UNIT – 2

Caged Bird
- MAYA ANGELOU
A free bird leaps
on the back of the wind   
and floats downstream   
till the current ends
and dips his wing
in the orange sun rays
and dares to claim the sky.

But a bird that stalks

down his narrow cage
can seldom see through
his bars of rage
his wings are clipped and   
his feet are tied
so he opens his throat to sing.

The caged bird sings   

with a fearful trill   
of things unknown   
but longed for still   
and his tune is heard   
on the distant hill   
for the caged bird   
sings of freedom.

The free bird thinks of another breeze

and the trade winds soft through the sighing trees
and the fat worms waiting on a dawn bright lawn
and he names the sky his own

But a caged bird stands on the grave of dreams   

his shadow shouts on a nightmare scream   
his wings are clipped and his feet are tied   
so he opens his throat to sing.

The caged bird sings   

with a fearful trill   
of things unknown   
but longed for still   
and his tune is heard   
on the distant hill   
for the caged bird   
sings of freedom.
 UNIT – 2 TASKS AND EXERCISES

Pre-reading Task

 As a way in to a poem show some pictures to introduce the topic, and then get students to think
about their personal knowledge or experience which relates to this topic.
 Let the students then talk about the poem, first with a partner and then in small groups, coming
together as a class at the end to share ideas.
 Students might predict endings to verses, the whole poem, or events occurring after the end of
the poem.
 Afterwards, the students could talk about their personal response to the poem, discuss the
characters and theme, or debate the moral issues.

While Reading Task

Strategies for reading poetry:
1. Pay attention to form. The form of a poem is the physical arrangement of the words on a
page. This includes the way lines are placed, their grouping, and their length.
 Look at the poem before you read it.
 Examine whether the lines and stanzas form a regular pattern. If not, determine why.
 Listen for rhythm as you read the poem aloud.
 Pause where punctuation marks appear, not where the line ends. Stopping at
appropriate spots helps clarify meaning.
2. Pay attention to sound devices. Skilled poets use sound devices for a reason, usually to
draw attention to major points.
 Read the poem aloud several times.
 Identify the sound devices and determine why the poet chose them.
 Determine the rhyme scheme.
 Look for near rhyme. Poets often use near rhyme to make the reader focus on an
important word.
 Determine the purpose of the sound.
3. Look for figurative language. Because poets have fewer words with which to work, they
must use them sparingly. Figurative language allows them to cover much with little.
 Visualize figurative language.
 Analyse the meaning of each metaphor or simile.
4. Look at the title. Determine if the title contributes any special meaning to the poem.
5. Make connections. Personalizing poetry makes it meaningful.
6. Summarize  the poem’s meaning.

While Reading (Working on pronunciation):

 The students can rehearse and perform the poem. Read the poem to them or play a
recording, and they identify the stresses and pauses.
 Take a chunk (usually a line, sometimes two) at a time, and one half of the class claps out
the rhythm while the other half beats time, and then they swap over.
Understanding Poetry
Poetic techniques & terminology
 THEME= the message of the poem; the point the author wishes to make.
eg. In “September 1913”, Yeats points out that Ireland has become a greedy, soulless country & laments that
the sacrifices our ancestors made in pursuit of Irish freedom have been forgotten.

 TOPIC= what the poem is about (the ‘subject matter’).

eg. The topic/subject matter of “I wake and feel the fell of dark” by Hopkins is depression. Sometimes the
subject matter of a poem is revealed in the title (“Child”, “Spring”) or alluded to (“Mirror” deals with the topic
of vanity & identity).

 TONE = the attitude of the writer towards his subject matter.

eg. Yeats’ tone is bitter and resentful in “September 1913”; Hopkins tone is awestruck and accusatory in
“God’s Grandeur”; Plath’s is both celebratory and cautious in “Morning Song”. The tone can vary; many tones
can be contained within a single poem.

 MOOD = feelings expressed. Includes what the writer/speaker feels AND how the reader feels when
they read the poem. May also be related to the atmosphere created..
 eg. In “Felix Randal” the mood varies from relief, to sympathy, to impatience, to acceptance, to comfort, to
admiration, and ends with a triumphant and fiercely energetic mood in the space of 14 lines!

NOTE: Tone & mood are closely related. The tone of voice used will often influence the mood/atmosphere.
Yeats’ uses a sarcastic tone to reveal his anger and frustration when he says “For men were born to pray and
save” in “September 1913”.

HOW DOES A WRITER CREATE A MOOD?

Largely through their choice of words:
 Colour – white suggests purity & cleanliness; red – passion & sometimes blood/violence; black –
darkness & despair; green can suggest envy or nature/new growth; yellow – sunshine or sickness
(jaundice); purple – royalty or bruises; grey – depression or poverty; brown – dirt & decay; orange –
glow & happiness.
 Obviously, the context in which the colours appear will influence your interpretation of their meaning. “Her
yellow face moaned & writhed” suggests illness, pain. “Yellow rays played upon her face” suggests sunshine,
energy.  

  Positive or negative adjectives – tremendous, delirious, fabulous, heavenly V’s heavy, ugly, rusty,

terrible, horrific.
  Positive or negative verbs – to shine, to gather, to spring, to capture, to sooth, to comfort, to light, to
brood, to bloom, to fill, to meditate, to sing, to skip, to brighten, to build V’s  to flicker, to seep, to
swarm, to wring, to fumble, to shiver, to weigh, to scatter, to thread, to fight, to moan, to cry, to ooze, to
mock, to break.
 Rhythm & sound effects – a fast rhythm can suggest excitement, danger or anger (depending on the
poem). A poet creates a fast rhythm by (a) using lots of short words (monosyllabic = single syllable),
(b) using words which contain the narrow vowel sounds ‘e’ & ‘i’ and (c) repeating guttural ( g ‘guh’ /
greed, r ‘ruh’ / riot), harsh ( h ‘hah’ / hate,  c/k ‘kuh’ / cry) or explosive consonants ( b ‘buh’ /
bite, p ‘puh’ / pinch) eg. “There’s a dance in Billy Brennan’s Barn tonight” eg. “Why do men then now
not reck his rod?
A slow rhythm can suggest relaxation, sadness or disappointment (depending on the poem). A poet creates a
slow rhythm by (a) using lots of long words, (b) using words which contain the broad vowel sounds ‘o’, ‘a’ &
‘ee’ and (c) repeating soft consonants ( s ‘ss’ / soft, l ‘el’ / lovely). eg. “When weeds in wheels shoot long
and lovely and lush” eg. “I hear lake water lapping with low sounds by the shore” .

 IMAGERY = the picture the writer creates using words. eg “In me she has drowned a young girl, and
in me an old woman / Rises toward her day after day, like a terrible fish” (Plath, “Mirror”). “And all is
seared with trade; bleared, smeared with toil; / And wears man’s smudge and shares man’s smell”
(Hopkins, “God’s Grandeur”). “Coming with vivid faces / From counter or desk among grey /
Eighteenth-century houses” (Yeats’ “Easter 1916”)
 
HOW DO YOU WRITE ABOUT IMAGERY:
In order to discuss imagery, you must be willing to comment on the writers choice of words (what does a word
suggest to you?) and to describe the picture that is created in your mind by the phrase/image. (In other words,
your imagination must be active and at work as you are reading!)        

eg. Plath creates a clear picture of childhood when she says“I want to fill it with colour and ducks / The zoo of
the new” Immediately the reader is reminded of bright primary colours, rubber duckies from bath-time, and
thrilling trips to the zoo to see exotic animals for the first time.
You may also want to comment on the feelings that this image creates in you. From the example above, my
answer might continue…

The emphasis on innocence (everything is “new”) and abundance (when Plath uses the verb “fill”) creates a
very optimistic and joyous mood. The use of the word “colour” completes our sense that this is a bright and
carefree celebration of the child’s potential to experience everything positive the world has to offer. Finally,
the poet’s desire to provide this for her child comes across when she says very simply “I want.
Notice that of the 14 words in the quote, I have commented on 7 of them. I describe the picture the image
created in my mind. I comment on the atmosphere (innocence & abundance) and the mood (optimistic, joyous)
the words create. I identify both verbs in the sentence (‘fill’ & ‘want’) and the feelings they suggest. Finally, I
link this image to the theme of the poem (the overall point Plath makes – that she wants her child to
‘experience everything positive the world has to offer’). 

