Final Term Module Purposive Communication 2 PDF

 Learner’s Module in ENG 3A – Purposive Communication
Chapter 5
EVALUATING MESSAGES AND IMAGES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEXTS
RATIONALE:
Communication in the 21st century demands learners to become critical readers of different
text types reflecting different cultures. This chapter will enable the students to learn how to
evaluate messages and images of different types of texts.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this chapter, you must be able to:
1. evaluate messages and images of different types of texts;
2. employ various semiotic systems in understanding multimodal texts; and
3. practice critical reading and listening;
PRETEST:
Complete the pretest on page 255.
CONTENT:
TEXTS – provide the means for communicating and form an important part of study in any
given course.
It is important to understand how the features of texts affect reading comprehension,

particularly in examining similarities and differences of the traditional print-based and
multimodal texts.
Pardo (2004) explains that these types of texts share characteristics that may include an
understanding of the author’s intent, the social purpose of the text, how it is structured, how
well it is written, the subject matter, vocabulary, language choices, the reading level, and
other surface features. Hence, evaluating text types is given emphasis on these characteristic
modes that offer significant information that could help enrich an available schema.
Evaluating messages and images of different types of texts requires the evaluator to
comprehend the initial textual data that lie on text features. It involves the active construction
of meaning through the interaction of the evaluator who is engaged on critically reading print-
based or multimodal texts. Print-based refers to those texts that are prepared in prints, but
any printed text is a multimodal text since it involves various communication modalities.
Hence, multimodal texts refer to those types of texts that use a combination of two or more
communication modes, for instance, print, image, and spoken text as in film or computer
presentations. In the 21st century, however, readers tend to devote much of their time reading
and comprehending multimodal texts.
Using multimodal texts requires learners to reconsider its nature, the cultural diversity of
readers, and the complex technological environments. The texts should, therefore, be
Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 139

selected with care for the purpose of exploring one key understanding of how texts have
different meanings for readers with different cultural orientations.
MULTIMODAL TEXTS
When a text combines two or more semiotic systems (linguistic, visual, audio, gestural,
spatial), it is considered multimodal. Semiotic is the study of meaning-making. It explores
signs and symbols as important components of communication.
The syllabus of the Australian Curriculum mentions that language modes such as, listening,
speaking, reading, writing, viewing, and representing are often integrated and
interdependent activities used in evaluating texts in order to shape meaning and that any
combination of the modes may be involved in responding to or composing print, sound,
visual or multimedia text. Hence, multimodal texts can be print, digital, or live.
Forms of multimodal texts:
1. Paper. This form is print based, such as, books, comics, posters, magazines.
2. Digital. It is computer-based like slide presentations, emails, ebooks, blogs, e-

posters, web pages, social media, animations, films, movies, video games.
3. Live. It is a form of actual performance or an event
Two or more of the following semiotic systems are included in a multimodal text.
1. Linguistic system. It refers to the linguistic components like vocabulary, structure,

and grammar of a text.
2. Visual system. It pertains to the color, vectors and viewpoint in still and moving
images.
3. Audio system. This mode refers to the volume, pitch, and rhythm of music and sound
effects of a presentation.
4. Gestural system. It denotes the movement, facial expression, and body language of
the characters.
5. Spatial system. It indicates proximity, direction, position of layout, and organization

of objects in space.
CRITICAL READING AND LISTENING
Multimodal texts require readers and listeners to become critical readers and listeners. Since
comprehension is the central goal of both reading and listening, the ability to comprehend
multimodal texts develops students to become critical readers and listeners as well as active
evaluators of multimodal texts.

The key elements of the communication situation (sender, message, medium, receiver
[audience], and context) provide an understanding of multimodal texts; hence, this knowledge
should be expanded in order to accommodate and include in your understanding the
messages multimodal texts provide.
Critical Reading of Multimodal Texts

Critical reading is the process of reading that goes beyond comprehension of a text. It means
to say that one to be a critical reader must be actively involved in responding to the reading
text. It is very useful at all stages of academic study but is particularly important when
evaluating messages of multimodal texts.
Critical Reading involves:

1. Carefully considering and evaluating a reading text;
2. Identifying the strengths and implications of the text;
3. Identifying the weaknesses of the text; and
4. Looking at the image and deciding how the reading fits into the greater academic
context.
One who is a critical reader is inquisitive, always asks questions about the texts. Hence, the
reader closely examines the key elements of the text. These elements may affect how strong
the message is, that is, how convincing it is. However, before you consider the message, you
should build up a background information about the text or an image. Consider the following
questions (Thoughtful Learning, 2014):
Source
1. Who created the message? Is the source reliable? Was it by a news organization, a
public citizen, an editorial team of a scientific journal, or an advertiser?
Message
2. What does the message say (subject, main point, support)?
3. Is the information fair and logical?
4. What points of view are shared in the message? Which ones are left out?
5. What images or sounds catch your attention?
Medium
6. What type of text is used to deliver the message?
7. What are the advantages and limitations of the text format?
Audience
8. Who is the target audience of the message?
9. How might other people interpret the message of the text?
Context
10. What is the purpose of the message?
11. Who controls the transmission of this message?

Listening as a Critical Thinking Activity
Listening is a voluntary active process, it is psychological. According to Lynch (2013), adults

listen 50 percent or less, while teenagers listen 25 percent or less. Studies show that those
who practice listening skills get better grades, higher pay and achieve their goals more often
than those who do not. For you to be able to access the message of an argument, you must
be a critical listener.
Critical listening requires active thinking because it goes far beyond just hearing a speaker’s
message. It involves analyzing the information of a speech and making important decisions
about truth, authenticity, and relevance. Kadjan-Baumeyer (2018) claims that listening is a
critical thinking activity; hence, Lynch qualifies that critical thinking:
1. Involves being able to access the strengths and weaknesses of an argument;

2. Involves being able to distinguish between the fact, theory and opinions of an
argument;
3. Allows for thinking outside of the box;
4. Allows for compromise and growth;
5. Involves being able to judge the credibility of sources;
6. Requires accessing the quality of evidence;
7. Involves discerning relationships between ideas;
8. Involves priorities on what to remember and in what context;
9. Allows for fewer mistakes and reduces trial and error in everyday life;
10. Does not mean negative thinking;
11. Is a normal process that requires practice and reinforcement;
12. Requires an open mind and the ability to consider and understand all sides of an
issue, and;
13. Means replacing name calling and images with reason compromise and the ability to
persuade instead of attack
Multimodal texts demand one to possess critical thinking because listening and reading are
two language skills that require this active mental processing. To analyze multimodal texts,
Kadjan-Baumeyer suggests to readers and listeners to perform the following:
1. Identify support for the claims.

This means performing research to determine the process the speaker used to
actually gather facts and information. Look for things like dates and sources.
2. Evaluate the argument of the speaker or the text.

Try to figure out whether the speaker is using emotional appeals, a logical argument
or actual evidence to state the case. Sometimes, a speaker uses overstatements
to stress a point and to make it more appealing. It is perfectly legal, but it can be
misleading. This is especially true if you have not done your homework. When it
comes to evaluating an argument, there are a few things you can do to get the most
information.

