the later commentators explain, there Is Justification for
taking the word ‘Vasudeva’ in the sense of the Supreme Deity
of the Pfificarfitra system. This would give a date about 800 B C
when the Pfifican‘z‘tra doctrines became dEV‘IOPCd into a system

It ts held by some scholars that Arjuna, Whose name ‘5

mentloned In the .rfitra cited above along With that of Vasudeva.
was also reSpected and that there was also an Arjuna cult ln
vogue then. which however became merged into the Vasudeva
cult and came to be forgotten in later days 541 This contention
deserVes serious consideratlon. Four dtfl'erent sufiixes are
enjoined in the sfitras (II 196-99) In the sense of ‘bhaktz’, Whhh
may mean attachment or ltktng as the illustratlon Elm-91k“:
pfiyasika, mdharfijtka, nfikulika, pamniya and others suggest
Similarly, ‘bhaku" can be taken to mean devotton tn the case of
Vasudeva and mere affection in the case of Arjuna Arjuna
received perhaps respect from some admirers for hrs valour or
hts Intimacy with Krsna.

There are certain inscriptions of the centuries preceding the

Christian era which suggest unmitakably the worship of Vasudeva.

546 Kattka' on the Astadbyayi IV 3. 98.

547Arjunayana was a Ilvmg creed 1n Iatpur and Agra areas.
according to Samudragupta’s Allahabad mscaxptton Corpus Inscnpttonum
Indrcarum. Vol III p. 8. ed. by Fleet
 'rna rancanama AOAMA 181

Finally, the 811344, ‘PEdatEdt'ta/ra' of Syamilaks refers to I

temple of Pradyumna.
Vide .

as tar-g" agafianuafim aaufirmf‘wi‘asafir

(p 24)

The word, ‘denayatana' shows that worship of Pradyumna was in

vogue in the seventh century A.D.55s There seems no other
reference to a separate temple for Pradyumna.
As there is not any serious objection to admit that the
composition of the Mahabharata and the beginning of the
Kaityuga almost coincided, doctrines of the Pdficarflra Zgama.
as they are treated in the s’fintiparuan of the epic, could not be
later than this date. Due respect should be given to the
tradition which mentions that the doctrines recorded in the
version received by Narada, were revealed for the seventh timeI
and that they were originally preached in the Krtayuga To the
sophisticated mrnd of the modern scholars, such an ancient
date for these doctrines, or as a matter of fact for any sweet of
Hindu culture, rs not only absurd, unsupported as it Is by
circumstantial evidence. but also is against the trend of current
thanking Wthh assumes civrlizatlon to have been prceeded by a
period of pre-literate society. The existence of a society in the
remote past which could have evolved and nurtured theistic
concepts, framed the ways and means of adoring God and
developed them through practice, is, according to modern
scholars of the West and those of the Bait who have chosen to

555 Syarmlaka, the author. could have been a friend of Bagabhatta,

the famous prose wnter. He was a kmsman of Bane and a great scholar
and poet Vrde Harsacanta III, p 87 He cannot be be tdenttcal wrth
Syarmiaka. the teacher of Mahrmabhatta(1050 A,D.). as he 13 ctted by Abht-
navagupta (c 1000 A D ) Therefore he may be placed as a contemporary
of Bana (c 800 A D ) Some scholars place this work before 500 A D.
the _.Dr Dasaratha Sarma, 'Date 1-4of Padetfidrtaka.’ Ganganath Iha
Research Institute Journal. XIV, Parts
188 AGAMM AND scum INDIAN VAISNAVISM

abide wholly by the verdicts ot the former, Opposed to the

dictates of reason and thinking. Absence of historical data is,
of course. a handicap in arrtvmg at a conclusion on many of
these issues On this account, It Is not absolutely necessary to
discard tradition as baseless. At any rate, the Mahabharata
needs to be placed in the remote past. and so the Pdflcarfitm
doctrines could be admitted to have received develOpment
about 3000 B C
It Will be of interest to note that Pancardtra': antiquity is
borne out also by some literary evidence. B5133, the author of
the Harsacarita,556 is the earliest Sanskrit poet to mention the
Pancarfitrtkar-as the followers of the Pfiiicaritra system. The
BrahmasfitmsSST take note of the objection raised againSI the
validity of the Paficarfitra and ofl'er also the refutation of this
Sankara 553 (c. 800) is the earliest commentator on the Brahma-
:iztrap to ofi'er his views on the Paficarzilra doctrines Utpala’s
(c. 850 AD ) Spandapmdipzka 559 quotes from a Pancaratra rm:
and Pafiraratm Upamsad,

the :
wratragararfir- Ira—ct Efiwfia uraran‘ém
tail: art He"? Hist fii‘fil‘é’“ Fe =mr=r {mar amaze: l

p 2
Here ‘
Sam ' refers to Vtsnu.
mmrfisuuq: mar hm {Fa ESTER: I

LT xv 18a

ITI£U§WFFWFQ a war a emf a affirm 3 than?

40
a I

556 p. 237
557 ll. ‘2. 39-42
558 Brahmsz‘ttrebbfigya on H 2 42-45.
559 Vijayanagar Sanskrit as was
190 AGAIIAS AND sown INDIAN wusmvrsu
However, they were fully known and the texts wherein
these were treated were also quite familiar to Yamuna
(916-1041 AD) who lived in the south and wrote his [game-
pramaztya 563 in which the Ekfiyana recension of the Veda is said
to have been proved to be not of human origin. The wording
in the text of Yamuna may permit the interpretation that this
was written by Yamuna htmsell‘534 It may also be taken to
have been the work of a writer in Kashmir It is thus evident
that the Pifiearatm doctrines are very ancient and their
popularity for religious practice and philosOphIcai thinking is
attested by many writers from about the beginning of the
Christian era.

Apararka, the author of a commentary on the Tfijnavaikya

Smrti, attests to the authority of the Pfificaratra Kgama and
declares that its validity could not be questioned 535

Regarding the exotic origin of this Igama suggested by

some scholars, it must be said that there is partial justification
for this. From the account contained in the .S’Enttparean of the
Ma’habharaia, it is found that the doctrines represented the
seventh version when they were received by Narada from the
Lord in the Svetadvipa. This island is stated to lie somewhere
in central Asia, near Pamir mountains Whether Narada paid
his Visit to this island towards the close of Dvaparayuga cannot
be easily decnded Enigma is simply repeating an account of
Narada’s Visit This versmn, like many of the Itihisas and
genealogical accounts included in the Mahabharata. must be of
very ancient origin. The date or dates of these cannot be
settled for want of evidence. They may have been
composed even when the sacrifices were papular. and so could

563 p. 09.
684 Van Buttenen holds this View. See ibtd. note 300.
685. chrfidhyfiys. “aka 1.
 run “scan“ Aosun 191

be placed at least when the Kslpauimu were framed though not

before that period. Besides, the previous versions 0! the docs
trlnes are not stated to have been released from Svetsdvlpa.
Again. there Is no evidence to prove that the frontiers of sncient
Indra did not extend to the West and north-west beyond the
present limits, With the present state of knowledge regardlng
the various pieces of evidence, it is too early to be dogmatic
about whether or not the Plrlcarfitra trsditlons snd doctrines
are of foreign or Indigenous origin.
 CHAPTER VI

PANCARKTRA KGAMA DOCTRINES

The Pdiicardtra system is called also as the Sittoatasfirtra.

There are other systems also havrng the name ‘Pfificariitra' with
some attributes, such as 'Gapes’apfifiraratra', ‘Devipfinaamtra’
and others 533 There is also a system called ‘Saptarfitra '
Vide '
Fasvarq'iai ufErgrf‘q 355% can
Sharia Q’fitlfi'ififl Hatrsnfin 3 war
wit it II
I

Aguipurina XXXIX—l
In all these cases the word ‘rfitra’ mustbe taken to stand for
day and night (alien-ma) This indicates that the explanation
for the name ‘Pfinearfilra' should be traced to sources other than
that which 13 suggested by Prof Buttenen.

Many a stresm‘of thought has'converged to form a synthesis

to serve as a basis for the edtflce of the Pdficaratm system. The
Vedrc concept of ritual gives the religious background for offer-
ing worship. The Panranic theory of Brahma as the creator
brings in the creation of the cosmic embryo and his birth there
as the Htranyagarbha That the Ultimate Reality is partless,
subtle and manifests itself in the form of the world is traceable
to the contents of the Upamsad: The prlnclples of the evolution
of matter into the world are incorporated to explain the process
of material creation which is based on the Sankhya system.
The disciplines of meditation are derived from the Yoga system
The manifestation of the Ultimate Reality in the form of sentient
and insentient beings, the worship of the Deity mentally and
outwardly, the installation of idols, the elaborate procedure for

506 Including the Saptaratra, seven kinds of Pditcaratra are known.

Vide Naradapaficaratra I. l. 5667.
196 AGAMAS AND sourn INDIAN vetsmvrsu
it is employed to refer to the subtle and gross forms called
Visudeva. Para-vasudeva, Vyfiha-vasudeva and Narayana.
‘Bhagavan', ‘Visudeva‘, “Vignu' and ‘Nfirltyana' are generally
deemed to'indicate one and the same Supreme Being.

Lakqmi is ever with Brahman, She is the state of existence

(bluiva), and Nérayana, ldcnIlCdl wrth Brahman, is the existent
reality The two together constitute Brahman.
Vfde :

uaemramfi Eat‘t wait granite tttt l

aen'tartmwmwranafi its: Harem}; u

LT. u. 15.

In this state, she is not differentiated from Him and is satd to

constitute With Him the non-dual Brahman. She is called also
by the name of Saktt.

Vlde:
“W'Id‘ifffifia‘tq maria Hg“?
rm. ll 11:
The two are inseparably linked with each other, and no one
cannot exist wnhout the other. The relationship between the
two may be said to be one of identity.

the :

mfifiarfimrmarflfia EfiFfifl'Tfil
are-raft fit-Fe; eitm‘t an: aura: a‘ma‘t: u

man 17b-lsa.
The ultimate nature of Brahman and Lakgmi is that of knowledge.

Vide
mama? '15: at? email mt await:
Ibid. 11. 25b.
 PANCARATKA norm». Docrnrmas I97
Laksml is known by several names such as Knandi. Svatantra,
Sri. Padma, Kamala, Kundaltnt, Anahati, Gaurr, Gfiyatrt, Siva.
Tara, Rati and others 5'19 Brahman 13 called by several names
such as Paramatman, Bhagavan, Vasudeva. Ananta, Prabhava.
Hrranyagarbha, Siva and others 530 That Srl and Warm alone
are meantby these receives eluctdatlon from the Vignupuraaa
which declares that every male being represents Visnu and every
female Sri.531

Though real identity and non-duality are predicated

between Laksmi and Vlsnu in these texts, yet the taro are stated
to be different in order to preserve the transcendental character
of Vrsnu. She is said to represent the attribute (dharma) of
V1501! who possesses it (dharms'n)

Vide :

hrwfima‘t are" agar: ntitfga: I

In rim a {mag $13 afimraa: n

unaraefihm mafiafifitfirfi n

AhS 111.25. 26a.

Brahman is held to be attributeless, which means that It

does not have any attribute which is of the material ltindfiaz
Till! does not mean that God does not have any gunas Brahman
has Indeed the six quaitti-es, namely, jfifina, aisvarya, bala, virya,
.t'alcti and Ma: Of these, Jfla’na is e non-inert, eternal and self-
lumtnous quality Au‘aarya Is lordship, which is an activity
that Is unchecked and is not dependent on anything external to
it. Bala is strength which is defined as absence of fatigue.
Virya in vmltty which is unchanging. In spite of being the

519. MS. 111. 7-24.

580. Ibrd. II. 26h-40
581. VP. i 8. 35 .
582 Ahs H. 55
£93 AGAMAS AND SOUTH IND] AN VAISNAVISM

material cause. potency which becomes the material

.S’akti is
cause of the world. Teja: is splendour or might. which Is capa-
ble of inflicting defeaton others without any external help.583
These six guzza: make up the body of Vasudeva and Laksmi.

Vide '
magician-é; fi are-am a Farm gar-r v1. 25a.
AhS.
i

The Lord is called Bhagavan, because He has the six gupas 584
Brahman is described as Sadgupa,535 having these six as essential
qualities This is not surprising, since this depiction is based
on Upanisadic passages like
wan-it Hill?! smart-L I583

which illustrate the Brahmasfilrm

ammqruareg Healthier: arm l537

The Upanigadtc doctrine 533 that Brahman has no limitations
due to space, time and objects is accepted by the Paficarfitm
Agama also. There is a brilliant description of this in the
following s'loka :—
35“?! H are; as: ma‘la' fiat mi‘a era i

enter: ES??? é‘ta al'z‘éa: wrsaia‘tiai‘t: ll

AhS ll. 47
Colours, dimensions. Sizes, conditions, temperatures and
movements are all shown in the succeeding sloka to demonstrate
the unconditioned nature of Brahman.

633. fbxd. [1 58-603: LT. ii 33-368.

534.
585.
ibxd II 238, LT XXIX. '1; XXXVI“. 23:
Ibld. ll. 53b , LT.X. 5.
m. 11.
586 TV Ill. 6
587. Br S. Ii 3 29
588. TV. II. 1.
202 AGAMAS Ann souru INDIAN VAISNAVISM

prakrtr, and any change occurring there may be attributed to

Brahman, but it does not occur actually in Brahman.

The Ultimate Reality is Vasudeva called by several names

and is tranqull(without activrty), changeiess and ever-existent 603
It has no limitation of any kind’and is the source of very vast
divine powers.509 Sakti, also known as Laksmi, is latent in
Him.

it necessary to explain how the Worlds how come into

is
being from Him or at His instance, since He Is totally inactive.
An independent resolve flashes forth in Him who orders the
latent Sakti to activate herself, which the Agamic tradition
describes as opening of the eyes. This is like the moon rising
out of the ocean [t is only the will of Brahman to create.
thc :
flit-warm ’1'}
am mar afiqiflgfi: II

are filtrqflfi trier: Vegan-mun Her I

LT. II. 22b-23a.

This Sakti 0! two kinds. namely, krryfi and bhfitz 610 The
Is
former is action, and It is represented by Sudarsanafill the
discus of Visnu. The other is becoming, that Is, the universe.
The former is energy and the latter matter. When $akti rs and
to’ become active, Whit is meant I: that Laksmt makes her
presence felt The bhfiu‘ part Isunpellcd by Imyd, and so the
world comes into being

Creation is a continuous process and cannot be uniform in

its nature. It must have some stages marked by specific changes

608. lbrd. II. 83.

609. Ibid. Ii. 93
810. £213. XiV. 1b. Ba.
611. Ibid. III 45b.
206 AGAMAS AND SOUTH moms ursuutsm
Another aspect of the three vyfihas, which was criticized by
Sankara and other writers, has disappeared gradually. The
emanation of Sankargana from Visudeva is depicted as the birth
of the self from the Lord. From Sadkarsana, the self. the
mind (or buddht) is born as Pradyumna; and the ego as
Aniruddha rises from Pradyumna. The gradual disappearance
is stated by F Otto Schrader 535 as traceable to the difficulty of
connecting the‘ ahafikfira wrth such an absolutely pure being as a
oyaha It Is doubtful whether this explanation is correct The
three deities superintend the activrties of the soul. mind and
ego. which do not belong to the pure creation. This is hinted
at in the following passage :—-
sifiwrea‘t has{F3 11%
strewn: II

Sikh gi‘qtémr are" Star'Tfiar: l

%3% storm Eran: Fm gei‘aqtemfir: ll

LT. VI. 12b. 13.

Apart from the four vyahas, there are sub-vyE/tas. Kesava,

Niriyans and Madhava issue forth from Vasudevs"; Govinda.
Vtsnu and Madbusfidana from Sahkarsana; Trtvtkrama, Vamana
and Sridhsra from, Pradyumns ; and Hrslkesa. Padmanibha and
Damodara from Amruddha.627 There is another set of sub-
uyfihas, according to which, from each vyfiha four deities arise,
each having the same name as the nyt'iha and two from each with
different names like Iansrdana. Upendra, Hari and others 333

Under pure creation are included the rub/lava: of the Lord

which represent the divine descents (avataras) of the Lord.
Besides the ten Well-known descents, there are many which

626. Ibid p. 39
627 .4115. V, 48-48 , P55. 1. 2. 2213-25.
628 P43. I 2. 28.
 PANCARATRA mama DOCTRINES 209

All the dcscents spring from Aniruddha.633 Some texts

declare that the descents of Matsya, Kfirma and Varaha are
from Vfisudeva, those 01’ Narasimha. Vsmana, Parasurama
and Rama from Sankarsana, that of Baiarama from Pradyumna
and those of Krsna and Kalkin from Aniruddha 639 Another
VCl'SlOIJ mentions the descent of Kfirma and Parasurama from
Safikarsanafiw
In the Sanatkumfirasamhttd, two sets of uyfiha emanations
are depicted.“l The Supreme Deity IS called Sadavisnu, also
known as Vasudeva, from whom there arises another Vasudeva
With a definite form. He is called also Mahavlsnu, From His
mind arose the goddess Santi from whom came Sankarsana, the
destroyer also known as Samkara From the left side 0! Sankar-
sana, there issued forth Pradyumna. also called as Brahma who
created Saraswati, the goddess of speech Aniruddha, also
called Purusottama, arose from her. Ratl emanated from Him
who, lying in the waters, bore a lotus in His navel This
represents the subtle kind of uyfiha.
Then an egg came out of the lotus and Hiranyagarbha,
identical with the four-faced Brahma, arose outoi'u. From
him arose a goddess With the name Samdhy'a', who gave rise to
Rudra (also called Satya) and to Mariel and other progenitors
(prajdpatir). Satya was born as the daughter of Daksa, one of
those progenitors. From Satya arose Acyuta, who is identical
with Pradyumna from whom Aniruddha arose. This is the gross
oyfiha emanation.

This version of the vyfiha doctrines is very significant and of

great importance. It accounts for the assumption of more than

838. Ibid. p. 45:

639. P55. 12. ails-33a.
640. SKS. Indra III. 36. 61.
641 Ibld. oh. 6
asv—27
 PANCARATRA AGAMA DOCTRINES 2iI

Vidc :
waif}: 231% an en marfiatrtmq .
mnfiwrmemfir stgguefirerer II

LT 11 59b-603.
fiffifiaffiarfi: sad en mi Fair I

fitffié marginal err mimoé‘t II

1m IV 31.

A question is likely to be raised here regarding the propriety

of accepting the form in the image made of material products,
as non-material. The answer to this lies in the admission of a
body for God in His divine descmts such as Rama, Krsna and
others Both the material (prfikrta) and non-material (aprfikrta)
worlds belong to Vlsnu He whose body is made up of the six
gupas, takes up a body which falls within the experience of the
selves In this, His compassion and will are the guiding
(actors.643 As He is ever absolutely free from those factors
which are to be shunned, the products, made up of matter with
its three guys, Sattva, Rafa: and Tamas, could not have any
effect on Him Even though He took His abode in a physical
body when He descended down as Rama or Krsna, His body did
not have any or the blemishes associated with the gage: of
PrakrtL Similarly. He is said to take His place in the idol
which is consecrated according to Kgamic traditions, and as such
the idol becomes fit to be worshipped. It is not a stone or
metallic form that is then God, but it is the figure which is to be
iopked upon as non-material in its making Hence the idol is
called as the seat of the suspicious one (subhdsmya) and a
divine and auspicious form (dwyamafigalavigmha) His body is
the resting place of the material products.

mam
643 dee
streafiihemsrg l

ufilwfia agar snra‘i (Era? "in u

M, H. 91,
212 AGAMAS AND scum INDIAN VAISNAVISM
Vide :

fined anew ufimawirmr i

wnfiflae: firifi: wrvaamr n

Bhaganadgilfi, XI. 13.
Since His descent both in the m'bhaua and area forms is not
due to karma, the body which He takes then cannot be the
product of matter.
Vide
a mafiaétsrrit $33613: «man: I

Mbh. S’t‘inli. CCVI. 60

a new SHEEN qfiuiefifisfiuéum u

Varfiha Purina XXXIV. 40

His body in the vyfiha, viblzaua and ma manifestations has to be
taken as non-material in us composition. The solution to ill]!
question is thus summarized
Vlde °

efl'fi afiefiuma‘iaartam Ha: I

mmm’krfit ufirgrmi 3%: it

amalgam 51$sz: mafia it i

HS mail m Wersflanfifi n

among-stag: tififi: mufm I

truwmmaartréi warm-a Qatar n

Vedanta Kanka‘vali Vi. 8 10.

The Lord rs sand to be the Inner Ruler (Anlaryfimm) of all

selves and is present In the heart of each of them This concept
is based on the Upam‘sad: which declares that Brahman is within
every Objecl and every self and controls them from within.“4

644. the :

P : H
31‘3” fig I 11 ifil' 1214.11. 11.3.
 PANCARATRA AGAMA Docrnmas 213

But He is unsuiiied by the impurities of the physical frames

within which the self rests from birth to death.

In the Pa‘fiearitra Igama. Laksml occupies a very prominent

place. She Is Sakti lying undeveloped tn Visnu before creation.
When Vtsnu takes His descents, she also descends along with
Him. The two are inseparable.

Vide:
Hn‘qifiamrfiaitaqeimfimt
a fish it ssfisfiar ae‘ra 2138'
=r n

LT vm. 10.

When He is to play His own role, she manifests His nature,

When she in turn has her role, He manifests His I-ness (ahanld)
in her. When both have to function, they present themselves as
the extstentreaiity and its state of existence.545 When Ani-
ruddha plays His role, she becomes known as Kamaii. These tw°
become the parents of the universe.546 She is called Sri when
she occupies the lap of the two-armed Vasudeva. She is also
present on Hts Sides With the names of Sr! and Pustt 34:7 She
takes several forms and occupies various positions around Vlsnu
assuming particular names in each posttton.648 Sh‘e becomes
Gang; flowrng out of the feet oi’ Vtsnu when He assumes the
form of Triviltrama. In His descents as Variha, Dharma.
Vamana, Parasurama and Rama. she came down as Bhfi,
Bhirgavi, Padmn, Dharani and Siti respectively. With Krsua
who was wrth Baiarama. Pradyumna and AntruddhaI she

64S “awn 13-15

646 [bid vm 16-17.

641 lbld vm 21

643 Ibrd vm. 12-345.

 PANCAsA‘mA AGAMA DOCTRINBS 215

The Highest Place is reached by the souls which get

absolutely free from worldly bondage There they are held to
enjoy several kinds of communion wrth God.652 To be the
abode of free selves, there must be matter which can provide
the places and the means (instruments) of enjoyment (bhogauhana
and bhogapakarapa) The enjoyments thus provided are stated to
be blissful.353 Therefore, the Pdficaratm Egamas admit that the
Highest Place comes Into exrstence along with the nyfiha: and as
such belongs to pure creation. The material for this creation is
pure :attoa (suddha :attva). [t is not sattpa taken away from
matter which is composed of the three gupar, that is. matter
purified by being rtd of raja: and tamer; but it represents the
first stage in the evolution when the two other qualities do not
emerge. The places. the bodies with which the released souls
then get endowed and the enjoyments, are all stated to be of the
nature of knowledge and bites These should therefore be non-
materiai (aprfikrta)

[t is further held that there is nothing there to become an

obstacle to the mental functions of the released souls and that
the wishes of those selves get fulfilled tnvarlably. The place 1s
significantly depicted as solidified splendour The heavenly
abode, the body of the released soul and the enjoyments, which
are described to be 0! the nature of knowledge and bliss, having
no obstruction to the fulfilmentof the desires of the selves,
must be totally distinct from those made up of and gained
through the products of the three gupas. In the latter are found

852 Sfiyujyatsyearned for the

stemmiisgargefi Ital ntnmfisrd: l

asnraraneatm: a5 awe gfsfifia‘fit I

38 SIG. Ru. III. 9'].
Ci" jrtante Stbtra. II

653. AhS VI. 23b-Z4a.

216 saunas AND sourn INDIAN VAISNAVISM

objects of three dimensions, the like of which should not be

expected in the former. If they are to be admitted there also,
then obstructions of all kinds Will have also to come in the way
of the enjoyment of the released souls Therefore, it is
reasonable to assume that pure sauna is only self-luminous
spiritual knowledge That this should be so is strengthened by
the fact that matter emanates from Sakti or Sri and so cannot
have any tinge of material defect in the first stage of its
emergence when it gets the name, Judd/ta :attua, This concept
makes us understand how, out of it, the non material bodies
(aprakrta) emerge for Visnu and others and also for the released
souls and the creation of inanimate objects like parks. lotus-
tanks and others for their enjoyment All these are spiritual
in content and are of the nature of knowledge and bliss.

The Highest Place is called Vaikuntha where is ever present

the highest form (para) of God. This form is said to be the very
first and has two hands From this emanated the four-armed
and dark-complexioned God.354 The latter is generally
supposed to be the para form With the name Vssudeva from
whom the vyfiha: and diVine descents emerge. He has the selves,
matter, mahat, sattaika and tamasa ahafikfim, and others as
Kaustuba, Srivatsa, Gada, Sankha. Sarnga and such other
weapons and ornaments 355 Para Vasudeva is stated to diVide
Himself into Vy t‘iha Visudeva and Narlyana '63 .

Para Vasudeva is ever associated with Srt who is identical

with Sakti.557 She too has a body made up of the six divine
gur'uu.

654 P53 1T3 Iii-15: Vlsputiléka. 11.5.

655. V P. I. 22

666. P53 i. 2 16.17 . Vigpuulake mil-14 identifies Para With Narryana.

387 LT. VIII. 31
220 scams AND sourn lNDiAN VAISNAVISI

the north has Aniruddha in full prominence, but occupying the

bottom, the other three not being as prominent as Anlruddha.
Similarlv, the western face gives prominence to Pradyurnna
occupying the second division from the bottom, while the other
three do not have that importance. The same must be said of
the other two fa ces. The four states of consciousness (waking,
sleeping, dreaming and transcendental) characterise the full
{aces directed to the north, west, south and east respectively
This pillar is intended to be contemplated upon by devotees
according to their capacities. Those who meditate upon the
waking state of consciousness. as represented by Anlruddha.
are required to treatall the four deities as identical With the
Supreme Being Each deity having a distinct character and
occupying one face of the column incorporates all the four
vyfihat. For instance, the form of Aniruddha occupying the
face directed to the north must display prominent features like
the consort, weapons and ornaments. while those of Pradyumna,
Sai’ikarsana and Vasudeva must reveal similar features as
indistinct (arpasta). merely outlined or totally invisible. The
Western face must have the features of Pradyumna prominently
displayed, With those of the other three relatively less prominent
Similarly, the south and east-facing portions display the
prominent features of Sir‘iit'irssna and Vasudeva repectively.
according less importance to those of others.
A meditator is requtred to contemplate at four stages,
starting with that of Aniruddha and the other three as
depicted In the north face. and gradually passing through to
Pradyumna, Safikarsana and Vasudeva. keeping all the other
three in each Each stage corresponds to another stage in the
other set, that is, waiting. dream, deep sleep and transcendental.
The meditator has to raise blame]! to that state of consciousness
which is represented by the stage concerned. This kind 0!
meditation is called Cdturdtmya Upfisanafim

670 LT in 9-18, Introduction to LT., p. 25. 11115. V. 2013-263.

226 mamas Also sourn INDIAN wusmvrsu
of the Manus that, as they descend through the Tamar into the
womb of thy5, there arises for them Bodhanfi, an intellectual
organ with which they discriminate between the real and the
unrealfi90

Unlike in the classical Sinkhya, Buddht represents the

Sinai/ca aspectof Mahat691 Among its several names noted
above, AkizyEn, Prajfifi and fs‘aari indicate that Mahat denotes
both vitality and subconscious intelligence.592 Mahat is thus
cosmic Prana. Though it is unconscious, yet it is intelligent
energy at work. This interpretation is borne out by the use of
the word, ‘brahman ', in this sense in the Upamsads 393 and also
the word ‘Pra‘na' In the place of Mahat, while the Sdfikhya
categories are enumerated in the Alzirbuaihnyasan‘du'tfifiQ4 The
further stages of creation from Malta! are described almost as in
the SEri/rhya system.
The descent of Manus is then shown to account for the rise
of people from the intercourse of the male and female
principles. The Menus thus become the ancestors of numberless
men.
The Gross Creation commences With the appearance of the
earth, the last tattoo The principles thus created require
coalescence tnto a mass. This Is attempted by Brahma creating the
four youths. Sanaka, Sananda, Sanitana and Sanatkumara who.
however, refused to have offspring Rudra who was then
created, split himself into eleven Rudras. The 31x progenitors
(Prafipam), Mann and others, were created, and they attended
to the Work of further creation,

690. A115 VII. 13,14

691 Cf KathaU II. 1013. Buddhl and Mahat are kept distinct
692 Schrader. p '13
693. Ch U I ll 5
694. ALIS. xv. 223.
 PANLARATRA AGAMA DOCTRINES 227
The individual soul is ctts‘akh. It 18 pure musessence,
lmperlshable unchangeable, eternal and unlimited It is the
conscrousness Witnessing the funcuonlng of matter It is
knowledge and at the same time the knower 995 Like matter.
the souls emanate from Sri695 They form part of the Bhfiti
S'aktz of Laksmi.697 They are prepared and pre-determtned for
bondage or salvation by the Lord‘s .N'zgraha or Ttrodhfina S’a/m.
They should then have their form, power and knowledge
obscured, leading respectively to atomic size, powerlessness and
ignorance. Then they get affected by all Imperfections like
nesclence, concert, attachment and so on They Indulge
accordingly in activmes whtcn lead to graver results.593
The souls are classified under two heads, namely, pure and
mind Pradyumna is stated to create the former and
Antruddha the latter through Brahma, the creator.399 There is
Justificatton for this. Those who have a stock of good and bad
karma to be gone through at the end of a dissolution of the
cosmos are required to be introduced tnto the world by Brahma
who is actuated by the qualtty of Rajas. They cannot make
their appearance In the Krtayuga when Sauna dominates. Those
who belong to the pure kind must have the Saliva predominant
and so they are allowed to appear in the world In the Krtayuga
by Pradyumna Himselffloo

The :ummum banum (hitamazyantam) for the self is to be freed.

The sorrows should end, never to recur, thus gtvlng room for a
positive status in the shape of eternal happiness The Pfifiaarfitra

695 LT xv: 13-19

596 Ibtd. . xv1. 22a
v1 36

697 AM? VI 8a

693 [bid xiv. 15b-24 These are constdered also as the Sakti of Sn.
699 Cf lbld xxt 12, LT. 1:11 13.14. Schrader. [3.32.
700 Schrader, pp. 84-5.
228 aoasuts AND sou-m mourn varsnavtsu
doctrines therefore declare that this consists in the final
cessation of the succession of sorrows which implies positive
eternal bliss.
Vide:
“Rim Ffii‘fiig
au‘rwasi‘aaé Farq'
g‘a‘t arr gzfifiaa‘: I
$6? at; 355:5! WEIR II
AhS. x111 9.

That is, atomic size, powulessncss and ignorance which were

forced on the self by the power of obscuration (tirodhana‘s'akti)
get fully removed. leaving the self in its natural condition.
Since the atomic size is forced on the self. it is possrbie to hold
that the natural size of the self is not atomic. The evtdcncc
regarding the nature of the liberated soul is that it is omniscient
and omnipresent. Its omnipresencc cannot be explainedI if its
size is atomic, and so requires explanation The Ahzrbudhnya
Sarhhr'td describes It to be of the size of a mote "101
Vide

m
:

arm;- snczr germ“ character: I

aaigmmrfi tfimaitf‘zfitqfiar: n
AhS. v1 27.
It is therefore proper to admit. that by ‘atomic' ts meant
‘small ' or ‘little '. In the state of bondage, the ward, ' am"
can be taken to mean spatially restricted, but in the state of
release it can mean omnipresence.
The place which the selves occupy alter gaining makga Is one
from which they do not return to the mundane world.
Vlde :
arena atti arm ca? FI’TEfi'l‘a'
get: I

AltS. XXXVII. 263.

701. Ibrd. p. 59
 PANCARAIRA AGAMA uocritiNss 229

This is a non-material place shining With the six qualities The

released souls shine there With the lustre of crores of suns and
moons. They take no food The Supreme God of gods lies
there on the serpent couch, attended by bOsis of ever~free
selves.7°z This Highest Place Will disappear at the time of
absolute dissolution and emerge at the time of Pure Creation
The released selves Will also merge. but Will not undergo any
sufi'eting.

The nature of the released condition is described as the

soul’s becoming one With God During dissolution. it becomes
latent in Him The Lord declares that the liberated selves
become Himself and that there is no difl'erence between them
and Himself. This is not Advai‘ta, for He adds that the
liberated souls sport as He does'103 An inseparable union
betWeen the two is meant and is described as like that of the
Kaustubha gem and the Lord. In that state, the self is noticed
to be clinging to the Lord like a gem."’4 The souls " become
practically, but not really one."705

Regarding the means of obtaining liberation, it is said in

the Pdficardtra Zgama that the liberation of the self depends on
the compassion of Sr! which persuades her to bestow her grace
on the self. This process is called technically S'aktt'pata.
Vide:
Inn a’l‘a'r:an'ieefi Farm gttaifiiafirar: l

than: {Fa sites: :ifiitriaititrea: ll

LT. Xlll. 3.

102 LT. xvu. 9, 15-32.

103 P55 I. 4 17.

704 Visputilaka, II. 30, 100

705. Schradsr. p. 93.
230 mama mo sou-rs: INDIAN ursmvrsn
No one can force God to bring about this. g‘odflknows when to
give efl'eet to [LNG To please God for obtaining .S’akttpfita.
four means are recommended. They are Karma, Sankhya, I'oga
and Sareatyaga '10? In another context, the last one is
omitted.”8 It is also said that knowledge and religion (dharma)
are the means, the latter leading to the former. The former
may be of a direct or Indirect nature, the latter leading to the
former. Religion is twofold. being mediate (vyavadhfinavvt) and
immediate. The former consists in offering worship to Brahma
and others who represent God, while the latter takes the form
of offering direct worship to God. All kinds of Worship
sanctioned by or based upon the Veda: and systems of thought
like Pasupsta, Sfifikhya and others come under the former 709
The Pa‘fieara’tra mode ls of the latter kind.

Vlde :

finifa'fifi '15: as: afiatmfiraa: n

in Show? a‘m'l a mated (“0% I

meats} was} He:- misstatement: II

AhS XIII. 21b, 22

Among these, Karma can be treated as of the immediate

kind when it is employed to worship the Lord. Safiklzya refers
to tatloajfifina. Yoga means contemplation on God. Sarvatyaga
Is the path of prapatti

The Karma mode may be taken to have been treated in the

Carya‘ section of the texts. It involves the worship of the Lord
in te nples and homes The daily life of those who choose this
mode is divided under fiVe heads, namely, Abhtgamana, Upa‘dina,

'106 LT XIII. 10.