 Imagery & the senses…

We experience the world through the five senses – taste, touch, sight, smell and sound. If a writer wishes us to
feel that we are there beside him, in the experience, he must give us details of smells, sounds, and textures as
well as describing what he can see. Look at the following example:
“The buzz saw snarled and rattled in the yard /And made dust and dropped stove-length sticks of wood”

We can hear the sound of the saw because the poet uses the onomatopoeic words ‘buzz’ ‘snarl’ & ‘rattle’. We
can see the exact size of the logs they are cutting because the poet includes the detail ‘stove-length sticks’. We
can almost taste and smell the dust in the air.     
Images can be VISUAL – we can see them

 Images can be AUDITORY – we can hear them

 Images can be TACTILE– we can touch them 
 Images can be OLFACTORY – we can smell them
 Images can be SENSUOUS – we can feel/taste their texture
 Handy phrases:
  The image is particularly striking / unusual / eye-catching because……
 The writer offers a vivid image of ………….
 The poets choice of verbs (‘rush’ & ‘charge’) adds energy & movement.
 The description is particularly remarkable because ………….
 The poem is full of bright, colourful imagery. The poet uses the words….
 The poem is full of dark, haunting images of death and destruction…..
 The auditory images in the poem are particularly loud, due to the poets use of onomatopoeia in the
line “the buzz saw snarled and rattled”
 The image is very sensuous, in its description of “silken velvet thighs”.
 The imagery of spring creates a sense of possibility, of new beginnings.
 The imagery of winter suggests that the end is nigh / that life is difficult.
 The image of the scarecrow suggests poverty & frailty; a pitiful creature.
 The image of the Holy Ghost as a mother hen protecting her nest is extremely comforting. It also
offers us an interesting perspective on how small and insignificant man is when compared to God.

 TRICKS WITH LANGUAGE:

 REPETITION = repeating a word or phrase to emphasise its importance/ create a regular rhythm.
eg. “Romantic Ireland’s dead and gone /It’s with O’Leary in the grave.”

The poet repeats the most important point over and over. The line remains lodged in our brains long after we
have finished reading (like the chorus of a song). The repetition of this line at the end of every verse makes the
poem resemble a ballad, and creates a strong rhythm. This repetition also emphasises the poets certainty.
Effect? Emphasis. Certainty. Rhythm. Idea becomes memorable, lodges in the brain.

  PERSONIFICATION = describing an object/idea as though it were alive. Giving it human qualities.

eg. “I am silver and exact. I have no preconceptions / Whatever I see I swallow immediately” 

Plath uses personification in the poem “Mirror”. What is the effect? The relationship between the poet and the
object comes to life. The sense that one can be devoured by vanity is contained in the word “swallow” and the
mirror is likened to a bottomless pit.
Effect? Object/place/idea which is personified becomes a ‘character’, and the poet’s relationship with this
object/place/idea takes centre stage. 
Object can appear in a positive (friendly, bright, comforting) or a negative (destructive, cruel, ferocious) light,
depending on the description. Idea of objects coming to life can be frightening. Personification can help us to
look at an object/place/idea in a new light (see Roddy Doyle’s brilliant use of personification in the short story
‘Brilliant’)

  CONTRAST = placing 2 very different things side by side

eg. “Like a trapped bird she hid behind her hair / Confident buxom girls crowded the corridors”

The girl’s isolation seems emphasised when it is contrasted with the friendship these crowds of girls enjoy. Her
shyness contrasts with their confidence. Thus, the poet uses contrast to emphasise that this girl is an outsider
and doesn’t fit in.

eg. “The world is charged with the grandeur of God / ……Generations have trod, have trod, have trod; And all
is seared with trade; bleared, smeared with toil…”
Much of Hopkins’ poetry makes use of contrast. The beauty of God’s creation and  man’s destructive disregard
for nature are placed side by side. The effect of using this technique is that man’s sins seem even more
heinous, and nature’s power to renew itself seems even more admirable.         
 Effect? (a) allows writer to emphasise differences between two things        
           &    (b) highlight the unique characteristics of each. 

 SYMBOLISM = a word becomes a sign of something other than simply itself.

 e.g. The heart is an organ that pumps blood around the body but it is also a symbol of love. The scorpion is an
insect but it can also be a symbol of poisonous evil. A mirror is an object that reflects peoples appearances but
it can also be a symbol of vanity. A lion is a dangerous animal but it can also be a symbol of courage.

 e.g. In “September 1913” John O’Leary is a real person who Yeats was friendly with, and who fought for Irish
freedom, but he also becomes a symbol of bravery, self-sacrifice and devotion to your country.
Effect? This is a powerful device because it encourages the reader to read deeper layers of meaning into the
poem. It also allows the poet to evoke an idea (vanity) without naming it directly. Writers consider this
important because they don’t like stating the obvious, or saying things in an overly direct and childlike way.

  SIMILE = where the writer compares 2 things using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’.
 eg. Plath says of her bees “It is the noise that appals me most of all, / The unintelligible syllables. / It is like a
Roman mob”
Often, the writer will compare two things that on the surface are very different – at first we think that a box full
of bees is nothing like a mob of poor people from ancientRome. However, both are dangerous when upset,
both find strength in numbers, both can create a buzz of anger and unease, and both feel mistreated by those
with power over them.          

 When discussing a simile, first state which two things are being compared; next explain the link/similarities
between them. A good simile helps us to understand something more clearly (eg. the bees) by comparing it to
something else (the mob). Writers try to avoid similes that are used in everyday speech, however, as they lack
originality and have become clichéd – for example “as black as coal”, “sweet like chocolate”, “run like the
wind”, “as strong as an ox”.
Effect? Helps the reader to form a vivid picture. Reader can quickly understand what an object is like by
linking it in their minds to something else.

 METAPHOR = where two things are said to be the same.

eg. Seamus Heaney in “Bogland” declares “The ground itself is kind, black butter”. Obviously, the bog is not
made of butter, but by saying that that the ground IS butter, instead of saying the ground is LIKE butter, the
comparison becomes more direct, forceful, and certain. In other words, many writers prefer metaphors to
similes, because they think they are more powerful!   

Other examples which should help you to clarify the difference between metaphors and similes e.g. “a blanket
of mist” instead of “mist like a blanket” e.g. “the eyes are the mirror of the soul” instead of “the eyes are like a
mirror” e.g. “the yellow smoke…licked it’s tongue into the corners of the evening” instead of “the yellow
smoke was like a  tongue”.    
Effect? Helps the reader to form a vivid picture. Reader can quickly understand what an object is like by
linking it in their minds to something else.
NOTE: Similes/metaphors make a poet’s imagery more vivid / effective.

  ALLUSION = where the writer makes reference to ‘well-known’ figures or events from literature,
history or mythology.
 eg. In “Easter 1916” Yeats makes reference to Padraic Pearse: “This man had kept a school / And rode our
winged horse”. In “Spring”Hopkinsrefers to the biblical story of Adam & Eve’s fall from grace, and the
subsequent infection of the world with sin: “A strain of the earth’s sweet being in the beginning /In Eden
garden…”
Effect? The writer gives the impression that he is very educated and knowledgeable, and as a result the reader
is more likely to respect his opinion and believe that he has something important to say. By connecting his
work to previous important events and famous works of literature, the writer indirectly suggests that his work
belongs on a par with them. The meaning of the poem also gains a greater depth and significance through
reference to similar historical/literary events/figures. If the reader is unfamiliar with the reference, this can
rouse his/her curiosity. However, if a writer uses allusion too often, or refers to obscure or difficult sources, the
reader can become confused & frustrated, and begin to feel stupid, because they don’t ‘get’ it.
NOTE: Lots of television programmes now make extensive use of allusion. “The Simpsons” frequently makes
reference to well-known celebrities, historical figures & historical events. “Killnaskully” recently based an
entire episode on the story of the John B. Keane play “The Field”. If you ‘get’ the reference, the episode (or
poem) becomes funnier or more meaningful. If you don’t, it can be hard to make sense of it and thus excessive
use of allusion can be frustrating for the reader – but you can always find out what it means and then the poem
has another layer mof meaning for you to access.

  HYPERBOLE = the deliberate use of exaggeration.

eg. Wordsworth, in the poem “The Daffodils” says “ten thousand saw I at a glance” in order to emphasise their
sheer number and create drama for the reader. Hyperbole can also add humour – “he had an arse like an
elephant and a personality to match” or emphasise the strength of a person’s feelings  – “football isn’t just a
matter of life and death; it’s more important than that”. However, if used too often, it loses its effect.
Effect? Adds drama, humour and/or emphasis.

 AMBIGUITY = where words/sentences have more than one meaning/ are open to numerous
interpretations.
 eg. Kavanagh, in the poem “Inniskeen Rd…” says “A road, a mile of kingdom I am king / Of banks and
stones and every blooming thing.” 

In this example the word “blooming” creates the ambiguity because the word can mean ‘to grow’ – so he is
king of every growing thing in nature OR the word “blooming” can be a curse – so he is king of
every bloody thing! This makes it difficult for the reader to decide if he is happy or upset.
Poets often make their poetry ambiguous (open to various interpretations) deliberately. In this example,
Kavanagh was happy to be left alone on the road because it inspired him – what ‘bloomed’ or grew from the
experience was this poem. Yet he was also sad that he didn’t fit in, that he was always alone – and that is why
he curses. Thus, the writer uses ambiguity to explain to us that he felt TWO WAYSabout this experience
– both happy and sad.
Effect? Poems can mean different things to different people. Writers use ambiguity to point out that our
feelings, our experiences, and our words are not always simple and straightforward – sometimes they mean
more than one thing to us! Writers can express the complexity of their feelings or ideas by deliberately creating
an ambiguous statement. For example, Yeats’ attitude towards the 1916 Rising: “a terrible beauty is born”. The
violence & bloodshed is terrible, but the rebels’ devotion to Irish freedom and their willingness to fight for
what they believe in is beautiful.    
    