EVALUATING MULTIMODAL TEXTS
Putting communication at the front of your mind and becoming more aware of how you
communicate in a given situation can be informative and have many positive effects.
Whenever you evaluate multimodal texts, you are able to apply what you have learned about
critical reading and listening to improve your performance and overall experience.
You also consider the key elements of communication in order to evaluate messages within
various relationships. Whenever you evaluate multimodal texts, communication allows you to
see more of what is going on around you, which allows you to participate actively and
competently in various communication in a multicultural setting.
Multimodal texts are constructed means such that they can also be deconstructed or
separated into its various parts—source, message, medium, audience, and context. Using
the evaluation checklist provided by Thoughtful Learning (2014) in evaluating messages, we
will create a sample evaluation of texts in this section.
1. SOURCE
Readers or listeners of a text should ask first about its authorship. There is a need to
identify if the source is an individual or a team although the number of writers does
not warrant credibility of the text. Examine if the source is reliable. You always have
the hunch in determining if the source is reliable or not. This can be determined
through the background information about the source. Evaluate the choices about
content did the source make.
a) Who created the message?

b) Is the source reliable?
c) What choices did the source make?
2. MESSAGE
After evaluating the source, the content of the text should be examined in order to get
its message. There are various questions that one may ask in getting the message of
the text (Thoughtful Learning, 2014).
a) What does the message say?

You may ask questions such as:
• What is the subject?
• What is the main point?
• How is the main point supported?
b) Is the information fair and logical?
c) What points of view are shared in the message? Which ones are left out?
d) What images or sounds catch your attention?

Identifying the Subject, Main Point, and Support
The subject of the message may be a person, product, service, place, program,
among others. It concerns on what is talked about in the text. It is the reason that
makes a claim or a main point.
The main point is no less the main idea or the claim of the source. It can be explicitly
or implicitly expressed in the text.
An explicit main point is well expressed in the text. Certain features of the text
would lead to an overt statement of the main point, for instance, orthographic
features like sentences, phrases, clauses that provide an immediate extract of the
main point is an explicit expression of the main point.
Whereas the implicit main point is covertly expressed in the text and can only be
extracted based on suggestive features such as, graphics, images, or sound effects.
How a message supports its main point depends on the format and purpose of the
message. An online research article, for example, may use citations, experiments,
observations, interviews, statistical data, or graphics to support its main point, while
an online advertisement may use demonstrations and testimonials to promote a
product.
Moreover, readers should also check the accuracy of the message. Double-checking
facts and details should be done to recognize flaws in logic. Therefore, it is important
to understand the difference between and among fact, opinion, and claim.
Revisiting the differences, a fact is a statement about the real world that can be
shown to be true and can be checked for accuracy through gathering of evidence.
An opinion, however, is a self-report or attitudinal statement of feelings or personal
judgement. A claim is a debatable statement that can be supported with evidence
and reason.
Evaluating Logic and Balance
When evaluating a message, it is important to examine the chain of reasoning used

by the source, as any gaps or problems can undermine the validity of the conclusion.
You may ask: Is the information fair and logical? Check out if key terms were defined,
if the logic flow, and if there are flaws in the reasoning. Likewise, examine if the
information is fair. You have to consider whether the argument is appropriately
balanced, looking at the issue or problem from relevant perspectives. Evaluate if
there are questions that are not answered in the text, if the text is biased, if there are
other perspectives on the issue, and if the text presents a counter argument.

Every point of the message should follow on from the last point. If there is a gap
between two ideas, this undermines the overall conclusion. Likewise, some readings
are more biased than others. A biased statement is characterized by prejudice,
partiality, or preference for or against a person, an object, or an idea. Biased
information has the following indicators:
a. The language is offensive; expressions might be biased in terms of gender, race,
ethnicity, age, and disability.
b. The message appeals more to the emotion rather than to reason or logic.
c. Ideas are worded with the intent to oversimplify or overgeneralize.
d. The message is one-sided, or it only presents a limited viewpoint.
Analyzing Points of View
All multimodal text messages reflect the culture of their creators—their values,
lifestyles, points of view, preferences, among other things. A rigorous analysis can
tell you about the source’s values and perspectives as well as those that are missing
in the text. The question on points of view should be given importance: What points
of view are shared in the message? Which ones are left out?
Creating Meaning Through Images and Sounds
Multimodal texts like presentations, advertisements, newscasts, videos, broadcasts,

animation, infographics are created beyond words. Visual elements and sound
techniques can affect your interpretation of a message. You may ask: What images
or sounds catch my attention?
Visual elements include lighting, camera angle, composition, and body language.
Visual Elements:
1. Lighting. Low lighting suggests sadness or fear, while bright lighting

conveys happiness or joy. Soft lighting expresses beauty and romance.
Use color and tone to reflect the mood you are trying to create in your
image.
2. Camera Angle. This visual element is used to position the viewers so

that they can understand the relationship between the characters. It is
very important in shaping meaning in film as well as in other visual texts.
A low-angle view makes people or things appear larger than they actually
are, often indicating importance. Conversely, a high angle view makes
people or things appear smaller and less significant.
3. Composition. Visual elements should be arranged in a manner that they

do not affect the viewer’s perception. Arrangements such as, close ups
of a face convey tension or intimacy, wider views showing people or
things and their surroundings usually express significance of the setting.

4. Body Language. Non-linguistic elements like the body language are

more revealing than words. They seem to be more catchy than the words
provided in the text.
Sound Techniques:
1. Sound Effects. This sound technique that is added after the filming
enhances a scene making it realistic although the effects themselves are
often artificially produced.
2. Music. This is another sound technique that affects the mood and
intensity of a scene. Fast-paced music use rhythm and volume to
heighten drama and often accompany car chases, fight scenes, and
other action-packed scenes. Slower, softer, intentionally expressive
compositions can create tension and foreboding, as in gothic films.
3. Voice-over or Narration. Some videos or films and television shows

use a narrator other than the characters in the story to speak to the
audience. For example, a narrator may be assigned to describe the
series of events portrayed in a video clip that has no subtitle and dialogue
between and among characters.
3. MEDIUM
The medium in transmitting the message may be conventional or digital although they
are often mixed up in a communication situation. Sometimes, print-based communication
needs to be backed up by a digital form in order to achieve a better and faster
communication.
Conventional media are no less than the broadcast and print-based communication,
while digital media include hypertext formats. According to Kitson (2011), hypertext refers
to the structuring of information in blocks of text which are connected by electronic links.
It is structured in a hierarchical manner where the content is organized from more general
concepts to more specific concepts. The reader is allowed to access additional
information to content on the current screen since it has its selection, use, and placement
to hypertext, hyperlinks, frames, windows, and images which may affect readers’ or
listeners’ evaluation of the message. Below are the types of media:
Each form of media has its inherent strengths and limitations. Smart phones, for instance,
are faster forms than print-based texts but messages are very informal and cannot be kept
as an accessible public document. Social media messages are speedy and timesaving but
prone to imprecisions. Generally, technical books are accurate and informative, but they lack
visual appeal, interactive component, and rapid and up-to-date delivery of message. Some
types of media seem to be boring (e.g. letters, books, reports), but are most appropriate for
a particular situation. Conversely, blogs, televisions, radios, music, text messaging, social
networks, among other appealing communication media seem to be inviting and interesting,
but sometimes lack appropriateness for a particular context. Hence, conventional and digital
media compensate in terms of use and are undoubtedly context dependent.