101. Hard XV, 17

708 Ibld XVII 49
709. A115. XIII. IO-ZIa. 23-25.
 PANCARATRA mam DOCTRINES 231

ijfi, Svfidhyfiya and Yoga Every self is required to ofl‘er

worship in a temple and also in the house.
After attending to the preparatory routine of bath, sandhyi
and others, one must approach the sanctum sanrtomm in the
temple or house, uttering prayers and attend to the worship of
God This is called ‘ Abhzgamarta’ which means literally.
‘going towards (God) '_ After this, flowers, fruits and other
requirements for the worship of God are to be collected. This
is known as Upadana ijfi ls the name given to the ritual of
worship After taking food which 1: called Anuyaga, one has
to spend the time till the evening in the recitation and study of
the sacred texts, listening to the discourses of the teacher or
elders, reflection upon what one has learnt from others and
offering comments on what one has received from Others. This
is called Sofidhyfiya, Towards the close of the day, .tandhyfi is
to be performed before offering worship to the Lord Deep
contemplation on God must then be undertaken wuh occasronal
resrs that may pass into sleep The name ‘Toga' is gIVen to
this All these together constitute Paficakfilaprakrt’yfi 710 and
those who follow this are known as paficaka‘tzkas.
The Paficakfilapmknyfi is the daily routine shaped out of the
code of conduct lald doWn in the Sm!!! texts to suit the needs
for the dedication of life to the adoration of Visnu The
Karma ma‘rga of the Blzagauadgita, which IS based upon the Vedrc
conc:pt of rituals, is itself a method by whtch the deeds done
are dedicated to God as His. This concept envolves a further
adaptation to the exclusive worship of Vispu. Thus, the
practical side of the life of a devotee of Visnu is treated in the
Pa‘fioaratra tradition as karma which Is obligatory on all members
of society including those who take to the order of ascetlcs.

no 15' SKS Ru. 1 3-14a. Pars [X 181-175, [8. XXII. SprS. XVII.
68-74. P55. IV 13-3. Cf AhS XV. 8a, 490, LT. XVII. 13; XVIII. 51,52.
Both .4113 and LT. mention the word ' Paficakdla '.
232 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVIIBI

Jfifina refers to the acquiring of the right knowledge of the

tauva which is the Ultimate Reality. In particular, what is to
be known is related to the fivefold forms of God namely, Para,
Vyz'zha, Vibhava, Ami and Antaryimt’n. The nyfiha Concept has a
significant role to play In this Jfifina-mfirga, while the ma form
receives a direct treatment in the Karma~mfirga. In fact, the
Krtyfi and Caryfi sections of the Pfimara‘tra texts lay emphasis
on the uni form. of course, in the background of the vyfiha
concept. The knowledge, which is thus acquired, requires
recapitulation on the basis of their common and dwergent
characteristics.
Vide:
zit martini; eraser ai gtr filaiqga: I

era: armawafiqmmmm u

gaiaaifirmi deaf arteraseirfieian I

aa’imi‘n: Gianni fiarmmarmfir ll

831% air Hn'la'lfir item easement i

Itsir HT trtrrr Ell?!” nsnarenwrXVI. u

LT. 26-28.
The knowledge which is then acquired is real knowledge This
is acquired not by self-effort alone, but also through the grace
of God.
The Yoga mode is the means which is based on the practices
enjoined in the Yoga system of Patafijaii The process is a
highly complex one even for Comprehension and difficult to
practise. It is purely internal in execution It is of two kinds,
namely, samfidlu and samyama The former results from the
practice ofyaga. In that condition, the self rests in Brahman
called Srinivasa and remains there undisturbed. The latter
consists in the performance of good deeds which are related
cow to the HighestSelf It has physical and mental aspects.
it purifies the inner organ and generates pure knowledge]11

71! LT XVI. 30—41.

 PANCARATRA AGAMA DOCIRINES 235

These limbs. when practised, arouse the KandalinT-s‘akli

and make it ascend, step by step, through the cakra: and merge in
the Absolute Self at the point called Deadasfinta, At this stage,
there is the union of Saktl with God.733

Nyfira ls enjoined as a means of obtaintng final release on

the main’ground that, wtth the passage of unto, the dEmbodied
self is adversely afiecred so as to lose knowledge, stamina,
strength and longevity and is afllrcted by the results of the deeds
done frequently. So the self ls asked to avoid the two extremes
of dotng good deeds. like the Agntstama sacrifice and had one!
llke killing animals, the results of which are bound to afl'ect
tl e doer. The self must seek the Lord as its refuge and It will
surely reach Film at the end of its ltfe's journey 734 This Is
called by 15everal names such as prapatu', prapadana, s‘arapigafl,
b‘zaranya‘sa and so on The Supreme Place, that ts, moksa, which
a ulf, seeking release, could not get by such means as jfifinu.
Von/v or bhaktz, ts obtatned by this Itself 725

it has component parts, namely, (i) the resolution on the

51):

part .of the self to do such acts only as would be in conformity

wlth the dtvme wrll, (li) gmng up those acts that would
dtsplease God, (111) a firm convrctton that God would protect
those who seek Hts protectton, (IV) the chores of God as
protector, (v) plactng one’s own self In His charge and
(vi) the realisation of the helplessness of the self to seek any other

753 L'F ‘(llx 143-146 Cf. Com, on LT. xx 12.13.

724 Hard xvu 51-59:
725 1th xxxvn 25,28.
 PAN CARATRA AGAMA DOCI‘RINES 23"

Jv‘yasa is given the symbolic representation of smrifice.

The self is the ablation ofi'ered With the utterance o! the word.
‘namalz' One who takes up this means is held to have
performed a hundred sacrifices 730 That it in a powerful wealml'l
to be used to fight against worldly sufferings and gain the state
of final release is explained by the declaration that even those
Who are devoted to the performance of good deeds, who are
learned and who are adepts in yogic methods. do not bear any
c°mpaflson to one who has taken up nyfira, not being equal to
even a billionth fraction of him 731

Self-surrender does not consist in placing merely one's self

under God All the possessions are also to be surrendered to
Him.733 Nyfixa is to be done only once The evil consequence of
getting rebirth will happen to one who takes to other courses
like karma or bhakti, leaving nydsa imperfectly done,733 Those
Who adopt this means must not violate the Vedic law even in
thought 734 Any lapse, however, could be expiated by the act
itself 735

Nyira is the foremost among the means for crossing the sea
of worldly eXIstence It is the only way which both the
ignorant and the learned can adopt. Those who adopt this
course enjoy the rewards of their good deeds and get free-
dom from all kinds of bondage and acquire the highest
status.”6

130 Ibid xxxvu. 31b-39

131 LT. xvn 63.
732. Ibid. xvu 80.
‘133. lbid xvn 89b-90
734 "mi. xvn. 96a.
735. Ibid. xvri 102-103a.
736, lbid. xvn. 104b, 1053.
240 AGAMAS AND sourn INDIAN ursnavtsn
rise of the objects or the objects could be held to rise from sound.
At this Stage. the sound is knoWn as nada which gives rise at the
next stage to bindu also known as pasyanti This then leads to
the madhyama stage when the logical relation between the word
and its meaning lies in the form of an impression Vaikhari is
the next stage when the syllables and Words are distinctly
noticeable 739
In the evolution sounds produced. the units of the
01’

alphabet are classified variously For Instance. fisman,

antahrtha, seam and sparsa represent the four kinds and so called
as catuspadi The mantra: are formed out of these and they flow
from Brahman In accordance with the mental realization of
the aspirants, particular mantra: are evolved That sound which
an aspirant receives with the faith that it would prOtect him,
which shields him from fear with its purport concealed, in which
the deity's nature is manifested in the sequence in which the
syllables occur and which reveals pure knowledge. is called
mantra.

Vide:
fll' arrahsafirrira't than sa’isra‘t 'eatfit: I

flfiifim‘:8'?"qu meter awe water n

8' ma: ésqa‘tsa'mfitana: 553%: 953: l

'i‘Tl’iEfingegfi: age-mutate} era: n

LT. xvm 44-45

Since sound originates from Brahman, God is said to present

Himself in the form of mantra Particularly, mantra: are useful
in internal worship (antaryaga) Japa and dhyana do thus
become meaningful When the mantras are uttered as [D nyasa
and homa, they convey the intended meaning to the deity, and
so it becomes clear that God is there to listen to the prayers of
His devotees.

139. Cf. Alas. xvt . LT. xvm.

 CHAPTER VII

PANCARKTRA TEXTS

The Pdficara‘tm doctrines ware preached by five teachers——

Sindtlya, Aupagayana, Maufijyayana, Kauétka and Bharadvaya 751
The works of the first and the last, among these, are available,
whtle that of the second gets only reference in some works 752
The other twa left no works. The works of the two writers
mentioned above, have more than one text with the same name.
They treat matters like worship of God, bhakti and prapam'.
The Nfirayaniya section of the Mahabharata throws light on
the traditions of the Pfificmdfra Agama The vyfiha dOCll'lue and
the daily round of life classtfied under five heads are the matters
treated there The earitest texts may be expected to have dealt
with these matters only. On this ground, the texts of the two
writers mentioned above could not have been very early The
interlocutors. here, are Antruddha. Samkars‘na, Bhagavan.
Vasudeva, S I. Bhrgu, Ahitbudhnya, Narada. MArkandeya,
Siodllya and others. Some of them are satd to have recetved
instrucuons from Others mcnlloncd above, and in thetr turn,
they ofl'ered expositions to others it Is n0t therefore possmle
to fix the prtortty of any of these texts over others.

The number of Pfificaralm texts ls ltsted In some of these

works themselves They are 154 in the Vtsnutantra, 108 in the
Pddma and Vts‘va‘mitra ramhita's, 106 to the Purusanama-Jamhttd,
103 tn the Bhiraa’oa‘yammhtti. 100 In the Kapifljalasamhtta‘, 91 In
the Markapgeyammhttfi and 25 In the Hayas‘irsammhtti and

751 15‘ XX! 519-33

752 PES.i 1.108

 resonates rem 255

Brahman ls peerless, beyond the reach of expressions and

senses and is to be realised by Htrnself thhout any lnstrument.
He is realised and the means for thts is the mantra And mantras
are derived from God; they possess shlmng sounds whtch
increase In strength through the power of the Lord 801 Each
mantra has subtle, gums and transcendental forms 802

Brahman’: mantra form ls of two kinds, partless and

possessing parts 803 To realtse tt, knowledge is essentlal. This
Is of two kinds, ratta' and Icnya. The former consists in the
knowledge of the exIStenceof Brahman as such. Knyfi is of two
kinds, m‘yama and yama, whtch mean the rules of dlscipllne and
antenna respecttvely Knowledge of the extstenee of God
could be obtained through yogzc methods which again are to be
acquired through worship 304
Thus Samhm? attaches great Importance to mantras and their
proper use for the equipment of the WO‘ShlppEf. The mode of
worshtp tn the temple does not get as mush attention as Is gtyen
In later ramhttfit Cosmology, the vyfiha theory and achieve-
ments through tintnka practices whtch are treated here and are
not traceable to any other Pfificaraira text, may well be taken
to suggest a very early date.
The Ahtrbudlznya-sarhhztfi contains about 3800 stanzas in
60 chapters The text is In the form of an expoeltlon of the
doctrines given by Ahtrbudhnya, one of the eleven Rudras, to
Nirada. Durvfasas who had known this from Narada. recounts
it to Bharadvajs The main purpose of the teaching here is
to expound the glory of Sudarsana. The orlginal text is stated

801. Ibtd v1. 59

802. lbtd v1.
303 Ibtd tv 30
804 lbrd 1v.
 PANCARATRA TEXTS 25 i

They are explained as arising on the following grounds Firstly.

man’s speech Is not adequate to brrng out the truth. Secondly.
pe0ple mistake one word for another in certain conteth and do
not know what synonyms are Then, limitations of powers of
comprehension make it difficult to understand Celiain things.
and one cannot speak about Whatone could not know. Finally,
the aspects of God are infinite, and only one of them is grasped
by one philosopher and another by another philosopher and so
00.310

Brahman is described as characterised by unlimited bliss,

having no beginning and no end. It is identical with
Narayana. it resides in (Very being, pervades every thing.
is faultless and undisturbed like the waveless sea It has no
tinge of material qualities and is the abode of non-material
qualities. It has no limitations due to space. time and objects,
it rs eVer full, ever manifest (mtyodtta), and cannot be guessed
to be of this or that kind or stzefill The four oyt'ilta deitlas
(Cfiturdtmya) are satd to be of three kinds in their collective
nature on grounds of their pervasion (vyfiptt'), the manifestation
of the respective qualities (gztztonmesa) and personal figures 312
The self has no beginning. is indeterminable blissful. divme
(bhagananmuya), filled, as it were. by the Lord and ever existing
under HIS control It represents an infinitesimal fraction of’ the
Saktloi‘ God 813 It is only those selves that receive God’s grace
(called Jakttpaaa) that can mower and get freed from
bondage.814 The self is then rid of the aspects of the eii'ects of
its good and bad deeds. Detachment dawns upon it, leading

810. Ibld. VIII. ll-l-ia.

su. lbtd. ii. 22-283.
812. lbid. V. 20b.
813. lbtd. XIV. B, 'I.
014. lbzd. XIV. ash-so.
new—33
262 mamas .uso sourn moms VAISNAVISM

consisting of the first seventeen chapters. The science of

occultism takes up nearly tWenty chapters Yoga has a brief
treament. Chapters 37, 41 and 53 deal Wilh Im'yfi. it is found
thus that philosophy and occuitism (earyfi) have received
predominant attention in this text.
One noteworthy feature of this Work is that the female
principle, saktt’, is demonstrated to be responsible for all that
takes place as creation, maintenance and destruction, keeping
Visnu in the background. Yet it is sought to be proved that
only at the will of Visnu, Sri becomes active He is perfectly
tranquilJ changeiess and eternal, and thus He is tn the back-
ground. As a philosophical principle, Sri occupies a status
equal to that of Visnu. She is thus an integral part of Vlsnu
Creation is detailed in three ways. The firstmethod is
spittinto three classes, namely, pure, mixed and tmpure The
pure type transcendental one which includes the nyfiha
is a
emanations The second type is mixed: it refers to the creation
made by Brahma; and the impure kind follows the Safik‘iya
theory of evolution 339 The second method is based on the
principle of stages called ko§t13330 The third method is based
on the emanation of sound irom Brahman and is divided into ux
stages callgg adhaan 831 This method has a very important role
to play in this Agama It seeks to relate the poster of mantras
with the worship of the deity

The contribution made by this :an’zhr‘ta to cosmology is

indeed high, for in no other Pfificaidtra teitt creation receives
such systematic treatment The principles underlying the
concepts of six kas‘a: and six adlwans are essential to explain two

829 Ibid. 111, W

830 Ibld. VI
831. (Md. XXII.
264 AOAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VMSNAVISM

He is also called LaksmI-narsyana.835 This shows that He is eVel'

associated with Laksrnt. The uyaha and oibhaua forms are all
described. The number of divine descents is given here as
thirtyelght.833 And this becomes thirtynine when Visakhayfipa
is included among them It is also thirtynlne tn the
AltirbudhnyaramhilEJn which Vts'Ek/zayfipa is not mentioned. but
Padunanibha must be Included 837 The form of God as idol is
simply referred to as having a non-material body, that is,
having a body made up oi’ stx gupas.
Vlde :

will?! 3%? trr HT unawfitareuarq n

nmnénatwrmearf‘w wteguufiflat I

LT. ll. 59b-60a

It is curious to nme that both the Ahirbudhnyasan'elzita and
Lakshmitantra do not mention the form as the inner ruler
(antaryflmt'n) and there 15 no reference even to and In the former.
However, these two can be taken to have been referred to in
two passages from the lormer 333 it is not, however, clear why
no definite mention is made of them.

The self is only Sakti, tnat'is, the jiaakasa of Sakti. It is

pure and independent. It is consciousness contracted and
appearing like a mountain reflected in a mirror. It is aflltcted
by the five kinds oi mtsery, lamas. moha, mahfimoha andhalfimism
and avidyafi39 it has five duties to perform.340 Its contact
with external objects gtves rise to the cognitions about them.

835 NW. 1. 1
. u. 10,
836. lbtd. xt. 19-25: xltv. 52
837. A123. v. 50-50: Schrader. pp. 44-41.
838. Abs. 1. 1 : xi. 83b.
839. LT. x11. 8, 9.
840. Ibrd. x111. I'l-ZO.
280 mamas AND some INDIAN ulstssvrsst
and Vasudeva is said to be supreme. The deVotees are to
worship Him according to their varying abilities. These {our
forms emanate from the ever-manifest form. Another group of
five on this basis is made up of Para Vasudeva who is ever
manifest (nityodtta) and the four Vyfiha deities periodically
manifest (Mntodrta). Another grouping is according to the four
stages of waking, dream. deep sleep and the transcendental
consciousness presided over by Antruddna, Pradyumna.
Sankarsana and Vasudeva respectively 931 Sankarsana teaches
the Vedas and the Pdfiraratra Pradyumna introduces all
religious rites which are to be performed. Anlruddha reveals
the nature oi’ the sell‘922 The Lord has four arms in this last-
mentioned group, two In the second, and Para Vasudeva is
dark in complexron with four arms 933 The number of mbhazm-
anatfiras is said '0 be 30 as against the 39 mentioned tn the
Ahirbudhnya-ramhxtfi Upendra. Dadhtbhakta, and Hayagriva
are also mentioned as divine descents 934
There descents are of two kinds, principal and secondary.
In the former, God comes down in person. In the latter He
enters into a body, through His own nature or Hts power,
whether it Is to take the body of an animal, or a plant like the
short mango tree in the Dandaksranya forest, orasecondary
iorm like that of Brahma or Siva. All these are taken up by
Him at His sweet will and pleasure 935

The antaryamin form is stated to be ltkea relation, ever

present, whether the self is in heaven or hell 923

921. Ibid. p. 193.

922. Ibid. pp. 136-188.
923. Ibzd. p. 193
924. Ibid. p. 193. V1d01—AhS. V. 50-61a.
925. Ibld. pp. 189.190.
'20. Ibid. p. 202.
 PANCARATIA run 231

Vlde °

maa’ifitmwa 83w? argafiwaq I

0
iwatmufism mgmm A
F: aura: n

The arm! form is like a relation to all. It Is within the easy

reach of the devotees 927 It is aatd that the ant qualltlel
(Szdgu’lyd) are mean! in an unexcelled Way in the mantra and
idol. thereby meaning that the worship of the idol is as good at
Visualizing God through the mantra. God is present altlte in
both 923

Vidc:
Haifimrr‘zr Swami tiFe’za‘ mr'iw’fr: I

He is the object denoted in the mantra and remains in the idol

out of compassion for the people_929

Vldc:
fiamnnmfieéfifigmfimu
God Himself states that in the five forms He in acceslihle more
easily in every succeeding form. therebv meaning that He II
most easily accessible in the am! form 930

Vid e :

mi wannrfisamttai mama: I

qétfirqfiz ‘15qu sumtfiéffiiiat:

m:
u

Wait ward} n

91?. Ibid. p. 199.

928. 875'. I. p. 424.
929. Tattntreyaculekn. p. 216.
930. 77!. 311.
p. 202.
”v.16
282 mans sun scum moms ursmvrsss
One must take lnterestsnd care to worship God in the area
form as if He was powerless. dependent and fit to be
protected.931
Vide :

fiat-its amend fiffifi ctmfi'at:

mm a
I

wazrfir 33155:; n

Certain deities are forbidden to be warshlpped Arjuna.

Vyasz, Parssursma. Kubers and some others are included to
this list 932
Those who get released and reach the Highest Place are
atomte tn stze and radiate spiritual atoms of the size of the
triad 933

The Vispu-samht'tfi has about 3000 stanzas in 30 chapters.

A sage called Sumati instructs Aupagayans on Pfificarfitm
doctrines. It contains a brief and luetd account of the doctrines
on the caryfi and Im'yfi aspects of the Agama. It gtvcs an
Interesting classification of the devotees of Vssudeva 934
The Padma-ramhrti contains more than 9000 stanzas in
82 chapters. It has four sections, jfifina.
raga. Knya and Caryl,
with 12,5,32 and 33 chapters respectively

The films section begins with an account of the

circumstance which brought the samhitd tnto being At the
btddlng of Brahma. sage Samvarta went to Patala and learnt the
system from Kaptla who gave hts version or thts Xgama in one

.931. Ibid. p. :02

932. me. p. :02.
93: Schrader. p. 61a. cites a passage from V18. which text is not
available.
034. VI. 11. 26~53. Cf. SA. Appendtx, III.
284 aomas no sous-a moms VAISNAVISM

The second section is on yoga as It means to let meksa.

Karmayoga snd jfiznayoga are the two kinds of yoga. The former
consists in fixing the mind on doing what is enjoined in the Vedas.
The latter is of the nature of fixing the mind on attaining the
highest 303L945 Yogic practices as laid dowu by PatafijsliQtB
are discussed in detail with slight alterations to suit the purpose
of the Agama. The object of meditation is described to he
V|§pufi47

The third section, Irt'ydpdda, treats the ways and means of

constructing the temple and Installation of idols there. The
religious leader or preceplor is to take charge of the entire
proceedings starting from the selection of sites which are said
to be 0! (our klnds.943 Locality for this is of eight ktnds949
Fortyntne kinds of temples are enumerated and described.950
Tim is followed by the selection to be made for the making 0!
the Milabera which should be of It specific colour.951 Four
chapters are devoted to the installation of the images.958 The
section ends with the methods of domestic worship 953

In the same section, mention is made of the five forms of

God (paficamim') with the form of Vtsnu at the head of the four
uyiiha iorms.954 The Supreme Being is referred to as ZdtmnrttOSS

945 lbid, Ii 1 4. 5
948 1’5 II 29
947 lbtd. l] 6 Bb-IB.
948 lbld II] 1 22a
949 Ibid 111 2
950 Ibid. 8.
111

951. Ibid. 111 11 , H.

952. lbid. m. 25 to 28.
953 [bid I1] ‘82
954 lb“. III 2. 29. 30.
935. ”Did. III. 18. 49b.
 PANCAItAutA ram 285

The five forms.956 Vasudeva, Purusa,

Salyn, Acyuls end
Ananta, are to be Installed. All these suggest that “19
Vaikhanasa tradition must have been the basis for the
develop-
ment of the Pancaritra,

Stx idols are required to be installed in the

temple. A
temple with all the six is said to be of the best kind. with
three of the middle kind and with only one of the torrent kind.

Vide :

tnfifiif‘qngfi: mart: antafitsgar I

finial Qatari? it create? a afia ! n

firaa'tfiizta'raf a aru‘twraréur er: I

Ilium: a: fiaraaarr: {arargfinr who u

firqfiqfiwm hut are-rm arm mt

III. 19.! 3a.

The fourth section, Carydptda, deals with the methods of

worshipping God. Those who follow the Ekayana recension
have the primary qualification for attending to the acts 0!
worship. Others, who choose to adopt thin method, have only
a secondary etatns 957 initiation (diksd) bestows on those who
are act otherwise qualified for any Vedie ritual,‘tbe required
qualification 953 The second and thtrd chnoters give an
elaborate description of the procedure to he followed for
initiation The details contained in Chapters l-lV proVe that
the rites of the Paficardtm are not anti-Vedlc Worship that I.
conducted every day is called .Nrtyolsana and this is to be done
{or the welfare of the country as a whole. Varieties of dance

050. Md. III. 18. 66-88. Ct. SA.

taken the place of Annette
m. 7012-1“, when Aniruddhn
957 ibid. IV 1.3b—5.

'58, Ibid. IV. 1.5-9,

290 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAlSNAVISM

practices and linguistic occuitism do not get much attention in

some of these Works. In the treatment of the IBbJCCll, between
one text and another there is not much difference.

Much importance cannot be attached to the enumeration of

the names of sarhht'ta: In some of the texts. For example, in the
Pfidma, Mfifkapdeya and Hayas’irsa sarhht'las and the Visnutantm
their own names head the lists. On the other hand, the
Kapt'fijala, Pfiramesuara, Bhfiradufija and thva'ms'ha samht'tds and
the Ma‘hendra tantra mention the name of a :amht'ld other than
their own at the head of these lists Firstly, there is no
evidence to show that the order in which the texts are
enumerated was the same in which they were composed Ii [ha
order was meant to declare the preCedence of one over another,
then all the ils ts should reveal uniformity in their enumeration.
Secondly. there is no evidence also to show that this enumeration
of the texts was not interpolated subsequent to the composition
of the works In which they get mentioned Thirdiy, such lists as
those in the Pfidma, Markandsya and other :arhhttfis commence
with their own names as heading those lists, perhaps to lay
emphasis on themselves as more important than those whose
names are enumerated there Lastly. reliance must be placed
on other pieces of evidence such as references made in one text
to others. like the Ahtrbudhnyaaathhtta and Laksmitantra referring
to the Sfittnata and Jayfikhya. Significance must also be attached
to the mention of some texts as great, Until more information
is available regarding the contents of the Jan'shflfis now presented
only in manuscripts, it will not be practicable to have an
estimate of their contrtbutton Besides, the texts that have
been mentioned here are the most important ones which the
leading exponents of Valsnavism have chosen to cite in support
of various topics.
 mamas AND VAISNAVA LITERATURE 325

Wearing of the firdhvapundrar, their number, the materials (or

them, their form, the kinds of rosary seeds to perform iapa, the
nature of the prostratious (astfifiga and paflefifiga) and the lapses
from which one should carefully guard oneself are discussed
With amaztng thoroughness. The variety of fi)Wers to be culled
for worshipping God, as well as yoga which consists of deep
meditation, is explained, following the Pancarfitra-sayhhilir.
Among the Pdfirarfilra-ramhrldr cited by the author, the
following are Well known ' Pans/cam, Paramsdsara, jayfikhya,
Pfidma and Sa‘ttuata The Kalattara, Hayagriva, Safikarsapa,
S'rikara and Paramesthya are among the less known but important
ones
In this Nyayapans'uddhi,1076 the author discusses the validity
of the Pfifiearatra Vedantades‘tka is the earliest writer to take
up the Vat/china” A'gama and discuss Its validity 1079 Those
who adopt the Vailchanara-mtra exclusively do not deserve
condemnation, for the same should be said of others who follow
their owu Salter, They have been studying the Veda: and
following the religious practices sanctioned by their Kalpa-mtra
and so are not a whit inferior to other Brahmins. That the
Asvamadha-parvan o! the Mahabharata declares them to be as
valid as the Pfificardlra rs sufiicient ground for according
recognition
Worth noting to this context are the humorous remarks
which the author offers on the mutual accusations in the two
Agamas. These recrlminatory passages must have been inter-
polated by those who were intolerant of the greatness of the
other system and who were eager to enjoy the slander thrown at
the other system as much as eating sugarcane. Alternately,
these must be treated as arlhaufida (eulogistic) in praise of their
own system.

1078. NP. pp. 187-169.

1079. lbtd. pp, 169-170.
334 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISEI

of his works reveals that he was well-versed In the advanced

texts on Valsnavism, and to his credit goes the distinction for
having used this way of writing and achieved success in his
mission In this respect, he was veritsbly the illustrious
follower of his Zcfiryas

Apart from the rich storehouse of inheritance of Sanskrit

and Tamil which he availed himself of, mention must be made of
the references made by him to the Pafiearfitra sources, which are
available from his index to the jflfinasara of Arnlaiapperumal
Emberumanar, and commentaries on the Achya/zrdaya of
Azhaltiysrnanavalapperumal Nayanar and three principal rahasyar
of PillaiLokacarya

The Pa'h’carfitra texts are said to be 108 in number 1109 The

AhubudhnyallOI and Visuakuna :amhztfislloa are mentioned by
name and profusely cued.
While commenting on the section on God in the Tauvatraya,
several passages are etted from the Visvaksena-samhtta which is
now notavaiiable Para, vyfiha, otbhapa, and and antaryamin
forms are enumerated citing the passages from the texts 1103
While diseussrng the qualities of God. the Ahnbdhynaramhila ls
cited to describe the stx qualities, the vyfiha deities and lb“!
possessmn of these in pairs and the responsibility each took up
for the Well being of people The same text is cited also to
explain the derivation ofthe name 'Sri’ How God's power
(s‘akti) works for the uplift of man is graphically explained 1104
The path ofself-surrender, and its concept and significance are

1100 $Izvacanabhasanavyzkys 392

1101. lbld
110?. Tattvatrayavyakhysna 182, 187, 183.
1103 Ibid. 182
1104. bed.184-183. Zcfiryabrdayavyfikbyana 10.
 AOAMAS AND wusmwp. LITERATURE 343

mean the offering whlch ls to be made to God wrthln oneself.1153

The commentary has useful discussions like the one stated
above on topics of cruclal value for the tradttlon.
Svami Naga (or Nagasvamln) wrote acommenlary called
Taunapmdipzka1153 on the Vtsnu-ramhr'ta. The commentator
quotes she firSt stanza tn the Tatzrayamplati o! Vedénladt§lka as a
mangalafloka The commentary ts brief and refers to the relevant
mantra: for appltcatlon tn the prOper contexts lndlcated In the
tn: 1154 The commentator quotes from the Sa‘ttvata-samhttfi,
Murirt‘s work1‘55 and a work called JVIbafldhflfla. He quotes
also from other Agama: 1153 The Pfiramedafira-ramhua has a
commentary called watl by NrSImhayajvan1151 ’Ihe
Laknrfitantra 1153 has a commentary by Krsnamacmya
In recent years, works came to be wruten defending the
practice of Taptamudrafikana Among the Valsnavas, the rlft
regard ng prepam ddOpltd as a means gave rts: to the writing
of sm :11 works in support of thts and In oppositlon to lt

1152 pp. 242-»3

1153. MS No 3859 on SVVORI Truman

1154 Ch VI.
1155. p 177 Identtty of Marin ts not known.
1156. p. 203.
1157. Ibrd. R 1653
1158 The edltor Pandttv Krtshnamenclrya htmself tsthe commen-
tale of that ten publtened 1n the Adyar Ltbrary Research Centre.
 AGA MAS AND TFMPLES 147

FlVe horas, according to the Vatkhanara system,

called Dhruva_ Kautuka, Snapana, Utraaa and Bali, are required
1n temples. They are to be made out of various materials in
specific stzes prOportionate to one another 1173 Some
authorities hold the Snapana and Kautuka to be of little
importance By worshipping the Dhrunabera one gets rewards
hereafter and the Utravabera gives rewards here itself 1173
The Vazkhfinara texts seek to classify the forms of God in a
different way also. They are mobile (win) and immobile
(acala) 1174 The former is required to depend upon another
which :9 taken as represented by the kautuka-bua 1175 This is to
be served wrth devotion upon which devotion sprouts out in the
devotee. People become prosperous by worshipping this form.
The other form is also called mskala 11'16 It does tact depend
upon a concrete form It is re presented by the Dhruvabera.
This form is matnly intended for the worship of the reeluses 1177

The need to have an image which can never be disturbed

from its position accounts for the Milabera or the
Dhmvabmz But the grace of God is not restricted to be
recetved only by the area/m or the devotees who visit the temple.
There are persons who may be ill and can not move out of their
homes For their benefit, an image ts requtred to be taken tn
procession through the streets This accounts for another
image whose size must be in some prescribed proportion to that
of Dhrumzbera It is called the Utravabua The occasions for
taking this image around the locality must be determtned.
Hence certatn days or periods In the year are particularised
wnen festivals Can be Celebrated With pomp Again, there Is

1172 VK p 219
1173 KA or 14-54
1174 SA XLIII 52.
1175 VK pp 491-92
1176 VIC
pp 91-2
348 mamas AND scum moms vatsnxvrsu
the need to ofl'er a ceremonial bath every day to God. This can-
not be done without much inconvenience So an image called
the Snapanabera is intended for the purpose. The Dhmua and
Utsaaa baa: have abiutions generally once a week on a fixed day
or on specific occastons. The Snapanabera is also called
Tirthabua and is taken for immersion in the sacred waters of a
tank or river or sea when the annual or any other festival
concludes, the occasion being called avabrtha An image called
Kautukabora or Kaymabera is installed for which ofl'erings of flowers,
(arcane) are made datly. Lastly, it ts necessary to have a
Bahbem which is to be taken round for making ofi'erings at fixed
places in the temple.

The Vafkhanasa kind of worship, at it is now in practice,

does not keep the distinction between the Utraua and Kautuka
berat- The ofl‘erings (arcane) are made direct to the Mfilabera
and Kautukabna 1177

The Pfificaratra mode of worship has a .S’ayanabem, used to

show God as taktng rest at night at the end of the routine of
daily worship. The Vat/Chandra mode permits the Snapana or
Bali bera to be used for thts purpose. Some Pa‘ficarfiha texts
speak of a Tirthabera as the sixth idol used on specrfic occasions.
It hard to understand how and why the present practice
is
arose of keeping only four or three beta: in the temples
including the mayor ones. It is found that one o! the bera: ltke
the Snapana is used to serve the purposes of another which was
perhaps nor made or lost in course of ttme There seems to be
no strong justtfication for keeping both the Tirtha and Snapana
baras as suggested in certain texts The reference tn the

1177 the
gafigmégsansfiaa l

JK p. 77.
 AGAMAS AND TEMPLES 349

Visvaki'ena-sar‘nhiifill'lfl to Karma, Nitya and Tamnalaya is also

vague, unless some kind of justification is to be offered for
keeping them

There are rules which prescribe the size of each bpra, the
metals out of which they are to be made and the methods and
times of worship Among them, the Dhruvabera is also called
the MEIabara, as it represents figuratively the root 0th of which
a tree is evolved, in which the Utsava-bera represents the flower
and the other three the lanes. The ulmOSl significance is
therefore given to the installation of the Dhiuva-bera There are
certain postures like Sthm, Zsana, Sayana and others for this 1179
SpeCific ornaments and weapons are required to adorn these
idols

of these idols, the materials Will have to be

In the making
examined and selected, so as to bring prosperity for the maker,
the priest and the people of the locality also Artistic form is
to be achieved while making the image. God, howeVer, takes
the form which the maker or the priest or the deVOtee eagerly
prays to God to take up
Vide '
fixatetwten‘} Fifi smmezrtai‘age I

ss Vi. 22

gets? SI’FHIIl' Fatah: unetaei’rami I

wanna: n’tfafii‘f gameaatfi-{Fm ll

arms-fiat natiraf first? r'Etfi-fiai’ti I

qunreae‘tweg miter starsfim'iq u

stnudharma, CVI. 16.

1178 V153 X 82-83

1179 Yaniri'ulha, that is, 'stationed in a valicle' is one of the postures.

Vide AnnuddhaS X11 1 , VK. p. 92.
350 aoamas AND SOUTH INDIAN varsmvrsu
The idols are to be Installed in specific places with elaborate
preparations of materials ustng the particular mantra: enjoined
In the Zgama texts for each deity and for each barn The kind
of grains to be used for preparing the food offerings, the
quantity of the ingredients, the kind oi flowers to be culled (or
offering to God. the materials to be brought for each pitcher
(kalasa) whose number vanes according to the occasions and
which are used for ablution (snapana) of the Idol and the number
of offerings to be made to suit the occasions are all dealt wrth
in these texts.