 RHETORICAL Q = a Q that doesn’t require a response (a statement disguised as a question). 
eg. Yeats asks “Was it for this the wild geese spread… /For this that all that blood was shed?” but the
unspoken, implied answer is emphatically NO.

Usually, the tone of rhetorical questions is one of outrage and disbelief “Are we barbaric enough to bring back
capital punishment?”
 Effect? By asking a rhetorical question, (and suggesting that the answer is so obvious that no-one need even
answer), the writer implies that anyone who disagrees with him is a fool.
 SOUND EFFECTS
 ALLITERATION = the repetition of the same letter at the beginning of a series of words. Eg. “Billy
Brennan’s Barn”
Effect? Depends on the letter – see above.  Our eye is drawn to the repetition of the same letter, and our ear
perks up when we hear the same sound repeated. Used for emphasis, and for the musical effect it creates.
 ONOMATOPOEIA = words whose sound imitates their meaning. eg. “buzz, tinkle, rattle, stutter,
whisper, bang”
Effect? The reader can hear what is being described. Auditory images (those which appeal to our sense of
hearing) bring a description to life.
 ASSONANCE  = the repetition of similar vowel sounds.
Effect? Alters speed/rhythm of the line. See above (fast/slow rhythm).

VOCABULARY BUILDING

I. Synonyms and Antonyms

Synonyms are words that have the same or almost the same meanings. Antonyms are the words
that are opposite in meanings.

EXERCISES – Synonyms

A. Underline the three synonyms in each sentence. The first one is done for you. 
1. An intelligent dog is smart enough to avoid chasing a clever raccoon.
2. The candidate that you elect to vote for is one that you should feel proud to choose.
3. Paula’s selfish attitude is greedier than the stingy behavior of your friend, Ben.
4. I’m totally amazed at how completely wonderful and absolutely brilliant our teacher is!
5. We gave a great sigh of relief after the huge creature took an enormous step over our heads.
6. The battle isn’t over until the candidates cease their fight and let the voters decide the contest.
7. I will endeavor to work with you as you attempt to solve the mystery, but please try to be
patient!
8. My candidate’s chief adversary in the race is a tough opponent who will never give an inch to
his rival.

EXERCISES – Synonyms and Antonyms

B. There are two underlined words in each selection. They are either synonyms or
antonyms. Put an S (for “synonym”) or an A (for “antonym”) in the blank after each
number to indicate how the words are related.
1_____ I couldn’t recall her name and I don’t even remember where we met.
2_____ Chris wasn’t in his seat when the teacher passed out the morning assignment. He was
tardy as usual. Then he missed the bus and was late for supper.
3_____ I thought I had a rare old bicycle that was worth a fortune. It turned out to be a common
model that nobody wanted to buy.
4._____ “What is that awful smell?” Troy asked as Melinda entered the room. “That wonderful
fragrance is my perfume!” she replied.
5_____ Yes, taking your shoes off as we entered Patrick’s house was a polite thing to do.
However, placing them on his coffee table was rather rude.
6_____ Mr. Smith never liked any of his daughter’s boyfriends. He claimed that most of them
were weird. He was even less comfortable about any that he considered to be normal.
7_____ Miss Snowflake was convinced that George had turned the heat up all the way. She
demanded that he confess his guilt. The other kids knew that George would never admit that he
had done wrong.
8_____ Drinking the water in that lake is strictly prohibited. It could make you sick. But for
some reason, swimming is allowed.

II. Homophones, Homonyms and Homographs

HOMOPHONES:
Words that have the same pronunciation, but different spelling and different meanings

EXERCISES – HOMOPHONES
A. Choose the correct word (HOMOPHONES)

Example:
Yb/;Please try not to (waste, waist) paper.
Answer: waste

1.Can I go to the party (to, too, two)?

2.This is my favorite (pare, pair, pear) of jeans.
3.I (sent, scent, cent) a letter to my aunt in Vietnam.
4.The children got (bored, board) during the lecture.
5.Mr. and Mrs. Rodriguez like to work in (there, they’re, their)
garden.
6.Alec is going to (wear, ware) his work boots today.
7.Do you think it is going to (rein, rain, reign) this afternoon?
8.I saw a restaurant just off the (rode, road) about a mile back.
9.David’s brother is in a (band, banned) which plays Russian music.
10.Juana wants her socks because her (tows, toes) are cold.
11.The teacher walked down the (aisle, isle) between the rows of
desks.
12.Hadil has a (pane, pain) in her shoulder.
13.The school (principal, principle) spoke to a group of parents.
14.The clerk wants to (sell, cell) as many TVs as possible.
15.I don’t want to talk about the (passed, past) anymore.
16.Nobody (knows, nose) what you are thinking.
17.I have (for, four, fore) dollars in my pocket.
18.I need to take a (break, brake) from this exercise!
19.Humans have hands. Dogs have (paws, pause).
20.(He’ll, Heel, Heal) be here in a few minutes.

B. Choose the correct word (HOMOPHONES)

1. Are you feeling ___ or are you angry? [a. blew b. blue]
2. The church bells ___ and the crowds cheer. [a. peal b. peel]
3. The truck will ___ away the bags of leaves. [a. hall b. haul]
4. She never could ___ her words. She always said what she thought. [a.
mince b. mints]
5. I was wondering ___ you think you are going. [a. were b. where]
6. Would you like ___ dance? [a. to b. too c. two]
7. Would you like a ___ of pie or cake? [a. peace b. piece]
8. Do you know ___ way he went? [a. which b. witch]
9. Fabric ___ takes a lot of skill. [a. dyeing b. dying]
10.We ___ the slow car on the highway. [a. passed b. past]
11.I have a ___ and a daughter going to school. [a. son b. sun]
12.He ran so fast that he ___ all of the other runners. [a. beat b. beet]
13.It was so cold that ___ frost formed on the window. [a. hoar b. whore]
14.People usually play golf in groups of ___. [a. for b. fore c. four]
15.One of the most hard-working of all insects is the ___. [a. ant b. aunt]
16.Harold ___ his thanks before he eats every meal. [a. praise b. prays c.
preys]
17.He was ___ unprepared for the warm reception that her family gave
him.
[a. holy b.wholly]
18.In the old days, a doctor might use a ___ to suck bad blood from a
patient.
[a. leach b. leech]
19.Pointy-___ shoes are not good for the feet.[a. towed b. toed]
20.The ___ point is a thesis. [a. main b. mane]

C.Choose the correct word (HOMOPHONES)

1. The desk was made from a large ___ resting on two filing cabinets. [a. board b. bored]
 2. The fisherman ___ to shore as soon as the storm clouds appeared on the horizon.
a. road b. rode c. rowed
3. Soap is made from ___. [a. lie b. lye]
4. Watch the hen ___ an egg! [a. lay b. lei c. lea]
5. Hoist the ___ and head out to sea.[a. sail b. sale]
6. The actor entered the stage right on ___. [a. queue b. cue]
7. The artist made a ___ of a party scene. [a. freeze b. frieze]
8. Herbert was a ___ old bachelor until he met Molly. [a. staid b. stayed]
9. A great ___ burst from her lips as she realized that the child was dead. [a. wail b. whale]
10. The metal pipe in a chimney through which the smoke and heat passes is called a ___.
a. flew b. flue c. flu
11. Are you a boy ___ a girl? [a. oar b. ore c. or]
12. A famous brand of containers in the United States is called Tupper___.
a. ware b. wear c. where
13. Are you sure that ___ all right? [a. yore b. your c. you're]
14. The movie ___ him so he slept through most of it.[a. board b. bored]
15. Cathy was the ___ survivor of the plane crash.[a. sole b. soul]
16. There was no room at the ___ so we went to a motel.[a. in b. inn]
17. He showed his ___ by continuing despite an injury.[a. metal b. mettle]
18. She always wanted to become a ___ rather than to marry.[a. none b. nun]
19. Tolstoy was a ___ Russian writer.[a. grate b. great]
20. I always look ___ to seeing you.[a. foreword b. forward]

D.Choose the correct word (HOMOPHONES)