4. AUDIENCE
The audience in the communication situation refers to the receiver of the message. It may
be a person or a group for whom a message is created. Some texts like a personal email, an
invitation to deliver a talk, or a thank-you note target just one person, but other texts are
meant for larger audiences like research reports, advertisements, signages, books,
brochures, among other communication forms. Two important questions guide audience
adaptation in multimodal communication: (1) Who is the target audience of the text? and (2)
How might other people interpret its message?
Understanding the message of a multimodal text activates personal factors about the
audience such as, culture, values, and life experiences. These factors all play a role in
perceiving the transmitted message. Your evaluation of a message is a reflection of your
upbringing, education, economic status, interest, aspirations, beliefs, and culture.
In determining the target audience of a multimodal text, you may examine its content. For
instance, if it is an advertisement, advertisers most often craft messages based on the
audience’s characteristics, such as, age, gender, education, occupation, economic status,
habits and interest, region, and culture. That is why, advertisements in televisions have their
particular time slots in order to suit said advertisement to audiences at a particular time. You
would notice that you can see different advertisements aired during a boxing rematch, a
beauty pageant, and a noontime show like “Eat Bulaga.” This selectiveness in airing or
posting advertisements is intended to filter selective messages to highly targeted audiences
5. CONTEXT
Context in this section includes the purposes and authorship of the text. A text serves at least
one of three purposes: to inform, to entertain, or to persuade. Often, a text fulfills all three
purposes at once. Magazines, for example, may entertain its readers, but it may also inform
and persuade them. Consider and analyze the purpose before sending any messages. The
following are questions that may be used in evaluating context:

What is the purpose of the message?
1. To inform. The message provides the audience with a clear understanding of the
concept presented by the source. Most of these multimodal texts like books, ebooks,
letters, blogposts, emails, magazines, newspapers, video tutorials, television
newscasts, documentaries, presentations are created for information dissemination.
These multimodal texts were built on society’s interest in learning and keeping us
abreast of what is happening in the world. Messages that are meant to inform or
educate are typically free from biased messages. Those messages that aim to
entertain or persuade readers are more prone to biased language. Therefore, the
audience should be sensitive to any organizational bias that might accompany the
message.
2. To entertain. The message or the text amuses the audience. Some of these
multimodal texts that aim to entertain are television sitcoms or primetime shows,
movies, music, sports and travel broadcasts, social networks, magazines, and
comics. Popular entertainment media are appealing and inviting to advertisers
because they are read and viewed by large audiences who can also be their potential
subscribers or customers.
3. To persuade. The audience is provided with well-argued ideas that can influence
their own beliefs and decisions. Persuasive devices are easy to recognize in
advertisements and commercials, but they are subtle in other media forms. For
instance, a product endorsement may influence you to think one way because the
endorser only talks about the benefits of the product. Media-literate individuals are
able to weigh the pros and cons, the advantages and disadvantages, or the benefits
and harmful effects of a certain product; hence, they make up their minds on an issue
before subscribing or trying it.
Who controls the transmission of the message?
One critical question in evaluating messages is on authorship. The creator of the

message was already identified in the earlier section of this topic, but the question on
ownership is another layer of analysis. The message is created by an author who controls
the distribution or dissemination of the message. The three main categories of ownership
are identified as:
1. Government. Multimodal texts that were created by government offices are state-
owned and must be carefully evaluated for propaganda—publicity, advertising,
marketing, and information dissemination. Most of the texts are available for
references and have their predetermined retention periods. There are countries that
do not allow freedom of the press and have even censored the Internet. However,
other nations restrict independent voices and use the state-owned media as their
mouthpiece.
2. Corporations. Most of the media messages are controlled by private companies.

Different forms of multimodal texts like videos, newspapers, magazines, movies, web
sites are controlled by giant corporations. These media forms are business motivated

by commercial interests, which are gained through advertising. Audiences, readers

and viewers alike should evaluate the message if it serves their best interests or the
corporation’s interest.
3. Individuals. Personal creations are independent media forms. Texts and other media
forms that are free of government and corporate influences are controlled by
individuals. Digital-based technologies have greatly helped and promoted
independent media voices. Citizen journalism is a practice that has gained momentum
and is now easy for the journalist to report meaningful news to a large audience due
to digital media. Likewise, a widespread of audience has already advancing and
enjoying to spread information through social media. All of these means of technology
have brought an individual source to be capable producer and creator of meaningful,
timely, and interesting messages.
ACTIVITY:
Answer the activity on pages 226-227.
GENERALIZATION:
• Texts offer the means for communicating and form an important part of study in any given
course.
• Evaluating messages and images of different types of texts requires the evaluator to
comprehend the initial textual data that lie on text features. It involves the active
construction of meaning through the interaction of the evaluator who is engaged on
critically reading print-based or multimodal texts.
• Print-based refers to those texts that are prepared in prints while multimodal texts refer to
those types of texts that use a combination of two or more communication modes, for
instance, print, image, and spoken text as in film or computer presentations.
• Semiotics is the study of meaning-making. Two or more of the following semiotic systems
are needed in evaluating a multimodal text: linguistic, visual, audio, gestural, and spatial.
• Multimodal texts necessitate readers and listeners to practice critical reading and listening.
Critical reading is the process of reading that goes beyond comprehension of a text.
Critical Listening, on the other hand, requires active thinking because it goes far beyond
just hearing a speaker’s message. It involves analyzing the information of a speech and
making important decisions about truth, authenticity, and relevance.
• Whenever you evaluate multimodal texts, communication allows you to see more of what
is going on around you, which allows you to participate actively and competently in various
communication in a multicultural setting. Multimodal texts are constructed means such that
they can also be deconstructed or separated into its various parts—source, message,
medium, audience, and context.
EVALUATION:
Answer the questions on page 227.

ASSIGNMENT:
Complete the assignment on pages 228-230.
REFERENCES:
Manzano, B.M. et al (2018). Evaluating Messages and Images of Different Types of Texts.
In B. Mazano, M.V. Arador, and M.A. Ladia. (Eds.). Purposive Communication for
College Freshmen (pp. 129-148). Plaridel, Bulacan: St. Andrew Publishing House

Chapter 6
COMMUNICATION AND STRATEGIES USING TOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY
RATIONALE:
The 21st century is the time when we need to develop multimodal literacy knowledge and
skills. Today, an effective communicator must be knowledgeable and skillful in designing and
communicating meaning through such rich and potentially complex texts. This chapter will
enable the students to learn how to make careful choices and effective designs in executing
different communication aids.
1. learn the major types of communication aids;
2. understand the functions of communication aids; and
3. know how to prepare quality communication aids
PRETEST:
Complete the tables on pages 231-232.
CONTENT:
Putting communication at the front of your mind and becoming more aware of how you
communicate in a given context can be informative and have many positive effects.
Whenever you work with groups, you are able to apply what you have learned about group
communication to improve your performance and overall experience. You also notice that
there is a need to adapt to certain requirements that foster timely presentations or
communication with your audiences.
Multimodal texts require a new set of skills to enable a communicator to make informed
choices within and across the available communication modes to construct meaning
effectively. Creating, developing, and producing spoken, written, or multimodal texts in print
or digital forms is an embedded literacy expectation across all disciplines.
Multimodal is defined in the Australian Curriculum as the strategic use of two or more
communication modes to make meaning (e.g., image, gesture, music, spoken language, and
written language). Creating a PowerPoint presentation, for example, is complex requiring a
combination of modes such as, written language, image, movement, sound effect, and spatial
design. Presenting it in public would necessitate the presenter to demonstrate spoken
language and gestures. The process of constructing such texts is indeed cross-disciplinary
because it activates different digital information technologies as well as the Arts (i.e., media,
visual arts, design, music, and drama).