To house the idols. the sanctum ranctamm ts to be built with

enclosures of varying number, quadrangles, courtyards and
balls with towers with specified numbers of storeys. Rules are
laid down difl‘erentiy In dIfl'erent texts for installing the gods
who form the reunue of the pnnctpsi deity in particular
enclosures

Worship done to the Idol is stated in the Varkhanasallao

texts to be of two kinds, S'firmka and Pausttka, the former
bringing about the removal of evris of all people, whtle the
latter Is conducive to their welfare.

Worship of God is called yajfla which suggests that it is

Vedic in character. It is of two kinds. worship in the temple
and worship at home. Worship in the temple is extolled to be
the best. It will not stop, even if the priest who performs it
passes away It is conductve to the welfare and prosperity of
the people of the locality Thus classification is also called

1130. KA 14 205b, Paficardtra also has them. the JS. XIV 76b.
 AGAhEAS AND TEMPLE 353

here also called ‘Ecarya’. He must be competent in the

practice of mantras, (allowing the tradition both in theory and
practice He must be in a positron to offer clarifications on the
issues raised by pupils without referring to the texts Actuated
by selflessness, he ofl'ers training and gutdance to the pUplls‘
If need be, he gives assistance even to those who are not his
students He never decetves any one, not even the ignorant1137
Adequate physical and mental strength 1133 is expected in him.
He must be onlyaBrahmin He must avotd loose talk and
lead a virtuous life 1139 He may be a brahmacdrm, grhastha or
ninapmnhaJlQO but nevera rannyfismllSl He may be a Win
(less than sixteen years old),1192 a young man, of middle age or
old.
The Pfi‘ficam‘tra Zgama speaks also of the qualifications for
the pupils who are satd be of four ktnds,1193 Samaym, Putraka,
Sfidhaka and Zcfirya. Samayins get merely Initiated, but do not
learn the doetrmes of the system and so are not fit to worshtp
God 1194 Those who become sons, as it were, to those who
initiate them, are of the second ktnd.1195 Sadhaka: are those

1187 JS XVIII 46-62

1188 LT XXI 30b-36, PurusottamaS II 3-7

1189 AhS. XX 1-7. SS VII 22-23

1190 SKS Indra, IX
1191 P55 111 24 1~25a

1192 Vlde

asth- Ift'sszrfitqai'fi agi‘teqfitzfifi' I

P45 111. 24. 151:.

1193 SKS Brahma,V-113.

1194 ma ., 120

1195 Ibtd .. 121.

ASV—45
354 animus AND SOUTH INDIAN ulsnnrsn
who understand the nature oi’ the system and become devoted
to ofl'er worship to God.1196 Ziefirya: have the competence to
expound the mantra: and the texts and could conduct the sacra-
ments to the pupils 1197 The Kcfirya, who is mentioned here,
Is a pupil at first and then becomes a preceptor 1198 All these
are fit to get initiation.

The pupil must have amiable qualities, be able to receive

and retain what is taught to him and live according to the
tradition with faith in God 1199 Initiation is open to any caste
and even women are eligible, if they get their husbands“
permtesron 1300

The process of initiation gets an elaborate treatment.

Several tests are to be conducted to find out whether the pupil
Wlii remain true to what he is taught He must have abiding faith
in the Sfithmta system. The period of test is one year 1301

Initiation called Diksfi, which word is explained as

is
denoting that which cuts away all miseries and karma and reveals

1198 SKS Brahma, V 122

119'] bed ., 134 Acode of conduct for the last two 13 laid
down here Ib1d 126-135 For an elaborate account. see JS xvu cf
PauS I 14-21

1193 LT x11 8 This classthcatx on IS stated to have been treated

elaborately elsewhere It is not clear whether this 1s a reference to J5. or
SKA or any other text

1199 AhS xx. 8-10. SKS Brahma, V. 130-135.

1200. LT xxx, 37-41. IS v11. 25-27

1201. AhS. xx. lib-14a.

 AGAMAS AND IEMPLES 355

reality in “11.1303 It destroys all impurities and brings to the

pule supreme b1iss.1303

Initiation is twofold according to the economic condition

of the pupil A well-to-do candidate gets it done on an
elaborate scale. For one who is not well ofl', hama Is done in
the fire wnh seeds of sesamum, for the pennlless oral
instruction 1204 Is enough. No one who makes a request for it
may be denied.1205 There is another classification into ordinary
and special Mantra: are merely used In the former kind which
admits 0! three iurther subdivisions, condensed, normal and
elaborate 1303 The special kind is fivefold The Samayins and
youngsters whose hearts are seton Visnu get the first kind.
The second is open to maidens and Putrakar. The third is
prescribed for the Sfidhakas who Wish to obtain maksa. The
Zeiryax must adopt the fourth to attain sfiyujya. Women are
elIgIble for the last kind 1207

1202 The mItIal letter 'dz' m the word Is denved from the root 'do'.
meamng lo cut
12:3 Vlde
are; erfir fierafiwiafia'i enemas»: wear I

arcrfirear Ira-3' as? eeri‘a a fit Iraq; I

e'tiif‘a ea aifiaitrr‘rét éeqrfi: II
LT LI 5b 6

dime FREQ: Geri: grime mike“: I

e’tvgrea'fié infirm: aniafiearmm "

VS 3: 2.

21% fiartni‘aa's an étéifia wane I

3m. xv: 19a.
1204 JS xv1 413-6
1205 Ibzd. 'I-lOa.
1206 [bid 54-55
1207 Ibrd. 58b-61a.
356 AGAMAS AND scum INDIAN uismvrsu
The pupil must be pure and free from temptations. A
sarhhiranyfisa is done by the preceptor on the body of the papil
in order to get rid of the impurities there belonging to prakrtt.
The body then becomes pure when the teacher does s'rstmyfica
there. This is followed by slhtttnyfira when the mantra is taught
which doee not leave the pupil on any account 1303 The
preceptor does this at first on his body So as to make hlmaelf
mantramaya and then he does this on the body of the pupil.1309

The mantra is then taught to the pupil which he is to

praCtise with faith and diligence 1210 To do this, he has to
undertake Japa. homa, tarpopa, abln_seka and otprabhajana. Ali
these are collectvely called Pums‘carananu

There is yet another division of initiation as gross, subtle,

and absolute All the three are called mantradik55121z for
which the pupil must have got himself qualified in the practice
of mantras. Thereupon, the adept will give initiation in the
principles (tattaa), The entire process is highly intricate to
understand 1213 The pupil will have to occupy the mandala,
especially, the cakrEbJa-mana'ala. At the end, he gets the
ritualistic ablution which gets a very elaborate description 1214

1208. SKS Brahma, ix 12-14a

1209 Ah? xx 26b-41a
1210 IbId xx
1211 Vide
ane‘nfi ariui arfifim‘i f‘amfiaaq I

‘Ifirrfi‘qrfié 231% granny-acre ll

Mantrakaumudi Cited in lcfirendu. p 122
Porarigorous practice of these, see LT. xxtv 35-44 . LII.

1212. LT x11 32
1213‘. lbtd. XLI 9-68; 15. XLI XVIII.
1214, JS XVIII.
 AGAMAS AND TEMPLES 357

It is thus found that all are qualified for initiation. In this

context, it is worth considering whatthe word ‘krtalaksana'
means in a passage already cited from the MahEbhfirata.1215 It
means those who have the ‘mark’ This ‘mark' tannot be
getting initiated, but something else by which one getting it
becomes eligible to do worship to God This mark may be that
which is made on the shoulder blades of the pupil by the teacher
With the heated symbols of the conch and discus. It may he
the firdhvajlundra. Anyway, both these show the Wearer of them
as a Valsnava Ancient texts 1216 declare these as essential for
doing worship to God

Some of the later Samhltar 1217 mention the sacrament of

paficammxka'm as included under Initiation, calling it a dikgi.
Ancient texts, however, do not refer to this. Though it ll
neCessary to qualify a person for worshipping God. It i! not
initiation, nor can it be Considered a qualification for a priest to
offer worship in a temple.1213

The Ecfirya is one of the four kinds of adepts for diksii He

is Virtually the director for giving guidance to those who
participate in the installation ceremonies Thus, he is not an
ordinary priest The ditCiples, assistants and arcakas work
under his direction He must thereforebe well-versed in the
theory and practlce of the Kgamte works including that relating
to the,bunding of the temples.

1215 Vlde'
night: 3%3353: Q32: waafi: l

entailing flaws: firmgfi: {swig u

Bbisma. LXVI 39.
1216. Cf SR I&II.
1217 IS XXI 283b-826. SprS XVI 109-137.
Paras'arasarhhita'. IV 148. stziutilaka. IV 188-189.
1218. PES. III.I 17-19; SA. XXVII. VK p. 6.
 AGAMAS AND TEMPLES 359

by providing the means for the building of a temple. Any one

cannot become a yajamfinalzzz
Under the director. artisans have to work. They are
referred to by the words, ‘rathakfira', ‘s‘zlptn ’, ‘rthapati' and
‘raksaka‘. Among them, the .s‘rzptn works as a iiaison agent
between the director or the Ecarya and the ya1ama‘na. The
qualifications of these are stated in texts like S’t'lparatnaJZZ3
Mantras play a significant role in the Zlgamas A mantra is
sound with which one associates oneself in the belief that it
would protect thim. It protects from all dangers one who
knows its secret 1234 Since the mantra emanates from sound,
and sound arises from Brahman. the mantra should denote God
alone. The pupil who receives the mantra from the preceptot
should practise the ritual performance called puras‘rarana This
is to be done on the bank of a great river, or in a temple or a
forester a place which is out of public Sight Full efi'ects cannot
be achieved unless the aspirant repeats the mantraaspecific
number of times 1335

There are many kinds of mantra: For instance, tfiraka is a

mantra which saves the devotee from worldly sufl'ering. it is Wlib
reference to a male deity. But It 15 called ran/ca whcn it refers
to a female deity. There are others such as anutara, anutfinka‘,

1222 PuS III 15b-1'Za

1223 Vide —S’rikum:1ra's, $Ilparatna_I 29-41

1124 Vlde

naawgfimria and 533% era: l Er

eater qqmm'lszi HENRI???“ nfif‘é‘rahn

J5 XIII-203 ParS VI-IOO, IS. III-'19.

1125 It must be repeated four lakhs of times. the —Mahodadh1

quoted 1n the icarendu, p. 134.
 mamas AND rmnss 369

people at the time of the cosmic deluge; YaJfia-vsraha who

killed the demon Hiranyaksa who had been destroying sacrifices
or yajfias.

Girlja and SthfinaJa are two forms of Narasir‘nha. The

former represents the Lord's descent to the earth on the
representattons of the gods about their sufi'erings at the hands
of the demon, Htranyskaétpu After killing the demon, He
stayed in forests on the hills Hts wrath was appeased by the
prayers of the gods. ‘ Sthfinaja' is Naraslmha as He burst out
from a ptllar to attach the demon Sometimes three more
ktnds are mentioned Sudaréana-narastmha is seated in the
dtscuss and also holilng a discus in each of His four hands.
LaksmI-naraslrhha has Laksmi seated on His lap Pataia-
naraslrhha is seated on Garuda There is one reference to a form
seated on Kdisesa and known as staka-naraslrhha.

Trivikrama has three forms. In one, He has elghtsrms

with the left foot raised to the height of the head In another,
the left foot is raised to the height of the novel. The third
form shows the left foot raised to the height of the forehead.
Krgna also has many forms—Nsvnnitanata (dancing with butter
in hands), Parthasirathi (as charioteer of Arjuna) and Kiliya-
mardana (killing the venomous serpent, Kaiiya) He is also
known with four arms The idol of Vasudeva may be of two
kinds—divine (dioya) and human (mz'inusa) The former has four
hands of the Vatkhanata ktnd, while the latter is two-handed.

After installation, worshtp is to be done to the deities

every day at regular intervals 1233 The arcaka should attend to

1288 Prdtah (mornmg), madhyfihnah (noon). saya‘hnah (evenmg),

pradosah (tWIhght), and ardharEtrah are the 311-: dtvtstons of the day when
worshlp ls offered 1n the temples In some shrmes. it may be only thnee,
tw1ce or only once. tha SprS XXVlII. 8.
asv_47
 nouns AND TEMPLES 371

recrted during worship. Hama is to be performed In the fire of

the triangular form 0! the fire-altar which is kindled by the fire
of his sentlence. The procedure ls the same as in external
worship 1393
The external form of worship is to be undertaken after
arranging for the vessels, materials and other requisites.
Vaidt'ka and Tfinmka mantras. man4ala: etc. (according to the
Kgama) are required to be made use of here. Viniyaka is to be
worshipped at the outset.1293 There are six stages which math
this mode of worship, namely, Mantrasana, Snfinfiuna,
Alankfirfisana, Bhojyfisana, Mantrfirana and Paryarikfimna. At
the first stage, one has to ofler oneself and one's belongings
to God.1394 During the second stage, dance, music and
recitation of mantras have to be performed during the holy bath
glven to the idol.1295 Sandal paste, flOWers and other offerings
are to be made during thls stage. Incense has to be burnt and
offered to God Apart from dance and music, ausprcious
songs must be sung,1296

In thrs context, 1t is to be noted that the present-day

practice of ofl‘erlng mantrapuspa 1s based on this mandate in the
Xgama: The ofl':r1ng accordrng to current usage Includes the
reeitatron of the rnitiai mantra: of the four Vedas, to be followed

129?. LT XXXVI IS XII, PauS XXVI 26-43, IS II, PfirS V,

1293 LT XXXVII 65
1294 Vlde
erefise‘ is} aware: Hgfitfirqi‘tfie: I
and umfir seals? of firgee‘e FEE? SW ll

PJS IV' 3 140

1295 AhS‘ XXVIII 49b There IS no reference here to the recrtatton

of the Upamsad and Pururasflkta whtch 15 now In practtce.
1296 Ibtd. XXVIII. 57. LT. XXXIX. 24b.
374 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Ramanuja Aprayer is then ofi'ered for the glory of the holy

Sriranga to prosper and grow This Is followed by the stnglng
of Vizhtttrunamam which means greetings for the recital of the
holy name of an fiefirya and praying that he should continue for
centuries The followers of the Vadakalai school of Vaisnavas
sing in the context the Vfizhttirunfimam of Vedantadesika and
those of the Terikalai school that of Manavalamahamunt These
pracltces are all later developments, brought in under the
influence of the Tamil hymns oi the thvirs The anakas have
no part to play here.
The last is the Paryankfilana which consists in offering a bed
where God could take rest The garlands and ornaments are
removed lest they should cause inconvenience to Him

The six stages mentioned above together constitute the

daily procedure for worship in a temple where there is more
than one idol, these stages are to be taken to represent the
worship oflered to all the idols jorntiy Where there are two
idols under the names, ‘sna‘na-bera ’ and ‘tirtha-bera’, the
former alone gets the stage of snfinfisana The dlzruva and utsaua
barn: get it on fixed days in a week and occasions like cka‘dasi,
.s'mvafla, amfieasya and others Even here, the utsava bem gets It
not always in the sanctum sanctarum, but in a specrfied place
outside it Similarly. the Alankfirdsana may also be outside the
inner shrine at dtfl'ercnt places according to occasion
Normally, the Bhojyfirana is offered twice once tn the noon
and again early m the night The second Mantriz'sana ts twice a
day, once in the noon and later in the night, following the
Bhajyiirana The Alankfira‘sana marks the last stage only in the
night when the sayana bem receives Worship

The six stages have therefore to be looked upon as marking

the acts of worship offered to all the idols Jointly on ordinary
days with slight variations as the occasion demands when the
utsaua bera receives some of them. During all the stages,
certain kinds of offerings like the arghya, pfidya and ficamaniya
375 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

the dhruva, and utmva beras.1309 After performing sandhyfi,

6011'
brnhmayajfia and home in the fire, he is to commence the worship
of God. He must clear from the person of God the
ofl‘
garlands etc., offered the day before and then start his work.1310
Four stageslsl1 of worship are alone stated explicitly, namely,
snanamna, alarikarmana, mantra'mna and bhajyfisana Worship Is
to be ofl'ered in the morning, noon and night. No bath is to be
offered in the night. The oflerings that are made to God are
classified as of font kinde,1312 :prs‘ya, dzsya, srfivya and blmjya.
The number of personal services is given as 64, 55, 48, 42, 36,
34, 29 and 27, whioh are said to be of nine kinds.1313 In
another context, Ills said to be nine 1314 The use of a enrtam
is recommended while offering the duly worship so as to keep
011‘ those who revlle the Vedas, heretics and degraded
persons.1315

After all the stages are completed or the second mantrmana

ls over, the arcaka must prostrate himself before God. Thts

1309 K}! 1): 8. 9

1310. Ibid. 1:: 4749.
1311. ]K lxut, lxx
1312 lbzd. lxx.

1313 Upacares are of four kinds. namely, sp rs‘ya. drtya, s’ravya and
bhija. Vlde KA x. 35-40. See K11 x for the nature of the upacaras
The number of means are given dtfferently In the different texts VK
(pp 290-1) states them to be 1, Z. 5, 8, 11, 13. 28, 29 and 32 They are 120,
64. 32 and 16 accorqu to P55 IV. 6 .32. 16 and 11 accordmg to VIS xx.
209-226 : and 64. 55. 48 42. 36, 34. 32. 29 and 27 In KA x. 2-4

1314. One of them 1s anumdne. Vrde J]! p 110 where it is permitted

m the form “éfifimfimfli; also see SA.x11u 1-183.

1315 SA x] 66-67
388 scams AND soura moms ursmvrsn
called dvadas‘firfidhana 1330 Care is to be bestowed on choosing
the right kind of flowers and in conducting the festival at the
specified time.1331
After dhvajfivamhapa, the utrava bera is to be taken to the
sanctum sanctomm and placed near the dhmnabna
When the vehicle with the utsaoa-bera, well decorated with
ornaments and flowers. is being carried through the streets. no
one must stand on or sit in or occupy any poruon oi the vehicle.
An exception is made in the case of the elephant vehicle on
which the dciz’rya is to sit behind the umez idol with the goad
in his hand. The arraka may also an in the front part of the
vehicle 1333

As against this general rule, the ficfirya, according to

another text. can sit in the front in ail other vehtcles as Weii1353
Those who bear the whale through the streets must wear a coat
and a turban and be adorned with flowers and ornaments The
ficirya and arcaka also must weara turban This practice has
disappeared except in Srirangam in the case of the bearers of
the vehicle and perhaps in Tlrupati and Tirumaiat where only
one area/ca wears the turban. Howaver, the firarya who
occupies the elephant vehicle wears invariably a turban.
A significant feature of the procession when the utsaua idol
is taken through the streets of the locality in the vehicle or
without it, is the recttatlon of the thvirs'
compositions in its

1360 The Dm‘daflksammantn 15 tobeused, pfija bemg repeated

for each of the twelve syllables Slnce flowers are used. thls ts called
9051337505 V1de V.K p 361.. For detatls, see erjakalravacandnka-
P. 227.
1361 SKS swa ch 6
1332 m XIV. 137-133.
1333. lbid. XIV 139
 mamas AND TEMPLES 389

forefront, and the recitation of the Vedas behind the deity.

The Jgama makes a general statement about the use of the
Compositions in the bhfisfi, meaning a language other than
Sanskrit. Some texts, however, mention that the best Veda
composed in Tamil shall be sung In front.
Vide '
:rrqi‘afs‘r 323E? qrfitéi gtfirgfinrrr I

IS. xx. 236.

asugeaflfiqitg “fig: qua-M: i

Ibrd‘ xr. 231.

arena qgwri’r g 3mm figures“: I

atafifiragfisa‘tfigéaréaq n
sin pS. xxxnr 45
cr. rm CLX 150

This practice must have been introduced after Nathamuni

and should have formed part of the conduct of the festival
during the time of Ramanuja. That this practice Was disputed
in the 14th century is evident from Vedantadeétka's successful
effort in silencing the Opponents and establishing it on firm
grounds 1364
The Igamas do not make clear as to why the compositton
of the Azhvars are to be sung in the forefront. An answer to
this question is suggested in the foilowrng flake of
Vedantadeéika :—
efitimrafi; 31% fiaesai‘aefisrrq I

use Efiafirflma a'iar'itfiasrfififitri u

Ra/zasyatraya-siu, I. 2.

1364. Varbbavaprakfislkfi. '19, IO.

 mamas AND Turns 391

Thu may be conceded. But it is also possible to on‘er

another interpretation. Silencing the arguments of the
opponents ts already stated In the second quarter of this s‘loka,
and so this could not have been meant by the act of cleaning
the streets Again. it is not clear as to why the respectable
person who cleaned the streets should have taught the
Timnfiymazht in particular to Vedantadesika. Cleantng the
streets could symbolically represent the purification of the
streets and making them fit for God’s procession through them
This purification is servrce (kainka'ya) which may be mental.
verbal or physical All the three ktnds are applicable here, but
it may preferably denote the verbal one 1353 suggested by the
word (kautaskulanivartakfin). This should then mean that these
ptons people recite some holy passages which cannot be the
Vedas, as the reclters of them have to follow God in the
procession. What they recite could notbe Simple slotras, but
poems literary in formation and philosophical in import which
could bear parity with the Vedas. Since the days of Ni'hamuni
and Yfimuna, the ubhayaaeddntfi concept has been tn vogue
Whtle one Vedanta is based on the Upanisads, the other is based
on the Ndlfiyrradwyapmbandha. If the Vedas are to be recttcd
behind the deity, the compositions of the thvars must be
recited in front Like the Vedic mantra: which have the power
to cleanse anything of its impurity and make it flawlessI the
songs of Azhvars too should be deemed to have a similar power
to make the streets free of all worldly impurities and make
them fit for the Lord to be carried through. Hence it would be
appropriate to take the word ‘uithisadhakakimkarfin'in the sense of
those who recite the compositions of the th/ars in front of the
Lord Rightly enough, those who recite these compositions
head the procession. The pipers and others who contribute to
the music follow them. Such highly learned persons could not
be mere sweepers. Mere cleaning the streets ts not also meant
here

1365. Trruvaymozht, ii. 19. 11.

392 scams AM) 30013 INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Or, the recitation of the compositions of the thvars in the

front may be explained in a difi‘ertnt manner These
compositions composed in Tamil do noT get included in the
Kgamic rituals followed in the temple i there is a slip in the
conduct of the ritualistic performance, ramproksma is required
to be done in the temple. if the 252' tnrs’ compositions are rot
recued, there is no expiatory rite ordained to mom: for this
The priests in the temple are not worried about 1!

Yet, these compositions have been Offered a status equal to

that of the Vedas in the conduct of dai.y worship and public
festivals The ritual in the temple is not taken to get
completed, if these compositions are not sung at the intervals
that are assrgned by the early anryas
Ii’the Dwyaprabandha should have a place in temple
worship, it is necessary to attend to it without disturbing the
procedural details that hav- been in practire and followed
in accordance with the prescriptions laid down in the
Xgamas, It is worth noting here that the recit man of the Veda:
is always done behind the procession, that is, af'er the Deity
This is the case even in the temples of Siva. When the heads
of religious institutions are taken in procession around the
streets in Villages and towns, the Vedas are recited behind them
So also when mahfiprarfia’as are taken round the streets and also
when the bridegroom starts for the bride's house for marriage
A time-honoured practice like this cannot be disturbed on any
account. So the Vaisnava A'cfiryas chose to provide the recrters
oi the Prabandha with a separate place of honour in temple
processions. To place them tust behind the deity would amount
to disturbing the hoary custom To place them bthll’id the
Veda reeiters would mean that they are no better than bhayana-
gosthis. The Prabandhas have been considered as Dramda Vedas,
and so they were placed in front of the procession. Thus the
Deity is taken in the procession which is led by the recitation
of one Veda and followed by that of another.
 AGAMAS AND TEMPLES 393

The three Vedas, the Ekayana recenslon of the Veda, the

Salivata and other “rhinitis are to be recited to the right of the
Lord and the Its/1mm and Purina: to His left during processions.
Others, who are grammarians and logiclans, may also join the
procession.1337

There should be provision for good music at that time.

The flute, 15115 and other instruments will be played upon.
There will also be dancers 1368 All these are to provide
attraction. The atmosphere must not be puritanic, severe and
solemn. Even those who do not have much faith in God should
be attracted to witness the procession. There may be people
whose interest may he onty in the appreciation of music and
dance. Some may like only to see the paraphernalia and the
show. By witnessing these. they will have an occasion to have
a iooin at God. This is enough for the spirit of the Zigama:
to provide for the conduct of the festivals.

Vide:
mergiarqsseura gai armfi‘aarq I
Fawn? Eastern? ari‘raasrai Hirer Fe Ii

EEEITHHT fii‘aasr gaai’tfirazras u: I

5mm: float arf‘eawa‘r air arias; II

PauS. I 31-32.

After the return of the procession to the temple in each

session, the four Vedas must be recited, to be followed by the
recitation of the Tamil compositions of Fuhvars. Then the status
In Sanskrit and Tamil are to be sung in praise of the Lord. The
practice that is now in vogue is to conclude the recitation of the
thvars' compositions at first and then that of the Vedas.

1361. IS. XI. 234.

1368. lbid. x111. 9'2, 93-121.
ssv-SO
398 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN varsmvrsn
During the procession through the streets, devotees from
each house ofl’er fruits like plantain, mango, coconut and
others. The areaka has to ofl‘er them to the Lord without
uttering any mantra.l331 The devotees are to be shown God’s
lavour by piecing the S’athfin‘ on their heads.1333 People who
render service on these occasions, would get the fruit of
performingasacrifice. Special benefits are assured for those
who participate in the car festival.1383 The Agama: have the
unique distinction of lrberalism by an open declaration that
the touch of the untouchable on such occasrons would not gtvo
rise to any defect or pollution.

Vlde '
«argument? a raster treat
WC. 9. 353.
The energy of all the people should be conserved and
converged to bestow pornted attention on the conduct of the
festival of God No other deity of the locality must have a
festival during thts period 1334

Snapana, givtng enablution to the Deity, forms an important

part of the contents of the Zgamas It is of venous kinds.
Generally, it re gtven to the d/zmoabera on a partrcuiar day in a
week and to the utravabera on fixed occasions ltke Ekfidase,
Amfivfiayfi and Sravaga and others. A special hall is requtred
for the purpose. Smell pitchers (kalasa) are to be made out of
certarn metals and matertais and of prescribed dimensions.
Certain kinds of precious stones and of grams are to be procured
and put there. The number of pitchers varies according to the

1351 K4 XIV l45b-147.

1382 SprS 35-53a
1383. PES N 11 . IS 241 308.
1384. SA. lv1, 9513-983: VK. p. 363.
400 AGAIAS AND sou'rn moms ursmvrsn
snapana is considered as unfinished.1390 He will then distribute
that water to those assembled there on the occasion. The holy
water will be given thrice to each one. The person who
receives it, must take it withom allowing even a drop to
remain in the palm.1391 Those who take it must not wash their
hands also, as it would then mean that the palm has become
polluted through its touch with the lips The holy water can
never become unholy. On the other hand, it purifies the lips
and through them the entire body and the self there. The palm
therefore becomes and remains pure.

The prrsent-day custom of offering the holy water at first in

the temple every day when the [:17sz or snapana is done, to
certain persons who are Itcfirya purusas and who have their
rights to receive it so, without the priest partaking it, has no
sanction in the Zgamar.
The ertta-uva‘: in the temple as those in Tirumalai are to
be treated as coming under the kimya klnd.1393
Several shortcomings are bound to happen while attending
to temple Worship, preparations for temple-building, idol-making

1390. Vsde:

it {afifi i'fiilifi'ifim
Fam‘ta'lzf mare II

when REEF-1&3”?! eater, {at F: Fastfiar I

SprS. erx lO3b-104a.

1391. Vrde

its? f‘a Fa: firafifiafiaq i

SA. lxxvut. 43a.

1392, Vlde.

agar? gamulargE-fiwuafi n

aeaa‘tsai‘ea: emu: germanium I

m
7'8. x. Bb-Ba.
404 names Ann sou-m moms vusmvxsu
practice is to be traced to the Smrti texts which are directly
inspired by the Kalpasiitras.

There is a certam discipline which one should observe while

worshipping the Lord in the temple.1405 One must not approach
the temple riding a vehicle or wearing sandals or with a
distracted mind.
Vide :

a uraqrgsrm‘t =r shqraemmtfil
a firFernrmr gear dfifififlfitfiaq II

SS, XXI.

Music, dance and discourses of a holy nature must not be

stopped while they are in progress in the temple. One must
not worship the Lord With his body covered With a cloth.
Vide:
aehurraasrer 3": it it at: satiric; mt: i

flail at am?! E'éfifi’i‘fil anrrFa mfhffi u

Varahapurana, II

No one should spit in the temple On lnLISt not enter the

shrine after having[ taken food as a mmanmta In a iraddha.
Incoherent talk iS to be avoided there.
Vide '
arfiraanaqu & #3 mt Elfin? l

fish: Fafitfiai mar strand amazing I:

Ibtd.

1405 Varfibapurfina, ch 106 1191532 apacarasbut chapter 65 (m the

pnnted text. 1dent1fied by the ed1tor of the Pfificaratrareksa (Adyar edn.)
as deahng wnh this subject, does not treat 1t.
 AGAMAS AND TEMPLES 405

Those who go away from the temple, ignoring the discourse

that is held there would become deaf and dumb.
the '
smurf maanarai mega it strait 1

«meet a it urf=a anti qrqtfi'é egg; I

affixing wFasszr-a afar 3 autumn ll

Ibid.

One should not stretch his legs and he in the temple. The Lord
should not be worshipped With the flowers Intended for some
other deity. One must not smell the flowers and food
preparations which are intended for God This practice
continues now also in a way, when they are taken by the
assistants to the priests (pancarnkar) With the nose and mouth
covered With a cloth. During festivals, one must not bathe
feeling that he has become impure by the touch of others.
the '
ere-IE angi‘atzr a: atria assistant I

tiniest: fearing: qafia Eta; starter u

find.

Remaining Without bowing to the Lord during festivals and

raisrng one hand while bowing constitute offences Lying down,
taking food, wasteful talk, loud talk, purposeless argument,
crying, shedding tears, quarrels, attacks on others and such
other activities are forbidden 1n the temple. Censurtng or
extolling others, taking what is not ofiered to God, not ofl'ertng
fruits and other things which are then available, sitting down
without the hind part touching the ground, reverential salutatton
of any person, Silence before elders, sell-praise and abuse of
gods are deemed oflences.1406 Those who consider the idol as
metal and the preceptor as a human being, go to hell.

1406. PR. pp. 134-135.

406 AGABAS AND scum moms VAISNAVISM

Vlde :

it Etch: stf‘amanfi: Ghana} 3.81% a I

3" Ila mas? may? amnrf‘aé} n

One should stand to the rlght of God and worshlp 1407

Although worshlp of God wlth devotion and unerlng the

name of God are recommended as the means for salvatlon,1403
yet the am? form ls strongly recommended for Worship in the
Xgamar.1409 Even hemous crimes would not afi‘ect the person
who commits them, if he Were srmply to have a look at the ma
form of God from foot to head

the '
ann'tarfi’fi‘aswhé aqua: gacfianq I

wmrwrg Mafia fin
gamma“: u

S'andzlya Smftz, ll 89

1407 V1de

Ila uuré nmtzfifiuaa; unaa: gtatgfamétsawrw

gmuntm amend magnum
PR p 132
1408 Biz 3:11 3 51

1409 KA I 13,143.
nfirnrttafi hf“655$! naFa o
H11?" Haifa Hammm‘a‘rscma t

VK p 5

aren‘t g agar 1m tgFaa? Emails! an I

fii‘aar snaztfia 3:3 IE! 5% flag ll

mat nmurm‘r %a%am itfirfiq: 1

anrtraaatafia «Ii 3% aggjaq I

am%§a Kim 3.3% warn-filer

Par-S III 8 103.
410 mamas AND sou-m INDIAN vatsmvrsn
The Agamas' impact on Vaisnavtsm seems to have become
significant only from the time of Ramsnuja. The earlier
attitudes may perhaps be due to the Brahmasfltra discussion on
the validity of the Paficarfitra and the stand of Sankara and
Bhaskara that this Zgama Is unacceptable in part Yamuna's
rejoinder eased the position After RamanUJa incorporated
their doctrines in his Gadyatraya, they came to occupy a posrtion
of unquestioned authority. But the Zgamas have not influenced
Vaisnava tradition to such an extent as to make it conform
extensively to their ideals and practices.

Ramanuja also wrote the Nttya on the way of worshipping

God every day at home. It is based on the Pfificarfitra. Though
the Vatklzfinasa also has prescribed a daily routine, it is intended
only for the foltowers of the Vatklza‘nam-smrar.1435 Hence,
following the lines laid down by Ramanuja, his immediate
disciples, {Srivatsarlkamlstra and Srirafiganarayana, brought
forth their own manuals They were followed by Paraéara-
bhatta, Nafijiyar, Narayana-rnuni, Vedanta-destka, Varavara-
muni and others. Works on Ehntka were written by several
writers in later pertods.

The fivefold division of the daily routine (pafica kala-

prakn‘yfi) forms the basrs of these works Till recently there
Were many Srivaienavas who scrupulously carried out this
routine. That is not the case now

Theindispensable quaiificnton for being a Valsnava is

wearing the ardhua-pundra The marks which Hindu men and
women Wear on their foreheads are known as pupgiras. They
may be vertleai (firdhva), horizontal (hiya/r) or circular (mutula).