1. The director was dissatisfied with the stage set so he made the crew ___ it to the ground
and rebuild. [a. raise b. rays c. raze]
2. The letter was made secure with ___ wax that had the company imprint on it.
a. ceiling b. sealing
3. The loud noise made her ___ during the speech. [a. pause b. paws]
4. The lawyer entered the ___. [a. pleas b. please]
5. I will ___ remember you. [a. always b. all ways]
6. A deer can also be called a ___. [a. hart b. heart]
7. A lack of oil made the engine ___. [a. seize b. sees]
8. I need to put some ___ in my bicycle tire.[a. air b. heir]
9. Mother ___ whenever I ask her to do something.[a. sighs b. size]
10. Please say "Cheese" ___ now so that I can take the picture.[a. altogether b. all together]
11. Mother's ashes are kept in this ___. [a. earn b. urn]
12. Apple ___ is my personal favorite. a. pi b. pie]
13. Watch ___ language [a. yore b. your c. you're]
14. The ___ of her dress ripped open. [a. seam b. seem]
15. The ___ of her dress had lace trim. [a. yoke b. yolk]
16. The ___ around the castle was full of crocodiles. [a. moat b. mote]
17. ER is a popular television ___. [a. cereal b. serial]
18. She planted daisies to make a floral ___ around her yard. [a. boarder b. border]
19. The dictator wanted to ___ power. [a. seas b. seize]
 20. The orchestral piece ending with a loud ___ crash. [a. symbol b. cymbal]
21. A ___ sweater is perfect as a gift. [a. knit b. nit]
22. Can you ___ the apples for me? [a. peal b. peel]
23. A snowy owl ___ upon mice, rabbits and other small animals.[a. praise b. prays c. preys]
24. The baby had ___ quietly for two hours when it awoke.[a. lain b. lane]
25. I need a ___ of fresh air. [a. breath b. breathe]
26. Barney dances every night at the ___. [a. review b. revue]
27. He ___ his brother-in-laws' car to the shop. [a. towed b. toed]
28. He was released from jail after he posted $50,000 ___. [a. bail b. bale]
29. Do you ___ if I drive? [a. mind b. mined]
30. She ___ the children down the street. [a. lead b. led]
31. I was ___ how to ride a bike when I was three. [a. shone b. shown]
32. The ___ is the largest mammal found in the ocean. [a. wail b. whale]
33. She ___ all of her letters up before she throws them away. [a. tares b. tears]
34. Say ___ to her for me. [a. hi b. high]
35. This car has the right of ___. [a. way b. weigh]
36. Malaria is a water ___ disease. [a. born b. borne]
37. Rebecca wrote every night in her ___. [a. dairy b. diary]
38. Let the ___ be forgotten. [a. passed b. past]
E.Choose the correct word (HOMOPHONES)

1. Cars and insurance are hard to ___. [a. cell b. sell]

2. Decaying fish makes an extremely ___ smell. [a. foul b. fowl]
3. Every night I like to read ___ to my children. [a. allowed b. aloud]
4. Learning by ___ memorization is not the most efficient method. [a. rote b. wrote]
5. A woman can become a ___ or a priest in the Anglican Church.[a. known b.none c. nun]
6. Every night before bedtime, Grandfather would ___ his watch.[a.wind b.wined c.whined]
7. The congress passed a vote of ___ against the president.[a. censor b. censure c. sensor]
8. She wanted to give her baby a natural ___ at home instead of in the hospital.
a. berth b. birth
9. An important spice is made from ___ seeds.[a. fennel b. phenol]
10. A person under the age of 20 is called a ___ in Japan. [a. miner b. minor]
11. The swordsman made a ___ to the right before advancing on his opponent.
a. faint b. feint
12. Wait for me __ the car. [a. in b. inn]
13. The dark clouds were a sure ___ of rain. [a. sign b. sine]
14. The horse's ___ needs to be brushed daily. [a. main b. mane]
15. She survived by her ability to ___ and guile. [a. while b. wile]
16. You must ___ faster to win the race. [a. pedal b. peddle]
17. A rucksack is sometimes called a ___ sack.[a. knap b. nap]
18. The assassin choked his victim with a ___. [a. garret b. garrote]
19. All was ___ at the farm on the night before the storm.[a. quiet b. quite]
20. The busy ___ passed in front of the hospital. [a. road b. rowed]

HOMONYMS:
Homonyms are words that have the same spelling and same pronunciation, but
different meanings.

EXERCISES – HOMONYMES
A. Choose (a) or (b) (HOMONYMS)
EXAMPLE:
I hope you are not lying _(a)_to me. (a) telling a lie
My books are lying_(b)_on the table. (b) being in a horizontal position

1.The kids are going to watch____ TV tonight.

What time is it? I have to set my watch____
(a) small clock worn on the wrist (b) look at

2.Which page___ is the homework on?

Please page___ the doctor if you need help.
(a) to call someone on an electronic pager (b) one sheet of paper

3.Let’s play___ soccer after school.

The author wrote a new play___
(a) theater piece (b) participate in a sport
4.Ouch! The mosquito bit ___ me!
I’ll have a little bit___ of sugar in my tea.
(a) a tiny amount (b) past tense of bite

5. My rabbits are in a pen___ outside.

Please sign this form with a black pen___
(a) a writing instrument which uses ink (b) an enclosed area

B.Choose (a) or (b) (HOMONYMS)

1. I like spaghetti ___ I don't eat it often. [a. but b. butt]

2. How do you get ___ from here? [a. their b. there c. they're]
3. Get me the gift ___ that I left on the counter. [a. rap b. wrap]
4. Sheila let Barry ___ the prize away from her. [a. rest b. wrest]
5. I have known him ___ we were school children. [a. sense b. since]
6. I keep an extra ___ of shoes at my office. [a. pear b. pair c. pare]
7. I didn't mean to ___ your dress when I grabbed your arm. [a. tare b. tear]
8. It is a shame to ___ water. [a. waist b. waste]
9. My dream is to ___ a best selling novel. [a. right b. rite c. wright d. write]
10. We always had a ___ living with us so our meals were never quiet. [a. boarder b. border]
11. The plates had a ___ edging and had painted roses in the center. [a. gild b. guild c. guilt]
12. Madonna is a pop ___. [a. idle b. idol]
13. It is a crime to ___. [a. steal b. steel]
14. The tables were ___. They were nailed to the floor. [a. stationary b. stationery]
15. Think before you ___. [a. chute b. shoot]
16. The electrical ___ is dangerous if you touch it. [a. currant b. current]
 17. The Greek letter ___ is used in geometry to express the fixed ration of the circumference
of a circle to its diameter. [a. pi b. pie]
18. This afternoon ___ going out to the beach. [a. weir b. we're]
19. My father is the ___ to the company. [a. air b. heir]
20. His behavior is ___ boorish and rude. [a. altogether b. all together]

HOMOGRAPHS

Homographs are words that have the same spelling, but different pronunciations and
meanings.:
A. Give meanings to the Homographs in the sentences below:
EXAMPLE:
The wind
_(a)_is blowing hard. (a) moving air (rhymes with pinned
I have to wind my clock. (b) turn the stem (rhymes with

1.The singer made a low bow to the audience.

Maria placed a red bow on the birthday gift.

2.All the students are present today.

The boss will present the award at 10:00.
3.Please close the door.
The boy sat close to his uncle.

4. The rope was wound around his ankles.

The soldier received a wound in the battle.

5.I don’t know if I will live or die.

Last night I saw the band play live in concert.

EXERCISE - Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonyms and Homographs

There is a pair of words underlined in each sentence. Tell whether the words are synonyms,
antonyms, homonyms, or homographs. The first four are done for you.

1. I couldn’t bear to give my pet bear to a zoo! homographs

2. I hope the pharmacist brews up some good medicine to put on my bruise. homonyms
3. What makes you think that I can repair the broken bike that you couldn’t fix? synonyms
4. Sylvia’s fast new car beat my slow one in the race. antonyms
5. I didn’t know whether to laugh or cry when I heard the news.
6. We planted a pair of pear trees in the yard.
7. If you think about cause and effect, you'll know what the result of your decision will be.
8. Aunt Evie hates hunting, so please hide that deer hide before she gets here.
9. I hired a fine lawyer to defend me, but he charged me more than the fine I would have
had to pay.
10. Her knight in shining armor rides a horse that is as black as night.
11. The fire took seconds to destroy a painting that took weeks to create.
12. There’s a stiff penalty for breaking that law, and it’s a fair punishment.
13. He may be innocent of all the charges, but he acted like he was guilty when he ran away.
14. Irma thinks you are very well informed, but Shelly believes you don’t know what you're
talking about.
15. The key to the new boat was dropped on the quay.
16. That beautiful pen (female swan) should not be imprisoned in a pen!
17. Kerry gave a triumphant shout to celebrate our team's victorious record.
18. An unknown poet wrote that famous verse.
19. Carlos refuses to buy any book written by that author.
20. Even in the bright light of day, the light plastic table looked identical to the heavy wooden
one.

REMEDIAL GRAMMAR

I. ARTICLES - Rules

Definite article or Indefinite article, each of the articles has different uses in different situations.

Using Indefinite Article: a & an

Rule 1:
A common noun in the singular number always requires an article before it. But a plural
common noun does not require an article always. A plural common noun can have the article
‘the’ if we want to particularise that noun.
Example:
o I saw a snake. (Refers to a random snake)
o I saw snakes in a zoo. (No article is required)
Rule 2:
The choice between the two indefinite articles – a & an – is determined by sound. Words
beginning with consonant sounds precede ‘a’ and words beginning with vowel sounds precede
‘an’. There are some special cases also. For instance,
o a university, a union, a useful book, etc.
o a one-dollar note, a one-man army, etc.
o an MA, a BA, an LLB, a BSC, etc.
Rule 3:
A or an - sometimes makes a Proper Noun a Common Noun. Proper nouns generally do not take
any articles, but when a proper noun needs to be used as a common noun, you must bring a or an
-  for it.  
Example: 
o He thinks he is a Shakespeare. (Here, ‘Shakespeare’ does not refer to the actual person but
someone like him.)
Rule 4:
Sometimes indefinite articles are used to refer the number ‘one’/’each’/’per’.
Example:
o I earned a thousand dollar in that job. (One thousand dollar)
o I have a car. (One car)
o It goes 50 miles an hour. (Per Hour)
Rule 5:
Indefinite articles often precede descriptive adjectives.
Example:
o He is a good boy.
o What a nice car!
Rule 6:
‘A’ sometimes comes before determiners, for example,  a few, a little, a lot of, a most, etc. but in
the case of many, a or an - comes after.
Example:
o I have a few friends coming over.
o There is a little milk in the jar.