MAJOR TYPES OF COMMUNICATION AIDS
Public presentations suggest the appropriate selection of communication aids. Your strategy
to present your speech or lecture will absolutely affect your audience and speech context.
Presented below are the major types of communication aids that can be used for
presentations: computer-based media, audiovisual media, low-tech media.
1. Computer-based Media
Today, computer-based communication aids are the norm. In most careers, speakers
are expected to be skillful and comfortable in using PowerPoint or web-based
alternatives to create and display communication aids. You have probably had the
opportunity the significance and usefulness of the computer in different public
presentations.
Using computer-based aids in a speech will physically isolate you from the audience
with whom you are trying to establish rapport. You may feel really comfortable when
you stand behind presentation equipment; however, this limits your nonverbal
interaction with your audience.
The use of computer may not be comfortable for some, especially if this equipment is
not available to them—one may not have a personal computer or it may not be
available in the workplace. In either case, check with your classmates, teachers, or
colleagues about the preparations that will be needed. It is important to reserve one
in advance. It is important if you can gain access to a computer ahead of time to
practice and familiarize yourself with the necessary commands to make your slides
run properly. It is also wise to be prepared for technical problems, which can happen
even to the very skillful computer user. On the day of your presentation, be sure to
arrive early for you to test out the equipment before the event begins.
Software packages were first introduced to computer presentations in the 70s, but
these products were expensive and needed highly trained technicians to operate the
programs. Today, there are a number of presentation software programs that are free
and relatively less costly and that can be learned quickly by nonexperts.
2. Audiovisual Media
Audiovisual is a communication aid that has both a sound and a visual component
(i.e., slide tape presentations, films, videoclips, podcasts, online videos,
documentaries, television programs, and live theater productions). Audiovisual media
frequently use web streaming, video conferencing, and live broadcast services. In
education, computer-based audiovisual equipment is often used in schools installing
projection equipment and using interactive whiteboard technology. An interactive
whiteboard is a large whiteboard, a standalone touchscreen computer, or a
connectable apparatus used as a touchpad to control computers from a projector.

In all levels of education, audiovisual media are used as an instructional mode where
particular attention is paid to the audio and visual presentations of the material, with
the goal of improving comprehension and retention. It breaks down the traditional
barriers of written communication to ensure that the students comprehend the
message easily, resulting in better discussion and collaboration in education,
business, and personal applications.
Advantages of Audiovisual Media
a. Clarity. Using both audio and visual components provide clarity in

communication. In a print-based text like a letter, its tone and mood, which may
come across differently to the reader, may give different perceptions.
Audiovisual input enables the designer and the audience to observe facial
expressions, hear tones and inflections, and clarify each other’s meanings and
positions.
b. Speed. Today’s communication is immediate, with the use of audiovisual media

such as, videos, phones, webcams, and face-to-face meetings. It defeats the
written mode of communication which may take several weeks and months
before it reaches its destination.
c. Retention. There seems an increase of message retention when audio and

visual cues are combined. According to the United States Department of Labor
(In Ireland, 2018), a mere 10 percent of information is retained when presented
only orally and only 35 percent of information is retained when presented only
visually. But when audio and visual tools are combined to present a message
or idea, 65 percent of that information is retained. Presentation software and
video conferencing can be effective tools in meetings and lectures because your
audience receives and processes the information more effectively than it would
with more traditional approaches.
d. Media. Videos, visual aids, and sound clips create a multimedia experience
when they are added to your presentation. Using a variety of media (i.e., from
mp3s to video footage to still-image slideshows and online social media) in
communication helps you become more engaging to your audience.
3. Low-Tech Media
Sometimes, computer technology is not available in some speaking situations. In

some instances, computer-based presentation aids are unnecessary or even
counterproductive even if you have ready access to technology. Still, in some cases,
computer-based or audiovisual media may be accompanied by low-tech media to
achieve a more effective communication. One of the advantages of low tech-media is
that they are very predictable. You can project or anticipate their use with little
interference. They are also inexpensive and are easy to use. However, they are prone
to physical damage and are difficult to keep. You need to be careful in handling them.

Examples of Low-tech Media
a. Chalk or Dry-Erase Board. Most speakers use this medium when they were
not able to prepare their communication aids. Failure to prepare a presentation aid
during a talk gives the audience a negative impression toward you, mostly
negative. However, you may use the board for interactive components of your
speech; hence, it becomes effective. You may write on the board your audience’s
responses at various points in your speech. It is very useful when you want to show
visually the information that you are receiving from your audience.
b. Flipchart. For briefing small groups, flip charts are very useful. They are easily
prepared and inexpensive. The tip markers and graphic materials are readily
available, and with the modest ability of the presenter, it can compose the desired
material. Flipcharts help the speaker proceed through the material by providing the
audience with something to look in addition to the speaker. It can be prepared
before or during the presentation, can be used to record audience’s questions and
comments, and can be converted to slides. However, flipcharts may require the
use of graphics talent. They are not suitable for use in a large audience setting and
may be difficult to transport.
c. Foam Board or Poster Board. Foam board consists of a thin sheet of Styrofoam
with heavy paper bonded to both surfaces. Although it is a lightweight, inexpensive
foundation for information, it can stand on its own when placed in an easel without
curling under at the bottom edge. Conversely, a poster board is cheaper than foam
board. It is flimsier, more vulnerable to damage, and cannot stand on its own.
In public speaking, most speakers create professional posters using a full-color

poster printer. Typically, posters are sketched out and then designed on a
computer using a program like Microsoft PowerPoint or Publisher. These programs
have the option of selecting the size of the printed area.
d. Handouts. As with any presentation aid, handouts are not a substitute for a well-
prepared speech. They are only appropriate for delivering information that
audience members can take away. Using handouts requires a great deal of
management if they are to contribute to your credibility as a speaker.
When you plan to use handouts, bring enough copies for each audience member
to get one. Looking on with one’s neighbor’s handouts does not contribute to a
professional image. If the number of handouts is not enough for all members of the
audience, you will have no control over the speed at which it circulates, or the
direction it goes. It may not even reach everybody by the end of your speech, or
listeners could still be passing your handouts around during the next speaker’s
speech. If one listener only holds a handout for two or four more listeners while you
are making a point, it absolutely decreases attention and restricts comprehension
as listeners are wanting to see the handout but have a limited access to it. By the
time they were able to see your point on the handout, they will have forgotten why
they need to see it.

Moreover, a handout should include only the necessary information to support your
points, and that information should be organized in such a way that listeners will
be able to understand it. If your handout is designed for your audience to follow
along, you should tell them so. Tell them to refer to specific information during your
speech. You may also want them to read some of the information and then go on
to explain them.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION AIDS
Rehearsing your speech prior to its delivery has been the norm and is suggested by many
experts in the field. Even without technology assistance, you can stand out as an effective
speaker if you delivered your speech enough to stand on its own. However, it is also important
to recognize that a good speech can often be made even better by the strategic use of
communication aids.
Technically speaking, communication aids are presentation aids that can fulfill several
functions in order to create an impressive presentation. No matter how impressive your
communication aids are, they cannot secure a good speech. Thus, such aids to
communication should complement with good speech delivery.
Following are the functions of communication aids:

1. To clarify or emphasize a point.
2. To enhance retention and recall of your message.
3. To clarify or emphasize a point.
4. To enhance retention and recall of your message.
5. To add variety and interest to your speech.
6. To enhance your credibility as a speaker.
PREPARING COMMUNICATION AIDS
Communication aids such as those discussed earlier: computer-based, audiovisual, or low-

tech media are impressive presentation aids but cannot replace a well-prepared speech.
These communication tools should stand on their own in delivering information, but do not
count on them to do so. This may frustrate you when technical problems arise. Instead, work
toward a goal of delivering your speech. Explain your presentation aids so that your audience
will know why you are using them.
Putting too much information on an aid is one mistake you should avoid. Match your speech
with your presentation aids by narrowing the topic and content of your speech. Your
presentation aids should not represent every idea in your speech. It should only fulfill certain
functions described earlier.