1425. PR. p 101.

414 AGAMAS AM) sourt-t INDIAN vatsnavrsu
God and man It consists of tapa, punezm naman, mantra and
1311440 It is also known as samEs‘rayma or resorting to (the
preceptor as refuge),
Tfipa (heating) refers to the marking of the left and right
shoulder blades of the Initiate with small heated pieces of
metai of the form of the comb and the discus respeCtively
Vedanta-desika quotes texts from the Vedas. the Pfificarfitm and
the purfina: as authority for tapa. Two Vedlc passages cited by
him are given below '
ei‘etit a fit
flash finger? geiiaq I

Gait g erg figurfi'E—r agree? fig: n

(from Mahopamsaa' as in SR. 9. 43)

(Those who have realised Brahman declare that the Brahmin must
bear the dtscus on the right arm and the couch on the left.)
il'he second passage is:
u a Emit waafi steer
ammfifix 651% asitlfifir:
11% ata‘téaa'
(Baskala Sar‘nhzta as in SR p 93)

(O Vtsnu, the learned have on the upper part of their arms the
sanctifylng conch and draws in order to cross over the ocean of
worldly extstence).
Another Vedlc text cited by Vedanta-desika declares ' “ He
who bears on his body the mark of the heated discus of the
omnipresent Visnu which gives security to the army of the

1440. the '

am: gveaur am nah wrest can:
15 XXI. 233.
 AGAMAS AND THE way OF LIFE 415

gods, goes to the place which is devoid of misery, shaking off

the sins—the place which the recluses who are without
attachment. attain " It is as follous:
an: filfifé argur afisafi
era's fiatamfisam Fatah: I

a ltFa atm’ gf‘tar Fatty:

sarfia aren‘t a’terfin‘r: n

The word translated as ‘on his body’ is ‘vapusfi', the

Instrumental form of ‘vapm’ meaning ‘body '. There is
nothing against taking it to mean “ the upper part of the right
arm " which will be in consonance with other texts and hoary
traditions Those who do not have their bodies marked by the
heated discus cannot exhaust the karma: (l.e., effects of their
past acttons). which condition is a necessary preliminary
to salvatton 1441

Another Vedtc passage testifies to ancient sages bearing on

their bodies the marks of all dlvtne weapons:
qaesfit gtturr:
fiestas? araafitmttzrfia I

(quoted in SR. p 48 as from Baskala-safizhitfi)

The marks (ltngas) mentloned here refer to those of discus,
conch mace, sword and how, the five weapons of Vlsnu.
They are believed to have been worn on the right: and left
arms, the forehead, the head and the heart respectively. Now
only the first two are worn
Instead of marking the shoulders by tfipa with the marks of
discus and conch, mud and sandal paste are used for the purpose

1441 The passage w1th the word ' vapusfi ' ts quoted to SR 13 43 as
from Rgveda-kbxla The text denymg the exhaustion of karmas 15 RV. IX.
83. 1. Cf. SR. p 43.
416 AGAIIAS AND scum INDIAN vatsmvtsn
by Vaisrtavas belonging to schools other than that of
Ramaoua 1443 scriptural text from the Rgveda-kht'la
il'he
mentioned above states: bzblmrti eapusfi abhttaptam This cleariy
envisages ta‘pa.

Obviously, this sacrament is intended to purify the human

body and render it fit for service to God. Fire is regarded
as a more efi’ectlve purifier than water 1443—partlcularly.
'fire' In the heated symbols of Vrsnu or His Weapons. Such
marks on the body render it fit for any religious act that the
Vaisnava has to do for pleasing God

The acfirya officmting In thIs sacrament has been accused of

cruelty. He hurts the body of the disciple only fora noble
purpose. He must be likened to the surgeon who uses sharp
instruments to operate on the patients. Parents again punish
their children severely to induce them to be good, studious and
industrious: this is done out of love 1444 Again, in certain
regions branding Is a remedy for evil or the means of winning
good luck Certain diseases are treated in Saurastra by
branding thh a heated Iron rod below the affected part of the
body. In Mithila, the mother-In law and others apply the

1442 Vallabha's system prescnbes the use of sandal paste Pure

mud ts requlred to be used on the occaston of offering worship (Tamra-
dipa. II 242a)
1443 the
n
Emilee;. at were:
f‘ v
firmer: grease: I

Uttara-ra‘ma-canta,l 13b
The potency of fire ts thus set out
firarfia: Hésrn‘ifin Herrera 55% am I

Bh,G IV. 37.

Sudartana has the powers of the sun, the moon and fire. See ALIS.
XXIV l.
1444. Itma—tattva—wvekap. 873
 AGAMAS AND THE WAY OF LIFE 41'I

flame of a lamp to the knee of the newly Wedded bride to ensure

good fortune for her 1445
The law-books of Vrddha Harita, Sandilya and Vasistha
and the Vtsnua'harmottara enjoin this practice. Sandiiya says that
one’s utensils and cattle are to be given the marks of the couch
and the discus 1448 Children are to be adorned on the fifth day
after birth with ornaments having the symbols of conch and
discus 1447
Those who oppose the sacrament of (Epa rely on a passage in
a .S’rauta-sfitra which frowns on scars from Wounds in the body
caused in three ways. The three ways 1448 are taken to be
through the bow-strtng, engaging in battles or involvement in
scufles in gambling Such activities must be regarded as
forbidden or allowed only to the extent at which no scars are
received or given. But they are claimed to refer to weartng the
emblems o! Brahma Visnn or Rudra so as to cause scars.
Such an Interpretation is untenable: It goes agatnst the authority
of the Vedas, epics, Jgamas and the bulk oi the Smrm. The
few Smrtt texts quoted againSt the sacrament 1449 cannot avail

144") the Srtmvasacirya's commentary on NP 414-415

1448 PfirS XV 962b-965a Cf SR p 52.

1447 SR p 52.
Cf EH3: 'Ti'flgé' SUI? {mi} wiring??? I

arii-mgmqraasmeamaafirafir u
The above passage ts c1ted as taken from Atn 1n Kanghabhisana. a
commentary on the Grhyasatra (VII) by Vatdtkasirvabhauma Hanta
Venkatacirya.
1448. Baudhayana-s'rauta-satra (II 3) uses the word. ' atrtktneh' (one
wtthout three scars) Caland's notes Identify the soars as those caused by
(1) usmg the bow-stung and takmg part In wrestltrtg. (n) parttctpattng 1n
gamblmg and (111) trymg to control elephants. Thts Is as per Bhivasvimtn'a
commentary on the sfitra.
1449. See SR. 13. 41.
asv —53
 mamas AND THE WAY OF LIFE 419

Mahabharata quoted earlier in this book,1454 It is declared that

Brahmins, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas and Sfidras can engage in
(ritualistic) worship of God if they are always devoted to their
duties and are krta-laksanas, persons who have obtained marks
of identity, that is, have undergone some kind of initiation.
Attempts were made to interpret laksana as referring to the
wearing of the sacred thread (yaJfiapavita) by Brahmins and the
branding of shoulder blades in the case of Sfidras and
women 1455 This is untenable as the Word ‘laksana’ which
qualifies jointly and simultaneously four or five groups of
persons, is made to bear one meaning when applied to one
group and another meaning when applied to other groups.
Though the Kalpasmra: do notreferto the sacrament of 15110. the“
Is Vedic sanction for Brahmins being marked by heated metal
with the forms of the conch and the discus on their arms.1453

Though the sacrament of pafiea-samtkfira makes men and

women of all castes qualified to perform formal worship of the
Icons of Gt d, not every one can do so in the temple. The right
IS restricted to those who get initiation 1457 At home also, not
all perform the worship: it is usually done by the eldest male
member of the family Though women are eligible, normally
they do not do it, in spite of tintnka mantras being available to
them in the place of Vedic mantrar.

Seventyfour preceptors or fira‘rya-purusai. also called

simhasanfidtham or ‘occupants of the (spiritual) throne', are said
to have been entrusted by RamanuJa with the duty of
administering the sacrament of panca-sarftrkara. The Tamma-
vatbhaoa(103) and the Guruparafnpariis refer to this. But there
does not seem to be any written evidence to show that the

1454. Mbb. Bhisma, LXVI 39-40 quoted in p 13?

1455. SR p 55
1456 Baskala Sfikbd text queted in p. 414 as from SR. p. 43.
145']. 15'. XVI-XVIII.
420 mamas AND SOUTH lNDlAN veismvrsn
right to give the fivefold initiation is restricted only to the 74
and their successors. As of today, only a few of the successors
exercise this privilege, others having given it up {or some reason
or other.
The ritual of initiation is begun by the fica‘rya himself with
a hama in the sacred fire. The Purusa-n‘ikla, S’ri-sfikta and other
sacred texts are recited. Metallic representations of the conch
and discus are ' bathed' ceremonially and then heated in the
fire. They are then applied by the Ecfirya to the shoulder
blades oi the disciple, who also is given the pmdra The
teaching of three mantras—the mile-mantra (i e., the asta‘ksara),
the dvaya and the caramas‘loka (i e , Gila, XVIiI 66)-—constituies
the .rarhskfira of mantra. As for tjyfi. the disciple is instructed
in the ritual of worshipp‘ng God at home He is then given a
name by which he can regard himself as a devotee of God and Hls
devotees 1453 The occasion is utilised also to teach the disciple
the significance of the epics, the Gin? and some other sacred
texts and instruct him on how to lead his life as a Srivaisaava.
The acfirya: include some ascetlcs also. Thls has given
rise to a practical difficulty. Sannyan’n: are prohibited irom
oflering oblatlons in the fire. Hence the ham: required for the
sacrament has to be performed by some gflzattha attached to the
:annyfitm who hOWever applies the heated metal pleCes to the
shoulder blades of the initiates. For some time past, the
tendency has been to seek initiation at the hands of sannyfisi'n:

1453 it is stated that the sa-nska‘ra of nfimsn is concerned wrth how

one describes oneself to others One must add the word 'dasa‘ (or
' servant ') to one's name to indicate that one is a servant of God and Hrs
devotees Vide
mama? Squeeze} é‘tar utngari‘efi't: I

Eager azrifinaasaezr are? er 113 Fe ll

This stanza is cttedmRTS I p. 507, as from ViS. m the printed text

of which however, it is not found.
 mamas AND THE war or LIFE 421

presiding over mutts, and the disciples of ficfirya-pumsa: who

are householders, are dwindling.
One group of Vaisnavas, it may be noted, do notreceive
pafica-rarkrka‘ra. The Vailtlzfinasar claim that they are the
children of the Lord and that they do not need the sacrament
or preceptors. Other Vaisnavas are distinguished from non-
Vaisnavas mentally. verbally and physically. They engage in
the distinctive mental actiVIty of bhmas‘udd/zt' and the verbal
activtty of japa In the cakrabjamandala and are subjected to
being marked on the body by the metallic emblems of the conch
and discus of the Lord. The Vat/sharia“: reject the three mantra:
taught to other Vaisriavas by their preceptors. japa in the
cakrfibjamaygala is meant only for those who follow the
Pancarfitra exclusively and without reference to the Kalparz‘tlmr.
As for tfipa, the Vatkha‘nasa: claim that in their families the
foetus in the womb gets the marks of the couch and the discus
in the elghlh month of the pregnancy of the mother when the
ritual oi Visnubalt is performed. Narayana Himself is said to
give the marks to the foetus Thus the followers of the Vatkhi-
nara-sfitmr claim to be Garbha-Vatsnavas, that is, Vaisnavas even
in the wombs of their mothers.1459

In spite of these differences between thetwo Zgamas, it

may be noted that. according to both, the Vaisnava has to bear
the marks of the conch and the discus It should also be
remembered that this rams/cam has for long been considered an

1459 Vida
catfisgazat steamer
fimafiqfitrfitaat i

Etfiraqeu aagar
=t

a trainer at 56:?!“ fitar II

KA. XXXVI. 54.

Cf, Ibid. XXXVI. 43-49 g and Vaikhanasa Grbya-St'ttra. III. 13.
422 mamas AND son'rrt molars VAISNAVISEI

essential qualification for conducting Worship and preparing

food both at home and in temples. Even women must be thus
qualified before they can handle household vessels, bring water
or cook and serve food The plans would not accept even
a cup of water from one who had not undergone the rarhrka‘ra,
though the strict observance of this rule is no longer common.
The daily routine has been prescribed for the Vaisnava who
has undergone pafiea-ramrkiira An immediate disCipie of
Rimanttja—known as Var'igi Va mseévara and Sriranga-nfirfiyana-
carya—has written a manual, Zhntka kin/car. based on panca-
ka‘la-prakride'iso It should be deemed an authentic account
of Raminuja’s views
The round of daily religious exerCises differs in some
essential particulars in the Pfificarfitm and Vedie traditions.
Whe latter enJolns the G'Eyatri-japa 1431 thrice daily. The
Pfificarfitm prescribes the Japa of stnu-mantra: During japa,
Visnu is to be meditated as being present in the sun’s disc, and
He is to be worshipped with SpeClfic names. The mantra for the
japa in the morning is stnu-Gayatri, the devata being Visnu; at
midday, it is dufidafiksara invoking Maha~visnu; and in the
evening, it is astaksara, the Deity being Sada-Visnu.1463
Vedanta Destka warns against hastily discarding Vedie
practices and adopting in their place directions from Pfificaré‘tra
teth except on very strong grounds. He points out that
followers of Ramfinuja's teachings have performed marriages,
upanayana and other sacraments and rituals in accordance with
the Sana; to which they owe allegiance. Further, all know that
Riminuja’s preceptors like Periya Narnbi performed sacrifices
and other rituals according to their Siz‘tras. Hence those intent

1460 .ihmka-karikfi, 35
I461. RV. III. 62 10.
1482. SKS. Brahms. V. 94-106.
 scams AND THE WAY or LIFE 423

on following the precepts and practices of Ramanuja and his

disciples should not adopt i’or rituals and ceremonies the mantra:
enjomed in particular Pfificaritra rarhhitfi:.l433 The Ahnika-
kfinkfi enjoins homa and other rituals of the kind mentioned in
Kalpa-sfitras.1464 In this context, the question arises as to
accepting the Pa'iicarfitra injunctions about rituals involving the
slaughter of animals. King Uparicara Vasu it said to have
offered as victim in a sacrifice the figure of an animal made of
the flour oi wild grains.1465 Brhaspatl, the preceptor oi the
gods, accepted this view after initial opposition.1466 The
Paficarfitra is held to be Vasu's authority. The Dvat'ttnr,
influenced by the humane considerateness o! the Pificarfitra,
recommend sacrifices of this kind 1457 The Vistgtfidaat'tmr,
ihough far more influenced by the Pfifiearfitm, argue that a
Vcdic ritual, if obligatory or required on specific occasions,
must not be given up or modified 1463
The ofl'ering of arghya to the sun during :andhyfi prayers is
cited as a ritual involving hthE, as it brings about the death of
the demons impeding the progress of the sun 1439 One has to
turn round oneself in the clockwise direCtlon to get rid of the
sin of kliling But the killing of an animal as a victim in a
sacrifice is not deemed a srn Hm'mi or causmg injury is an act
which leads to evil
arasinrqeraznttrte‘a f‘éarasasmq l 1470

1463 RTS II, 444-5 See also PR p 130

L464 Ahmka-kfinka, 83-87
14-5 Mbh. $a'ntl. CCCXLIV 11
1466. [bid 18 20, 63, 64
1467 The Dvaitms' Views are set out in the Piste-pasu-mimfimsd of
Vijayi'ndra
1488 RTS II 444-5
1469 Tattiriya Iranyaka 11 1,2
1470. Vedanta Deiika's Tatparya-candnki on Ramamua's Gitfibbfisya,
Ii. 19.
424 AGAMAS A!!!) court! INDIAN vusnntsn
In this sense, there is no hm’m? in sacrifices, as the victims attain
to a better state after death. RamanuJa observes:
ufirui‘angquammfi! wmt‘tsangzae‘tsfi
a liar urge {anther l

S'n‘b/zfisya III 1. 25.

Thereiore the ritual killing of animals is meritorious. It inflicts

beneficial Injury like surgery :
fiafiufi a marfiwrewgwmfiumi‘q (anther
I’ifF‘Ei', {aufia a new: I

S'rlblza’sya, IV. 1. 25.

(Cf. Adhrharapasfirfivali, 284-6, of Vedanta Dcéika on ibt'a')

As regards thejapa of any mantra, tt can be verbal. silent or

mental, securing protection from evil lpirlis, accomplishing
desired ObJCCIiVBS and helping in the attainment of maksa
respectively.1471 The rosary, aksa-sfiira, is to be used for
counting the number of repetitions.1472 Interruptions Io japa
are not generally permissible. but the arrival of a devotee of the
Lord requires a break in “.1473 Devotion to the devotees of
God is stressed so mueh.

1471 JS XIV 3-5:

1472 LT. XXXIX 36-47. The use of the rosary and selecuon of
matenals for it are stated here. Cf JS XIV 5-18.
1473 Vlde
aunt"?! 366!in Emit mwmna‘: u

atutumrf‘ztfii :1; av: asargmw a II

mamas: arr: gran afirér endear:

Rita we?! umri‘acgmram art:
PR. pp. 12940.
 nouns AND ms WA! on urn 42?

Worship at home is conducted with reference to one or

more small icons or to a stone celled salagrfima in which the
Lord is believed to be specially present.l430 The latter ll
preferred as the worship of icons at home requires time and
involves strain Household icons should be made of metals
like silver or copper or of certain other specified materials 1431
They should be not less than six inches in height.1482 They
require forms] consecration.
The salagrama is found in the river Gendaki when it flows
through Nepal. As 'sata ,' meansa kind of fish and ~grfima'
a dwelling place, the compound word means the place where
the raid kind of fish reside. Vide:
massif awasa‘t: ma:
(Bha-nnji's commentary on Namalingfinus’fisana- II. 2. 37).
and :
mil éacrmmi’t
(Ibid tr. 3. 19)
But. the exact significance of this name In not known, and it. is
someumes written as 'rflltgrflma'. It is to be treated as
svayarizvyakta1483 According to s traditional account,1434 the
river, Gangakt, cursed the gods who in turn cursed it to
become a bisck,, duii stresm. The Lord (Vtsnu) reconciled the
two by decreelng that two Brnhmins, Graha and Matanga.
should come to the river on account of a curse and die thereI
after which they wouid get mokga. Insects, born out of their

1480. 3A LXXI, 3.
1481. PauS.I 35-36.: Vlsvamztras III. 31.
1488. V18. 1:. 56-61.
1483. IS. XX, 34b-ISa See also P58, 111. 33. The name occurs as
' salagrdva ' tn SprS XXIX. 114b.
1434'. Brahma-vatvarta-purane, XIX.
 AGAMAS AND THE WAY OF LlFE 431

it twice or four times, that is. an even number of times.1494

In temples one should worship at the shrine of' Sri before
proceedtng to the shrine of the Lord One can haw a sp-ciai
worship celled arcana through the arcaka (the ofliclanng priest)
It consists of offering a specific number of times (usually 108 or
1008) safl‘ron powder (kunkuma) at the feet of the dhmva ban: of
Sri and Iulari leaves at the feet of the dhruva-bera of the Lord,
to the accompaniment of the uttering of their numerous names
(108 selected names or 1008 such names). The list of names is
known as the nfimfivali, and it is available not merely for Srt
and Visnu, but also for incarnations ltke Rama, Krsna and
Narammha. One of the 108 names of Sr! is Prakm, and
obviously it indicates the influence of Zgama philosophy Each
name is recited like a mantra with the pramwa at the beginning.
The noun is declined in the dative case and the Word ‘namah’
(prostration) comes after 1t 1495 The flowers, leaves or kunkuma
offered during arcana is at the feet of the icon 1495 Fruit,
cOCOnuts and betel leaves with areca nuts are then held before
the Deity for acceptance. Burning camphor is waved three
times from the foot to the head of the Deity 1497 evidently in

1494 the
Fear nefiqtfi gmimtmzi a aurfitaq I

F A
Hawaii Fa aware: fitment: a Eli: ll
Pars VI 416
Cf IS, XII 21

.1495.
Ewart? Hfitsfia sewage-Wren; |

SA LX. 503

1496.
Efiiqii’l‘é’filfiqfi Partisan? few; I

ram. 11. 31b

1497. 1S IV. 214.
438 AGAMAS AND sourn INDIAN ulsmvtsu
But most members of the Vadakalai sect and the Tefikalal
Valgnnvae follow the Pfifican‘rtra in this matter On the Sri
Jayanti day they last during the day and eat at night after
celebrating the birth of Kygna. Paficarfitra dicta regarding
tt'flu' and constellations are followed in celebrating the
SrI-rlma-navaml, Nnimha-Jayanti. Krttlksdipa, Sravana-
dvidaéi and other {eslivals.1515 It is said that a plane and
learned scholar of Kifiei during the last century adopted
Paficanitra rules completely to the exclusion of the regulations
a! the Smrtt‘: and wrote an Altar/ta (or manual of daily duties)
lettlng out his viewe. But the limited extent of the Paficarfitra
Influence on Valgnavum is reflected In a section of the
Munitraya group among the Vadakaial sect adopting Smfli rules
for observmg the Sn Jayanti: they fast throughout. taking a
meal only next morning.

1515 15 Kill; SprS. XLIV. 1213-163. EA. XVIII. 21-32a , VK. p. 317 .
K5. XVII. 47-48.
 CHAPTER Xi

CONCLUSION
in the preceding pages, the Vaignavism of South indie has
been shown as being based on the Vedas, epics and other ancient
works and as later developing under the influence of the
Puranar and Agamas. The Variety of sources and influences
makes 1t inevitable that the leading concepts like those relating
to the avatara or the atha evolved at difl'erent times in different
ways There does not seem to be any uniformity in treating
them. Modern scholars cannot trace these concepts definitely
to any sources or chart the stages in their evolution.
Earlier in this Work it has been suggested that the
Pfificarfitm is only a revised v:rsion of the Ekiz‘nti-dharma which
was dealt wrth for th- fifsl time in the Vatkha‘nasa ststem The
yantra concept which could have served as a link between those
ofjapa and prau’nfi did not find scape in the Vaikhanam system.
But tt is the praltma (tmege or Icon) that occupies a place of
importance in both the Kgama:
The Veda: do not seem to refer to the wosship of the images
of God The Vaakhcinam A'gama howwer declares that such
worship is the best way of approach to God And the use of
Vedtc mantra: is enjoined by both the Vatkhfinasa Sfitras and the
Varkha'nasa A'gama, in fact, they claim that any sacred rtte
performed In the holy fire 15 only worship of God (Vtsnu) The
Vedtc runs] was thus treated as a form of worship of God.
Because of this, the Mimfimt‘alca: and other orthodox followers
of Vedas opposed to idol Worship, dtd not care to criticise the
Vat'khanasar.

The Pdficarfitra system, however. fared dtfi'esently. It was

crittetsed as foretgn in origin and subject to foretgn influence,
440 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

for allowing worship by those not entitled to Vedic studies and

evolving Tum/ca mantras for their use, and for using yantra and
mudrd. In the course of this book, these crlticisms have been
Illet.
It may be remembered that the criticisms on the Pfifiran‘itra
Igama invite reference to the Utpattyasarhbhavfidlztkarana of the
Vedanta Sfitras, formtng the last section in the second part of
the second chapter Sankara approves of all the tenets and
rituals of the Pfificarfitra except for the declaration about the
‘birth' of the jinn or individual self (who is known tn the
system by the name of Sankarsant) , this is becau e the Vedas
hold the film to be uncreated RamanUJa, as pointed out
already, has effectively answered this crtttclsm
But the question may be raised whether this section
contemplates any criticism of the Pfificardtm. After all, its
first Sfitra, "Utpattyarambhavfit", means only “due to the
impossibility of birth (or production or rise) (of something) ".
Here there is no reference to the Pancarfitra which seems to be
brought in only because some of tts texts appear to speak of she
creation of the five The Six'tm can be directed againstany
syStem opposed to the acceptance ofBrahman as the cause oi the
universe It can refer to the hypothesis of inert Saktz betng
such cause, on the strength of some Upantsadtc texts, as
suggested by Madhvs Though this view seems reasonable, It
does not explain Ramanuja’s stand Perhaps he thought it
necessary to answer the criticisms of Bhaskara and Sinkara
against the Pfificanrtm He demonstrates that there is no
substance in them because the Paficara'tra really does not hold
the five to be created. Hts followers uphold his line of
treatment in strtct adherence to the principle that the strength
of a group lies in the untty maintained by the individuals
therein. We may also note that thfianabhiksu (who wrote
extensively on yoga) thinks that this section refutes theories
about the origination of Brahman—a viewthat may solve many
llfiicuitles.
 CONCLUSION 441

The Parana: speak wrth difl'erent voices about the

Pfificarfitra The Vrsnu, Bhfigauata, Vanilla, Brahma-vazvarta.
Garugla, Pfia'ma, Agni, Ltfiga, Va‘mana and some others SUpport
it. But the Karma, Vayu, Palfisara, Samba and some others
attack it The contents of Some Purina: like the Skanda and
Adtrya are heterogeneous. Such evtdence could be neither
dismissed nor readily admitted

The same diversity of opinion 18 found among Eaiparmrar

and Smrm. Pafimrfitra practices are supported by the
Kalpasfitras of Agnivesa. Baudhayana, Daksa and others, but:
condemned by stalayana and others. Similarly, the Smrtir of
Vlsnu, Sandilya, Vasisgha, Satatapa and Vrddha-vasistha and
the Yoga-yalfiavaikya and others are in favour, while those of
Hatita and Yama are against There are indecisive opinions in
Viramttrodaya and even in Toga-yfijfiavalkya and the worifi of
S'azetapa.

In this Welter of confltcung opinions, the testimony of the

early statements made in the Mahfibhfirata and those in the
Vtsnupurrma and Bhfigauata must be taken to be of primary
authority.
RAMANUJA
The impact of Vatsnava Agamar onthe Vaisnavism of
various schools, claiming a hoary antiquity and a firm basis in
the Vedas, epics and the Paranar, may be seen in important
features of their precepts and practices The school of
RaminUJa (1017-1137 A D) is most closely linked With the
Pancarfitm The A'gama had influenced Vaisnavism in the south
even before the days of the thvars. The prevalence of
Vatkhfinaw temples in the region from an early period attests to
the influence of this Agama also.

The Vtéistadvaita system of Vedanta, expounded authorita-

tively by Ramanuja. has won recognition all over India. But its
followers are most numerous in the region new comprising the
ASV—56
 CONCLUSION 44/3

At this stage, the Kgamas came forward with directions for

worshipping God in the finltlzed form of idols in temples.
They too were animated by the zeal to serve humanity and help
them in their troubles and afflictions. The Vais-nava Zgarna:
have made a significant contribution towards this. It is
noteworthy that there are relatively more Visnu temples in
Tamil Nadu than in other States.
The importance given by Ramanuja and his followers to the
worship in temples accounts for the large number of Vaispava
families living in th neighbourhood of temples in places like
Tirumalai. Srirafigam, Kancipursm, Kumbhakonam and others.
The temple festivals In these places draw large crowds year
after year. On other days also. pious persons feel it an
obligatory duty to make at least one visit to the temple every
day and offer their services to God according to their capacity.
This tendency has influenced to a considerable extent the daily
life of the Vatsnavas generally and particularly in the places
mentioned above and others like Tlruvalilkkenl (in Madras city),
Mannargudl, Azhvar Trrunagari, Melkote (in Karnataka) etc.
Though yogic practices are dealt wrth In both the Zgamar,
stress is laid primarily on upanma (worship), particularly of God in
the form of ldols1518 It is declared as the means for pleasing
and approaching God. Elements of prapatlr enter Into 1t, as
it is the acknowledged means for salvation.
Music and dance are an essential part of the worship of
God, particularly in temples. This receives emphasis in the
Pa'ficarfitra 1519 It is also mentioned in the PurfipasJSZO Dance
is not now permitted in temples, and music is confined to
playing the pipe (na‘daroara). The flute, lute etc., are now not
in use.

1518 VK pp 507-10 , Pas. II. 1.1-6.

1519, PES IV. 11.
1520. 311. P. XI. 11-36 , 14.243 Cf. Gfirudl-purdyl, CCIX. 6-D.
446 scams AND sous-u moms varsmvtsn
The acala type is of two kinds—what is .ralzaia (naturally
formed) and fifu‘ta (consecrated). Of these, the :ahaja pratzma‘
may bea tirtha (a sacred river like the Gang: or a holy tank
like that at Pushkar), a kgetra (a sacred spot like Playaga,
Kasr‘ Kuruksetra or Badari, or an Idol found in the earth at
such a spot) or a silt? (ie, a sfilagrfima which requires no
consecration before being worshtpped).1533 All are qualified
to worship this form.

Worship in the temple has to be performed thrice every

day1529 Only Brahmins are said to be capable of (FF ring
worship there.1530 Even among them, learned though they
may be, Certain blemishes of character or conduct act as
disqualifications.1531

Stress is lard on mam-yoga. the fervour and slncerety of

devotion 1532 Without this, observance of external formalities
is a mere show Hence worship is said to be both internal and
external 1533 The former is done with the mind, and the
dangers involved in its performance by those with uncontrolled
minds are vividly described.1534 The latter Is to be done with
the Ph9sicai body, and using wealth and other possessions for
performing home or extending charity 1535

1528. Vrsnurahasyn, x. 'Za-10

1529. Ibld. x 119

1530 Vlde
Effie fa: {em 31:3: i

Ibid. X. 136.
1531. lbzd. X l4b-21
1532. Ibzd LII 43a.49a.
1533. (bid. LII 14
1534. Ibtd. LII. 15-423.
1535. lbld. LII. 49b-64.
 CONCLUSION 447

Though the Vtsrturahasya not deal with the

does
construction of temples, other important aspects of the
Pfificarfitra are discussed and described. This may explain why
Madhvacatva quotes frequently from the Vtsmzrahasya and why
it has enjoyed the favour of writers owmg allegiance to the
Dvazta system. But it must be dtfl'erent from the Pfificarfitra
text having the same name 1536

In Spite of the Importance attached by the followers of

Madhva to temple worship, there do not seem so be many
temples governed by them The temple at Udupl is under the
control of the pontifl's of etght mat/ta: there, each of whom
takes charge for tWo years in turn The idols in the mutts at
places like Mantralaya (in Kurnool district of Andhra) and
Tirukkoytlfir (tn Tamil Nadu) are worshipped by the ascetics
there according to the Pfificarfitra Festivals are celebrated in
the temple at Udupi with processions. but there is no chorus of
Veotc chantera following the idol. The aseettc himself offers
the holy water used for worship to the disciples and the
congregation

The thka, mentioned “bove, is Informative on the daily

ltfe of the Madhvas All acts should be undertaken only for
pleasmg Vtsnu and they form part of worship The worshipper
should wear on hts forehead 3 Malta in sandal paste in the form
of the firdhva-pundra.1537 Stmtlatiy, a mark in the form of the
lotus must be worn on the chest, 10 tue form of the bamboo
leaf on each arm. and In the form of the flame of a lamp In
other places This seems to be an attempt to reconcile the
enduring rules in the Is’aara, Pa‘ramesthya and Nfiraa'iya
Sam/ntfis.1533 Curiously enough, there ts no mention of the

1536 LT introductron p 11 It 1: not however clear that a work

havmg ihls name is meant here. See Schrader p. 10
1537 Madhva’s Krtnfimrta-mahnrhsvs, 11 227-9
448 seems AND soot-n INDIAN varsmvrsm

pagan: of the form of the Lord's foot 1539 The use of sacred
mud from Srirangam, Dvaraki, Srikfirmam, Slmhfidrl, Prayaga,
Varaha (Srimusnam) and groves of tutasi, along wrth holy water
from the worship of :a'lagrfimas, ts allowed. Whlle performing
fieamana, the names of the four vyfiha Delues should also be
uttered along wlth the tWelve names of Vlsnu begtnning wrth
Kes‘ava 1540

The followers ofMadhvn observe the sacrament of MI"? by

gettlng their shoulder—blades branded wrth the heated metal
emblems of the conch and the discus It ls thetr beltef that the
marks on their shoulders should not be allowed to fade ont.
Many Impress every day wlth sandal paste the forms of the
conch and discus as firdhva—pupgzra not merely on the shoulder-
blades but also on the chest, arms etc 1541
The Ahnika details the procedure for worship and descrlbes
the pfijfi-mantapa where it ls to be performed Worshtp ls to be
ofi'ered with devotion even to Ananta, Garuda and others
formlng the retinue of God. After mapana, the Dvfidas‘a-stotra
of Madhva must be recited. Vessels contatnlng food to be
offered must be placed on the bijfiksara of Sri wrltten on
decoratlng destgns made wnh coloured flour on the floor, and
consecrated wtth the mTzIa-manlra The mantra: for offer-mg food

1538 See PR pp 72-3

1539 A Brahman—are text c1ted 1n SR :1 '12 refers to thls form.
1540 Ahmka, pp 16-1?
1541 éankha-cakrfinkana IS a dikra whtch confers supenonty Wllhout
1t and the firdh va-pumlra no undertakmg YISIdS frurts the
atrial: am stair are“ me =t Erafit I

eat?
K
enact ant @153
has .Fwaftsl‘q fir n

m am am
P
fiat flewa $filfit: gar I

Ibtd. VII. 64~BSa.

 CONCLUSION 449

consist of the names of the five vital airs in association with

those of Aniruddha, Pradyumnn, Saritkareana. Vasudeva and
Nareyana. The mild-manna must be uttered for Brahman. The
juantc-rtotra of five secuons 1543 is to be then recited. After
performing Vais‘nadwa, the preceptor, Brahmins and the retinue
of Visnu must be worshipped. After completing the worship,
one must draw on the forehead a straight black line (using
charcoal from the incense ofl'ered) on the pmgdra of sandal paste.

Thus the Pfificarfltra is held in high esteem by the Mfidhval

as the best among the raxtrar.

Vlde '
wfiwmmnai g atfirfisfit uaeetfir t

camera QTEEHFT aerate tare-rite F: I

era‘tSfis Hémfirg atfiafianae u

Vtsnurahasya, VII. 32-330.

In accordance with its dictates. they use the [mM-{Ms’u in

sacrifices. They hold that even kamya rituals are to be
performed without expectation of reward when they become
akamya, pleasing to the Lord 1543 While doing any act,
particularly any act the Vea’a enjoins, one must have knowledge,
devotion and detachment.1544 Vrde !
(‘
fiflfifififi'fil’fiatflq‘ififii er anti mama
Q‘ o
l

Madhva's Karmamrrnaya.