Using Definite Article: the

Rule 1:
‘The’ is used to indicate a particular person(s) or thing(s) in the case of common nouns. Proper
nouns generally do not take an article.
Example:
o The man is running. (A particular man)
o I saw the boy stealing.
Rule 2:
Sometimes ‘the’  is used to generalize a group/whole class.
Example:
o The English are industrious. (Refers to the people of England as a nation)
o The honest are respected. (The+adjectives = plural noun)
Rule 3:
To particularise a non-count noun ‘the’ is required before it.
Example:
o The water of the Arctic ocean is freezing.
o Please return the money I lent you last year.
Rule 4:
‘The’ is mandatory before a thing which is only one of a kind in the universe.
Example:
o The moon is shining tonight.
o The earth is moving around the sun.Use of ‘the’ before geographical places :
Rule 5:
Using ‘the’ with geographical nouns generally depends on the size and plurality of the things
those nouns refer to. ‘The’ is generally used everywhere except some cases. So, it’s better to
know those exceptions first.
 ‘The’ must not precede:
o Names of continents: Asia, Europe, Australia, Africa, South America, North America,
Antarctica.
o Names of countries: Australia, Bolivia, England, France, Spain, etc.
o Names of states, cities, or towns: Los Angeles, Alaska, Sydney, London,
o Names of streets: George street, Albion Street, New town street,
o Names of singular lakes and bays: Lake Carey, Lake Eyre, Lake Hillier, Shark Bay,
o Names of single mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Solitary, Mount Bindo, Mount Fuji, etc.
o Names of single islands: Easter Island, Bare Island, Bird Island, Fatima Island,
o Names of languages:  Spanish, Russian, English,   (When ‘the’ precedes these nouns, they
refer to the population of those languages.)
o Names of sports: cricket, football, basketball,
o Names of discipline/subject of studies:  biology, history, computer science,mathematics,   
Note:
‘The’ is a widely used article in English. Except for the list mentioned above and proper
nouns, ‘the’ is used before almost all the nouns which mean something definite/particular. The
above list has some opposite factors also. Those factors are explained in the following list:     
‘The’ must precede:
o Names of oceans, gulfs, seas, and rivers: the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Coral Sea, the Timor
Sea, the Persian Gulf,the  Nile, the Murray River, the Darling River, etc.
o Names of countries with united states or islands: the United States of America (the USA),
the UK, the UAE, the Philippines, etc.
o Names of great lakes: the Great Lakes, the African Great Lakes
o Names of mountain ranges: the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, etc.
o Names of a group of Islands: the West Indies, the Andamans, etc.

EXERCISES – Articles
Insert an appropriate article a/an/the in the blanks:

1. This coat was designed by ___ famous New York artist.

2. Can you tell me how to get to ___ bank from here?
3. ___ city museum is closed today.
4. He is one of ___ smartest people I know.
5. I recommend you eat ___ apple pie at this restaurant.
6. ___ milk is good for you.
7. Would you like to see ___ movie?
8. ___ apple a day keeps ___ doctor away.
9. I can't believe I failed ___ yesterday's test!
10. Do you have ___ dictionary that I can borrow?

II. PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions form a small but very important word class. We use prepositions very frequently
used. In fact, the prepositions to, of, in, for, on, with, at, by, from are all in the top 25 words in
English. If you can understand and correctly use prepositions, it will greatly improve your
fluency. And remember, there are not very many prepositions. There are only 150
prepositions and we only use about 70 of these commonly. The following rules will help you
understand and use prepositions correctly.

PREPOSITIONS - Rules

1. A preposition must have an object

All prepositions have objects. If a "preposition" does not have an object it is not a preposition—
it's probably an adverb. A preposition always has an object. An adverb never has an object.
Look at these example sentences:
 They are in the kitchen. (preposition in has object the kitchen)
Please  come in. (adverb in has no object; it qualifies come)
 There was a doorway before  me. (preposition before has object me)
I had never seen it  before. (adverb before has no object; it qualifies seen)
 I will call  after  work. (preposition after has object work)
He  called soon after. (adverb after has no object; it qualifies called)

2. pre-position means place before

The name “preposition” indicates that a preposition (usually) comes before something

(its object):
 I put it in the box.

But even when a preposition does not come before its object, it is still closely related to its
object:

Who did you talk to? / I talked to Jane.

3. A pronoun following a preposition should be in object form

The noun or pronoun that follows a preposition forms a ‘prepositional object’.  If it is a pronoun,
it should therefore be in the objective form (me, her, them), not subjective form (I, she, they):
 This is from my wife and me.
 That’s between him and her.
 Mary gave it to them.

4. Preposition forms
Prepositions have no particular form. The majority of prepositions are one-word prepositions, but
some are two- or three-word phrases known as complex-prepositions:
 one-word prepositions (before, into, on)
 complex prepositions (according to, but for, in spite of, on account of)

5. to preposition and to infinitive are not the same

Do not confuse the infinitive particle “to” (to sing, to live) with the preposition “to” (to
London, to me).
to as preposition
 I look forward to lunch
I look forward to seeing you
I look forward to see you
 They are committed to the project.
They are committed to keeping the price down.
They are committed to keep the price down.
 I am used to cars.
I am used to driving.
I am used to drive.
to as infinitive particle
 They used to live in Moscow.
 They love to sing.
6. The golden preposition rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is NEVER followed by a verb.

EXERCISES – Prepositions
A. Choose an appropriate preposition (a), (b) or (c):
1. They plan to arrive in Paris ___ July 4th.
a. in b. on c. at
2. In times of war, soldiers usually dream ___ their home.
a. of b. with c. over
3.It was discovered that he didn't die ___ cancer.
a. about b. of c. for
4.Don't forget to congratulate him ___ his birthday.
a. in b. for c. on
5.He took her ___ his arms and kissed her passionately.
a. on b. in c. with
6.We must ___ all costs help those who are ___ danger.
a. at, in b. on, in c. at, on
7.The girl was dressed ___ white ___ head ___ foot.
a. with, from, to b. in, from, to c. with, to, from
8.You will always have a good friend ___ me.
a. with b. on c. in
9.The old fellow sat down ___ the roulette table and placed a few chips ___ number 25, red.
a. on, on b. on, in c. at, on
10.Is it wise to wish ___ something you can't ever have?
a. about b. for c. over

III. PRONOUNS
A pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that is used as a substitution for a noun or noun phrase,
which is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. Pronouns are short words and can do everything
that nouns can do and are one of the building blocks of a sentence. Common pronouns are he,
she, you, me, I, we, us, this, them, that. A pronoun can act as a subject, direct object, indirect
object, object of the preposition, and more and takes the place of any person, place, animal or
thing. 

EXERCISES – Pronouns
A. Choose an appropriate pronoun for the following sentences:
1.Despite her parents complaints, she decided to live by ___ in New York City.
her herself
2.If you happen to see your parents this weekend, give ___ my best regards.
him her the
3.I can't understand ___ when she speaks German with ___ . her, me him, me
4.He should be ashamed of ___ . himself him
5.Mary was worried about the children, so she convinced ___ husband not to accept the job
abroad. his her
6.We came across a friend of ___ at the mall yesterday. ours u
7.I can't find ___ pencil. Can I use ___ , Mary? my, yours mine, your
8.I cut ___ when I was peeling the potatoes. me myself
9.This house is too expensive for ___ . We can't pay such a high rent. us we
10.Each plan has ___ merits. it its
11.He ___ said so. herself himself
12.I do my work and they do ___ . their theirs
13.Give it back to ___ . It's ___. me, mine me, my
14.Despite ___ old age, he is very active. his its
15.They enjoyed ___ a lot at the cocktail party. theirselves themselves
B. Write an appropriate pronoun to complete the sentence:
1. It belongs to me, it's ___
2. It belongs to my father, it's ___
3. It belongs to her, it's ___
4. It belongs to Mr. and Mrs. Smith, it's ___
5. It belongs to me and my wife, it's ___
6. It belongs to my mother, it's ___
7. It belongs to him, it's ___
8. It belongs to you, it's ___
9. It belongs to the dog, it's ___
10. It belongs to them, it's ___

IV. QUESTION TAGS

Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.
They are mainly used in speech when we want to:
 confirm that something is true or not, or
 to encourage a reply from the person we are speaking to.
Question tags are formed with the auxiliary or modal verb from the statement and the appropriate
subject.
A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag.
 Jack is from Spain, isn't he?
 Mary can speak English, can't she?

A negative statement is followed by a positive question tag.

 They aren't funny, are they?
 He shouldn't say things like that, should he?

When the verb in the main sentence is in the present simple we form the question tag with do /
does.
 You play the guitar, don't you?
 Alison likes tennis, doesn't she?
If the verb is in the past simple we use did.
 They went to the cinema, didn't they?
 She studied in New Zealand, didn't she?
When the statement contains a word with a negative meaning, the question tag needs to
be positive
 He hardly ever speaks, does he?
 They rarely eat in restaurants, do they?