GUIDELINES IN PREPARING QUALITY COMMUNICATION AIDS

a. They must be easily seen or heard by your audience.
b. They should be easily handled.
c. They should be aesthetically pleasing.
d. Text type must only be used when needed.
e. Control the size and lines of graphic images.
f. Computer presentations should be used purposively.
g. Always have a backup plan.
ACTIVITY:
Answer the activity on page 233.
GENERALIZATION:
• Texts offer the means for communicating and form an important part of study in any given
course.
• Evaluating messages and images of different types of texts requires the evaluator to
comprehend the initial textual data that lie on text features. It involves the active
construction of meaning through the interaction of the evaluator who is engaged on
critically reading print-based or multimodal texts.
• Print-based refers to those texts that are prepared in prints while multimodal texts refer to
those types of texts that use a combination of two or more communication modes, for
instance, print, image, and spoken text as in film or computer presentations.
• Semiotics is the study of meaning-making. Two or more of the following semiotic systems
are needed in evaluating a multimodal text: linguistic, visual, audio, gestural, and spatial.
• Multimodal texts necessitate readers and listeners to practice critical reading and listening.
Critical reading is the process of reading that goes beyond comprehension of a text.
Critical Listening, on the other hand, requires active thinking because it goes far beyond
just hearing a speaker’s message. It involves analyzing the information of a speech and
making important decisions about truth, authenticity, and relevance.
• Whenever you evaluate multimodal texts, communication allows you to see more of what
is going on around you, which allows you to participate actively and competently in various
communication in a multicultural setting. Multimodal texts are constructed means such that
they can also be deconstructed or separated into its various parts—source, message,
medium, audience, and context.
EVALUATION:
Answer the questions on pages 233-234.

ASSIGNMENT:
Complete the assignment on page 234.
REFERENCES:
Manzano, B.M. et al (2018). Communication and Strategies Using Tools of Technology.
In B. Mazano, M.V. Arador, and M.A. Ladia. (Eds.). Purposive Communication for
College Freshmen (pp. 161-172). Plaridel, Bulacan: St. Andrew Publishing House

Chapter 7
COMMUNICATION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES
RATIONALE:
As an essential life skill, the ability to communicate for various purposes is something every
student should endeavor to learn and hone. This chapter will help students understand
communication as a “social process” involving “the transfer of information and understanding
from one person to another person”.
1. select a topic and identify your purpose;
2. analyze audiences;
3. gather materials that can be used in putting together a speech; and
4. learn various patterns in organizing thoughts and ideas
PRETEST:
Complete the tables on pages 235-236.
CONTENT:
At every stage of a student’s life, and even beyond that, the skill and the knowledge to
communicate, to acquire and convey information, and to persuade and argue are not only
necessary but indispensable.
There are numerous theories attempting to explain the nature of communication and identify
its elements. But the most commonly cited definition involves the process of a sender with an
idea encoding a message, which is then sent through a medium or channel until it reaches a
receiver, who decodes the message and sends back a feedback.
In his book titled “Ted Talks: The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking,” Chris Anderson,
head of TED, a not-for-profit organization “devoted to spreading ideas, usually in the form of
short, powerful talks (18 minutes or less),” explains how speakers manage to affect or
influence their audience (in his example 1,200 people are listening to a TED Talks speaker):
“The 1,200 brains inside the heads of 1,200 independent individuals start to behave very strangely.
They begin to sync up. A magic spell woven by the woman washes over each person. They gasp
together. Laugh together. Weep together. And as they do so, something else happens. Rich,
neurologically encoded patterns of information inside the woman’s brain are somehow copied and
transferred to the 1,200 brains in the audience. These patterns will remain in those brains for the rest
of their lives, potentially impacting their behavior years into the future.”

What happens during a TED Talks event is an “astounding” example of the seemingly
magical power of oral communication or public speaking to share information and to
persuade.
Stephen E. Lucas, author of “The Art of Public Speaking,” said that we should not be
surprised that people value public speaking because “throughout the history of Western
civilization, this art has been a vital means of communication.” He added that “In modern
times, many men and women have spread their ideas and influence largely by public
speaking.”
As a student, you are expected to give presentations and speak in front of different
audiences. In almost all the courses that you will take up in college, you will be assigned to
do research on certain topics and report on them in front of your fellow students. If you run
for a position in the student body, you will be obliged to deliver speeches as you persuade
the student-electorate to vote for you. After graduation, the same demands for public
speaking will be expected from you. The skill of public speaking, therefore, is as essential as
the ability to write or read or count.
Therefore, how do you develop your ability for public speaking? Preparing a speech is not
unlike preparing yourself to write an essay. In essay writing, a writer follows these steps: pre-
writing, drafting, and revising (or editing/proofreading). In speech making, there are also pre-
writing activities that you need to follow. Stephen E. Lucas identifies these steps as: (1)
selecting a topic and purpose, (2) analyzing your audience, and (3) gathering the materials
that you will need to prepare your speech.
SELECTING YOUR TOPIC AND IDENTIFYING YOUR PURPOSE
If the speech that you will make is in the context of a classroom assignment, then the topic
will be most likely given by your professor and the purpose identified by him. There are two
general reasons (or purposes) for why a person, such as you, is going to deliver a speech.
One reason is to inform your audience about something and the other reason is to persuade
them to a certain belief or attitude.
Explaining to your audience how a computer works is informational but telling them how
capitalism is better than socialism is persuasive. Delivering an oral report in class about the
meaning and functions of management, for example, is oral communication for the purpose
of providing information, but when, in the same report, you argue that it is easier to
understand the nature of management through an analysis of managerial skills than that of
functions, you are communicating for the purpose of persuasion, that is, you are trying to
convince your fellow classmates that they should adopt your idea or belief.
There are speeches, however, that are so subtly crafted that, even though they sound like
informational speeches, they are in fact persuasive speeches. Take for instance the
speeches delivered by Steve Jobs, Apple’s co-founder and former CEO, during launches of
Apple products. They were deceptively informational, but the effect is brilliantly persuasive.
In these presentations, Jobs seemed to be simply describing Apple products (Ipod, Iphone,

among other gadgets), but in fact they were marketing pitches as Jobs tried to sell his
products to the audience.
Choosing a topic can make or break your talk. In choosing a topic, you must decide whether
it is interesting enough for you that you can hurdle all the challenges that you will face in
preparing it. But even if you find your topic to be worthwhile, the next question to ask yourself
is if you have the capability to see through the process. Do you have the expertise in the
subject area you will be doing a talk about? Or, at the very least, do you know enough about
the subject?
Another important thing to remember in selecting a subject is that it should be narrow enough
for you to be able to explore it with reasonable depth. A rule in topic selection in essay writing
is “Write more about less.” No doubt this is applicable in speech writing as well.
Just like a topic, the purpose for a talk can also be general and specific. To inform is an
example of a general purpose while To explain to my audience how psychoanalytic reading
is done is an instance of a specific purpose. The purpose will guide the speakers how they
will prepare everything. The talk will be shaped by its purpose. According to Lucas (1989),
“formulating a specific purpose is the most important early step in developing a successful
speech.” He provides five general principles in writing a purpose statement.
1. Write the purpose statement as a full infinitive phrase, not as a fragment.
Do not write ‘The parts of a computer’, but rather write ‘To inform my audience of the
different parts of a desktop computer.’
2. Express your purpose as a statement, not as a question.
Do not write ‘What is a bitcoin’ but rather write ‘To inform my audience of the nature
of bitcoins.’
3. Avoid figurative language in your purpose statement.
Don’t: To persuade my audience that invalidating the exam because some of the
test takers have cheated is like throwing out the baby with the bath water.
Do: To persuade my audience that invalidating the exam because some of the test
takers have cheated is an unfair punishment on most of the test takers simply
because a few of them have violated the rules.
4. Limit your purpose statement to one distinct idea.
Don’t: To persuade my audience that computer addiction among teenagers is due

to lack of attention by parents and that broken homes are the result of one parent
being unfaithful to another.