1542 The pnnted text, acoordmg to the followers of Rimmuya, has

31)!sections.
1543 Madhva‘s Krsnamrta-maharnava, 234b, Cf. Mahabharata-
tatparya-mrnaya, XXIX. 56.
1644. Such acts should never be given up. Kristamrta-mahfirnava,
235b.
ASV—57
450 mamas AND SOUTH INDIAN varsmva
N I M B A R If A
Nimhirka (area 1200 AD), born in Andhra and originally
called Bhaskaraearya. was an aloetlc reputed to be an apatma of
the sun-god who put down heretics. A story about his name,
Nimbarka, relatesa miracle. Once he played host to a Jalna
ascetic with whom he was having a philosophical debate.
Suddenly they realised that they had debated till the sun was
about to set As neither of them could take food after sun-set
he made the sun stand still in its course, asking the Jaina to
wait under a n7»: (namba) tree and serving food to him there
Hence the name of ' Nimbarka ’ or ‘ Nimbaditya '.1545
leamanandacarya was another name of his 154B
sect founded by him is called 'Hamsa' after the
111::
incarnation of Vi\[iu as a swan who taught the Veda to
Brahma.1547 In the same {orrn he taught the pure tradition to
S-naka, Smandana, Sanitana and Sanatkumara Ntmharka
received it from Narnia. His Cult is known as Sanalkumam-
Adrada-tam/vradaya, Vide:

imam—ti Haarfiazxaea'ia‘tfimn than: 33'

aié wt mnaaamfi Hemmerurfignrf‘qfimz I

aumwramq‘l aqwihmqavifiur afifirfim

ffifitéfiifilffifizfltafi a'hrte‘rgflgmafifi u

(Ke<a\u Kasmira-bhatta's c maneuttry on the B/mgavadgfla

last s‘loka)

1543 H H erson Rehgrous Seats of the Hmdue. n 86 Das Gupta's

Hrstory of Indian Phrlosophy p 399) says that he was a nattve of Nimba
(111
or Nimbapura 1n Bellary Drstnct and that he dled m 1165 See P N Srmt-
vasachary's Bhedabheda. p. 155 Gmdhara Prapanna's Dajasloki-vyakhya
Lagbu—mafijasa, 6 says he belonged to Brndavana near Delht.
1546 Devacarya. Srddhanta-Jdbnavi. p 6
1547. The Ha-msa-mcarnatron rs menuoned 1n Bh P X 2. 40 Cl. Ibid.
XI 4. 17. Hrs appearance thus before Siva (XI. 19 13) and before Brahms
(XI. 1'1. (5)15 also mentzonod.
453 mam: AND SOUTH mums vatsmvrsu
food luxurious. Their followers, among whom are many rich
merchants and businessmen, are required to dedicate body,
mind and wealth to them

Gold mom of Gopt‘tia, Krsna and Ridha are worshipped

in their temples. The Krsna image has a dark hue and ls
richly decorated. Worship is conducted eight times every
day,1530 The rttuai does not follow any traditional procedure,
but consists o! offering flowers, perfumes and food to the
accompaniment of prayers of praise.
Festivals are celebrated In temples They include, in
addition to Krgpa jayanzi, the Rasyatra in October. The
dances of the gopi: are commemorated through song and
dance. Pictures and images of Gopala are worshipped In the
house
Valiabha’s followers mark the forehead with two red,
vertical lines meeting at the top of the nose, with a round, red
spot between them Similar marks are also found on the arms
and chestof the devout. They wear rosaries of tulasi beads
and greet one another as ‘ Srt Krsna ' and ‘ Jaya G -pal'1531

Mathura, Brndavan, Purl and Dwaraka are their holy

places. The greatest sanctity is attached to SrINath Dwsr
temple near Agra. Every one in the sect has to Vtstt the place
at least once in his .1le and contribute to its upkeep.1533
Vailabha holds that the Brahma-titres rEJect the validity of
the Paficarfitra because it teaches the birth of the St” He
agrees With it however on all other points. According to him it
expounds the pasts-marge.

1580. For details, see H. H. Wilson. Relzgzous Sects of the Hindus,

pp. 72-73.
1531. Ibtd. 13315.
1582. Ibfd.
 coucwsrors 459

Vide :

ammfiamaafia arfisrarafiezr {sink

firfimia fieuum: ere-rungr aqraarurifi u: i

waiter :é‘wa‘t malt {egeqa- I 1583

Vailabha'e Bhaitt‘ohmhsa, pp. 169.

This describes the Pfificarfitm method of worship and comes
under marydda‘ in Vailabha's system.l534 The nyfilm are
however held to be inferior to God as PurusottnmaJilB5

RAMKN’ANDA
Ramananda was born at Prayaga.1586 The date is uncertain.
He is claimed to be a direct disciple of RzménnJa or the
fourth-1581 or the fifth in descent from him through Devsnsnde.
Haryinanda ar-d Raghavenanda. On account of a dispute with
his preceptor, REghavfinauda. he was ostracised. This led to
his hunding a new sect open to all without distinction of caste
or creed. The regional language replaced Sanskrit as the
medium oi’ instruction His twelve disciples were representative
of all the castes and many professions. Bhakti and prapaltl
(mm the south were taken to the north by him.1533

He recognised no distinction between God and His

devotees 1539 His teachings were marked by a spirit 0!

1583 See also Tattvarthadipa, I 140

1584 Raghunltha en Bhaktz-hamsa. pp 46-49
1585 Cultural Heritage of India, I. p 607
1586 Ibrd p 3'18
158'! H H Wilson Religious Sect: of the Hindus, pp.23-24. Vida
also Bhakh-mfila‘.
1533 Cultural Heritage of Indra. IV. p. 378. P. N.Srimvasachan's
History 0! Vlflsffidi’attfl, p. 643.
1589 Ibrd. Ii. 287. H. H. Wilson. Reizgwus Seats of the Hindus.
pp. .24. 28-29.
460 scams AND SOUTH INDIAN varsmvrsm
synthesis. Whatever feeling (bhdoa) is natural to one should be
the basin for the means to attain God Devotees could be
house-holders or recluses 1590
incarnation of God (Vlsnu) as Rama is held in the
The
highest reverence among all His forms. Therefore the followers
of this teacher are sometimes calied ‘ Ramavsts' The
silagrama and the tutor? plant are also worshipped. Mendlcants
called ‘ Bairdgit ', numerous In the Indo-Gangetic plain and
largely hailing from the poorer classes. chant the names of
Rama and Krsns 1591

Rimsnma's liberalism, based on the Vaisnava tradition

coming doWn through the eprct and the purine”, must have
influenced Ramananda ln preschtng that distinctions of caste
should not be observed among devotees. However, no
Devfinanda or Harrnanda is known among the immediate
disciples of Rfimsoura Perhaps the tenets oi this school Went
to the north through men who were impressed by the teachings
of Rfiminuja, and have also thus influenced several small sects
In North Indra through Rimlnanda, among whom the iollovc'ers
oi Kabir are often included.

CAITANTA
Visvambhara, born in 1486 A D , was called Gaurangs on
account of his fair complexion . After he became a monk, he
was known by the name of Cartanya. Hrs father was Jagannitha
Min and his teacher Visudevs Sfirvabhaums. the great
logicim Durtng a pilgrimage he recetved the Gopala-manrm 1t
Pfiri from Hvera Pfil’l Meditation on it led him to an ecstatic
state filled wrth the when of Krms and made him a worsnipper
of the Lord rn this form along with Rédhs 1592

1590. Ibid. p 25.

1591. Ibrd. pp. 27-28
1692. A.K.Ma1urndar. Cutenya, Hrs ere and Doctnue, p. 103 . 133.
 CONCLUSION 461

Though Caltanya's teacher. being a disciple of Medhavendra

Pfiri,1593 belonged to the Madhva tradition. Caltanya himself
taught not Dvarta, but Act'ntya bhedc‘ibheda. He held that the
difl'erence and non-dtflerence between the selves and God is
inscrutable. This doctrine was later elaborated by Rape.
Smetans and Jive, each of whom had the title of 'Gosvlmin'.1594

Narsyana and the {our uyt‘ihar are admitted as shining forms

of Kffinl (God) Free from the Influence oi the gum: of matter.
He has three powers or energies—:aarfipa or scntience, tatarllta
or the self, and baln'rafiga, also called mdyiz'. They correspond
to para, ksctrafiia and autdyd sakm The svarfipa-sakit hes the
three attributes of rat, at and finanda, also known as :andht'ni,
swim: and Media; respectively. Radha represents the last of
these.1595

The ideal of Ridha-Krsna helps in realising the absence of

dISvinctlon betWeen Krsna and His devotees Loving devotion
towards God (preman or bhalttt-rasa) is taken to be the fifth
important aim oi Me (or purusfirtha), the other four being practice
of Virtue, acquisition of wealth. satisiaction of desire: and
attainmentol‘ salvation The sentiment of devotion and the
various religious emotions under this head are dealt with in the
Bhakttraramfla-und/m and Ujjuala-nilfimam' of Rt‘tpa-goevlmln
and Bhakti-mndarbha of Jive-gosvamin

Bhaktr in said to be of three kmds—sfidhana, bltdva and

[mum Each of these is a stage. The performance of enjoined

1593 Ibid p. 47-50. 'Sript‘tda Msdhavendra‘ by Dr. H Vedanta

Sasin. "A I O. C. Summaries of Papers". pp. 148-50. Majumdar records
the tradtuon that the Idol he worshtpped was installed at Nath Dwar
temple
1594 Malumdar. Op c1t, ch XXlII.
1595. Majumdar, Op. cu" chs, XXIII and XXIV.
462 AGAMAS AND sou-m lNDlAN ursmvxsu

rites rouses incipienl devotion; which intensifies: and which

finally serves as the means and end of enjoyment.1593
Bhakti should be preferred to karma, jfifina 1597 and
nairigya. It dispels doubts, destroys egntlsm and makes the
efl'eetsol' past actions wither away. The practice of intense
devotion requires that the injunctions oi the Vedas, Smrtis,
Pumps: and Pfificarfitra texts be obeyed. Janina and karma
should be regarded as a joint upaya n. which the rituals are to
be performed according to the Paficarfitrs 159B jflfina can be
praCtised along with and as subordrnate to bhakts'. Vlsnu's name
and mantras (particularly, the Gapaia-manlm) are to be uttered
aIWays. All action must be dedicated to G :d Pilgrimages are
recemmended. God's forms, qualities and sports must be
sung about Pmpam’ can also lead to moisa
The idol of God should notbe throught oi asaprece of
stone. When an idol is taken in procession it must be
circumambulated.
Worship of images is called dwatfi yfiga and that 0! house»
hold deities arcanfi. Hell awaits tht 5: who neg‘ect them.
initiation is necessary (or this kind of worship.

Among men the devotees of Vlsnu are the best Among

the gods, Siva and Brahma are to be worshipped as devotees of
Vlgnn Disttnmions should not be observ d among devotees.
One Gopfila B‘ratta from the south introduc‘d the principles
of the Pé’ficarfitra lfllO Gaudlya Vatsuavlsm. Hts teach! .m are
found In Hartbizakn-mldm 1599 The lnfluenm: of the Kgama :s

1596. Ibid. pp. 293. 299 . chs. XXV, XXVI.

1897. Ibzd. pp. 335. 337.
1593. lbtd. pp. 324-332.
1599, lbzd. pp. 332-334are an account of thts work in some detail.
466 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN vusmvrsm
Gopaia-bhatta's Hart-bhakti-vilara gives a detailed account
of the worship of images In temples and all rituals connected
wrth it. It is on Pfificaratra "063.1812 Gopala-vlsnu is the
Supreme Deity according to Kramaa’iptkfi which mentions the
five sacraments This is another work of the school
Madhva's influence on Caitanya's philosophy amounts to
little But in theiine oi' Caitanya's preceptors is Madhnvendra
Pfiri, as mentioned in Gama ganoddls‘a-dipika‘ 1313
Caitanya's greatness is revealed in his stress on the practice
of bitch: in many ways Worship of the idol at home and that
at the temple is imperative. His social outloak was liberal
In his teachings, women and Sfidras are permitted to worship
the rfilagnima. But this right seems to be denied in
practice.1314 Structures are cDJOiflCd to be raised for housrng
the deities But there seems to be no provision for building
shrines for deha and Krsna.1615
Caltanya himself is worshipped as a dual descent of Rfiihfi
and Krsna He 15 said to have been worshipped even during
his life-time 1313
The ranka aspect of the Radha Krsna cult influenced the
glorification of Rama and Sits on similar lines in a late work
Vasistha-san’rhtta. But this Rima cult does not appear to have
had many followus 1617

1612 Ibzd pp 332-4

1613 Hard p 264 Tnerels discusswn m ch XXII The authonty of
this work Is disputed
1614 Ibid p 334
1615 Ibzd.
1616 Ibrd p. 292
1617 M R Misra, "ANote on the Vaclstha-samhtti ” m "Summary
of Papers of the 26th International Congress of Ortentaiists", 1964.
pp. 164-5. The work was copied in 1802 A D.
 CONCLUSION 467

VIJNZ'NABHIKSU
thfifinabhiksu (c. 1550 A D ).
a well known wrtter on the
Sankhya and Yoga systems. commented on the BIahma-u'itrar in
szfifinamfta He wasa Gaud1 ascetic who held the Supreme
Brahman to be Srl Krsnt Nfirayana is Katya-Brahman Atman
could be denoted by the word, ‘ Is‘nara’. Though He is the
Lord of all. He creates mahat etc., with His potency called
‘
mfiyfi '.
Though there is really one Self, a plurality of selves has
to be admitted for practical purposes
Among the vyfiha manifestations, Visudeva alone is eternal.
Samkarsxna and others are His manifestations Samksrsana
(Siva), Pradyurnna and Antruddha arise from Vlsnu, the subtle
body of Brahman NI ayana and Vlsnu are the manifestations
of Bhagavan Matsya, Karma and other descents are ltldvatdras,
whrie Bhagavin is an ames‘fivatdm 1618

The Utpatly-asambhaufidhtkarazza of Brahmasfitra: (II 2) ll

Interpreted by Vlyfianabhtksu as denytng that Brahman has birth.
He thus Wtaeiy avonds the controversy about the validity of the
Pificaralra 1619

OTHER VAISNAVA SECTS

The important schools of Vaisnavism referred to so far
influenced some minor sects The founders of the schools could
not have influenced these sects. They developed gradually.
Rfimznanda, for example, could not have taught anyone
who later founded a sect. But he is said to have had twelve
chief disciplca.1320 Some of them or their students and later

1018 Vljnfinimftfl. I. l. 5.
1619. Ibld. II 2.
1620, thson and Bhektmala‘ gwe different ltsts.
463 AGAMAS AND soum iNDlAN VMSNAVISM

teachers seem to have started sects bearing their names. They

belong to all castes and many professions. Stress on bhaktr‘ is
the one common feature among them.

Among such teachers wss Tuiasi Dis (1545-1624), a pupil

of Jagannatha Das and his student, Nabhaji. (in another version
he studied under Nara Earl Dfisa, a pupil of Ramananda) 1331
He was a Brahmm of Happur near Clitakfita. After a sojourn
at Brndz‘swna wtth Nibhiji he wrote the Ra‘macarila-mfinam. a
celebrated work which gives a thdt version of the Ra‘mfiyana
He ardentiy advzcated the worship of Rama and Sitfi Hts
splc seems intended to prevent the disintegration of :anfitana-
dharma.

God is taught to be formicss. But the love of His devotees

for Htm Induces Him to assume a Visible form, just as the
water, latent in Ice and halls'ones, b:comes patent under
certain conditions 1333 The real devotee finds God in the
movable and immovable things 1623
He is an ardent champion of blur/ctr and descnbes its nine
varie11e51634 It is fostered by the company of holy men and
reciuses Devotion nnnihriates the sufferings caused by the
cycle of births and deaths But the path of Jrlana is hazardous:
one following it is iiabie to fall 1525
The Lord is said to take Hls abode in the heart of the self
for two reasons The self musl not seek anything from Him:
there must be genuine love for Him

1621. Cultural Heritage of India, 1V 395,

1622. REma-canta~m§nasa. I. 115 1-2.
1623. Ibld IV 3
1624. [bid III 3-54.

1625 Ibid. VII 113. 1-4.

 CONCLUSION 469

In metaphysics, Tulasi Dis considers as erroneous the

theories that declare the World as real, unreal, or partly real
and partly unreal The seeker of self-realisation must reject
them. For they are of no help in realising one's nature or that
of God 1636 But some claim him to be a follower of Sankara,
though he was a devotee of Rama and had the title 0!
‘
Gosatn ' (as borne om from his Jnanadrptka) 1627
Another teacher of a small Varsnavs seat was Nlbhajt (1600)
who wrote the Bhaktzmdlfi He was initiated into Vaisnavism
by Agradfis, though his connection with Rimananda is not
provedJGZB

Widely prevalent in North India ls the worship of Rédha

and Krsna The importance given to God tn a feminine form
dates back to the distant past The S'a‘kta Igama: play up this
tradition and make male d1vrntt1esinfenor. Other Zgama: tend
to give equal importance to both the sexes in their conception
of Godhead. Thus Laksmi and Sité. are given due importance
in Vaisnava Agamar RamanuJa stressed the importance of
worshipping the Father as Well as the Mother of the universe.
But the name of Raina :loas not occur in the source-books of
the Krsna cult
A sect of RaJha-vallabhis worship Krsna merely as the
vallabha or lover oi Raihs to whom primary importance is
given Hartvamsa who founded a mutt at Brndavana in 1585.
is said to be its founder. Hts Rfidhfi-sudhfimdht praises Radhi 1539
On the whole, the cult does not seem to be very different from
Bengal Va‘snavism

1628. Vinsya-patnka‘, 111.

1627. Munsht. "IndologtcaI Felrcrtahon Volume ", XX,XXi Ind

pp. 401-411

1628 H H Wilson' Religious Sect: of the Hindus. p. 31.

1629, Ibld. pp. 98—100.
470 AGAIAS AND sourn mnuus vatsmvtsn
Some Vaisnava sects with limited following are found in
Jaipur, Delhi. Orlssa and a few other places. They hear such
names as Saktibhavas, Harischandis, Sadhana-panthis and
Madhavls. The sect of Caren-dash: preaches hlga moral
standards and enjolns regular worship of the rilagnimaJeaO
The 'bai‘rfigis ' and various orders of ascetlcs like the Nigas
do not constitute different sects, though H H Wilson takes
that view.1631 They belong to the sects mentioned above and
similar Vaisnava sects, their differences in Observances being
due more to their life as recluses than to the theoretical aspects
of philosophy or religion.
A peculiar Cult called ‘Radhaswami' had for Its firth
leader Param Guru Huzur Sahabjl MaharaJ (born in 1881). His
Yatha'rlhE-pmkfiga states that the Supreme Being superior to the
perishable and the imperishable, is the Parama-purusa The
worship of Krsna who is His divine descent, yields spiritual
benefits As renunciation is held to be impossible. the active
life of performing the duties enplned in the same: is
advocated Togo Is also recommended.

SPREAD 0F VAISNAVISM
Many of the important developments of Valsnavlsm in later
times have been briefly glanced at in thelast few pages But
Valsnavlsm has prevailed all over India from ancient times, as
may be seen from numerous temples, inscriptions and literary
works. Many royal dynasties patromsed the cult, but without
narrow-minded fanaticism The regions over which they ruled
constantly changed On account of wars and conquests It is
not therefore easy to determine the history of ValsaVism in each
region.

1630 [bid pp 100103.

1631. Ibld. 103-3.
 CONCLUSION 471

The tolerant spirit suffered a serious setback when

Ramfinnja was persecuted and the Vlsnu idol at the Govindaraya
shrine in Chidambaram was removed. These antl-Vaisnava
aczlvities are attributed to Knlottungai in the 11th century.
There Is a tradition that RamanUJa consecrated the temple at
Melkote (tn Karnataka) in 1099AD. and that he remained
there till 1110 when the persecuting king died 1633 But other
dates have been mentioned such as 1070 when AdhiraJendra was
the ruler 1633 The Chtdambaram sscrilege is dated at 1087
A D.1334 Though all this led to ill feeling between Saivas and
Valsnavas and many bitter attacks in writings were made by each
against the other, the kings continued to extend their patronage
to all cults, though they might have faith only in one of them.
Hence inscriptions of a Vaisnavtte tinge, Visnu temples and
coins with emblems like Garuda on them do not prove any
exclusive faith of the ruler or the people of the area in Visnu.

Below is attempted a brief survey of Vaiqnavism in the

several States of India in broad outline.
1 Tamil Nadu
Vaisnavlsm ts known tn Tamil Nadu even at the beginning
of the Chrtstlan era Ancient classics like S’tlappadrkaram,
Panpadal, Ahananfim and Parananz‘sru which belong to the early
centuries after Christ contain references to the temples at
Srtrangam, Ttrumaiai, Tlrumaltrufiwlat (near Madurai) and
Ttruvanantapuram1635 The dlvme descents of Rama and Krsna
were being worshipped indicating an old tradition about them.
Most of the temples referred to are to Pandya and Cola regions.

1632. Guruparampara prabha‘ ms of Txtiya Brahmatantra-svatantrn

Iiyar. Kuiottunge died only 111 1120.
1633 Prof K. A Ntlakanta Sastn's ChoIas.
1634 T A Gopmatha Rao, sttory of SrivaISnavas. p. 44
1635 the E S VaradaraJa lyer's A History of Tamil Literature,
pp 203—250.
 CONCLUSION 4 73

Conslderable benefacdons to Siva temples were also made.

This harmony between the sects durlng the Cola perlod ls
marred by the persecution of the Vatsnavas tn the 11th century
already referred to: but the persecution did not spread to
Ka‘tfici.1340

In the rock-cut monuments of the Pallava perlod as at

Mahendravadland Mamandfir are found figures and palntlngs
of Vrsnu. The Mahendra style rs seen at Mamandfir at Smgap-
perumil Kovil (near Chlngleput), at the Raftganatba cave
temple at Stngavarsm and at the Dharmaraja-mantapa at
Mimallapuram In Mamallapuramltself, the Varaha-mantapa
and the Kdl-varlha cave temple show the Mamalla style At
Tlruttangal tn Ramanathapuram an admixture of the Calukya
and Pandya Styles may be seen 1641
The Valkuntha-pernmal temple at Kafici ls remarkable for
Its huge structures and panelled sculptures. It ls sald to have
been built by Nandlvarman Pallava (710-75) 1543 But
Tlrurnafigai thvar calls the temple ‘ Paramesvara-vlnnagaram ’
and associates the name ' Pallava ' wrth the stanzas In pralse of
the Lord as enshrined there.1643 Thls suggests that Parameévara—
varman (660 80) constructed it. Nandlvarmau's name Is
assoctated wlth another temple near Kumbhakonam called
‘Nandlpura-vmnagaram'. Perhaps he completed the Kafict
temple and built the temple near Kumbhakonam. Hts
successor, Dantlvarman, constructed on slmllar llnes a fine
temple for Sundsravaradaperumal at Uttaramerfir.1644 Late:

1640 Ibld pp 401-2.

1641. "Archaeologtcal Remains Monuments and Museums. Part I.
Rock-cutMonuments" by K, R Srtmvasan, pp. 142-3. 145-6.
1642 bed. Part II, p 219-20
1643. Perrya Trrumozhr, II, 9
1644 "Archaelogtcal Remams. Monuments and Museums" Part II.
p 221.
ssv—60
474 scams AND sourn lNDlAN utsmvrsu
Vijayanagar rulers improved on the traditions evolved by the
Paliavas, Calukyas, Cola: and Pandyas, For example, the
cornices with monolithic stone chains at the katyana-mangzapa
built by them at Sr! VaradarItJa Swami temple at Katie! is a
fine example of artistic progress.1345

The spread of Vaisuavism in Tamil Nadu owes much to the

difl'usion of the Azhvirs’ poems by Nathamunl, Yamuna,
Ramanuja and their successors. The Paiiava rulers, Jatavarman
Sundara Pandya, Kulottunga III RaJendra Cola, Vijayanagar
emperors and the Naik kings at Madurai and Taujore made
invaluable contributions by constructing. renovating and main-
taining temples of Visnu1548
RamanuJa’s followers are the most nurmerous among the
Vaisnavas in Tamil Nadu. His efforts at moral and spiritual re-
generation ware directed in many dtrecdons He reformed the
administration of the temple at Srirangam , wrote out a
manual. Nttya, for the daily round of religious duties , grad ed
religious and philosophical instruction and pracflces according
to the qualifications of each Vaisnava, instituted or re-organised
the recrtation of thvars' compositions daily in the temples and‘
in the streets whenever the prOCessionat idol was taken out, and
the celebration of the adhyayana utmva once every year, he
deified the Azhvars; and founded seventyfour eoclesiastical
seats of authority and perhaps s0me mutts also

The reforms at Srirangam temple were extensrve The

stafl were divrded into ten groups each with specific dunes.
The Vatkhdnasa mode of worship was changed to the Pdfirarfitra.

1645 IbId. pp 236-7

1848 Vrde (1) K. A. Nilakanta Sastrr's The Pandyan Kingdom and (u)
The Coias II; (111) V N Hart Rao Koyr] Ozbugu. (w) P R Snmvasan.
Inscriptions! Ewdence on Earty Hindu Temples and (v) Brahma-vzdya,
XXVI, pp. 18-21.
 coucwsmrt ‘75
Seals with figures of Garuda. Samkha and Calm were made ‘0
be used by difl'erent anthorities.1547
The Nuya inspired many later works of the same kind; to
whichreference has been made in earlier pages. Not content
with the manual, he is said to have given the following
instruction to suit different aptitudes and qualifications.
ni‘zc-err mud mutt-ah uzfigfiii‘t star,
are-r:ngtr'fi'fimrfii‘aafi l
shit: %gé at unfinfiténfiir
warm? mi} wag nfimfiufiau: |

ArfiysmppagiGmparariipalfi, p. 242.
Another easy duty he imposed was the maintenance of flower-
gardens for the benefit of temples.
Raminuja arranged for the instaiiatlon of the images of
thvfirs in temples. Annual festivals were instituted for
celebrating their birthdays The idols of the Izhvars were
assembled before the Lord in temples during the annual
Adhyayana festival and accorded honours.

Seventyfour EeErya-purusa: (spiritual preceptors) are said to

have been authorised by him to instruct and initiate disciples
and give them the sacramentof the pafica-sarhskara. Most of
them Were householders and some of their descendants continue
to exercise their spiritual office But the tendency nowadays
for those who care for initiation is to seek it at a mutt.

it is quite probable that the systematic organisation of the

mathas (mutts), retlglous institutions presided otter by Jdnnyfi’i“
and entrusted with propagating doctrines, initiating disciples
and administering temples, was due to him. Such institutions

1841. The " Koyil Ozbugu' edited by V. N Han Rae gives details.
47‘ AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VMSNAVISM

continue to this day. In csse the very institutions touuded by

him have not survived, later ones could have tsken their
placeJ“8 Marita: are associated with the temples st Tirumsiai
and Srirangam. Among mat/ms started later may be mentioned
those named after Ahobllam and Vanamamslsi. The former,
though started at Ahobiiam in the Andhra region. has been
presided over by rannyfiii'n: from TamllNadn, where it has
several branches. Similarly. the Vanamlmaiai Mat/ta, With its
headquarters in Tiruneiveii District, has branches in almost
every place st cred to Visnu.
Ramanuja accorded primary importance to Srirsfigam
among the places sacred to Vaisnavas. The following Sanskrit
prayer for the temple is attributed to him:
either: fireman-gait E3351! l

Ramauup's successors made it incumbent on the part of every

Vaisnsva to recue this in every temple and home.

Among other contributions 0! Raminuja may be mentioned

the settling of Vaisnavs families round temples to render service.
help in their maintenance and derive spiritual benefit from them.
The term, ‘Vaignava '. in Tamil Nadu has largely come to
men s i‘oiloWer of Ramanuja, because the majority of the
worshippers of Visnu owe allegiance to him. But there are also
a considerable number of Madhvss in the region, and they are
also Valsnavas. There are only a few representatives of other
Vsisnsva sects from other regions in Tamil Nadu.
2. Karnaiaka
In the Ksrnataka region Vaignavism dates back to many
hundreds of years before Ramanuya. But till his soyourn there,
Jsinism was in a flourishing condition. VisnugOps (r. 450-460)

1648 it is clatrned that Sn Yadugin Yams): Mutt of Melkote was

founded by lelnujl and has continued to this day.
 CONCLUSION. 471

of the Western Ganges was more a salnt than a king. He gave

up Jainism and became a Valsnsva. Durvintta (540-600) of the
same family w:s also a worshipper of Visnu.1349

Two of the rock-cut monuments at Badasai in BtJapur

District are dedicated to Visnu. Bat-reliefs on the walls
represent the divine descents One of the monuments is known
to have been excavated in 578 A D. by Mangailéa, brother of
Klrtivarman. it contains the figure of Astabhuja-svimln 1650
Bltgldeva (r 1111-1141) of the later dynasty of Hoysalas was
an ardent .latna who was attracted to Raminuja when in exile
from the Cola kingdom and became a Valsnava and called
himself Vignuvardhana. it is sald that this followed on
Raminujs freeing his son from possession by an evil spirit in
10991651 While the king continued to be tolerant towards
Jainas and Saivlsm. he built at Ramanuja’s instance the
Naraysna temple at Meikote.
The Hoyslla style of architecture is seen in the temples
butit by him and his successors. He consecrated the VHS”-
natiynna (also known as Cenna Kesava) temple at Beiur in 1117.
This temple became a complex of temples under Btllaia 11 and
others " The temple is a veritable museum of sculptures,
large and small, and intricate vegetal and floral carvings "1652
A smaller temple in the same style was built at Somanithapura
in 1268 1653

1649. Satynathalyer. History of Indra, l p 259.

R

1850 Brahmavrdyd, XXVI Pts 1-2 p 17. See also "filter-national

Congress of Ortentaitata Summaries of Papers". 13. 151.
1851. T A. Goptnatha Rao, Historyo! Srivaisnavas, p. 30. The dates
of RImInuJa's persecutton and hts flight to Kamataka require vonficanon,
1652. 'Archaeoiogtcal Romatns, Monuments and Museums. ,3“ 11,

Southern Temples ” by K. R Srtmvasan. PP. 210-11.

1653. Ibid. p. 212.
478 scams AND soura iNDIAN VAiSNAViSM

The Jaina version of Bittideva's conversion adds that it was

followed by thousands of Jains being ground by oil mills W54
The allegation is not generally believed. but regarded as "a
favourite embellishment in handing down accounts of
disputations."1355 This is supported by Visnuvsrdhnna's
continued patronage of Jainism and Snivlsm. The same policy
.continned under his son. Narasimha I (1141-73). His son and
successor, Balliis II (1173-1120), favoured Saivism. but Was to-
lerant. Naraslr‘nha 11 (1220-35) was a tolerant Vaignava.
Somesvara. his son. neglected Visnu temples which were
renovated by Jatfivarmsn Sundara Pandys who deieatcd him 1653
In the period that folloWed, perfect amity prevailed among the
:vsrions sects. .A temple to Harihara (combining In himself the
characters of Siva and Vlsnn) Was built.

The most Important Vaisnava centre in Karnitaka is

Melkote. Rfiminuja is said to have stayed there from between
12 to 25 years. Apart from finding the mala bent of Narayana
and Consecrallng it, he also brought somewhere from the
north the utmva idol and named it ‘Sampaikumara'165'1 The
Nfirfiyana (otherwise known as anapriys) temple is said to
have been built in the Bahndhanys year corresponding to
1098 A D.1558 During the annual festival in March-April the
outcastes (or ‘ Tirukkslattfir ' as RimAnuja is said to have called
them and now known as Harijans) were ailotIIed to enter the

1654 Yatrrfipvarbhava, 97

1655 William Coelho, The Hoysila Vams‘a p 284

1658 lbrd pp 251-95

1857. The traditional account that he brought the idol fromaMoslom
ruler at Darin clashes With the historical fact that Delhi was under Hindu
rule till the 1190's.

1858. The difficulties in accepting this date are pomted out in

S. Krishnamemy Iyongar's History of Trrupati', I. pp. 213-5.
 CONCLUSION 419

temple for worship on the occasion of the car festival and

succeeding days.1659
The hill range on which the temple is built is known as
Yadugiri or Yadavadri on account of traditions of association
with the Yadeva clan to which Sri Krsna belonged. On
account of Ramanup's stay there it came to be called
' Yatigiri '_1680
Though the thvars did not celebrate Tirunarayanapuram in
their compositions it is said that Rsmannya dedicated adecade
of verses in Ttruvaymozhz (iV l)I where meditation on the
divine feet of Tirunarayans (Sriman-narayana) is recommended.
The daily worship at the temple is conducted according to
the Pafioaratra mode. Ramannja's directions are followed in
the daily routine and the annual festivals. There is no ‘shrine
for Kndai In the temple, and the features of the Adhyayana
festival 1n December-January differ In some respects from those
of the same festival in Tamil Nadu temples. The daily
recitation of the Azhvars' hvmns is carried on In Tamil even
though the temple is in a Kannada-speaking region. (The life
of the Vaisnavas in Karnataka is notdlfi'erent from that in
TamiiNadu)1661 The idol of RamanuJa in the temple was
installed and consecrated at the request of his devotees when he
left Meikote for Srirangam 1653
There are several Vsisnava mat/m: at Melkote The
Yadugtri Yatlraja Mutt claims to have been founded by
Ramanuja. The Ahohlla and Vanamamalai Mutts have their

1659 C R Srmlvasa Iyengar Llfe of Rimanwa, p. 224.

1660 Yatirijavatbbfiva, 100-103
1661 It may be of mterest to note that an mscnptlon of Raj-endra Cola,
dated 1014m Kamataka refers to a Srivaisnava community
M N Parthasarathy 1n RamEnUJavfini, January 1980, p.89.
1662 YatlrEJa-valbbava, 103.
480 AGAMAS AND sourn INDIAN VAISNAVISM

branches here. The Parakaia Swami Mat/1a also has a branch.

This institution has Its headquarters at Mysore. It is held to
have been founded by Brahmatantra-svatantra-svfimin, a direct
disciple of Vedanta Desika. The idol of Hayagriva worshipped
in the Mar/2a by its heads is said to have come down from
Ramanuja through Vedanta Desika. For a long time the rulers
of Mysore owed allegiance to the Mag/m. It has branches
outside Karnataka in Tamil Nadu, Andhra and even in
Allahabad.
Scholars in Karnataka till the beginning of this century and
a little later have made valuable contributions which can easily
bear comparison with those in Tamil Nadu
Udipl (near Maugalore) in the Karnataka region has a
temple of Sri Krsna built by Madhvacarya. It has several
mathas some of which have branches in Andhra and Tamil Nadu.
Udipi is a centre of pilgrimage {or Madhvas.
Surveying the history of the Karnataka region as a whole,
it found that Valsnavisrn flourished at dtflerent periods under
is
the regimes of Kfidambas, Cilukyas, Hoysilas, Vijayanagar
kings and Néyaks oi' Madurai. These rulers held sway over the
whole or some parts of the region 1353

3 Andhra
Inscriptions mentioning Visnu and Hts temples in the
Kndhra region are available from the 2nd century. At Chirmt
in Krishna District an tnscriptlon of YaJfis Sitakarnl (c 165-
194) begins with an invocation to Visudeva. The Pallavas who
succeeded the lksvakus were upholders of vaidtka-dharma. The
queen of Buddhavarman (c 250 A D) made gifts to the Visn’u
temple at Datfira. About the same times temple to Visuu-
harakula was built at Kand'ukuru by Visnugopavarman, the

1883. A. D. Karmarkar, Cultural History of Karnataka. p. 171.

482 mamas Aim sou-m moms VAISNAVISM

The temple at Ahobtiam In Kurnool District has been

extolled by Tirumangat thvar Those at Srikfirmsm
(Srikakulam) and Simhacalam (Visakhapatnam) have assocratlons
with Ramanuja. There are other famous shrines at Mangalagiri
(Guntur) and Bhadrachalam (Godavarl).
The Smarts Brahmtns ol' the region who joined the sect of
Rimauuja under hts influence and that of his successors seem to
canstltute aseparate sub-community by themselves. Families
belonging to the sect living in Tirupati from early times and
this sub-community keep themselves somewhat aloof from each
other. But the way of life of all Vaisnavas in Andhra does not
dlfl'er from that in other regions The same is true of temple
rituals The Dwyaprabandha and its commentaries are studied
in Telugu script and used.