Exceptions
Some verbs / expressions have different question tags. For example:

I am - I am attractive, aren't I?
Positive imperative - Stop daydreaming, will / won't you?
Negative imperative - Don't stop singing, will you?
Let's - Let's go to the beach, shall we?
Have got (possession) - He has got a car, hasn't he?
There is / are - There aren't any spiders in the bedroom, are there?
This / that is - This is Paul's pen, isn't it?

Intonation
When we are sure of the answer and we are simply encouraging a response, the intonation in the
question tag goes down:
This is your car, isn't it?
(Your voice goes down when you say isn't it.)

When we are not sure and want to check information, the intonation in the question tag goes up:
He is from France, isn't he?
(Your voice goes up when you say isn't he.)
EXERCISES - Question Tags

1. John smokes a lot,   ?

2. My mother has lovely hair,   ?

3. You do like this film we're watching,   ?

4. He can't speak English very well,   ?

5. Your brother isn't married,   ?

6. She doesn't cook very well,   ?

7. We can go to the cinema tomorrow if you want,   ?

8. They don't have a very nice house,   ?

9. She is the richest woman in the town,   ?

10. We should leave before it gets dark,   ?

11. You'd like a cup of tea,   ?

12. They mustn't go too near the lake,   ?

13. You'll see John tomorrow,   ?

14. We won't be going to that restaurant again,   ?

15. Let's try and phone her again,   ?

16. You've seen this film already,   ?

17. Your uncle has never been out of the village,   ?

18. You're seeing Amy next week,   ?

19. I'm not speaking first at the meeting,   ?

20. This was an interesting exercise,   ?

DIRECTIONS for questions: Put a question tag on the end of these sentences.

1. There are a lot of people here, ________________ ?

2. Let’s go out tonight, ___________________ ?
3. This isn’t very interesting, _____________ ?
4. I’m too impatient, ______________ ?
5. You wouldn’t tell anyone, ________ ?
6. Listen, ______________ ?
7. I shouldn’t have lost my temper, _____________ ?
8. Don’t drop that vase, _____________ ?
9. He’d never met her before, ____________ ?
DIRECTIONS for questions: Read the situation and write a sentence with a question tag. In
each situation you are asking your friend to agree with you.

10. You’re with a friend outside a restaurant. You’re looking at the prices, which are very
high. 
What do you say? (expensive) It ________________________________
11. You’ve just come out of the cinema with a friend. You really enjoyed the film. What do
you say to your friend? (great)  The film __________________________________
12. You and a friend are listening to a woman singing. You like her voice very much. What
do you say to you friend? (a lovely voice)  She _____________________________
13. You are trying on a jacket. You look in the mirror and you don’t like what you see. What
do you say to your friend? (not/ look/ very good) It _______________________

14. Your friend’s hair is much shorter than when you last met. What do you say to her / him?
(have / your hair / cut) You ___________________
15. You and a friend are walking over a wooden bridge. It is very old and some parts are
broken. What do you say? (not / very safe) This bridge _________________________

DIRECTIONS for questions: In these situations you are asking for information and asking
people to do things. Make sentences like those in Section C.

16. You need a pen. Perhaps Jane has got one. Ask her _________________
17. Jack is just going out. You want him to get you some stamps. Ask him.
Jack, you ____________________________
18. You’re looking for Ann. Perhaps Kate knows where she is. Ask her. 
Kate, you ______________________________
19. You need a bicycle pump. Perhaps Helen has got one. Ask her.
Helen, _______________________________
20. You’re looking for your keys. Perhaps Robin has seen them. Ask him.
_________________________

V. TENSES
Grammar tenses refer to the state of the verb. The state, or tense, of the verb explains the time of
the action.

There are three major tenses in English. These include past, present, and future. Each of these
tenses can explain an event that occurred in the past, an event that occurs in the present, or an
event that will occur in the future.
 The following table illustrates the proper use of verb tenses:
Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future
Last night, I read an entire I will read as much as I can this
I read nearly every day.
novel. year.
Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous
I am readingShakespeare at I was reading Edgar Allan Poe I will be reading Nathaniel
the moment. last night. Hawthorne soon.
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect
I have read so many books I I had read at least 100 books by I will have read at least 500 books
can’t keep count. the time I was twelve. by the end of the year.

Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Future Perfect Continuous

I had been reading for at least a I will have been reading for at

I have been readingsince I
year before my sister learned to least two hours before dinner
was four years old.
read. tonight.

EXERCISE – TENSES

A.Now choose which tense is being used in each of the following sentences:
 1) I am living with my parents.
Present Continuous Present Perfect Simple Present Present Perfect Continuous
2) I have never studied French.
Simple Present Present Perfect Present Continuous Past Perfect
3) We were listening to music.
Present Continuous Simple Present Past Perfect Continuous Past Continuous
4) She had worked with animals in her last job.
Present Perfect Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Simple Past
5) He had been running.
Present Continuous Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous
6) You will meet them soon.
Simple Present Present Perfect Simple Future Present Continuous
7) She will have fallen asleep by midnight.
Future Perfect Continuous Future Continuous Simple Future Future Perfect
8) We will have been walking for 4 hours.
Present Continuous Future Perfect Continuous Present Perfect Simple Present
9) I will be waiting for you.
Present Continuous Simple Present Future Continuous Future Perfect
 10) They were making lunch.
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Present Future Present Continuous
B. Fill in the blanks with appropriate tense form:
On Monday, just as I (TRY) _________________________ to wind down after a long working
day, the telephone (RING) _________________________: “Is that you, Helen?” someone
asked on the phone. “Yes, this (BE) _________________ me,” I replied. “Sandra speaking, my
friend. I need to talk to you right now,” she said in a desperate voice. She was a quiet girl who
always tried not to call you when you (just/ ARRIVE) _________________________ from work.
She never wanted to disturb her friends, so I knew something serious (GO)
_________________________ on. “I (not/ HEAR) _________________________ from you in
a week. What (you/ DO) _________________________ lately?” I asked Sandra. “To tell you
the truth,” she said “I (HAVE) _________________________ a lot of problems with my
boyfriend recently,” she continued. “(you/WANT) __________________ to talk about it?” I
asked. I (not/ FINISH) __________________ saying the phrase that she started crying.
“You (not/ BELIEVE) _______________________ what happened to me last week,” she said.
“It was Saturday morning and my boyfriend (TELL) _________________________ me
he (PICK) _________________________ me up at 8 pm to go out for dinner at a fancy
restaurant downtown. Eight o’clock arrived. I was at home, ready to (PICK)
_________________________ up. It was nine o’clock and my boyfriend (not/ APPEAR)
_________________________ or (CALL) _________________________. I (BEGIN)
_________________________ to get worried when my telephone (RING)
______________________: “Your boyfriend is cheating on you! You can catch him red-handed
at this very moment. Go to Rodham road and Sixth and you’ll see...” I could not believe what
I (just/ HEAR) _________________________ buy anyway, I went to the place the female
voice (INDICATE) _________________________ and there he was: he (KISS)
_________________________ a girl as he (never/ KISS) _________________________ me
before. When he saw me he said that he (BE) _________________________ sorry and
promised he (never/ DO) _________________________ it again. I don’t know what to do. I
love him but he (really/ HURT) _________________________ my feelings. Tell me, Helen,
what (you/DO) _________________________ if you were me?” Sandra asked me. “Look, if
I (BE) _________________________ you, I (FORGIVE) _________________________ him
temporarily until I (GET) _________________________ a new, better candidate,” I replied. “I
don’t know,” she said. “I think everything will depend on his next move. If he (CALL)
_________________________ me and apologizes for what he (DO)
_________________________, I guess I (GIVE) _________________________ him a second
chance. I love him and I want to be happy with him. What do you think, Helen?” she asked me.
“I think you (not/ NEED) _________________________ my opinion; you (already/ MAKE)
_________________________ a decision. I just hope it (BE)
_________________________ the right one,” I said.

VI. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

 Conditional Sentences—Rules You Need to Know
Conditional sentences consist of a main clause and a conditional clause (sometimes called an if-
clause). The conditional clause usually begins with if or unless. The conditional clause can come
before or after the main clause.
 It’s important to use the correct structure for each of these different conditional sentences
because they express varying meanings.
 Pay attention to verb tense when using different conditional modes.
 Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

Conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical situations and
their consequences. Complete conditional sentences contain a conditional clause (often referred
to as the if-clause) and the consequence.

There are four types of conditional sentences. Each expresses a different degree of probability
that a situation will occur or would have occurred under certain circumstances.
 Zero Conditional Sentences
 First Conditional Sentences
 Second Conditional Sentences
 Third Conditional Sentences

Type – 1 – Zero Conditional Clauses

Zero conditional sentences express general truths—situations in which one thing always causes
another. When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking about a general truth rather than a
specific instance of something.

Consider the following examples:

If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities.
When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers.

Things to note:
Firstly, When using the zero conditional, the correct tense to use in both clauses is the simple
present tense.
Secondly, notice that the words if and when can be used interchangeably in these zero
conditional sentences. This is because the outcome will always be the same, so it doesn’t matter
“if” or “when” it happens.