Do’s: To persuade my audience that computer addiction among teenagers is due

to lack of attention by parents.
To persuade my audience that broken homes are the result of one parent being
unfaithful to another.
5. Make sure your specific purpose is not too vague or general.
Don’t: To persuade my audience that invalidating the exam because some of the
test takers have cheated is like throwing out the baby with the bath water.
Do: To persuade my audience that invalidating the exam because some of the test
takers have cheated is an unfair punishment on most of the test takers simply
because a few of them have violated the rules.
In addition to these principles, Lucas (1989) also suggested five questions that you
should ask yourself when you are preparing for a talk. These questions are:
1. Does my purpose meet the assignment? If you think it does not and you have
questions, do not hesitate to ask your professor. For example, if your professor requires
you to deliver a report on the nature of public relations, the issue of whether or not PR
as a profession is healthy for society can crop up. You can ask your professor if s/he
wants you to include your opinion on the matter. In this case, the purpose of your oral
report is no longer informative but persuasive as well.
2. Can I accomplish my purpose in the time allotted? In delivering a talk or an oral

report, one important factor that you cannot ignore is time limit. TED Talks, the most
famous public speaking event, requires its speakers to deliver “short, powerful talks” in
18 minutes or less. To meet this all-so-important demand, you must come up with a
realistic topic and a realistic purpose. A topic and a purpose such as this—To inform
my audience about the evolution of communication technology beginning from the
ancient period to the present—is obviously too ambitious for an 18-minute talk unless
you are willing to run the risk of giving an incomplete picture of your topic.
3. Is the purpose relevant to my audience? What will be your audience’s takeaway

from your talk? If there is none, then your talk loses its relevance to your audience.
When that happens, you will not only waste your time but also that of your audience.
In addition, your talk will most likely fail because your audience will find it boring. They
will fidget in their seats and wish that you were never born. To make you talk interesting
to your audience, make it relevant.
4. Is the purpose too trivial for my audience? Earlier we mentioned that when you give
a talk your topic should not be too broad or complicated. However, this does not mean
that you will oversimplify to the point that your purpose becomes too trivial for your
audience. You must strike the fine balance between superficial and complicated.

5. Is the purpose too technical for my audience? Sometimes in our eagerness to

impress our professor we choose a topic and a purpose that is too technical for our
intended audience. To persuade my audience that the use of objective correlative is
inherent in Japanese haikus is an example of a technical purpose. Much like a
trivialized purpose a too-technical purpose can easily lose the interest of your
audience. But it can be done. In the example above, you can start by defining what
“objective correlative” is and then proceed to cite examples of its use in poems before
tackling the big question of how it is useful in Japanese haikus.
ANALYZING YOUR AUDIENCE
When you are a swimmer and you are about to dive into the pool, the first thing that you will
do is to check how deep the water is. The same is true when giving a talk in front of a group
of people. You must analyze your audience before you even open your mouth. This is
important because without an understanding of your audience, you will not be able to address
them properly.
The reason we communicate is that we have a message to convey, and that there are people
who want to or are willing to listen to us. The importance of our audience cannot be
overstated. It is therefore imperative that we learn as much as we can about our audience
even before we start working on our talk. But how do we analyze our audience?
Lucas (1989) identifies two methods of analysis for audience: (1) demographic audience
analysis and (2) situational audience analysis.
1. Demographic analysis, as the word implies, involves analyzing your audience in

terms of their demographics such as sex/gender, age, racial/ethnic/cultural
background, group membership, and income. To use this method, you need to do
two things: (1) identify the demographics of your audience and (2) assess the
significance of these demographics to your speaking situation.
The importance of sex as a demographic feature to be considered in speaking

situations is made plain by an example by Lucas. He said that an art major landed
a dream job of conducting tours for people through galleries and talk about the art
collection in them. In one of his talks, he kept referring to the artists of the collection
as “he,” prompting one of the tourists to point out to him that five paintings in the
gallery had been created by women.
“This illustrates,” says Lucas (1989), “a problem that continues to plague speakers
in all fields.” He adds: “We think of our times as enlightened, but we still encounter
people who automatically refer to artists or doctors as ‘he’ and to grade-school
teachers or nurses as ‘she.’ A speaker who makes such remarks is almost certain
to offend some members of the audience.”
Religion is another hot-button issue that you, as a speaker, can unwittingly push,
launching an uncalled-for controversy and alienating your audience. Since almost

everybody belongs to a particular religious group or belief-system, asserting the

righteousness of your own religion can almost certainly trigger negative reactions
from your audience.
Racial/ethnic and cultural background is also an important demographic

information that can spell the success or failure of your talk. Ethnocentrism is the
belief that one’s ethnic group—Kapampangan, Ilocano, Cebuano, Tagalog, among
other ethnic groups—is superior to others. If you show ethnocentrism in your talk
you run the risk of earning the ire of your audience. Remember that culture is
relative and no culture is better than another, even though the latter may be
described as a primitive culture. Plan your speech guided by a strong conviction to
respect all cultures and the people that belong in them.
2. Situational audience analysis, on the other hand, involves identifying “traits of the
audience unique to the speaking situation at hand.” These traits “include the size
of the audience, attitudes influenced by the physical setting, and the disposition of
the audience toward the subject, the speaker and the occasion.”
In theories of communication, the message is sent by the sender through the

medium amid noise. Noise is anything that prevents the message from being sent
to the receiver or from being decoded by the receiver. An example of noise is static
caused by interfering electrical signal when you make a cellular phone call. Another
is when the physical setup in the room where you are slated to talk is so arranged
that communicating with your audience is bound to become a challenge, to say the
least. A room without sound proofing against the noise in the street outside is an
example of physical or environmental noise.
Size can also be a kind of noise or interference that can prevent communication to
take place properly. Too large an audience is a challenge for a speaker, but with
the aid of technology the problem can be surmounted. More importantly, when you
address a huge group you need to be more formal in your presentation to make a
maximum impact on your audience.
Aside from the size of your audience and the physical setting of your talk, you need
to consider three other things in your analysis of audience: (1) your listeners’
interest in the topic of your talk, (2) their knowledge about your topic, and (3) their
attitude toward your topic.
In a classroom setting, when you give a speech you have a captive audience: your
classmates. In the “real” world (e.g., corporate world) when you give a speech,
people will attend to listen to your talk because they need it in their work or they
are interested in your talk. Even if people are not interested in your talk, you can
make it interesting by relating it to your audience’s needs and interests. In a
classroom speech, for instance, if you want your audience to become interested in
your talk, you have to make them see right away how it is going to be relevant to
their lives as students.