Ramanuja's associations with Tirupstl are numerous He

demonstrated that the recent claim of the Saivas that the Deity
in the temple was Siva was untenable The Deity Himself is
said to have preferred the Insignia of Vinsu 1670 A philosophical
discourse which is now embodied in his Vedfirtha-safigmha was
delivered in the temple in the presence of the Lord Sudarsana
Sun (13th centary) begins his commentary, Tfitparya-dipika,
thus .
si’tmwetgirwea‘t 2:: aria-6'13: gt: I

Eterziéazemea Warreée‘ifimrq ll
When the image of Govindarajs at Chldambaram was throwu
into the sea, RamanUJa recovered it and bad it installed at
Tirupatl, perhaps much earlier than 1135 at which tradition
places this event.1671 The conduct of the rituals of the temple

1670. YatirEJa-vaibba va. 90-92.

1611. S Krishnaswamylvengar History of Timpati, I 281. T A Gopl-
natha Rao discusses the questton in History of $rivaisnavas, pp. 3&9.
 CONCLUSION 483

was settled by him. But how far he was responsible for all its
features it a matter ofopinton.1672
There are several mathar at Tlrumalal. There is one
cannected With the temple Branches of Ahobila. Vanamarnalai
and Parakala Svamln‘s matha: are at Tlrumalal Under their
influence Telugu-apeaklng Vaisnavas have learnt to speak and
read Tamil.
In Ramanuja’s days, his uncle, Tlrnnnlal Nambi, and
disciple, Anantarya, were rendering service at the Ttrumalal
temple. The family of Ptllfin, the second son of Tlrumaiai
Nambl, settled in the heart of the State and enjoyed royal
patronage in the Vijayanagar empire.
The followers of Madhvs are also found in the region.
Mutts of this faith are there Mantralaya near Adoni is the seat
of a pontifl' In later days. a group of Disas emerged, who
sang devotional songs in Kannada and spread bhaktt‘.
4 Kerala
The temples of Vlsnu in Kerala are numerous They have
been following for hundreds of years the tinmk mode of
worship The Tantra-samucaaya of Naravana Nambutrrt (born
“28) is a standard text book In twelve chapters dealing with the
worshtp of various deities lncludtng Vlsnu. Temple architecture
is also treated in Deufilaya-candnkfi This work on temples
and Manusya‘laya-candnkfi on human residences are also attributed
to him 1673 Tney quote there Tantra-tamuccaya Sesa-ramuccaya,
dealmg wrth matters not dealt with In this work, ls of
unknown authorship

1872 ItrhEse-mfilzi. II. VII Cf T T D Eprgraphlcal Report. 1930.

pp 86-89 , also S KrtshnaswamyIyengar.
1673 N V Mallaya, ”Studies in lansknt Texts on Temple
Architecture." Preface. p 111, and Brehmavrdyfi. XXV. pp 582-5 Mallaya
mentlons the several texts on architecture and temple worship on which
Nsrsyana Nambutrn's work rs based.
484 [mums AND sou-m INDIAN utsmvtsn
Among the Vlsnu temples in Kerala, the most famous are
those at Trivandrum. Guruviu‘tr and Tiruvfittaru There are
also thirteen temples including that at Trivandrum which have
been hymned by the thvars, but most of them are not well-
known. The following is the list 0! the thirteen temples
Included among the 108 holy shrines :

near Nagercoil. (2) il’iruvattiiru

(1) il'iruvanparléararn
between Nagercoll and illrivandrum. (i) Tiruvsnantapuram
(which is the correct name of Trivsndrum). (4) Tlruvaranvilai
near Chengannur between Ernakulam and Quilon. (5) Tiruccen-
kunrfir Cltrnru near by. (6) Ttrukkadittsnam near Chengens-
cheri. (7) Tiruvallnvnzh near Kottayttm. (8) Tiruvenvandur
near by. (9) Tiruppullyfir near by. (10) Tirukkatksrai near
Ernakulam. (ll) Tirnmt’tzhikkaiam nesr Aiwaye. (12) Titu-
vlttuvakkodu near Shoranur. (l3) Tirnnavly near by

0! these, all except Tiruvittuvakkodu have been sung bv

Nammazhvir That temple was hymned by Kulasekhats.
ll‘lrnnavsy has been glorified by Tirumst‘tgai Azhvnr The shrine
at Tirumfizhlkkaiam also has received poetic tributes from Tim-
maftgal thvar Ttruvafiparisiram is said to be the birth-piece o!
Nammazhvlr‘s mother; there is a shrine for him in the temple.
I! the Guruvfiyt‘ir temple is earlier than the thvsrs. it escaped
their attention like other well-known temples in Tamil Nadu
such as Srimusnam and Madutsntaksm.

Though the thirteen temples are in Malayalam-speaking

Kwaia, they have been celebrated in Tamil song Kulatiekhnrn,
one of the Azhvars, is said to have been the ruler of the regions
round Kozhtkkode (Cslicut) this suggests that Tamil must
All
have been widely spoken in this area between 600—800 A.D.
and that the temples must have followed the weibknown
Vatgnava Zigamar.

But today they are mostly governed by Tantra-mmuctaya and

S'esa-samurcaya. In some shrines the Pdficarmra and Vailthdnata
486 scams AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVIlM

In most places, the temples have no vehicles or vfihanar:

the Deity is carried on a living elephant for processions At
Trlvandrum, Tiruvat’garu and some other places, a few vehicles
are used At Trivandrum these consist of Garuda, Kamaia (or
the lotus), Indra, Sesa and the paianquin There, the main
festival is conducted twice a year for Ananta-padmanabha and
once a year for Krsna, Nrsirhha and others. The festival is for
ten days The palanqnin is used on two days and the Garuda
on four For the first eight days, the Deity is taken in procession
inside the temple tWioe a day, in the evening at half past four
and four hours later On the ninth day called vetta: (hunting),
which is known as mfgayfi in the Agamas, the Deity is taken
outside the temple So also on the tenth day when the avabriha
(or Erittu) takes place at the sea near Trivandrum There is no
Veda-pardyana grOUp in the processions.

The temple of Krsna at Guruvfiyt‘tr is the most famous in

Kerala It attracts worshippers even from outside Pilgrims
fulfill vows (prfirthanfis) as at Tiruasaiai in Andhra Narayana
Bhattatiri's (r 1550) famous poem. Na‘ra'yaniya, a beautiful
epitome of the Bhagavata, is addressed to Krsm as enshrined in
this temple.

The Vaisnavas of Keraia cannot be distinguished from

other sects through external appearance or specnfic Observances
They OWe allegiance to the philosophy of Sankara. They wear
the firdlwa-pmgdra with sandal paste and not With the sacred
white mud and the red o‘ricfima. Nor do they have the pafica-
saiizska‘ra The-only exceptions are descendants of Tamil
Vaisnavas at Trivandrum There are a few Villages near Palghat
where firdhva-pundra is worn as in Tamil Nadu. They are said
to have a distant connection in the past with the Ahobila Mutt.
In this region, there are also a few temples where the priests
claim to be descendants of Vaikhanasa: brought there in the
past.
483 AGAMA! AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

temple from far and near: most of them, however, are from
Maharastra and Karnataka. They worship Siva in an adjoining
shrine before ofl’ering thetr homage to Vl’gthala. Netther any
ritual nor phllosOphy governs the worship here Bhajan parties
throng the temple
Though Vitthala is Krsna, the temple does not contain any
shrine for Radha or any gapi A shrine of Rukmini appears to
have been added in later years.
Maharastra and Kannada saints have hymned Vlnhala. They
include Jfianadeva, Namadeva, Ekanatha and Tukarttm of
Maharastra and Purandara Dasa of Karnataka Nine klnds of
bhakti are admitted by them 1378
Sr! Cakradhara-svamln (13th century), a dlsclple of Govlnda
Prabhu, composed :fitrfi: ln Marathi to expound a phtlosophy of
bhalrti. Hts ultimate categories were Paramesvara, Jiva, Devatz‘:
and the world Paramesvara is without form or attrlbutes, but
He descends to the earth to liberate the selves from bondage
Ftve Krsnas are mentioned—Dattfitreya, Krgna oi the Purdnar,
Krsns at Dvaraka. Govinda Prabhu and Cakradhara himself.
Hls followers call themselves Mahénubhavas, and they claim to
have a phtlosophy representing a stage beyond any other school
of Vedanta. Bhakti rs the sole means of salvation, but It should
be directed to Paramesvara and not Devata 1679

Jfianeévara wrote a commentary (1290) on the Bhagavadgitfi

based on Sankara's bhfisya, but going beyond it by combintng
poetry. mysttcism and philosophy It has become famous as
the jfianes‘vari,
As in Kerala, so also in Maharastra there is no clear-cut
distinctlon between Valsnavas and Salvss There are some

1878 Cultural Heritage of Indra. IV pp 358-71

1679. lntemattonal Congress of Ortentahsts. 1964. Summartes of
Papers. pp. 86-8.
 CONCLUSION 489

exclusive worshippers of Vtsnu, but they are not alienated from

other cults. Among the Vaisnavas here diflereuces of caste,
creed and sex have no religious significance.

6. Gujarat
The Western Sstraps and Msitrskes were the earliest known
rulers of the Gujarat region. They were succeeded by the
Pratihsras (750-850), Paramsras (972-1055) and Csiukyss (.970.
1185). Moslem rule began in the 13th century. The Impact of
their regimes in varied and complex.
Early rock-cut monuments in the dress contain panels oaly
of the river-goddesses, Gangs and Yamuna. No cult deity is
represented there. There is also no inscriptional evidence of
Veisnavism The earliest surviving temples in Gujarat are small
structures, simple in plan and design. A temple of Varlhs Is
Kadwar near Prabhha Patan in Junsgsdh District dates from
650-700 A Vlsnu temple of the tenth century at Sender
(Mehsana District) shows the Solsnki style in its earliest
stages.1630 A temple of Prsdyumna is mentioned in the Lats
region In Pfidatfidr'taka, a play by Sylmalaka. The temples at
Dwsraka and Dakore are reputed as hallowed by the presence
of Krsna. But the identity of ancient Dwsrelrs, the city built
by Krspa. is the subject-matter of debate. One view is that it
was at Junagadh at the foot oi Mount Girnsr, Another loestes
it in Jamnsgur District and dates a rebuilding in the 5th
1351
century
The people of Gujarat. where Jainism had considerable
influence. are predominantly of the Vargnsva faith. Senkere'l
mfiyfi-ufida does not appear to have appealed to them. They

1680. Archaeological Remains. pp 119-80.

1681. International Congress of Ortentslists, 1964. Summaries of
Papers V. Kern-talker, "Ancrent Dwsrsks and its location ”. 13.1“.
’-I D. Sankelia. Antiquity of Modern Dwaraka. p. 212.

ssv-62
490 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

seem to have preferred abundance oilife to renunciation, the

cult of Krsna to that of Rama. But the Bhagaaadgna is studied
more than the Bhfiganata The path of devotion with ample
provision for prapaui and karmayaga under the guidance of
preceptors, is largely followed by people of all classes—business-
men, farmers and labourersJ682 The lyrics of Narasimha Mehta,
a Vaisnava saint of the 14th century, have had immense
influence on the people. Vallabhacarya‘s teachings are also
popular. In recent times (19th century), a Vaisnava cult
founded by Srimsn-nsriysn in which the concept of God as
Purusottama is Important and where Rfidha finds a place, has
exercised considerable influence.

7. Madhya Pradesh
The region in and around Madhya Pradesh is Central India.
The Sungas, Iksvakus, Guptas, Gfirjara Pra Ihfiras, Western
C'a‘lukyas and Ragtrakfitas were among lts ruling dynasties.
There is evrdence of the prevalence of Vaisnavism in this
area from the 2nd century B C To this century belongs
Hellodorus, son of Dion of Taksaslla and a Yavana ambassador
from Antalkidas to Kisiputra Bhagahhadra He erected a
Garuda pillar at Besnagar (ancient Vidtsa) and recorded an
inscription on it There must have been a temple of Visudeva
of which this rs the dhvajasthambha.1833 Another Garudi
column, octagonal in shape. in a narrow thisa street, states
in an inscription that it belongs to a temple of Bhagavan, built
by the devotee, Gautamfputra (c 140A D )1634 in the Udayaglri
hills, one of the rock-cut caves (401 A D ) is Vsisnsva.1635

1632. N A Thoothr. Vazsnavrsm of GUJsrat, pp 80-75, 87

1623 J. N Banerjea Development of Hindu Iconoqraphy. pp. 102-3.
1684. Brahmawdyd, XXV Pts 3-4. pp 513 4
1885. Ibld. XXV Pts. 1 2. p. 3.
 CONCLUSION 49!

The Gupts emperors were Vaisnsvas They erected many

monuments to their iaith at Devagtri and other places. iFhe
Dasfiaata'ra temple is the work of sktlled artists At Udayagirl,
the images of Varaha and Anantaéayin are of unsurpassed
spiendour.1683 Near Iranz(in the neighbourhood of Sagar) is a
Mabévisnu temple built by Candragupta [I In it is a colossal
image of Vtsnn with those of Varaha and Narasimha on the
right and ieft sides. An inscription here (484) in Brihml
records the construction of a Ngsimha temple with a Garage-
dhvaja in the front. Flgures of Garuda adorn this column both
in the front and at the rear The Garuda. holding a serpent in
bmh the hands, has the emblem of cakra behtnd the head.1337
An earlier inscription of Samudragupta (4: 330-75) In the
same place records the erection of a Vlsnu temple not found
now Its plan has been reconstructed 1898 A Girnar inscription
(455-8) of the retgn of Sksndagnpta mentions the building of a
temple to Visnu under the name of Cakrabbrt by
Cakrapdlita 1539
The installation of an image of Visnu as Anantasvamin and
Cttrakfitasvamin, and the endowment of a village for the Deity
are known from a Gadhwa inscnptiou (467-8).1690 Fiity years
earlier (423) it is recorded at Gafigdhar that Msyfiravarmsn.
mtnister of Visvavarman during the times ofKumaragupta. built
a Vtgrtu temple 1391 Mention may also be made 0! the temples

1686 Ibid. XXVI Pts. 1-2. p. 9. See also Studies in lndoiogy

(Memorial volume toMm Dr Umesha Mishra)Vol, I, p. 47.
1637 S K Bhuyan Commenter-anon Volume, p.116,
1638 Cunnmgham'a Report Vol II, Plate XXV. Archaeologtcai
Survey oihdta Brahmawdya. XXVI. Pts 1-2. pp. 2-3.
1689. Brahmawdya XXVI Pts 1-2. pp. 4-5
1890 lbrd. pp. 8-7.
1691. Ibid. p. 9.
492 sosuss AND sourn INDIAN VAISNAVISM

oi' Isnsrdana at Iran (484) and of Bhagavat atKhoh (496 and

513). The latter two do not seem to belong to the Gupta
regime.1892
temples s't Khajuraho near Gwalior (950-1050),
illhe
patronised by the Chandeiias. are noted for their artistic beauty.
Among the sculptures there the figures of Visnu and Laksmi and
of Balsrams and Revatl deserve special mention.1393
Whisbrief survey shows the prevalence of Valsnsvlsm in
this area from very early times and the patronage it received
from kings at some times But there is no evidence of a com-
munity of Vaisnavas; nor have temples of great antiquity
survived.

3. Rajauhan
The stssthan region till recently was split into several
small States like Mewad, Bhinnamnia, Vslabhi. Jodhpur and
so on. It has a chequered history.
The Ghosundi inscription (1st century B C) in a place
formerly in Udayapur State refers to stemple with a stone
enclosure and called Narayana-vsfiksJBM it was dedicated to
Sankarssna and Vasudeva A stone from a shrine known from
the Moruwell inscription mentions the images of puma-vim: of
the V391: there 1095 Here may be a reference to the Vaikhanasa
concept of puma-aims, which seems hardly known outside South
India. These inscriptions also testify to the worship of stone
images from this early period

1692 Ibid pp 8-10

1693 lbid. pp 11-12. See aiso Charudova Sastri Fehcitation Volume.
p 542
1694 Brahmavrdya XXV. Pie 3-4. pp.514~5.
1695. Ibid. pp. 515-6.
494 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVIsu

9 East Punjab
The Punjab from whtch East Punjab in India and West
Punjab in Pakistan Were carved out when India was partitioned
in 1947, was in ancient times an ideal Hindu colony, the
bedrock of Vedie culture. The rivers of the region are
mentioned in the Vedas. In historical times it is known that the
eminent grammarian, Panini (c. 800 B C.), was born at Saiatore
near Attack in West Punjab Patafijaii (150 B.C.) who wrote a
great commentary on his work, belonged to this region. Both
of them refer to the worship of Vasudeva and Sankarssnaflm
Panini is said to have studied at Patsliputra in Magadha. It is
reasonable to hold that the cult of Visnu under the name of
Vasudeva was prevalent then in the Punjab and Magadha. The
records of Megastheues, the Greek ambassador at the court of
Chandragupta Maurya, show that it flourished in these regions
in the 4th centuryB C. An inscription of Dionysos confirms
this. The Mathura region was its stronghold in late pre-
Christlan Centuries 1703 Later, in the 5th century AD, the
Tuéam inscription records the construction of two reserVoirs
for the house (temple) of Krsna under the name of Bhagavat.17°3
An undated pras'am' from Pehowa mentions the construction of
a VISnu temple by the princely Tomara family 1704

Under the influence of Islam, Sikhism and modern reform

movements like the Arya Ssmaj. the religious Situation in the
Punjab has drastically changed. and there Is not much evidence
of Vaisnava influence today.

1702 International Congress of Oneniahsis. Summaries of Papers.

S Jatswal. "The worshtp of Sankarsana-Baladeva". pp 1324
l'IO3 JFleet, Inscrzptrons of the Early Gupta
Successors. Vol.
ngs and their
III. p 210.
1704. Buddha Prakash, Aspects of Indtan Htstory and Ctviitsatton.
p. 181.
495 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

of Kashmir, Pravsrasena ii (a 555). Candraplda (r. 712-20),

Mukiapigla. Lalitaditya (r 724 60), Jayapida Vinayfiditya
(r 775-806) and Utpaia Avanttvarman (r. 855-83) were Valsnsvas.
iI‘hey built temples to Visnu under the names. among others, of
Iayasvnmln, Avantlsvsmln and Govardhanudhara.1713 The cult
continued to flourish in Kashmir till its occupation by Muslims
in 1339. Ksemendra, the well known Sanskrit writer, was a
Valsnava and a pupil of Bhigavatscirya Somapada, though his
father was a Saiva. He called himself Vyrtsaduss.1713
11. Uttar Praduh
The region comprised in Uttar Pradesh was ruled over at
various times by Mauryas, Guptas, Maukharis. Harsavardhana,
Gahadswalas and others.
One of the earliest references to Vaisnsvism in this area is
found in the inscription on the famous victory pillar oi iron
erected at Meherauli near Delhi by King Candra About his
identisy there is difference of opinion, though there is a
tendency to identify him with Candragupta 1.1714
It said that images of Krsna used to be made at Prabhasa,
is
southwest of Allahabad.1'-’15
Shrines dedicated to Rama, Kausaiya and others are found
in Ayodhyfi, but they are oirecent origin. The only famous

1712 P. N Kaul, History of Kashrmr,

pp 133-4
1713 Brhatkathamafiyari, pp 19-20. A LOC, XXII Summaries of
Papers. R “
Dattatray, Vyasadisa. a name of Ksemendra ". pp. 21-8
1714 R Satyanaiha lyer. History of India.I pp. Zl4-5 See also
(1) S S Rana. "King Candra of Meherauh Iron Pillar Inscription
Umesha Mrshra Commemorauon Volume, pp 669-76. (i1) S R Goyai.
" Samudragupta and the North-West ". A IO C. XXII, Vol. II. pp. 153-63;
and (111)Internattonal Congress of Ortentaiists. Summaries of Papers.
pp, 253 60.
lYiS. R. G Bhandarkar. Valgnawsm and sazwsm, p. 64.
493 scams arm sour-rt mum vatsrmvrsu
Gays is one of the most sacred places ior Hindus where they
make offerings to the manes. The holy footprint of Visnug
Warm-pale, in a temple there is worshipped b3! Hindus all over
India. No s’raddha ceremony is complete without reverential
mention of Gaye, its imperishable banyan tree (akgaya-uaga).
the footprint of Visrtu and the Lord at the temple under the
name of Gadadhara.
At Rsnehi there are temples to Radhatanl, the beloved of
Krsua. The temple at Jagannathpfir is said to be the oldest1720

l3. Bengal
Bengal was under the Guptas in the 61h century, but became
independent under Saéanka There followed periods of anarchy,
until the Pale dvnasty rose. Even then, however, power
rivalries and conflicts continued, and the rulers had little time
to patronise religious cults Moreover, Buddhism had a
dominant influence, so much so that there was a fusion between
it and Hinduism. Still a little evidence is available about
Vaisnava influence.
A Batgrsm capper plate (448) in Bogra District refers to a
temple of Visnu under the name of Govindasvarmn 1721
Slmautasena’s son, thayasena (c.1100), wanted to avoid frtcuon
between Salvtsm and Vatsnavism and for this purpose built a
temple to Pradyumnesivara His grandson. Laksmanasena.
became a Vaisnava 1733
Some centuries later, Vaisnavtsm became dominant in
Bengal under the influence 0! Caltanya, who was inspired by
the Worship 0! Krsna at Phrl He sponsored the worship of
Radha-Krsna in which there is a great deal of bridal mysticism.
The jiua is conceived as a lover representing Saktt whose one

1720. SakharlMookor-jee Volume. pp. 439, 441-2.

1721. Brahmavidyl, XXVI. Pin 1-2. p. 9.
1722. R. C.Majuu1der. The Age of Imperial Kauauj. p. 426.
 GONCLU-IION ‘99

form is deha. It was influenced by the earlier cultloi’ the

Sahajaoydna of the Buddhists which advocated living In
accordance with Natute Unfortunately. it degenerated into
liccntious living.
In the Caitanya cult, it has limited applicability. A jinn
has to feel itself to be a woman with reference to another five,
and can have full freedom to love. Thll was treated as the
parakaya aspect which, when practised, would become spiritual
love as Rfidhe-bhaua. The justification for this doctrine seems
to be based on the love of married gapis for Kraut.

Cailanya himself done not sppearto have adVocated this

kind of life for the devotees of Krgna. His followers have
cxnressed varying opinions. Jrva Gosvamin held the relations
between the gap?! and Knee to he eternal The gape: s'vere
wives of their husbands only through yoga-mayo Therefore,
there _ls no pamhya aspect here. Rfipa Kavlraja and Rfipa
Gosvnmln eonoede this. Eaisdeva Vidyibhfisana and other!
argue that love most not he directed to a human being, an it
cannot then become mm Any deviations from the teachings of
the masters tending to bring discredit to the cult, must be
attributed to ignorance about them.
The cult of Gouda Vaifigavism of the Caitanya school has
spread far and wide throughout India. Branches of its Mutts
are active ‘ln Important elties, carrying on propaganda and
performing name-:afikmana. In recent times, the IHare Krsns '
movement as sponsored by the International Krgna
Consciousness Society and other organisations has spread
shroud.
Brisk temples began to be built in Bengal from about
1700 A D. At Bishnupur in Bankers District there are a group
of each templesflaa

1733. Areheelegieememslns, l. p.169

500 AGAIAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISN

14. Atsam
Assam was known as Ksmaripa in the past. The Pralambash
Files and Senas ruled over It up to the 13th century. Tantrlk
Buddhism and the Sakta cult were dominant there.

The Valenava movement became slgnificanl only under

Sedkarsnanda (1449-1568 7). He was a poet, muslelan. slnger
and painter. Though a Sakta by birth, he became a Varanava
alter extenelve travels up to Ramelvaram, a meetmg wlth
Caltanya at Purl and a study of the Bhdgatmta under Jagadltla
Mtdra. He began to worshipa Wooden Image of anu under
the name of Madana gopila and resolved to brlnn the people
together by congregatlonalprayer. In his Prayer-house which
he called NEma-gbar, the Object of worshlp was a book of
prayers and not an image of Vienna. All were allowed to
participate In the prayer, Including Moslems. The devotees
were asked to render service to the holy book 1734
Sankarananda’s phllosophy has for he central concept aka-
Janna or unswervlng and excluslve devotlon (to Krsna) It is
based on the Gill? and the Bha’gavata Brahman ls ldentlcal with
Pnrnsottama, Paramesvara, Narfiyeoa and Vfisudeva. The
sentient and the lnsentlent are not different from HlmJ'IZB Tm:
llne of successmn ln preceptorshtp Is not merely from father to
son and from the older to the younger: it can also pass to some
one deemed fines: to hold ll.

His works Include Bhakhratrtfikam ln Sanskrit, Kamarupl

renderlngs of the Mfirkapdayabuia'pa and parts of the Bhfigavata‘
and Bhaktrpradipu in Kamarupl based on the Garueiapuraxa.

Among Safikaradeva's dtsctples was MadhaVadeva (1489-

1590), a purltan who stressed devotlon to God as the guldlug

1724. Cultural Heritage of Indta. IV. pp 301-4.

1725. Veterans Movement in Assam.
 commerce 505

qualities has never been lost sightoi’. i1"he Zgama mode of

worship has been followed wherever temples of Vienna have
been consecrated. though the rules of the text may not always
be strictly observed and there may be a few variations in the
procedure of worship. Except in many temples in South India
where the Vas'khfinara system prevails, the Pfificarfitra has been
adopted Many religious practices of the Hindus In India and
In ancient colonies which are not traceable to the Vedas or the
Smrtis, are based on the Igamas. The cult was not merely
popular with the masses: It also attracted the patronage of
rulers, nobleman and wealthy merchants who built temples and
provided for their maintenance. It should also be noted that
the patrons were almost always tolerant, showing no hostility
to other cults, nor even denying them some contributions.

VAISNAVISM AND MUSIC

The contribution made to music by Vaisnavlsm needs to
be noted. The theory of sonic creation conceives of absolute
sound (nfida) as Brahman, from whom all sound emanates.
Before becoming audible speech, sound has to pass through
some stages. The Tantrt'ka: and musicians have been worshippers
oi nada. This is one Way of approach to God, Vide:

mi armfir “Eyre
a‘tfilai
maE i

near an mafia
a! firsrfit arts; It

Those who take to music are declared to be the body of

Viqnu:
attainment? fifiafiieewefimrfi I: t

mefimfimfitfifiuem: Ii

VsPs I, 22s 860

ASV—64
506 soAMAs AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

It is even asserted that music excels all other forms of worship

of God :
amfimu semi wmafii‘zgm‘t are: l

asufif‘zgtfi rm? nrmautai: a F: n

Indian music is based on Samaaeda. Its distinctive icatures
are found in all Indian languages and all over India, though
there is a division between Kernetic music in the south and
the Hludusthani system in the north.

Tamtl
In the thvars’ poetic Tamil compositions, we have some
of the early Valsnava songs on Vlsnu Some of them state
that they are to be sung 1744 Those who sing them are assured
of reaching the Lord 1745 Nithnmuni (1,2900) collected the
poems of the thvars and set them to mus1c. But foralong
tlme past, they are merely recrted both In temples and houses,
except in Srirefigsm and one or two other places where the
Arac'yan sing and dance to the accompaniment of musical
instruments.
Among later compositions are the kirtana: of Uttukkatiu
Venkata Subba Aiyer in praise of Krsna, which are sung in
bhajana: as prayer-ofl'erings. The Rama-napka-kirtana: of
Amnacala stlriya (c 1750) stand in a class by themselves.
The principal incidents of the Ramayana (largely according to
the Tamil version of Kamba) are depicted in sonqs set to raga
and Mia. Each kirtana contains a ptovorb. Though the work it:
claimed to be musical drama. 11! songs are sung in concerts and
used in dance perfonnances.

1744. Nficcxyar Tlrumozbi. Xll. 10; Pain Tirumozhz‘, II. 8-10:

119 2.10; Tlruvaymozbi VII 1. II.
1146. Pen‘ya T1r‘umozhi. III. 3. 10; Ill. 4, 10.
508 aomas AND sourn INDIAN varsmvrsm

song. are papular both with singers and listeners. The day of
his death is commemorated by a musical festival at his birth-
place. On specific occasions, some of his songs are sung in
chorus.1743
contemporaries of TyEgaraja were great composers—-
iI‘wo
Muttuswamy Diksita and Syama Sastri. They were not
devotees of Vtsnu. But leslta has composed some beautiful
songs about Visnu.
Merattfir Venkataramana Bhegavata (c.1800), a Tamillan,
composed in Telugu the opera, Prahlfida-eama. It Is enacted at
Meratgfir in Tafljavfir district This work is in the dance-drama
tradition. Its theme is the Lord's descent as Narasimha to
protect Prahlada.
Padas are songs in Telugu expressing devotion to God with
an accent on bridal mysticism. Annamficarya. already referred
to, and Ksetrayya have ennlched the repertoire of songs with
many compositions of this kind. In dance concerts, Ksettayya's
pada: are often used.

Malayalam
King Svati Tirunal (1813-47) of Travancore, an ardent
devotee of Visnu, composed songs in Malayalam, Sanskrit and
Telugu, praising Him under the name of Padmanfibhe, to whom
the temple at his capital, Trivandrum, is dedicated. In them he
calls himself the dam (servant or slave) of Padmanibha.

Kannada
Narahari-ttrtha. third in descent from Madhva, composed
songs in Kannada praising Krsna. His followers sang these
and came to be known as “ Haridasas ". They are divided into
groups known as Data-kite: Sripadarfija, himself also the

1748. T. V. Subba Ran on S’ti ‘I‘yagarnja in Studies In [ndzan Music,

139.113-8. 127-49. 200-211, 216-20.
510 amass AND souru [NDIAD VAISNAVism

Ekanath and Tnkaram (1608). In their songs in Maharishi (and

sometimes in Hindi) they teach the singing of the names of God
as the way to salvation. They refer to the nine kinds of bhakts.
Tukérfim (b. 1608) wrote many songs: as they are in the abhafiga
metre, they are known by that name. .Hts devotion to God (as
Visnn) was fervent and exclusive.

Gujarati
In Gujarat, the influence of Vailabha is seen in the
devotional lyrics on Visnu. Narasimha Mehta (c.1400) was
at first a worshipper of Siva. Through his grace, Mehta went to
Dvaraka and had a vision of the rim-dance. After this, he
became a Vaisnava and began to write on the sports of Krsua.
In his Suratamrlgraha he describes himself as a messenger of the
gapi: and Radha. His .S’rfigfiramfila is full of bridal mysticism.
Similar are other works like Varantanapado and Hindalanapada,
His description of an id ea] Vaisnsva in his song, Vaimava-janato.
was a favourite with Mahatma Gandhi who looked upon it as the
authentic description of the traits of a Hindu devotee of God.
Dayarama (c.1760) wrote many Gurbis, mystic compositions
expressing devotion to Krsna 1747
The disturbed political conditions in Gujarat in the 12th
and ilth centuries on account of Mosiem rule Were unfortunate
for the Hindus. The Jain rulers about this time also did not
help'them. It was Narasimha Mehta's songs that stirred up the
religious spirit of the people and inspired a renaissance of
devotional religion centering round Krsna that has not exhausted
itself till now.
Hindi
In central and northern India the Ramananda cult with its
stress on devotion and its accessibility to all without distinction

1747. K M Munsht. Gujarat: Literature, pp. 124-29, 01'. SH Vallabba-

char-ye by BhsiMemlal C. Perokh, IV.
 coucwsmn 5“
of ezete'or creed was popular and prominent. Devoteee and
composers like Silrdas, KabIrdas, “Palestine, Mltlbii cam.
under its influence. Deep devotional fervour marks their
composition.
Sfirdau. blind Vaignavnpoet (Nth century). isnkho MVi
composed 125.000 patio: 0n Vignn (primarily as Krgnl). The
survinng one: are full of literary elegance. Kablr is said co hue
been a Brahmin by birth bro’n‘gh'l up by a Muslim weaver in
Bennret. He doe! not teem to Have hid fault in any psrticnlu‘
tradition. He was againet idol worship, but his worn tune"
the influence of Izhvnra. He refers to Maharastrn ulna like
Nlmadevn and Bithake
Mirnbzi (e. 1600), aid to have been a Rajput queen, chose
to worship Krgna. calling Him Giridhnrn Bet long! nré
popular both In the north and Ionth, and are any even by
follow": of Nina! and Kabir. Her songs and than of Kuhn
generally form part of the name-sankzrtona in 51141323411143
Buddha-99min, regarded‘u the divine deucent of; Lalitl.
one of the eight friend: of Radian, \lived at Byndsvmn. He can
blessed with a direct vision of Krena Whom he called Sylml-
films. For him music was the means of worship. He greatly
influenced singers like Baiju ‘Baorn and Tanlen end contributed
to the development of nutrient tradition in North halal?“
Bengali
Vidyapati (1. 15th century), the famous. poet 0! Mlthiii.
composed range on Rldha and Runny!” Candid]: of Bengal
(14th century) was influenced by Inyadeve'! Gila’gauindo. fill

1148. H. H WllIOfl,Religious Sect! 0! the Hindus. pp. “-100.

1149 "MOO. Summation pl Papers", Dr.
" Haridln-evlmln ", 3. an.
“I. Bnhmeoheri on

1250. D. C. Sun. History of Bengell Languagund thenttm, p. m.

512 AOAMM sun sourn iNDiAN varsmvrsm

depicts the divine love of Radha and Krsns on

Krspa-Icir'tana
the analogy of human love.
Govlnda Das (1537-1612), a follower of Caitsnya, wrote
songs in the mixed dialect of Brajahaull. They deeply
Influenced his contemporaries. 0! other composers in a similar
strain mention may be made of stunandsn Du (c. 1537) and
Jsgadlnenda (c. 1650).1151 Their works are called _pada.t.
Kirtcrm were composed in Manchu Saki tune. set to music by
Ganga Narlysn CakravsrtIJYBZ They Were sung to set tunes and
they resemble South Indian bhajana aongl.
The Gita-gauinda of Jayadeva (11th century), a musical and
lyrical Sanskrit dramatic poem, was primarily responsible for
the growth of the Ridhl-Krspa cult. In the most elegant and
melodious Sanskrit, helped by rhyme, alliteration and
Msonance, it depicts the love of Radha and Krspa In deple-
ting their sports, the poetry becomes highly erotic. though it
suggests that this is only symbolic of longing for and union with
God. in everyone of its twelve cantos, the unit for singing to
set tunes is a group of eight Helen). The poem is also known as
”$090115. It is used in bhajanr, psrticuisriy those which
celebrate Rldhfi's marriage with Kraut, and in dance concerts.
.Auem.
‘Saftksrsdeva composed devotional songs called Barges! in
a mixture of Malthili and Assamese. His disciple, Midbavs-
deva, wrote Harajari-ghaga All these are sung as Nana-
unkirtanaln the NEma-ghan established by Sankaradeva.1753
On'rm
janana are the main forms of pOpular music in
Chanda and
Orissn. They haVe influenced the bhajaua form of worship

1151. bid. pp. GIG-B.