Type – 2: First Conditional Clauses

First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is likely (but not
guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the examples below:
If you rest, you will feel better.
If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.
Note that we use the simple present tense in the if-clause and simple future tense in the main
clause—that is, the clause that expresses the likely outcome. This is how we indicate that under a
certain condition (as expressed in the if-clause), a specific result will likely happen in the future.
Examine some of the common mistakes people make using the first conditional structure:
If you will rest , you will feel better.
If you rest , you will feel better.

Type – 3: Second Conditional Sentences

Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are completely unrealistic
or will not likely happen in the future.

Consider the examples below:

If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.
If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Correct way to structure second conditional sentences is to use the simple past tense in the if-
clause and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g., could, should, would, might) in the main clause (the
one that expresses the unrealistic or unlikely outcome). The following sentences illustrate a
couple of the common mistakes people make when using the second conditional:
If I inherit a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.
If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

Type - 4: Third Conditional Sentences

Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would be different if
something different had happened in the past.

Look at the following examples:

If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.
These sentences express a condition that was likely enough, but did not actually happen in
the past. The speaker in the first sentence was capable of leaving early, but did not. Along these
same lines, the speaker in the second sentence was capable of cleaning the house, but did not.
These are all conditions that were likely, but regrettably did not happen.
Note that when using the third conditional, we use the past perfect (i.e., had + past participle) in
the if-clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, shoud, etc.) + have + past participle in the
main clause expresses the theoretical situation that could have happened.

Punctuating Conditional Sentences

Despite the complex nature of conditional sentences, punctuating them properly is really simple!
Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.
If I’d had time, I would have cleaned the house.
If the main clause precedes the if-clause, no punctuation is necessary.
I would have cleaned the house if I’d had time.
Examples (affirmative and negative sentences)

type   Examples

    long forms short/contracted forms

+ If I study, I will pass the exam. If I study, I'll pass the exam.

I
If I study, I will not fail the exam.
If I study, I won't fail the exam.
- If I do not study, I will fail the
If I don't study, I'll fail the exam.
exam.

+ If I studied, I would pass the exam. If I studied, I'd pass the exam.

II If I studied, I would not fail the

If I studied, I wouldn't fail the
exam.
- exam.
If I did not study, I would fail the
If I didn't study, I'd fail the exam.
exam.

If I had studied, I would have If I'd studied, I'd have passed the

+
passed the exam. exam.

III
If I had studied, I would not have If I'd studied, I wouldn't have
failed the exam. failed the exam.
-
If I had not studied, I would have If I hadn't studied, I'd have
failed the exam. failed the exam.

EXERCISES
Conditional Sentences Type I
Complete the Conditional Sentences Type I.
 If you (go)   out with your friends tonight, I (watch)   the football match
on TV.

 I (earn)   a lot of money if I (get)   that job.

 If she (hurry / not)  , we (miss)   the bus.

Conditional Sentences Type II
Complete the Conditional Sentences Type II.

 If he (try)   harder, he (reach)   his goals.

 I (buy)   these shoes if they (fit)  .

 It (surprise / not)   me if he (know / not)   the answer.

Conditional Sentences Type III
Complete the Conditional Sentences Type III.

 If we (listen)   to the radio, we (hear)   the news.

 If you (switch)   on the lights, you (fall / not)   over the chair.

 She (come)   to our party if she (be / not)   on holiday.

Conditional Sentences Type I, II or III
Complete the Conditional Sentences with the correct form (Type I, II or III).

 If I   stronger, I'd help you carry the piano.

 If we'd seen you, we  .

 If we   him tomorrow, we'll say hello.

 He would have repaired the car himself if he   the tools.

 If you drop the vase, it  .

 If I hadn't studied, I   the exam.

 I wouldn't go to school by bus if I   a driving licence.

 If she   him every day, she'd be lovesick.

 I   to London if I don't get a cheap flight.

 We'd be stupid if we   him about our secret.

_____________________________________________________________________________
WRITING SKILLS: PARAGRAPH WRITING
To communicate clearly when we write, we need to organize our writing in the form of
paragraphs.

A paragraph is a small set of carefully arranged sentences on a topic. Here are some guidelines to
help
you write paragraphs.
 Think about the topic on which you want to write a paragraph and list the ideas that come
to your mind.
 Go over the points and omit those that are unrelated to the theme.
 State the main idea of the paragraph in a sentence, which will be its topic sentence.
 Place the topic sentence at the beginning (the preferred position in technical writing), at
the end or somewhere in the middle.
 Order the other sentences in the paragraph in a logical way, with one idea leading
naturally to the next.
 Arrange the sentences in a chronological, spatial or logical order. The first is useful in
describing events, the second in describing a scene and the third in describing a cause-
and-effect relationship.
 Use connecting words, such as ‘therefore’ , ‘however’ , ‘also’, ‘thus, ‘firstly’ and ‘finally’
to link the sentences.
 Use words such as ‘they’ ,’it’ , ‘she’, ‘which’ and ‘these’ to refer to people or things
mentioned in a previous sentence and make your paragraph well-knit, or coherent.
 Use complete sentences of different lengths and structures to make your paragraphs
interesting to read.
 Try not to make your paragraphs too long.
 After your finish, read the paragraph, revise and make corrections if necessary
Read the sample paragraph below and find the topic sentence as well as the connectives and
reference words that make it coherent. Note how the main idea is developed with the help of
details and examples. Do you think one of the words in the topic sentence could be the title of the
paragraph?
Euthanasia is the act of helping a person who is terminally ill die painlessly. It is
considered as an option only when the patient is either in terrible pain and longs for
release or is in a prolonged comatose state. Euthanasia can be achieved by
administering drugs that lead to a painless death. It could, on the other hand, simply
involve taking the patient off all life-support systems-which some doctors may do more
readily than killing the patient with the help of a lethal drug. The act is an offence in
most countries and has been made legal only in place like Holland and Belgium. The
two sides of the controversy regarding euthanasia involve the questions of the right of
an individual to die with dignity under a well-defined set of circumstances and that of the
essential sacredness of life.

COHESIVE DEVICE OR LINKING WORDS

The words or expressions that are used to join two ideas or two parts of a sentence or two
different sentences or a number of sentences in a paragraph thematically and meaningfully are
called COHESIVE DEVICES. They are otherwise known as connectives or linking words
in English Grammar.
Cohesive Devices are generally used to convey the ideas of :–

1. Addition – And, also, besides, moreover, in addition, In addition to.

2. Contrast – Despite, But, However, Yet, Still, Though.
3. Choice – Or, Either …… or, Neither …… nor.
4. Purpose – So that.
5. Result/effect – Consequently, So, Therefore, Thus.
6. Cause/Reason/Consequence – Because, as, since, for.
7. Time – After, Then, When, before, at last, finally, till, at first.
8. Similarity – Similarly, Likewise
9. Exemplification – For example, for instance, such as, particularly.
10. Clarification – In other words.

EXERCISES - Linking words - Example

Fill in the blanks choosing the linking words given below the passage :

My friend is a singer. He is intelligent –––––––– hardworking. –––––––– he is creative.

––––––––– he has never received any award in India, –––––––– he won a prize in a competition
in America last year. –––––––– he has decided to leave India and settle down in America.
(although, therefore, moreover, but, and)
Answer: My friend is a singer. He is intelligent ––and–– hardworking. ––Moreover–– he is
creative. ––Although–– he has never received any award in India, ––but–– he won a prize in a
competition in America last year. ––Therefore–– he has decided to leave India and settle down in
America.