1752. lbtd. p 496.
I733. Shimmer Ray, Mus-1c of Res-tom 1nd», pp. 132-65.
 CONCLUSiON 513

The former is a literary form, mixed up with popular music.

The latter, addressed to God as Jagannatha, conveys the pain
and sufl'eriug experienced in separation from God ”54

SUMMING UP
Our survey of the Zgama literature has shown that man!
customs and forms of worship of the Valgnavss and even of
Hindus generally cannot be traced to the Vedas: nor can they
be pronounCed nnti-Vedtc. Manu declares that the Seq-ti: are
also authoritative when they do not oppose or transgress Vedie
declarations and injunctions. The Igama: play a similar role.
Uncompromisiug champions oi the Vedas have to be sympathised
with for failing to understand the spirit of the Xgamas.

Incidentally, We may refer to a problem raised by some

scholars—that the Vaisnava Jgamas, though not later than the
Sikh: ones, are dependent on them. The Zgamar belonging to
the difl'erent enits derive ultimately from the Veda. The
-

Attareya Brahmapa accords the highest position among the gods

to Vrsnu who is also identified there with the sacrifice. Siva
too has a significant position in the sacred rites.1755 These two
seem to be treated in the Vedas as not inferior to each other.
Potency (S'aktt') must have been deified and treated as an
important deity along with Visnu and Sun,
The principles governing the three types of Agama: exaiting
one or other of these three. are common to them all In view
of the exciusiveness of each cult, it is reasonable to hold that
thetc principles were derived from a common source. The
epics show that in many respects Vignu and Siva do not have
disparate traits. Inscriptions. edicts and grants in favour Of a

1754, [bid pp.120-32.

1755 rav Dikehtiar, " The Vedic Sacrifices ma Tompio Worship '-
in Bharatiya thya V. PP. 32-70.
514 sauna sun acorn mums vntsmvrsrs

particular cult cannot prove that other cults had no followers

In those regions. Moreover, the cults professed also could
change from time to time on accountot‘ historical exigencies
such as the patronage of princes and the rise of eloquent and
charismatic teachers It is prudent to hold that the cults rose
from a common source and deveIOped independently, though
not without exercising influence On one another.
The figures are sometimes attacked on the ground that the
concept of the idol is not Vedlc and that idol worship does not
have any Vedic support. This view is obviously untenable. In
Vedlc rituals, there is no worship as such, because the gods are
invisible. Adoration requires a concrete form for the deity.
and this has assumed the shape of the idol. The Veda: also have
some descriptions of the forum of the deities. Moreover. the
study of the practical side of the figures: will show that idol
worship arose out of the necessity to enable people of all ranks
to worship God. it is the failure to understand this that [tea
at the basis of such criticism.
The universal tendency to resort to concrete symbols is well
brought out by Carlyle: " in the symbol proper, there is ever
more or less distinctly and directly some embodiment and
revelation of the Infinite. The Infinite is made to'blenti with
the finite, to stand visible and, as it were, attainable there.
By symbols accordingly is man guided, made happy, made
wretched. Be everywhere finds himself encompassed by
symbols. The universe is but one vast symbol of God?”58

We have attempted onlv astudy of one sspectof Hindu

religion and culture. In India. culture. religion and language
are extremely varied. Yet each of these has influenced the
others. Separating them completely from one another is almost

1758. Thomas Carlyle. Sarto: Resortus. p. 260.

 CONCLUSION 515

impossible. They have preserved individuality, while-

permittlng assimilation of external vie-men's
In all the varieties of Hindu religion and culture, and in
the variety of languages spoken, there is a golden thread of
unity. The Hindu ethos is unmistakable. The Veda: represenh
the most ancient source for everything Hindu, religious or
secular. The many recensions ofthe Vedas, the lengthy epics
and [21475305, the varied Kalpawfitrar, the numerous Dharma-
Mums, the upaveda: and the diverse systems of thought will be
perplexing to those lacking interest and actuated by prejudice
and self-complacency. Through all these however runs a golden
thread connecting them so as to place each in its respective
place, revealing to the scholar the unity in diversity. The efliul
oi millennia, the terrible onslaughts of foreign hordes bent on
annihilating the native culture, and intimate political and
industrial contacts with the West have not impaired this unity.
Htrein lies the secret of the continuity of Hindu tradition.
The study of one aspectof this tradition may create the
impression that it is the only cue that is important and worth
studying. This is not because the others are not brought in
here, but because all are but integral parts of one tremendous
whole which seems vast and incomprehensible like the infinitnde
of God Himsell. Hence this study is of a part only of that
infinity which seems to defy comprehension.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Agama Texts :
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Aniruddha Samhita
(£th':
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Iayakhya Sarnhita, 0.0 5., Baroda i931
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Khiiadhikara, '17 T.D.. ‘l'irupati
Pug?
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Laksmitantra Englilh Translation Samyukta Gupta
Leiden 1974
'—
.0 PadmaSamhita I & 11, Pancaraira Pariahodhana
Parlshad, Madras 1974. 1982
11. Parama Sarnhlta, 6.0.8. with English translation.
Baroda 1940
12. Parameavara Samhira. Srirangam 1953
13. Pauskara Samhita, Bangalore 1934
14. Prakirnadhikara, T.T.D.. Tirupati
15. Samurrarcanadhikarana, 'I’.T.D.. Tirupari 1943
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17. Satrvata Samhila, Kanchipuram I902
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20. Want: Samhira, '1’ 8.8., Trivandrnm
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2. Taiuiriyuanyaka
3. Saraparhahrahmana
4. 108 Upanilada
5. Bodhayana-dharrnumra
6. Bodhayana grhyarurra
asv—Gd
518 AOAEAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISI

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8. Warm Smrtl I & II, Adyar, Madraa 1964
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10. Mahabharata
ll. Vlannpurana
12. Bhagawatpurana
13. litante Stotra
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17 Yamuna Stotraratna ' ,,
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20 Ramanuja~Ghabhasya : ,.
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22 Srivatsanka Miera: Pancastava-G'anthamala, Kanchl
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24. .. Srlgunaratnakoaa
25. ,, Srirangarajaatava
26 Varadacarya (Vamm): Prapannaparljatam with Engllsh
Translation, 7. Nathamuni Srccl, Madras l7
27. Sudaraanasurt : Srutaprakaslka, 25, Narhamnnl Street,
Madras 17 1967
28 Vedantadcslka : Pancaratraraksa, Adyar 1967
29. Vedanladellka : Saccaritrarakaa, Granthamala. Kanchl
1941
30. Vedanladeslka: Adhikaranasaravall wlth Adhlkarana-
cinlarnani. Madras
31. Vedaniadeslka: kaleparakaa, Granthamala. Kanchl
1941
32. Vedantadcsika: Nyayaparlsnddhi, 7, Nathamunl Street,
Madras 17 1978
33. Varahaguru: Krlyakairavacandrika, with com. by
Dr. S. B Raghunalhacharya. Hyderabad
34. Jayanta: Nyayamaruarl
35. Jayanta: Agambadambara, Mlthlla quimte Darbhanga
36. Vatukanambl: Yallraja Vaibhavam
37. Radhakantadeva: Sabdakalpadruma
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 519

3. Books in Manipravaia :
1e Pillai Lokacarya : Tsttvatraya, Granthameia, Ksnchi
2. PillaiLokacarya: Srivaeanabhusanam, Granthamaia,
Kanchl
3. Vedantadeliks : Paramatabhanga I & II, Madras 1981
4. Vedantsdesika: Rahaeyatrayuara I 8511. Tiruvsilur
1958
5. Manavaiamamuni : Tattvatrayabhaaya Granthsmsla.
6. Pinbszhskiya Perumsl Jeeyar: Arsyirappadt Guruparam-
paraprabhava, Tlrnchl 1968
7. Trtiya Brahmstautra Parakaissvamlnt Muvayirappadi
gurupsrampars, Lifco, Madras 1968

. Books in English and other languages :

1. Advuthi B M & Datta C [9:
Tsttvatraya—Trans-
elation in English and Hindi, Delhi 1973
. Banerjee J N : Development of Hindu Iconography
. Bhsndarkar R. I. : Vaisnavism and Seivism. Delhi 1965
Bhandarkar R C : The Age of Imperial Kanauj
event”

Bhasyam K. : Saransgatlgadya with English Translation

. Bharsdwu K. D. ° The Philosophy of Ra manuja, Delhi
1958
00‘)
. Bhatt S R : Studies in Ramannja Vedanta, Delhi 1975
. Bhattacarya N. N i History of Sakts Religion, Delhi
1974
Aspects of Indian History and
.Buddhaprakash:
Civilisation 1962
10. German I B. : The Theology of Ramanujs. London 1974
ll. Chakrsvarti Clntaharan: mantras. Studies in their
Religion & Literature, Calcutta 1963
12. Chakrsvartl P. C. : Doctrine of Sahti, Calcutta 1940
I3. Das Gupta S. N. : History of Indian Philosophy
Vol. III
14. Dhal U. N. : Lakshmi. Origin and Dcveiomnent,
Delhi 19T8
5.20 AOAMAS AN” SOUIH iNDlAN VAISNAVISH

15 Gouda J. : Aspects of Early Valsnavlsm, Utrecht 1954

l6. Gouda 1.: Vedlc cosmology
I7. Goprnatha Rao T. A. : History of Srl Valsnavlsm,
Madras I923
18 Goswami B K : Bhaktl cult In Anclent India 1965
I9. Burn R. C. : Indlan Upapuranas, Calcutta 1963
20. Jagadeesan N : Hustory of Valsnavlsm in Tamll
Country, Madras 1977
21 . John Woodrnfl'e: The World as Power. Madras 1921
22 Jalswal S : Ongtn and Development of Valsnavlsm 1967
23 Jose and Mlnan Mandala. London l972
~

24- Kane P V. : History of Dharmasastra Vol I! & ll!

25. Lott Erch : God and the Unlvcrse, Ramanuja Vanl,
Madras 1976
26. Msllayya: Studles ln Sanskrlt Tcxts on Temple
Architecture, Annamalainagsr 1949
27 Mujumdar A K : Caltanya, H 3 life and Domrlne
28 MaJumdar R C. . Ag: of lmpcrlal Ksnsuj
29. NaraslmhachanaM: Contrlbutlon of Yamuna to
Vtslstadvalta 1976
30. Naraslmha lyengar M B : Engllsh Translatlou of
Tattvatraya 1976
31. Obcrhdmmch : Parasarabhatta’s l‘sttvaratnakara 1979
32. Obcrhammer G. ' Yamuna's lnterpretatlon of.Sankara's
Brahmasutrabhasya 2-2, 42-45
Phlllp Rawson : The Art of Tantra!
34‘ RajagOpla Iyengar M R. ‘ Rabasyatrayassra—Engllsh
Translation
35. Rangacharya M. Prof. : Srlbhasya English Translation
Ramsnujs Vanl, Madras
[-111
36 Satyauatha Iyer R : History of India [-111
37. Smith H. D. : Valsnava Iconography 1969
38. Smlth H. D ' Paucaratraprasada Prasadhanam, Madras
1963
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 321

39. Smith H D : Catalogue of printed texts of the

Pancasatra Agame Vol I, G 0.5. 1975
40. Smith H D : do Vol 11 index 1980
41 Smith H. D. : Descriptive catalogue of Sanskrit Books
and Manuscripts relating to Pancaratra Studies
Syracuse 1978
42. Smith H. D. a: K K,A Venkataehari: Panearatrauul
Vilakkam Madras I967
43. Schrader Otto: introduction to Pancarntra and
Ahirbudhnya Samhlta, Adyar [973
44 Seetba Padmanubbau: Alaya tattva nirupauam (Tamil),
Madras 1967
4s Sircarz Select Inscriptions
46 Soundararajan K V.: Art of South indie, Delhi 1980
47. Srlnivasun K R. Archeologlcal Remains, Monuments
and Museums. Parts I 8: ll, Delhi 1980
48. Srinivasacharl P N : Philosophy of Visistadvaita,
Adyar 1950
49. Vldyarthl P. 3.: Sri RamannJa’s Philosophy and
Religion, RamanuJa Vanl, Madras 1977
50. thson Religious seats of the Hindus 1958
2

5. Collected Essays :

l. J. N. Banerjee Volume
2. S. K. Bbuyan Commemoration Volume
3 Cherudeva Sastrl Felicltation Volume
4. Cultural Heritage of India. Vols. Ill 8: iv
5.. Rlam K, S. A Iyer Feiicilation Volume
6. Mm S Kuppuawami Suslri Presentation Volume,
Madras
7. Munsbi lndoiogicai Felicitation Volume
8 Satkari Mookerjee Volume
9. Srudtes In RamanJa, Ramanuja Vani, Madras
10 Mm Umesh Misra Memorial Volume
ll Mm. Umesh Misra Commemoration Volume
12 Papers on Vislatadvalta Philosophy and Religion.
Ramanuja Vanl, Madras
522 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

6. Journals :
1 All India Oriental Conference Summaries of Papers.
XXI. XXII & XXVIII Sessions, Poona
. Archaeological Sunny 0! India
Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,
Poona, Diamond thilee Volume
, Brahmavldya, Adyar, Vol. 15, 19, 25. 26, 30
Epigrapbica Indlca Vol. IX, X & XXIV
.Ganganath Jba Sanskrita Kendriya Vidyapeetha,
Allahabad Vol. 14. 25
. International Association of Sanskrit Studies, Torine
Vols. III & IV
. Indian Historical Congress Vol XVII
International Congress of Orientalists—Surnmarles,
XXV Session
IO. International Sanskrit Conference—Summaries. Vol. I
11 Madras Govt. Museum Bulletin, Vol. VII

12 Bharatiya Vidya Vol. V

13. Mythical Society, Vol. VII
I4. Sri Venkateswara Oriental Research Institute, Tirupati
Vol. VII
1 5. Vlmousa. Ssmskrita Kcndriya Vidya Peetha, Delhi I
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABr. Altareyabrahmana
Aha. Ahlrbudhnyaaamhlta
AV. Atharva Veda
BB RAS. Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society—
Jonrnal of
Bh. Bhagavatapurana
BhG. Bhagavadglla
BrUp. Bthadatanyakopanlui
Chand Up Chandogyopanlsa!
Ch.U
Com Commentary
GOS Gaekwad Orlental Serlea
Isvarasamhita
Juanakanda (ofKaayapa)
Jayakhya Samhlta
Krlyadhlkara
Laksmitamra
Mahabharata
Manusmrtl
Nyayaparlauddbl
Paramaaamhna
Paramesvansamhim
Padmasamhlta
Pauakatasamhlta
Pancaratra Raksa
Ramayana
Rahasyauayasara
Rgveda
Samurtarcanadhlkarana
3313f } Satapatba brahmana
524 AGAMA! AND sown INDIAN unmvxsu
Ska Sanatkumuasamhlta
Sprl Srlprnmasamhlta
SR Saccarltraraksa
SS Snnvaunmblu
SV Samavcda
SVOI Sr! Venkatelwara Oriental Institute
SY Snkla Yajnrveda
WA Talnlrlyarouyah
IBr Tahtlrlya Brahman.
TS Talttlrlya Samhlta
TU Talttlrlyopanlsat
VK Vlmanarcanakalpn
VP Vlsnupunna
VS Vlsnmamhlta
VIS Visvamltrnaamhlta
VISS Vllvaksenauamhlta
YS Yoaauutn
 INDEX
Lilt of Works Cited

Abbanga 510 Ahirbudhnya Samhlta 26, 73.

Abhayapradanasara 332 121.124. 125,175, 194,195,
197-203, 205-209, 214, 215.
Abhigamanasara 310, 430. 217-220. 222, 224 228, 230,
Abhijnanasakuntala 39,80,340. 231 213-237. 239-241, 247,
248, 252, 255-261, 264-267,
do. Vyakhya 63, 80. 274, 280, 290, 292301. 303,
Abhhistava 333 304, 309, 314, 316, 321. 322,
327, 328, 332-335 346,353.
Acamananirnaya 435 354, 356. 360. 370. 372. 377
Acarendu 356, 459. 232, 380, 399, 403, 416.429.
Acaryahrdaya 321, 322, 334.
do vyakhya 334 Ahnlka 336, 447, 448,
Adalkkalappattu 332 Abnikakarlka 310, 311. 422,
423, 430.
Adhlkaranasaravall 329, 434.
Axtarcyabrahmana 46,50, 115,
do. Vyakhya- 162.165, 513.
Adhlkaranacmtaman1329 Auareyaranvaka 50-52, 162.
Adltyapurana 441 Aksirogamrmulana271
Agamadambara 52. 53, 83,189, Amuktamalyada 481
495. Anandaaamhna 105, 106,351,
Agamapradlpa 336 465.
Agamapramanyn 86, 89, 126, Anlruddhaaamhita 122. 247,
137,142 148 160, 161,165, 349. 365. 370, 375, 378, 381,
190, 270, 271, 305-308, 323, 384, 386.
379,'495. Aunapnrnopanlsat 15
Agnipurana 192, 245, 301, 441. Anugha see and er Maha-
Agnliiesagrhyasnlra 84, 88, 441 . bharata
Agrawala R. C. 493 Aparajltaprccba 358, 361.
Akananurn 73, 471. Apostambadhatmanntras 51, 87. ‘
ASV ~67
526 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Apastambasrautasmras 38, 47, Bhagavadghnbhasya Tauva-

87, 129. 150, prakasIka 450-454.
Aradhanakarika 108, 373. Bhagavadgitabhasya -- Jnanel-
var1 488
Arcanadhlkara 105
Arcananavanha 340, 426. Bhagavadgltartbaaamgraha 55,
159, 160, 313
Arcanatllaka 340 Bhagavadgunadarpana see
Arcanlkas 276 Under Vlsnu Sahasranama
Arseyabrahmana 84 atotra.
Arthapancaka 320, 332 Bhagavatapurma 14 16. 29. 40,
41. 54 55 67 68, 70-72 77-
Arlhasaslra 11 159. 79, II? 158 178. 180, 182,
Asradhvavl 11, 119, 129, 274. 292. 297, 301303, 306,
182-184. 493 406-409, 437, 441, 443, 450,
453, 455. 457. 486, 490, 491,
Aslapadl see under Gila 493, 495, 500.
Govindn
do. Vyakhyasubodhln1 456
Asvalayanagrhyasutra 50. 134
Atbarvavcda l, 6, 51, 54. Bhakuhamna 459
Atlmanuustava 311 Bhakllmala 469
Atmalanvavlveka 416 Bhakllpradlpa 500
Atreyammra 105, 108 Bhaktlrasamrlnsindbu 461
Atriaamhlta 92. 110, 245, 316, Bhakdratnakara 500
327. Bhaklisandarbha 461
AVantIsundarll-zalha 91 Bhamatl 60, 166.
Bharadvajasamhlla 121, 239,
Badarayanasutra see under 244, 246. 290.
Brahmasutra
Bhaskarl 267
Batgcet 512 Bhatladlpika 47
Baskalasambh (or Sakba) 414,
419. Bhavaprakasxka See under
Bhagavaddharmadarpana338 Srutaprakaflka
Bhaeavadglla 66-69, 72, 85, 91, Bhramaragita 509
138, 174 212, 231,291,303, Bodhervana dharmasntra 70,
322, 407, 408. 416, 420, 442, 84, 87, 134.
4gg-452, 454, 457,480, 490,
4
do. Grhyasuu'a 84, 409.
do. Srautasutra 38, 84, 44!.
Bhugavadgltabhasyn (Rama- do. Com 417
nuja) 72, 295, 299, 308, 309,
423, 453. Brahmandapurana 41, 72, 413.
 INDEX 527

Brahmapurana 41, 72,127, 142, Chandogyopanlsat 8. 16. 39,

242. 50.52. 75,131.140,l49. 152,
Brahmaraua 448 155, 222, 223, 226, 242, 293.
Brahmasamhlta 313 Citradhlkara 105
Brahmaeutra 8, 61. 138, 152- Chrasikhandlsamhha 246
156,158 166 188. 198,291,
307, 313, 335. 336, 340, 410, Daksakalpasutta 441
440, 448, 451, 452, 454, 458,
467. Dasanlrnaya 336
do. Vyakhya Srlbbasya 60, Dasarathlsataka 507
75, 92. 138, 139,195, Danasahasrlka 271
243, 291. 295, 297, 316, Dasasloki 452-454.
331. 424, 453.
do. Vedantadlpa 295 do. Vyakhya-Laghumanjuaa
450, 454
do. Vcdanlaaara 295
do. (Samkara) 60, 152, 188. Devalayacandrlka 483
256. Devyupanisat 15
do. Vedanlaparljata- Dhruvunmra 245
saurabha 157, 452. lesavidhma 337
do. (Dcvacarya)S1ddhanta
Jahnavl 450-153. Dlvyasurlcarlta 364. 411.
do. Govlndabhasya 465 Durnaksatraprayasclttam 112
do. Vuuamna 467 Dvadasastotra 448
do. Brahmamlmamsa with
Slvarkamamdipika 61 Eknvnnasakha (or Veda) 75-77,
111. 117,122 141 149 I72,
Brahmavaivartapurana301,427,
441. 190, 193, 285, 306, 317, 329,
330 341, 495
Brhdaranvakooanlsat 5, 71,
140, 149, 155. 291, 297. Gndvalrava 299, 308, 311. 327-
Brhadbrahmasambha 246, 247. 329, 410.
Brhaddevata 82 Garbhis 510
Brhatkathamanjari 496 Garudapancasat 333
Brhatkathaslokaaamgraba 127, Garndapurana 178, 2l7. 253,
130. 301, 333, 441, 443, 500.
Brhatsamhita 89 Garudacanacandrlka 276
Garudarcanlka 276
Caranavyuba 82
Calusslokl 295, 296, 304, 313, Gauraganoddesadlplka 466
328 Gautamadharmasutra 87
do. Bbasya 328 Gltagovlnda 501-512.
528 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISH

Gopalataponynpanisat 122 Itlhauamnla 483

Gopalavlmsatl 333 Itihasasamnccaya 178
Gopathabrahmana 50
Gopikaglta 509 Jabaluutra 189

Grhyaratna 417 Jalmlnlyabrabmana 84

do Kamhabharana 417 Jaimlnlyanyayamala 47, 49, 50,
Gupxasadbana Tantra 45 Jalminlyasramasutra 38
Jalvansh 493
Guruparamparaprabhava 471
do. Arayirappati 250, 475. Jayakhyasamhha 27, 34, 76,
133, 145, 173, 189, 195, 207,
208 218 231. 233 743. 246-
Hameaparamcsvara samhita 249. 2 3, 254. 258, 267, 269,
189
278, 283, 287. 290, 315, 325.
Harajharighosa 512 327, 328 335, 341, 342. 346.
Harlbhakuvilasa 462, 466 350, 351, 353, 354-356. 358,
Harllasmrtl 441 359 361. 375. 379 384-386,
Harltalutra 87 401-403 414. 419, 424,426,
431, 438, 495.
Harlvamsa 41. 469.
Harsacarha 90. 130, 187, 188 Jayantlmmaya 437.
Jayasamhixa 106
Hayagrlvasamhita 193, 325.
Hayagrlvauolra 333 Jayatsamhita 242
Iltante sxntra72. 174, 175. 215,
Hayaslrsapancaralra 463 260 297-299 301, 302. 372.
Hayanlrsaqamhlta 247, 246, 449, 495.
253, 290. 302, 396, 463. Jnanamnasnra 246
Hindolanapado 510
Inanasamblta 106
leanyagarbha Samhlu 247, Jnanasara 334
378.
Jnanasarapramanayojana 335
Hiranya Keslsrauta Iutra 84 Jnanesvarl 461. 468.
lsanaslvagurudevapaddhatl 11, Kalslkapurana 381
29. 32, 34 Kalafldhana 433
lsvarapratyabhljnakarika 18 Kalmokal 73
lsvamsamhita 34, 76, 122. 125, Kalouarasamhlta 144, 318, 325,
145, 173, 178, 193. 2ll, 217, 327.
246-248, 244, 251,263. 268, Kalpltnsamhlta 106
269, 272, 278, 289, 308, 327, Kamikagama 106
328, 341, 342, 346, 351. 352, Kanvasamhita 246, 249.
354, 356, 357, 359, 360, 363
364, 366,372 373,375, 380, Kanvalanua 245, 287.
382-384, 386 387, 389. 393, KapInJalauamhha 244, 247-249.
394, 396, 398,399, 401-403, 277, 290, 358 361-363, 380,
412, 425-427, 431. 447, 334, 337, 401.
111,
95. Karanagama 61
 [Hill 529
Karmakandn 106 Kurmspurano 54,55136,151,
Karmanlrnaya 449 204,301, 335,395,441.
Karmasamhlta 256
Kaalkavrm 11, 183, 184, 493. Laghumanjnsavyakhyakala 18
Kasmlraga ma Pramanya 495 Laksmltanua 18 26 27 35 73.
Kasyapa Samhha 85, 87, 88, 124. 149, 151, 158, 175, 177,
104 106,107,109-113,116: 180. 181, 188, 193, 196,
271, 306. 198 208, 210 211, 213, 214,
216-221, 224, 225 227,
Kasyapasllpnsastra 361, 362. 229-212. 235-243, 245, 248,
Kasyapasilpasulra 358 249. 252. 260-267, 273, 274,
Kathasakha 411, 413 290. 292-297, 299. 300,
303 305, 309, 315 316, 322,
Kathopanlsat 139, 226. 328. 332. 335, 336. 341-344,
Katyayanasrauta sutra 47 346. 353-356, 360 365. 370,
Kauslkasuua 5| 379, 399, 424, 429, 447, 495.
Kavyamlmamsa 189 do. com 210, 214, 235, 305,
Khagesasamhlta 245 343.
Khlladhlkara 105, 113. do Translatlon 219, 360,
Khllatantra 105 365, 366.
Klrtanas 512 Lalitasahasranamabbasya 59
Krama dlplka 466 lehltasutra (amt-11) 87
Linganusasana 119
Kr'fihnaswamy Ayynngar 478,
481 483. Linnilpuranl 175, 301, 335, 409,
44 .
Kriyadhikara 74, 77 91, 92, 97.
105 109 112 115 121 126,
144 160 182, 208, 218, 292,
Mahabharata 16, 40, 41, 44,
65-69, '72, 76. 86. 88, 89. 126.
326 345-347, 350-352 358, 130, 132, 135-137. 148 154,
360-363. 365, 367, 368. 370, 164. 166-169, 171-174, 182.
373, 376-378, 382-384, 183,187, 188, 190, I93, 211,
386—389. 394-399, 401-403,
242, 244, 256, 272, 276 278,
406. 408, 412, 413, 421. 292, 293, 297, 300. 307. 316,
435-438 325, 330, 357, 372, 407-409,
Krivakalravacandrlka 337, 360, 419, 423, 441, 435
387, 388, 487. Mahabharalatalpnryaulrnnya
Krsnakmana 512 449
Krsnalllatarnnglnl 509 Mahabhasya 49, 183, 493
Krsnamnamebarnava 447, 449. Mahananyanlyopanlsat 15
Krsna YBJUIVedB 82, 110 Mabanlrvanatantra59
Kularnavatantra 11 Mabarudrayamaln 59
Kurauazhvan Sce under $11- Maharthamanjarl 34
vatsankamlsra. Mahasamhlta 271
MW -68
530 AGAMAB AND 3001‘]! INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Mah asanalkumarasamhlta 271 Nacciyar Tirumozh1 506

Mahcndra(tantra)samb1la 246, Nalav1rad1vvaprahandha 291.
249, 276, 277, 287, 290. 297, 198. 302, 322, 372, 391,
392, 394, 482, 485.
Mabcsvaratamra 245
Mahltamra 245 Namnlinpanusasana 119, 345,
334, 427
Mahcdadhl 359
Mahopanlsat 316. 414 Naradapancaralra 192,454
Naradasmrti 88
Mallnlv-jnyauntra 35 Na radaparivrajakopanlaat 18
Mallnlvljayavarthlka64 Naradarcanike 276
Maradh'kara 105
Manasaru 361, 362. Narddlvmamhha 207 287 358,
362, 363, 38'). 384, 437 447.
Mandukyopankat 243
Manimekhalai 67, 177, 472 Naraslmhakhvatantra 245
Mantra Kaumudl 3S6 N'raalmhapurana 301
Mantraprauana 116 Narayanasamhha 161. 247. 394.
Manmutra 87 Narayanivam 68. 300. 486.
Manncmrll 47 50 80 87 88, Narayaniyopanlsat 22, 28,158.
113 12° 136. 141 150. 160, N r~vanopan1ut 22, 28, 94,
164 166 407 409. 430, 454, 149, 336
513. Naukacarim 507
Manusyalayacandrlka 483 Navaralnamalal 323
Marlchamblta see under Nlbandhana 343
Vimanarcanakalpa Niksepaclnlamanl 337
Markandeyapumna 41, 72, 413, Nikscparakqa 327
500. leopanism 217
Markandeyasamhlta 244, 238, N1rodha1aksanavvakhv¢n 456
290, 363. N'rukta 8,13 169 453.
Matsyapurana 395. 413 eruktadhlkara 105. 113
Mayatantra 245 Nlruktadhlkarana 105
Mayavaibhavika Se mhlta 246 Nlua or Nltyagranlha 309 310,
Mlmamsasntraa 45-47 324 373. 410, 429, 430 474.
475
Moknopayapradlplkn 340
Nityakarmasamgraha 311, 430.
Mrgendtasnmhha 3S Nrkcsarisamhha 245
Mnluakhu, Mulavedu lee Nyaaadasaka 333
under Ekayaua.
Nyasatilaka 333
Mumuksuppndi 319, 322, Nynsavidyaparlskrll 337
do. vyakhya 33$ Nyusavldyavljaya 337
Mudaiopnin: 139. 154. Nyaaavlmsau 337
 531

Nyayabhasya 11 Pancaratraraksahrdaya 335

Nyayakalika 189 Pancaratrasamhita 133, 135,
Nyayamanjarl 52, 53,189, 495. 325. 423.
NyavamanJarlgranthibhanga Pancaratrasara 261
49S
Nyayaparlsuddhi 325, 326, 495 Pancaratrasruti 188
do. vyakhya 417 Pancaratraautraa 318
Nyayasiddhanjana 300, 325. Pancaratropanlsal 188
Pancaratravacnna 454
Nyayawdarsana 291
Pancastava 311, 341.
Padm 508. 511 512 Paninl 184, 494.
Padamanjarl 183 Panlnlyaslku 8
Padatadltaka 187 489 Pannlrunamam 332
P~r1mapur Ina 41,72,178, 301, Paramaamhlta 31,120.140-142,
353 403 441 155 161 180 246-248. 263,
270 287, 308 328. 342.
Pudmanmhlla 34 46. 74. 94
119, 146, I49. 151 193-195. Paramarthasara 64
199 206 207 209 216 219 Paramatabhanga 331
229 231 2‘3 243 244 246, Paramcsthyaamhlta 325, 327,
248, 249 261, 277. 282 287. 411,413 447.
290 325 327. 329 337, 341
342 145 352 357-359. Paramcsvarasamhha 145 217,
361-367, 374. 376 384 386 219. 231 246, 218-250, 277,
398 399 401403, 420, 4 6, 278 290 325. 327. 341 342.
427, 441, 443 346. 359, 362 366, 372, 375.
380. 382, 384. 3x6, 401, 403.
Padmodbhnvapurana 276 406. 411, 413, 417. 431.
Pad modbhavasamhha 246, 249, ParamesvaralamhlIabhasya-
276, 277, 287, 308, 327. vivrtl 343
Padmottara 409. 445 Pnrandapadi 322
Padukapraxlstha 378 Para ndarahasya 322
Pallandu195. 303, 418.
ParartbayaJanathkuanirnb.
Pancakalakrlyadlpa 336 337
Pancakalaprakasika 336 Parasarapuuuu 441
Pancaprasnaaamhna 246 Parasarasamhlta 357
Pancaratrakantakoddhara 336
ParatrmlkavnhI 64
Pancaratraraksa 132 144. 162,
178 194 301. 308,310,311. Parattvadlpancaka 316
323 324 375. 377, 379. Pnrlpadal 73. 179. 180, 471.
404 406. 410, 411. 424-426,
429, 430 432, 433,435, 436. Pasupatiamta 59, 60.
442, 443, 46). do. bhasya 60
688 AGAHAS AID SOUTH INDIAN VAISNA'IH

Pavekarasamhha 27, 74, 98, Puru<asukta 75, 123, 222, 224,

120, 145, 189.193, 239, 242, 226,260, 266 353, 370, 372,
246-251, 258, 263. 267, 268, 373, 420, 430.
308, 313. 314, 325, 327. 328, Purnsouamaqamhlta 69. 244,
341. 346. 351. 354, 358, 361, 287, 353. 386, 387, 401, 454.
362. 364, 375, 37 8. 385, 393.
395, 399, 401-3, 426-428, 432. Purvarclka 2
436, 495. Purvatantra 105
Perlya Tirumozhl 181, 303, 473, Puskalasamhlta 245
506.
Ra dhasudhanidbl 469
Perlyazhvat Tirumozhi 303, 418
Pernmal T1rumozh1303 Ra hanyamnayn see under
Ekayana,
Pingalamna 11. 21, 59.
Plnlapasumlmamaa 423
Rahasyaratnavall 331
do. with vyakhya hrdaya
Pradhanasataka 332 331
Pradvumnaaamhlta 39S Rahasyasandesa 331
Prahladabhaktavijaya 507
Prah1adacarlta 508 Rahasyatraya-ara 178, 242. 272,
279 281. 310. 330, 331. 389,
Prajapatyasamhlta 250 390. 420, 423, 411, 442, 445.
Prakirnadhikara 105, 113. Rahasyatrayasara with vyakbyl
Pramcyaramakara 465 Sarasvadlni 390
Pranatosani 59 Ramacarltamanasa 468
Prapancahrdaya 34 Ramanatakaklnana 506
Prapancaasarn 59 Ramayara 40. 41 88 178, 295,
Prapanaparljata 314, 315, 318, 332, 372, 373, 468, 504, 506
373.
Ranavirabhaklaralnakara 428
Prapannaparhrana 318 Rasarnava 267
Praugrhyadblkara 105 Rgveda 1-7. 12,13. 15. 16, 22.
Prat!purusabhagavadaradbanl 40. 50 51 65, 66. 70, 71, 81,
337 82.115. 123. 131, 163, 164,
Pu Ilubanukramanika 340 169, 415, 422.
Pratlathapradlpa 337 Rgveda (khlla) 15, 71, 174, 373.
Prafluhavldbldarpana 340 415, 416
Pratynbhijnabtdaya 62 Rgvedabhalyopadglta 3
Pratyabhljnasntra 64 Rgvldhana 40
Prayaschtasamgraha 337 Sabdakalpadruma 11, 31, 34,
Purananurn 73,181, 471. 121, 153, 345.
Puntantra 105, 110. Saccarltraraksa 142, 326, 342,
Purusakaramlmamsa 337 357, 370, 411-413, 415, 417,
do. Hum 337 419, 442, 448.
 IN!“ 533
Sadacaragrantha 338
Saglq’ilyasamhlta 246, 339, 378,
Salvaparlbhasa 18
Saivaaamhlla 245 Sandllyasmrtl 178, 324, 406.
Sakalasamhlta 245 409, 417, 441.
Sakatayanasamhlta 245 Santana Kanda 106.
Samavcda 1,2, Saradaulaka 19, 34, 35, 59.
164,169,506. 12,38,163, Saranagatldelka 333
Samavedarseyapradipa 82 Saranagallgadya 309, 310,
Samavldbanabrahmana83 Sarasamgraha 323, 332.
Sambapurana 441 Sal-aura 332
Samjnanasamhlta 106 Sarasvatlrahasyopanlsat 15
Sankalpasuryodaya 332 Sarlrakadhikaranaratnamala
Samkarsanasamhita 317, 325. 336
328,377. Sasmantra 11
Samkaraanasutra 189 Salyakanda 106
Samkhasmrti 87 Satapamabrahmana 16, 39, 50,
Samkhasutra 87 70, 71,122,123,133, 163,165.
Samkscpabhagavatamna 463 Satasahasnka 277
Sammohanatantra 24S Satalapasamhha 246
Samsarasamrajya 323 Satatapasmrli 441
Samskararamamala 33 34. Sattvarthaprakaslka 341
Sauvatamtya 311
Samurlarcanadhlkarana 35,74, Sauvatasamhita 76, 77, 145,
77 78 80, 83 91-93, 96, 180, 189. 207, 217-219,
104-110,113 115,116,118, 246-249 251, 252, 258, 263,
121,126,143,144 146,151, 267, 268, 278, 289, 290, 308,
172,173,186, 207,208, 219,
223: 225 252,269, 282, 285: 310, 314. 316, 325, 327, 328,
292: 308 327, 333, 344- 347, 332, 340,341 343, 344, 346,
349, 351 353,361, 362, 385,
351 352, 357, 358, 361- 368, 393, 400, 402-404, 426, 463,
375, 376, 379. 380, 382-384, 465.
394- 396. 398-401, 403. 412,
426,427, 431. Sauvalasastra 192
Sanalknmarasamhila 27, 32,
Satlvatatantra 117, 339, 454
34. 35. 48 118,124, 125, 142, do with bhasya 340
167I 207-209, 215 231, 239, Salyakanda 106
241, 246-249, 270-277, 287, Satyakltamra~328
305, 308, 315. 316, 324, 327, Salyasadhasrautasulra 47
328, 333. 335,336, 344-346, Saubbagyalaksmyubanlut 15
353, 354, 356, 358. 360,
364-366, 379, 380, 387, 388, Saumantavanmhha 246
399, 401. 403, 411. 413, 422, Saundaryalaharl vyakhya 59
425, 450. Saurapurauam 41, 72
ASV —69
534 AGAIIAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

S-sasamhlta 395 Srlrangagadya with Rahasya-

Sesasamuccaya 395 483, 484 raksa 453
Slddhantajahnav1450, 452, 453. Srlrangarajaatava 243. 312, 313.
with Setu 452 Srisauvata 454
Slddhantamuktavall 456 Srlaukta 15, 71, 172, 260, 266,
Siddhnntatamavali 336 267, 420.
Siddhltrayn 295 Sristava 311
Sllappadlkaram 73. 181. 217, Srlstuli 296, 333.
401.471. Srllattvacmlaman159
Sllparatnam 263. 353I 359, 362, Srivacanabhusana 318, 319,
363 322. 334.
Snopanlsat 15. 62, 76. 77. do vyakhya 334
Slvadrstl 62-64 Srlvaisnavadimcarl 332
SivaJnanabodhasutra 61 Snyahpaxippadl 322
do. bbasya 61 Srlngaramala 510
Slvarcanacandrlka 35 Srutapradlplka 92
Sivataitva 62 Sruvaprakaqlka 92 141, 166,
Skmdapuranam 14, 39, 41, 72, 291, 316, 335, 338. 339.
166, 413, 441 Srutlsiddhama 452
Slokasamgraha 130 Stotnratna 296, 299, 305,328,
Smrllcandnka 34, 86, 413. 372.
Smrtimuklaphala 88 Subalopanluat 29
Smnyarnava 433 Sud arsenamimamsa 33B
Sodasayudhaswtra 333 Sudarsanasataka 314
Somatantra 245 Sudaraanslaka 333
Spandapradiplka 188, 261,495. Sudareanasuradruma 338
Spandasastra 62 Sukaprasnasamhha 246
Srlbhasyl Ice under Brahma- Suklayujussakhflveda) 2, 5, 7,
ultra 12 16, 51,117, 169,193, 306.
Sriknrasamhha 325 Suksmalantra 59
Stlkalapara 189 Sundarabahustava 311
Srikarabhasya 61 Suprabhcdagama 34, 35, 61.
Sukrlnalandarbha 463 Suratasamgrnha 510
Srlgunantnakosa 312, 313, 341, Suryatanlra 24>
Sve lasvataropanlsat 22, 293.
Srlprasnasamhila 27. 34, 217, 344.
218. 231. 239, 247, 248, 287,
238. 345. 352, 35%, 357,
360-364, 367, 369, 372, 378. Taiuiriya brahmana 16, 52,
382. 386, 387, 389, 394, 395. 163, 165.
397-401, 426, 427»; 439. Tniuirlyasakba 82, 110
 565

Talttlriyaranyaka 41, 51. 75, Turlyntltavadhmopmllat 18

84, 115. 136. 154,155, 193,
212. 236. 260, 423.
Talttlrlyasamhlta 2. 7. 71. 163 Ujjvalanllamsnl 461
Tahtirivnpanlsat 115. 158.198, Unadisutra 119
336, 344. Upendrasamhha 247
Tandvnbrabmana 83, 84. Ulsavasamgraha 337
Tanicarama 322 Uttarabrahmavldya 340
Tanidvaya 320, 322, 331. Uttamabrahma Vldyavlkau
Tanlpranava 322 340
Tantraloka 64 Uuararamacarha 416
Tantranamuccaya 35. 358. 388. Uttaratantra 105
483-485.
Tantrasara 34, 59 Vacama'ya 11. 29, 32. 345. 365.
Tantrasarasamgraha 442 Valbhavaprakauika 389
Tantravanhika ll, 46, 134. Vaibhavatantra 245
Tarkakanda 106 Valhayasasamhita 189. 246.
Tarknyasambha 245 VaIkhanaladhynna muktavall
Tatparvacandnka 423 340
Tattvad1p3157,416. Valkhanasagthyasutra 421
Tattvamartanda 335 Valkhannsamahlmamanjarl 340
Ta ltvamuktakalapa WI th Vaikhanasasarasamgrah 340
Sarvarthaslddhl 330 Valkhanaaaslddbanmlcsadarla
340
Tanvapradlpika 343
Tattvaprakaslka 452 Valknhanasasrautasutra83, 84.
do. bhasya 83
Tattvaralna 316 Valkbanasasmra tatparyl
Tatwarlhadipa 455, 457, 459. cintamanl 340
Tattvasagaraqamhlta 246 Valkanasatatlvarlhn
Tattvasekhara 320I 322 bodhana 340
Tauvalika 166 Valkunthagadya 296. 300, 310.
Tamratraya 279, 318. 322, 334. Vaikunlhauava 311, 312.
do. hhasva (Vyakhyana) Valnatcyasamhlta 245
279-282, 334. 335 Vmsnavasmdhanta 271
Taltvauayaculaka 281, 331. Valyaslkanlghantu 81
Tejodravlnasamhlta 216
Tlrucchandavuuuam 181, 182, Vajasaneyasamhlta see under
Suklayajur vcda.
302, 303
Tirumanllram 61 VaJra kuthara 338
Tiruvaymozhl 295, 299, 302, Vajramukumvllaua 338
303, 322, 390, 391, 479, 506, Vakyapadlya 18
536 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISH

Vamanapurana 41, 72, 178, 292, Vlhagcndrasamhlla 195, 218.

440. VlJaya aamhlta 106
Varadarajastava 311, 312. Vljlta samhha 106
Varahamihiralamhlla 245 Vijnanamrta 467
Varahapurana 41, 70, 72, 166, Vlmalasamhita 106
178, 212, 245, 292, 293. 301, Vlmanarcanacandtika 425
317, 404, 405, 441.
Vimanarcanakalpa (or Mariel
Varahasamhlta 250 samhha) 35, 81-85, 89, 91,
Varlvasyarahasya 46, 59 93-106.108-110. 113-116, 143,
Varnadhikara 105 151, 177,180. 186, 201, 272,
Varuika (Vyakarana) 49, 183 292, 293. 344-347, 349, 352.
357, 358, 360-368. 372,
Vasadhikara 351 375.377, 379, 380, 382-384,
Vasanadhlkara 105 387, 388, 394-396, 398, 399,
Vasantapado 510 401-403,406, 407, 425, 438,
Vaslsthapurana 413 443, 472.
Vaslslhasambita 394, 466. Vlnayapamka 469
Vaslsthasmrti 407, 409, 417, Vlragama 60, 61.
441. Vlramltrodaya 60, 441,
Vaslstbasntra 87 Virasamhlta 106
Vatulagama 61 Visnudharma 138, 316, 349, 417.
Vayupurana 345, 441. Vlsnudharmouara 178, 301,
Vedabhasya 338 407,417.
Vedanudlpa 295 Visnnpanjara 504
Vedantakarlkavali 118, 212.
Vedanta Kannubha Prabha 452 Vlsnupurana 14, 16, 29, 40, 41,
65. 67-72, 78, 79. 88, 90. 91,
Vedantapnrijata Saurabba 157, 159,166,176, 177. 179, 182,
452, 197, 216, 273, 291. 292, 295,
do bhasya 300. 301, 372, 402, 407-409.
Vedantakanstubha 452 437. 441, 504. 505.
Vedamasara 295 Vlsuurahasvasamblta 247, 378,
Vedantaslddhantasamgraha(or 445-7, 449.
Srutiulddharla) 452, 454 Visuusahaaranamaslotra97,
Vedanta aulra see Brahmasutra. 159, 247, 313, 378
Vedantanyamantaka 465 do. bhasya—Bhagavadguna-
Vedanbaaamgtaba 72, 291, 293, darpana 159, 160, 313.
482. Vlsnusamhlta 117, 120. 161,
do. Vyakhya Talparya- 193, 282. 343, 355, 360. 361,
dlplka 92 363, 383, 399, 401.
Venuglta 509 Vlsnuslddhanta 247, 394, 395.
Vldanaparijam 365 Vlsnusmru 409, 413, 441.
 INDEX 537

Vlunutantra 105, 112, 120, 244, Vrddhaharltasmnl 411, 417.

247, 290, 380, 387. 395, 3’7. Vrddhavalluhumnl 441
Visnmatlvasamhita 313, 328,
380, 395, 397. Yadavabhyudayl 332
Visnutllaka 195, 216, 229, 288, Yajnadblkara 105, 106.
357, 362, 366, 367. Yajnavalkyasmtll 47, 88, 133,
Vlanuyamaln 189 141, 159, 190.
Vlsvaksenasamhha146448.173. Yajurveda 1, 6, 12. 38, 163.
205. 248, 254, 279, 346, 349, 164
360, 363, 365, 367, 368, 374, Yamnsmnl 441
376, 380, 384, 395, 396. 401. Yamasutra 87
403, 427, 465.
Yathanhaprahsa 470
Vllvaksenasamhlta 282, 315, Yatlndramatadlplka 118
316, 328, 334, 420. Yallrajalapml 343
Vlsvamltrasamhita 244, 288. Yatlrajavalbhava 418, 419, 478,
'290, 383, 399, 426, 427. 479, 482.

Ash—70
 LIST OF WRITERS

55, 62-64, 178, Bani Them! 493

Ablglnnvagupta
7 Baudbayana 70
Aghorasiva 35 Bbandarkar R G. 496
Agrawala R. C. 493 Bhanujl dikslla 119, 427. 446.
Alain Danlclon 77 Bbaradvaja 48, 306
Alaslngabhatta 338, 340. 341. Bharadwaj K D 122
An.n:1ninha 338 Bhaskata 82
Anantazhvan (Anantacarya) Bhaskara 156, 189, 307, 410,
338 440.
Andal 397. 481. Bhaskaracarya S9
Angirasa 106, 113
Bhaskaracarya (Nlmbatka) 450
Annamacarya 507, 508. Bhattabhaskara 39
Annaya 507 Bhattofidlksha 119
Apararka 86. 133, 190. Bhavasvamln 417
Apaqtamb186 87 Bhnvatra'a 38
Appayadlksiu 61, 351 Bhrgu 85. 104-107. 109-113,
Applllar scc Ramanuja 147, 306. 386.
(Atreya) Bhuyan 501
Arulalapperumal Bodhayana 291, 409.
Embernmanar 334
Brahmacari K. K. 511
Arunacalakaviraya 506 Buddha prakash 494, 497, 502.
Asvalnyana 86.441.
Budhasvamln 127, 130.
Atrl 38, 48, 417.
Alrl (Vaflchanasa) 85, 87-88, Caland 417
101-108, 110 113. 116. Campakesacarya 337
Auduloml 451 Candldas 511
Azhaklyamanavalapperumal Caranndasa 470
Nayanar 321. 334 CarIyle 514
Cal-man 309
Bagcbl 58 Chattctjee 503
Badarayana see Vyasa Coelho 478
Baladeva Vldyabhusana 465, Cunningham 491
469.
Banabbalta 90,187, 188 Dandln 91
Bancrjcc T. N 186, 490. Dasaratba Satma 187
 LISl" 0F WRITERS 539

Das Gupta 142, 344. Hazra 133

Dauanreya 450, 465, 496. anur Sahabjl Maharaj 470
Dayarama 510
De S. K 463. 464. Isanaslvagurudeva 11
Deslkacarya (Kaplsthalam) 336
Devacarya 450, 452. JabalI 189
Dhaky 25 Ingadananda 512
Dhanuskayajvan 338 Jagannatbadas 468
Dikshltar-T. A. V. 513 Jalmini 3
Dlvakara 485 Jalswal 494
Durgacarya 453 Jayanta 52-54, 189, 495.
leagosvamln 461, 463, 465,
466.
Edward Norbeck 4
Ekanalh 488, 510. Jnanadh1ka see Nainaraccan
pillal
Fm: 134, 494. Kablrdas 511
Knlldasa 39, 80, 340
Goda see Andal Kanakadala 509
Gouda 4 Kane P. V. 118,134,150, 151.
God bole 249 165.
Gopalabhatta 437, 462, 466. Karmarkar 480, 489
Gopaladesika 336, 337, 437 Kasbmlrabhalta 157
Gopanna Kancarla sec Ramdas Kasyapa 38, 48.
Goplnatha R30 471, 477, 482 Katyayana 49
Goswaml Dr. R. C. 501 Kaul 496
Goswaml B. K 64 Kaundlnya 60
Govindadas 512 Kanslka 122, 263.
Govlndaprabhu 488 Kaulllya 11, 347.
Govmdasvamlu 87 Kesava 396
Goyal 496 Kesavacarya 340
Grdhrasaromunl 311, 430. Kesava Kashmlra bhatta
Guota Samyukta 199, 219, 222, 450-455.
424. Krishnamacharlu C R. 504
Krishnamacharyn, V. 343
Haudlquc 189 Krsnabbattacarya 340
Haradalta 87, 183. Krsnadevaraya 481
Hare Krishna Mebtab 501 Krisnadvaipayana see Vyasa
Hatl Rao V. N 474, 475. Krlmamuni 311, 430.
Hariraya 456 Krsnanandagama vaglsa 59
Harisvamln 123 Kscmcndra 496
Hayavadana Rao 61 Kseuayya 508
54:0 AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Kullsekhnra 484 Nabhajl 468, 469.

Kulluka 50 Nadadur Ammal Ice Vauyn
Kuranarayana 314 Varad acarya.
Kurauazhvan ace Srivatsanka Nagaswaml 472
mlsra. Nagesa 193
Nagrldas 193
Laksmidhara 59 Nakula 54, 60.
Lakula 61 Namadeva 488, 509-511.
Laknli 61 Nammazhvar 378. 397, 484.
Lakullsn 60 Nanjlyar 310, 410, 430.
Langala 60 Naraharidas 468
Lou 297. 309. Naraharitmha 502, 508.
Ludera 186 Naraslmha Mehta 490, 510.
Macdonell 4 Naraslmhavajnpeyln 337, 340.
Madhusudana Saraavatl 46 Narayana bhattatirl 486
Narayancarya 338
Mad hvacarva 156. 157, 440.
441. 445, 447-449, 461. 465. Narayanamunl 311. 338. 410,
337.
466, 483.
Narayana Nambutlrl 483
Madhavadeva 512
Mahlmabhatla 137 Nathamnn1247, 291, 389, 391,
418. 444, 474, 506.
Malna 502
Nllakanm Saurl ILA. 471, 474.
Majumdar A. K. 457, 460-462,
465, 466 Nlnbarka (leamanandacarya
Nimbndhya) 157, 444,
Majumdar R. C. 495, 497, 498, 450-455.
503, 504.
Mallayl 483 Nmmhayajvan 343
Manavalamamunl 180, 279.
Padhl D. M. 502
333, 397, 410.
Mann 88, 136, 167. 173, 174. Panlnl 184
Marlcl 81, 85, 104-107, 109-111,
Paruan 65
113,114, 116. Parauarabbauo 159. 243,
310-313, 316, 340, 430.
Max Muller 4
Mcdhamh1136. 14l.
Panhanratby M N. 479
Paunjall 183, 184, 232.
Mcghanadarl 45, 61.
Perlyavaccnnplllal 174,
erl 493, 511.
3:11
Mllra 466
182. 322.
181,

Periyuhvar (Vllnuclttn) 303I

Munahl K. M. 469, 510. 418.
Murarl 343 Philip Raw-on 58
Munulvaml dlkalla 508. 509. Pillan 483
 LIST 01'
anzns 541

Pinbazhaklya Perumal Mar Sawanatha [yet 472, 473, 477,

250 490, 496, 497, 503, 504.
Pitumbaradasa 464, 465. Saunaka 38, 315.
Purandaradala 488, 509. Sayana 3, 7. 39. 163.
Purganandahamaa parlvrajaka Schradet 0H0 121. 122, 205,
206, 208, 218, 225~227, 229,
Purusotlama 454 229, 245, 246, 261, 264, 271,
Puskaraksa 495 282. 318, 447.
Sen D. C. 511, 512.
Rndhadamodata 465 Sites: 185. 186.
Raghava chngar K. 472 Sitaram 493
Raghunatha 459 Sivagrayoglndraalvacatya 18,
Raghunatha Bbatta 340 61
Raghunathacaryulu 337 Skandasvamln 39
Rajasekhara 189 Somananda 64
Raj Singh 493 Somadevasurl 189, 402
Ramadasa Bhadnchala 507 Somapada 496
RamanUJa 67, 72. 88. 92. 138, Somasekhotasarmn 481
141, 155, 247. 278, 291, 293, Somasundaranar179
299, 300, 308-310. 316 324, SoundararaJan K V. 493
327 328 331 335, 336 338,
372, 373, 389, 397, 410, 416,
Sricakradhanasvamin 488
418, 419, 422-424. 429, 430, Srldbara 453
440 444, 449. 453-455. 459, Srlkantbaslvacarya 61
460, 465. 469, 471, 474, 479, Srlkarapandltaradhya 61
480, 482, 483, 485, 502, 507. Srikrana bbattacarya 340
Ramanuja Atreya 390 Srlkumara 359
Rana S S. 496 Srlnlvaaa 337
RangaumanUJa 335 Srinlvasabhattacarya 340
Ray N R. 503, 504 SrlnivasacharlP. N. 450, 452,
chukacarya 61 453, 459
R0318 C 495 Srlnlvasacarya 417, 454.
Rupagosvamln 461, 463, 499. do. (Tlrumalal) 336
Sankara 59, 67, 152 155. 157, do. (Valkhanasa) 80
188. 189, 206. 256, 307, 410. do. (Bhukkapatnam) 335
440‘, 485, 487-489, 502. Srlnivasaduaa 337
Samkaradas 512 Stlnivasa Iyengar C, R. 479
Samkaradcva 502, 512. Srlnlvaaamakhln 340
Samkarananda 500 SrinlvasanK R. 477
Sanatana gonvamln 461 Srinlvasan P. R. 450, 474, 477.
Snukalla 489 Supadaraja 508
thakopa See Nammalvar. Srlrangacharya 338
ASV—7l
542 AOAMAS AND 5001! IRDIAN VAISNAVISI

Srlranganarayanacarya (Vang!- Vallabhacarya 78, 155, 416,

vamsesvara, Vanglpnrauu 444, 455-459, 489. 490. 510.
Numb!) 243, 310, 312, 313, Vanamallmllra 452. 454. 434.
373, 422, 430.
Van Bultcncn 86I 126, 128. 190,
Stlsallesa 337 192, 495.
Srlvanankamlsra 300, 310-312, Varadacharl V. 42. 472.
333, 341, 410, 430.
Varadacarya 336I 339.
Snbba Rao 508 do. 337, 472.
Sudarsana Surl 92, 141, 166, do. (Vatsya) 92, 314-316.
291, 316 318, 338, 339, 482.
Varadanatba 329
Sukumar Ray 514 Varadaraja Iyer 471
Sundura bhnua 452 Varahaguru 337
Sundararagbava 336 Varavaramunl no Macaula-
Sundararajabbattacarya 340 mnmnnl.
Sundaravlraraghnvn 337 Vanyayanl 111
Snrdnl 511 Va tuoka puma (Vatukanambi)
Svaml Nags 343, 351. 31 Q

Svatl Titan] 508, 509. Vedacarya 338, 339.

Syarna Santtl 508 Vedantadcslka 132. 162, 166,
Svamllaka (Syamalaka) 489 210, 247, 271, 279, 300, 311.
323-333, 336. 341-343,
Thoothl 490 389-391, 397, 410, 412-414,
Tirumnllsal Alva: 182 42424, 465, 480.
Tirumangal Alvar 182, 250, Vednnlasasul 461.
482. 484. Vedavyasabhanaraka 339
Tirumular 61 Venkatacarya (Harlin) 336. 417.
Tondaradippodl Alvar 250 Venkatanaraslmhncarya340
Tnlyabrahmatantta- Venkataramanabhagavmtar 508
Parakalnavamln 471 Veukatasnbbn Iyor (Unlik-
Tryambnka 64 kadu) 506
Tukaram 488. 510. Vldyapatl 511
Tululdu 468, 511. Vljayulugh 493
Tyagaraja 507-509. Vijaylndra 423
Vljnanabhlku 440, 467.
Unmattannndn 71 Vikbanal 77, 78, 82-85. 90, 104.
Upcndra Thakur 504 107,108,110, 111. 136, 168,
Uzpaladeva 64, 188, 247, 261. 173.
Vilnicltta 329
Vacupulmlnra 166 Vyasa (or Badarnynna) 12, 13.
15, 64, 65, 89, 152, 156, 166,
V.1nateyabhanacarya 540 171, 174, 256, 306, 307, 442,
Vomit" I! 455, 496.
 us! or wmuns 543

Weber 67 Yadunandanadas 512

Wllllom Coelho 478 Yajnavallya 143, I12.
William: 222 Yoganandabhaua 340
WHIOD 450, 451, 453, 460, 464, Yamuna 86, 126, 148, [55, 190,
461, 469. 470, 511. 247, 269, 270, 291. 295. 299,
Wln ternltz 37 304. 305. 307. 308, 313, 323.
328. 372, 39!. 410, 474, 495.
Yadavaprakau 338 Yanka 8. 13. 39. 169.
 GLOSSARY

abhaya : pose of the hand of the icon conveying freedom from

fear for the devotees.
abhlcara : rite done for a malevolent purpose.
abhigamana : morning worship.
abhyavaharika : relating to food preparations and their
offerings.
acamana: sipping water with the utterance of mantras.
acamaniya: one of the kinds of attendance (upacara).
acarya: spiritual preceptor. director for guiding temple
construction and installation ceremonies.
adhikarana: section in the Purva mirnarnss sutras and Brahma
sutras treating a particular topic.
adhvm - stage in the manifestation of Sakti.
adhvaryu: sacrificing priest following the yajurveda.
adhtvasa : preparatory rite to invoke the presence of the deity
in an icon before worship.
agneya : belonging to Agni, a term used by the Vaikhansss
texts te refer to the Pancaratra Agama.
ahnika : routine of work to be carried out during the day.
alsvarya : lordship
akarsana: attracting an absent person into one's person by
mantras.
aksasutra : a string of rosary seeds.
amurta not having corporeal form.
2

anganyasa: nyala done on a limb of the body.

anguilnyasa : nyasa done on fingers.
antarysga : mental (or inner) worship.
antaryamin : inner controller.
snuyaga : partaking the food ofl’ered to god.
aparahna : fithe fourth part of the day time.
aprakrta : non-material, not a product of matter.
 GLOSSARY 54 5

aradhana: worship of God.

arani ' piece of wood for kindling fire.
aratrika ' waving of light before the idol.
area: idol for worship.
arealra : priest oflielattng for offering worship to God in temple.
arghya : water ofl'ered to the deity or guest as the first item of
attendance.
arthavada ' glorificatory passage not to be taken literally.
asena : posture: sitting posture of the idol.
eVabrtha: ceremonial bath in the concluding session of a
sacrifice performed on the last or ninth day of
festival in the temples.
avahana: invoking the presence of the deity.
avatar-a - divine descent of God

bahlryaga externaiworship
baia strength.
hallbera : name of one of the idols rn temples used {or ofi‘ering
the daily oblations.
bhagavata a devotee of God
bhogasthana - places of enjoyment.
bhogopakarana . means of enjoyment.
bhupura : common edging in the yantra.
hhutasuddhi . The process of mentally purifying the elements
constituting the human body and creating a pure one.
lea: essential syllable in a mantra
bindn: concentrated and undifferentiated part of Sakti just
about to create
brahman ' the priest of the Atharvaveda
brahmandakosa: the fifth stage in creation representing the
evolution of the samkhya categories

carya name oi the fourth division 0! Agama text. action.

caturatmya: group of the four vyuha deities constituted
together ior worship.
cicchakti sakti manifested through the sell.

devaiaka : those who earn their livelihood by worshipping God.

dhruvabera : Idol which is permanently fixed In the garbhagrhs
of the temple.
ASV—72
546 AGAHAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

dhnpa : offering of incenae.

dhvajarohana : mounting the flag in the flag ataii' marking the
commencement of the festival.
dhvaJaathamba : flag atafl'.
dhvnjavarohana : bringing down the flag in the flag stall mark-
ing the conclusion of the festival.
diksa : Initiation.
dikelta ' one who gets initiated.
dips ‘ light waved in the presence of an idol.
ekantin: exeiurively attached to single deity.
a
ekantidhnrma : the trait (nature) of the ekantln,
gatha : verse not belonging to the Vedas.
garbhagrha : sanctum aanctornm.
havis : nfl'erinn, eqpeclally of food preparation. to the deity.
hotr : priest oi the Rgveda.
hrdyaga: mental worship.
ljya 3 act of worship.
jagrat waking state.
:
japa: mental repetition of mantra or the name of God,
jivakoea: last stage of creation representing emergence of all
animate beings.
jnana: first part of the Agama text containing the knowledge
of ultimste Reality.
kainharya service to God, eiderl.
kaivaiya . self realisation.
kale : pure manifestation.
kalpadevalakat those who earn their livelihood by worshipping
God after getting initiated.
karanyaaa : nyaaa done on one hand with another.
karmabera : idol receiving daily worship.
karmadevaiakn : those who earn their livelihood by worshipping
God without getting initiation.
kaissa l pitcher.
 GLOSSARY 547

katihasta .hand pose of the icon, the hand touching the waist.
kosa: form assumed by Sakti.
kriya ' third division of the Agama text—dealing with the
construction of temples and installation of idols.
kumbya utterance to ensure good conduct
kntastha purdsa - purusa in the collective sense of all selves.
lilavlbhnti: manifestation for sport.
mahotsava : annual festival in temples
manasayaga Inner worship.
mandala : circular design to concentrate divine powers.
manipravala . admixture of gem and coral, referring to the use
of Sanskrit and Tamil expressions in Vaisnavite
writings.
mantra ' spiritual formula
mantra nyasa: nyasa bringing fitness to worship.
marane : rite to kill the unwanted person.
matrka: letters forming part of mantra
matrkapltha : pedestal for matrkas.
mayakosa : second stage in creation marking the beginning of
material creation
mudra hand pose
muia bera: principal idol fixed permanently in the garbhsgrha
of the temple
mnlaprskrti primordial matter.
murla : having corporeal form.
nada . indistinct sound possessing light.
nadi tubular duet.
nadika : duration of time equivalent to that of 24 minutes.
naivedya : offering oi food preparations to the deity.
nrgada : words used simply to address (call) another.
nirmalya . remnant of sandal. garland and others already used
for God.
mskala . partless
nityavibhuti : highest place of glory of God.
nityodita ever manifest.
548 AGAEAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISI

niyats : inner controller.

nyssa : self surrender, mental process of infusing potency into
the object by touching it.

pancakala : five fold division of the day.

pancsratnka : fellow: of the pancarstra tradition.
pancasamskara : five fold consecration.
parts: supreme form of Visnu.
parathayajana: worship ofi’ered to the deity {or the sake of
others, done in temples.
parlcaraka : assistant to the priest in the temple.
parisecana: Ipilukllng oi water around the food served for
eating.
pass ' bondage.
pasts: living being.
pat! - Lord.
purussrtha: aim. pursuit in iife.
pausttka karma: rt e conducive to welfare.
pavuraropana: decorating the idol with pawtrs. a garland of
nice threads of various colours.
pinda : consonants oceurlng between bljs and other letters.
pistapasu : emgy of the animal made of flour.
prahandha: any literary composition, Naiaylradtvyaprabandha
in Vaisnavism
prajna : state of deep sleep
prakara : enclosure in a temple.
prakasa : illumination or manifestation.
prakrtikosa : a stage of Sakti in which the gods get their
consoru
pranapratlstha ' installation of life in the yantra or idol, God’s
taking His place there
prapstti: sell-surrender.
prasutikosa: a stage of Sskti out of which the deities issue forth.
prstlma : idol.
pratas : the first part of the day time.
pratiatha : installation of the idol.
pra tyabhljna : recognition.
 GLosqu 549

pradurbhava : descent of God Himself

ptadurbbavantara: descent of parts'or portions or anything
which belongs to God.
prayascrtts ' act of expiation
pundra : the ornamental mark worn by a devotee.
pnrascsrans : preparatory rite.
purvahna ' the third division of the day time
puspayaga worship of God wrth flowers.
putraka : second kind of aspirant requiring initiation.

sadgunya : group of six qualities.

ssdhaka : third kind of aspirant requiring initiation.
sakala : having parts
saktl : potency.
saktikosa: the stage or body of Ssktl which is concerned with
suddhasarga.
ssktlpsta ; descent of God's grace.
salokya: state of moksa in which the self coexists with God.
samadhl : undisturbed resting of the self In God.
sangava ' second part of the day time.
samhara : withdrawal of speech.
samharanyala : nyasa done to create dissolution.
samkrantl - the time of transit of the sun from one to the next
division of zodiac
samipya ‘
fellowship with God.
aamJna name of the deity occurring in the mantra.
‘

sampradaya : tradition.
samproksana consecration
eamyama: performance of good deeds for the benefit of the
Brahman
ltantst ' inactive.
santlka rite for removing the evila.
santodlta : periodically manifest.
sarupya: transformation of the body, divine in appearance.
satkaryavads : theory that the effect has prior existence in the
cause.
ssttvata ' follower of the Pancaratra.
550 saunas AND sourn INDIAN vatsmvrm
semayin : the first kind of student who begins to get initiated.
saumya : gentle, Vaikhanasas refer to themselves by this word.
sayam: the last part of the daytime
sayana: reclining posture of the idol.
sayujya . intimate union.
sela : subordinate to God
seva : service.
snapana : giving bath to the idol.
snapanabera idol getting bath.
2

spends : Vibratory movement.

srstinyass : nyasa done to create potency
sthiti: standing posture of the idol.
sthitmyasa : nyasa done to secure potency.
svsdhysya - study of one's Veda.
svapna: giving bath to the deity.
svarthayajana: worship for onI-‘s self, done in the house.
svayamvyakta : a holy place or shrine which manifested by
itself.
subhasraya : idol, seat of the suspicious one (God)
suddhasattva : pure sattVa without any tinge of rajas and tamas.
susuptl . deep sleep
taljasa: dream state.
tanmatrs: subtle element.
tapa: marking the upper part of the arms with heated emblems
of conch and discus
tejas: splendour. might.
tirodhana ssirti: God's power to make the self loss the real
knowledge.
turiva: transcmdentai stage
turiyatlta ' the stage beyond transcendence.
uccatana: rite to ruin an adversary.
ndgatr : priest oi the Samaveda.
ndlta : active.
nnmesa: awakening of Saktl.
upabrahmanam : supplementary to the Vedas.
 GLOSSAIY 551

opacara . attendance.
upadana : collection or gathering of the materlsls for worship.
Upanayana : lnvestlture with the sacred thread.
uteova ' festival.
utsavabera : here used during festivals.

varamudra - hand pose representing the grant 0! boon.

vlbhava . dlvlne decent
vlbhntl: prosperlty of God.
vidvesana : the to control the enemies.
vimana : structural part of the temple containing the main
shrine.
vimarsa : self consciousness of the Supreme Being.
vlr’yo : virility.
viuarga : aspirate sound.
visarjana : sending away (of God).
vlsva : waking state
vyuha : sell division.

yajatnana rich man who undertakes the work of construction

of temples.
yantra : metallic plate containing diagrams with the letters
constitutlng the mantra of the deity written on
specific places in the diagram.
 ERR ATA

Page f. n. Line for road

58 Bagehl Each!
131 485 435
173 mVDv-v-HH

VS VISS
175 GS IS
186 T. N. Banerjee J. N. Banerjee: developmenl
of Hindu lconogtaphy
198 & 6 TV TA
227 nu? AbE AbS
231 delete IS
241 h IN N NI kala kala
254 H VlS VISS
308 tL30 l"oevapakarana bhngopakamna
343 MN
SVVORI SVWORI
346 he
X 72 X111. 48
351 L90
TS IS
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354 SKA SKS
360 183 VISS
361 \O._.~)~o~b~l
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362 delete VS. VI. 67-35
363 La 99 o VlS V158
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365 V55 V158
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368 VlS V155
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400 H TS IS
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498 Sakken Satkarl
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