1. Rewrite the following passages filling in the blank spaces with suitable linking words from the
lists given at the end of each passage.
1. One of the most wonderful inventions of modern times is television. It is now possible to sit in
the comfort of one’s home –––––– watch on a screen events –––––––– are happening hundreds
of miles away. We can –––––– get entertainment from films, dances, plays and sports –––––– are
shown on the screen. It is difficult to imagine ––––– life would be like without television.
[What, and, also, that, which]
2. The methods of reading usually differ in accordance with the contents of books, –––––all
books should be read with equal seriousness. Amusement is not the main objective of reading
–––––– a good book, ––––– it is a novel or a biography or a drama, always deals with some
aspect of knowledge –––– helps us to know life better. It is ––––– said –––– books are the best
teachers.
[Therefore, because, but, whether, and, that]
3. –––– the Congress and the PDP inch towards formation of a new government in Jammu and
Kashmir, one lone Kashmiri sits in Tihar jail, accused for crimes ––– he could be hanged for,
–––– proved guitly. The case of Abdul Gilani, –––– was a lecturer in a Delhi College, is an
example of –––– shocking such incidents could be for ordinary citizens.
[How, While, If, Who, That]
4. Many tribal women are unable to feed their children –––– they have no land to till. –––
hundreds of women are facing similar situations. –––––– the land records do not have the names
of wives, the husbands sell the land –––– use a large part of the money to buy liquior. ––––– they
are not judicious in spending money. [And, In fact, As, Since, Moreover]
5. I am called the Safety Equipment Officer. It may sound like an impressive title,––––– it’s not
a very accurate description of what I do. My main job is to provide protective clothing, ––––
overalls, helmets and so on. I estimate what the different departments will need and –––– I order
it from the suppliers. –––– I make sure that the various departments have everything they want.
––––– stationary is also my responsibility. [However, But, Such as, Then, In this way]
6. The climate of Gopalpur-on-Sea is pleasant in summer. –––– tourists in large number throng
this small town in summer for holidaying. ––––– suitable accommodation is a problem here,
––––– the town is small –––– most of the people are economically backward. –––– that does not
discourage tourists. [Since, However, But, Therefore, And]
7. When we are young, we are naturally creative ––– we let our minds run free. ––––– as we are
taught to follow rules, our thinking narrows. –––––– in many areas of our lives, creativity can be
a matter of survival. –––––, with more and more women opting for careers and independence,
couples have to be more creative about their relationships to avoid conflicts. Creativity is not all
that mysterious. An important creative trait was well defined by a scientist ––––he said,
“Discovery consists of seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.”
[For instance, and, when, however, but]
8. ––––– the year 2010, one third of the world’s cropland will have turned to dust. One million
species will have become extinct and hundreds of millions of people will face starvation. All this
is happening –––– our civilization has kept on expanding on the assumption that the world’s
resources are limitless. ––––– merely stopping growth is not the answer. ––––– we need is
development ––––– works in partnership with the environment.
[That, by, however, what, because]
9. Many people will come to the meeting –––– the speaker is well-known. ––––– we need a
bigger hall ––––– at least two hundred persons can be seated. We wanted to book the Lenin
Bhavan, –––– it is already booked for that day. –––– we are trying to reserve the town hall ––––
it does not have an air-conditioner. [Though, therefore, but, because, however, so that]
10. When I reached the bus stand, I discovered I had missed my usual bus –––– I reached the
office on time ––– a friend was kind enough to give me a lift on his scooter. –––– I reached
office, I heard a noise ––––– came from inside my boss’s room. I went inside the room ––––
found that a burglar had broken open the almirah ––––– many important documents were kept.
[Because, when, and, where, but, which]
11. We ––––– live in the present-day world are proud to call ourselves civilised –––– we live and
dress better than our forefathers. Of course we have the advantages of the inventions of science
––––––– our ancestors had never known. ––––– science has also added to our worries. Perhaps
now we can kill more easily ––––– swiftly than ever before.[But, because, who, which, and]
12. My memory of the first day in college reminds me of the excitement and fear –––– I
experienced at that time. I was excited ––––– I heard always about the fun that the students have
in college –––––. I was scared and nervous ––––– I had no friends. ––––––, the over-all feeling
was one of pleasant expectation.[And, because, that, however, become]
13. I did not find the book on my table –––––– someone took it. ––––– I went to the teacher to
complain, he told me –––––– hence forward, I should be careful. ––––– I keep the book inside
the bag, it is always possible to be stolen, –––––– some boys are always tempted to steal books.
[Because, when, unless, since, that]
14. Smoking is harmful to health. This warning is printed on every pack. –––––––people smoke
tobacco and endangers their lives. –––––, smokers also cause discomfort to those who
involuntarily inhale smoke –––––– being non-smokers.––––––– smoking has become a concern
of public health. ––––– the ban on smoking in public is justified.
[Thus, Yet, Therefore, Despite, Moreover, Until]
15. Sikta’s sister is an air- hostess for a famous international airlines ––––– Sikta wants to
become one too. –––––– she is still too young. The minimum age for an air- hostess is twenty,
–––––– Sikta is just over sixteen. –––––– she has taken up a job in an office –––– she ––––––
attends evening classes –––––– she wants to improve her French and Japaneese, ––––––– foreign
languages are an essential qualification for an air- hostess.
[Since, also, because, and, but, however, meanwhile, and]
16. Smoking, –––––– may be pleasure for some people, is a source of discomfort for their
fellows. ––––, medical authorities express their concern about the effect of smoking on the health
of –––– those who smoke, –––– those who must involuntarily inhale the contribution of smokers
to the atmosphere. ––––– smoking should be banned in public places.
[But also, Further, Therefore, Not only, Which]
17. When John Logie Baird turned into an adult, he became a businessman. –––– his business
failed, –––– he thought of working at television. His family advised him not to be too
adventurous. He, ––––, did not listen to them. ––––– he rented a room and bought the apparatus
he needed. He started working. One day he saw a picture on his screen. He rushed out and found
an office boy whom he took to his room to television. His picture appeared on the screen. –––––
television had been invented. [However, thus, instead, but, so]
18. The thief disguished himself ––––– nobody should recognise him. –––– he was identified
soon enough. –––––– he held a gun in his hand, some people tried to catch him, ––––most other
people were looking on with fear. The thief was –––– nabbed by the people ––– he was so scared
that he forgot to use the gun. [However, because, but, so that, although, though]
19. ––––– you work hard, you will not succeed in any competitive examination. –––– thousands
of young people appear in these examinations, ––––– a few succeed—–these examinations aim
at finding out –––– you are intelligent enough to solve the difficult problems ––––– you face in
real life. [Which, if, unless, although, because, only]
20. As soon as the examination was over, my friends –––– I decided to go on holidaying –– we
could not decide the exact place –––– we would spend our holidays. –––– some of us wanted to
go to Puri, others proposed Rourkela. It was of course felt –––– the trip should not be very
expensive. [And, where, that, but, while]
21. Each nation has its own peculiar character –––– distinguishes it from others. –––– the people
of the world have more points in which they are all like each other than points in which they are
different. One type of person –––– is common in every country is the one who always tries to do
as little as possibly can and to get as much in return as he can. His opposite, the man who is in
the habit of doing more than is strictly necessary ––– who is ready to accept –––– is offered in
return, is rare everywhere. [And, but, that, who, which]
22. Everything seems to be in its place. The match-box, –––, has its fixed receptacle above the
mantlepiece, and there is a bowl for the burnt matches, regularly used, ––– its contents show. –––
here is a burnt match thrown on the floor, ––– the bowl is on the table quite handy. ––– the
match, you notice, is not of the same kind as those in the box over the mantlepiece.
[Yet, although, and, for instance, as]
23. –––– the only time pollution is news is –––– there has been a major disaster ––– an oil spill
or a radiation leak from a nuclear power station. It is, ––––, the ordinary pollution of our whole
environment –––– is the growing problem. ––– it goes on, all forms of earth including our own,
will be in danger. [If, when, that, usually, however,such as]
24. We need regular exercise to keep ourselves fit. –––––– exercises, we need regular sleep.
––––––– we need regular relaxation ––––––– the duration of sleep varies with age, –––––– it
varies with the nature of work we do. Infants sleep for long hours,––––– sleep is necessary for
their growth. [and, but, also, besides, because]
25. Ball tampering ––––– involves roughing up one side of the ball, ––––––– by picking its seam
and scuffing its surface with finger nails ––––––– with bottle tops to make it swing more than
normal. ––––––––––– spotted, it is considered a low form of gamesmanship. ––––––– unspotted,
it is a fine art that every fast bowler is quick to learn. [if, either, usually, when, or]
26. –––––– a person suffering from leprosy can be completely cured –––––– can then return to
his family and friends. This was not always so. ––––––– the dreadful disease reached the islands
of Hawaii about a hundred years ago it spread very rapidly, the government tried to stop the
disease by sending all the suffers to one island, Molokai.––––––– they were left to live and die
together, forgotten and uncured for. [when, there, and, now, but, at that time]

EXERCISE – Paragraph writing – Jumbled sentences:

A. Working in pairs, number the sentences in the sets below to make well-knit paragraphs. The
first sentence in each set is marked for you.
a. [ ]This rise in temperature will affect all life on the planet.
[ ]Some of the steps being taken are large scale planting of trees, introducing taxes to be
imposed on industries producing harmful gases, and promoting alternative sources of energy.
[ ]The earth is getting warmer because of the greenhouse effect.
[ ]Many governments have begun to look at ways of reducing the emissions of greenhouse
gases.
[ ]The gases produced by human activities trap the heat of the sun in the earth’s atmosphere
and, consequently, its temperature has been steadily increasing.
[ ]The two main gases responsible for the greenhouse effect carbon dioxide and methane.
b. [ ]However, it is certain that believing fully in them would burden our minds and fill us with
either irrational fear or impossible hopes.
[ ]They are found in different parts of the world and are handed down from one generation to
the next.
[ ]It is the best to treat superstitions as simply interesting beliefs, and carry on with faith in
ourselves and in life.
[ ]Superstitions cannot be proved, and so we can never know if there is any truth in them.
[ ]For example, it is believed that breaking of a mirror brings bad luck.
[ ]Superstitions are ‘blind’ beliefs that are not based on reason or on the laws of science.
[ ]Similarly, finding a horse shoe is supposed to be a sign of a good fortune.

EXERCISE 2– Paragraph writing:

Following the guidelines above, write paragraphs of five or six sentences on three of the
following topics:

a. The importance of festivals and celebrations in our life.

b. Wildlife conservation
c. A meaningful education
d. Advantages of vegetarianism
e. An exciting holiday
f. Terrorism: irrational and inhuman