But interested or not, your audience needs to be understood in terms of another

factor: their knowledge of your topic. It is important for you to know how much they
know about your topic because it will shape many aspects of your talk: style,
complexity or simplicity, and details. If, after studying them, you learned that many
members of your audience are not familiar with your topic, you can vary your
planned style of delivery and make it more “user-friendly” without being
condescending. You can also add more examples to illustrate your points.
Likewise, you need to use a language that is easily understood and try to avoid the
jargon of your profession.
Sometimes, it happens that speakers are not popular with their audiences simply
because of the nature of their profession or line of work. In other words, the
audience is not predisposed to believe, or even listen to, the speakers. A lawyer
(defending a notorious crime suspect) who is about to give a talk about why s/he
does what s/he does for a living may pique the interest of some people. However,
it is more likely to happen that s/he will generate a certain degree of hostility from
the audience even before s/he stands in front of the rostrum to deliver a speech.
This is an extreme example, but the point is this: You need to assess if your
audience is disposed toward believing (or liking/loving) your talk or hating you and
your guts for even appearing before them. You need to adjust many aspects of
your talk accordingly.
A rumbling speech, for instance, before an audience that is not predisposed to

listen is obviously a disaster on top of another.
You should also consider in your analysis of audience the occasion for your
speech. There are occasions in which certain topics are taboo. The ban may be
explicit or implied. In a purely religious situation, for example, to talk about politics,
especially if the details are polarizing, is almost certainly rude. Being unaware of
the set of values being collectively upheld by the audience in a given situation can
almost certainly cause your speech to fail.
GATHERING THE MATERIALS FOR YOUR SPEECH
Now that you know a lot about your audience, you can proceed to gathering the materials for
your speech. There are three ways you can do this: (1) by reflecting on your own knowledge
and experiences; (2) by interviewing other people; (3) by doing library and computer-aided
research.
Self-reflection
Earlier in this chapter, we suggested that in choosing a topic for your talk you should consider
your own familiarity, if not expertise, of the topic. This is important because in the gathering
of materials for your talk you need to go inward into yourself. You are the first stop in your
search for information. Your knowledge and your experiences are major sources of materials.
You need to make use of them.

Interview
Interviewing has been one of the most popular methods of gathering data. It involves two
people sharing their views, hence, “inter” and “viewing.” Steinar Kvale (1996), in his book
InterViews, explains the importance of interviewing:
“If you want to know how people understand their world and their life, why not talk with them?
In an interview conversation, the researcher listens to what people themselves tell about their
lived world, hears them express their views and opinions in their own words, learns about
their views on their work situation and family life, their dreams and hopes.”
Interviewing as a research technique, Kvale (1996) adds, “attempts to understand the world
from the subjects’ points of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover
their lived world prior to scientific explanations.”
Lucas (1989) identifies four circumstances in which the use of personal interview “can be the
most effective means of gathering material”:
1. When you want up-to-the-minute information;
2. When you need information about a fairly narrow subject that might not attract
newspaper or other printed coverage;
3. When you have access to a person who has specialized knowledge about a
subject and is willing to share that knowledge; and
4. When a particular person’s viewpoint will add interest and force to your speech.
In conducting your interview, it will be most fruitful to heed the advice of Carole Rich (2010),
a well-known writing coach. According to her, you should:
1. Concentrate on what the person you are interviewing is saying and not on
what you will ask next. This ensures that you are catching everything that is
being said and that you are showing respect for the interviewee by paying close
attention. You can probably jot down notes occasionally if a question crosses your
mind but do it quickly and unobtrusively.
2. Listen attentively as you would when you listen to a friend telling you an
interesting story. Your next question should be based on your interviewee’s last
statement. If you want to move to another topic, do it without cutting off the
interviewee in mid-sentence and without offending him or her. For example,
preface you sentence with a transition: By the way, … or On another subject ….
3. Think critically when you listen. If you are not sure about something, do not
hesitate to ask your interviewee to repeat what s/he has said. Try to control the
flow of conversation when you think your source is rambling.
4. Stay quiet. Do not outtalk you source. Do not show that you are smarter than s/he
is and that what s/he is saying is nonsense. If you think the source is not making
any sense anymore, ask for clarification and listen quietly.
5. Maintain eye contact with your source. Nod to show you are listening. Make
her/him feel that you are giving complete attention.

6. “Listen” to visual signals such as fidgeting, frowning, etc. They will tell you
more than words about what your source is feeling. In other words, listen with your
eyes.
7. Be polite in everything. If your source is rambling or incoherence, do not cut her

or him off abruptly and brusquely. Wait for her or him to pause before you move
to change the subject.
8. Be curious. Do not pretend that you are because it will sooner or later show.
Remember, it is going to be your speech that will make use of all the information
that you will gather in the interview. In the end, it will be you as speaker who will
benefit.
Library and Computer-Aided Research

In preparing for a presentation, students tend to ignore the value of the library. To many
students, the library is a place to avoid especially because of the dreaded librarians, who are
often depicted in popular culture as strict and fearsome. But this should not be the case. On
the contrary, the library as source of materials for your speech is without equal. It houses
almost everything that you will need as a speaker researching on your topic, especially today
when modern librarians have access to the Internet.
To maximize your stay in the library you should know beforehand how to navigate its nooks
and crannies. You should know how to approach the librarians (they are there to help you,
believe it or not) and how to use the card catalogue. Using the card catalogue does not only
allow you to find what you are looking for but also allow you to save time looking for books
and other materials.
PUTTING TOGETHER YOUR SPEECH
In writing an essay, you need to follow the structure that has been handed down as the
convention of the genre. The structure contains three basic parts: the introduction, the body,
and the conclusion. Your speech will basically follow this structure.
To be readable and easily understood your speech must be organized in a certain way.
Organization is crucial. Without it, your speech will most likely confuse and bore your
audience. Organization is structure.
Just how organization is important is demonstrated by two studies mentioned by Lucas

(1989). In one study, the researcher, a college professor, had a well-organized speech
scrambled. He then had the two speeches (organized and scrambled) delivered. He learned
that, not surprisingly, the audience understood more the organized speech than the
scrambled one. In another research conducted in another school by two professors, the
audience were asked about their attitudes toward the speakers of the organized and the
scrambled speeches. They learned that “the people who heard the well-organized speech
believed the speakers to be much more competent and trustworthy than those who heard the
scrambled speech.”

Lucas has this to say on the ability to organize speeches: This ability is especially vital for
speechmaking. Listeners demand coherence. They have little patience with speakers who
bounce wildly from idea to idea. Keep in mind that listeners—unlike readers—cannot flip back
to a previous page if they trouble grasping a speaker’s idea. In this respect a speech is much
like a movie. Just as a director must guarantee that viewers can follow the plot of a film from
beginning to end, so must a speaker. Be sure listeners can follow the progression of ideas in
a speech from beginning to end. This requires that speeches be organized strategically. They
should be put together in particular ways to achieve particular results with particular
audiences.
Main Points
To organize your speech, you need to have your main points, which, according to Lucas, is
“the central features of your speech.”
For a speech with information as your purpose you can have the following main points:
• Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the uses of computer graphics cards.
• General Idea: The important uses of graphics cards are to boost performance of
computers for dedicated applications and to increase the effectiveness and efficiency
of cryptocurrency mining.
• Main Points:
1. Graphic cards are used to boost the performance of computers for dedicated
applications.
2. Graphic cards are used to mine cryptocurrencies.
For a speech with persuasion as your purpose you can have the following main points:
• Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that wearing their school ID’s is important
because it shows their pride in their school, it helps in maintaining a safe and secure
environment in the school and it teaches the students to become law-abiding citizens.
• General Idea: Wearing school ID’s is important because it shows the students’ pride in
their school, it helps in maintaining a safe and secure environment in the school and it
teaches them to become law-abiding citizens.
• Main Points:
1. Wearing a school ID is important because it shows the students’ pride in their school.
2. Wearing a school ID is important because it helps in maintaining a safe and secure
environment in the school.
3. Wearing a school ID is important because it teaches the students to become law-abiding
citizens.

PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION
To organize your main points, you can use the following patterns of organization: (1)
chronological order; (2) spatial order; (3) causal order; (4) problem-solution order; and (5)
topical order.
A chronologically-ordered speech follows a time pattern. When you tell a story in your
speech, it is best to use the chronological order because a story told from beginning to end
is easier to understand than one that is told haphazardly.
An informational speech that details your rise from being an ordinary freshman student to
being the president of the University Student Council in your senior year is best told using the
chronological order of arranging your facts. You can probably begin with the day a fellow
freshman student asked you to attend a meeting of the USC and how, from the single
moment, you fell in love with student leadership.
The chronological order is also used in explaining a process or showing how to do something
such as assembling a bicycle or a personal computer (PC).
When you talk about the parts of a PC, you need to start from a particular part. For example,
you can begin with the central processing unit (CPU) and then move on to the other parts.
The sequence may be from top to bottom or vice versa. This is called spatial order.
Discussing how you can get from point A to point B on a map is an example of using spatial
order.
While you can use the chronological order and the spatial order of ideas in persuasive
speech, you will more likely benefit from the use of the causal order as you argue your case
before an audience. “Speeches arranged in causal order organize main points so as to show
a cause-effect relationship,” explains Lucas. In speeches arranged in causal order, you have
two main points. One main point is focused on the cause(s) and the other main point on the
effect(s).
For example, if your purpose is to persuade your audience that playing computer games more
than two hours a day is detrimental to their well-being, then you should start with the cause
and argue your way toward the effects.
Speeches can also be arranged by, first, identifying a problem, and then proposing a solution.
This is called the problem-solution order.
• Specific Purpose: To persuade teachers to keep upgrading what they know in their field
of academic discipline.
• Main Points:
1. Teachers have not kept abreast of developments in their fields of academic disciplines,
to the detriment of their students.
2. Teachers should be required to earn credit points by attending seminars before their
license to teach can be renewed.

Finally, speeches can be arranged according to topical order. Lucas explains how you can
do this: Topical order results when you divide the speech topic into subtopics, each of which
becomes a main point in the speech. The main points are not part of the chronological, spatial,
causal, or problem-solution sequence, but are simply parts of the whole.
• Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the four basic structural elements of an
HTML document.
• Central Idea: The four basic structural elements of an HTML document are the
document declaration, the <html> element, the <head> element, and the <body>
element.
• Main Points:
1. The <doctype html> document declaration tells the Internet browser that the document
is an HTML.
2. The <html> element wraps the entire document in HTML.
3. The <head> element holds metadata associated with the page like the description of
the page or the text that appears in a browser title bar.
4. The <body> element holds all the content displayed in a browser.
Talk Tools from TED in his book “Ted Talks: The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking,”
Chris Anderson gives us five things to remember when we give speeches.
First, “Knowledge cannot be pushed into a brain” and thus “has to be pulled in.” He adds:
“Before you can build an idea in someone else’s mind, you need their permission.
People are naturally cautious about opening up their minds—the most precious thing
they own —to complete strangers. You need to find a way to overcome that caution.
And the way you do that is to make visible the human being cowering inside you.”
Anderson says you need to “get personal” with your audience to establish connection with
them. You need to: (1) make eye contact, right from the start; (2) disarm you audience by
revealing your own vulnerability; (3) make your audience laugh through humor; (4) do not
bring your ego on stage; and (5) tell a story.
Second, telling a story is so crucial in speeches that it needs a more detailed discussion here.
Anderson says that “the human mind coevolved with storytelling,” adding that “many of the
best talks are anchored on storytelling.”
And when it comes to telling a story on stage, Anderson bids us to remember the following:
1. Base in on a character your audience can empathize with.
2. Build tension, whether through curiosity, social intrigue, or actual danger.
3. Offer the right level of detail. Too little and the story is not vivid. Too much and it
gets bogged down.
4. End with a satisfying resolution, whether funny, moving, or revealing.

Anderson illustrates his point by comparing the following two ways of telling the same story.
Here is an ineffective way of telling the story.

I learned trust from my father when I was eight years old and we got caught in a storm
while out fishing for mackerel. We failed to catch a single one before the storm hit. Dad
knew the boat was going to sink, because it was one of those Saturn brand inflatable
boats, which are usually pretty strong, but this one had been punctured one and Dad
thought it might happen again. In any case, the storm was too big for an inflatable boat
and it was already leaking. So, he called the Coast Guard rescue service, who, back
then, were available 24/7, unlike today. He told them our location, and then, to avoid
the risk of getting trapped underwater, he put a life jacket on me and threw me
overboard before jumping in himself. We then waited for the Coast Guard to come and,
sure enough, 15 minutes later the helicopter showed up – I think it was a Sikorsky MH-
60 Jayhawk—and we were fine.
Here is the effective version:

Once, when I was eight years old, my father took me fishing. We were in a tiny boat,
five miles from shore, when a massive storm blew in. Dad put a life jacket on me and
whispered in my ear, “Do you trust me, son?” I nodded. He threw me overboard. [pause]
I kid you not. Just tossed me over! I hit the water and bobbed up to the surface, gasping
for breath. It was shockingly cold. The waves were terrifying. Monstrous. Then … Dad
dived in after me.
Continuation:
We watched in horror as our little boat flipped and sank. But he was holding me the
whole time, telling me it was going to be OK. Fifteen minutes later, the Coast Guard
helicopter arrived. It turned out that Dad knew the boat was damaged and was going to
sink, and he had called them without exact location. He guessed it was better to chuck
me in the open sea than risk getting trapped when the boat flipped. And that is how I
learned the true meaning of the word trust.
Third, learn to explain difficult concepts by: (1) starting your talk right; (2) making your
audience curious; (3) bringing in concept one by one; (4) using metaphor; and (5) using
examples. To illustrate, Anderson used a TED talk by Harvard psychologist Dan Gilbert, who
successfully explained to his audience the concept of “synthesized happiness.”
Gilbert began his talk by “starting right.” He said: “When you have 21 minutes to speak, two
million years seems like a really long time.” This remark drew laughter and caught the
attention of the audience.
Continuing, he said: “But evolutionarily, two million years is nothing. And yet in two million
years, the human brain has nearly tripled in mass, going from the one-and-a-quarter-pound
brain of our ancestor here, [Homo] habilis, to the almost three-pound meatloaf that everybody
here has between their ears. What is it about a big brain that nature was so eager for every
one of us to have one?”
Gilbert’s question sparked the curiosity of the audience, causing them to wait for more.
However, when he brings out the concepts that he wanted to explain, he did so one by one.

He started with prefrontal cortex, and then experience simulator, until he was able to explain
synthesized happiness. In explaining “experience simulator” he used the metaphor of flight
simulator to make it easier for his audience to understand. And along the way he uses
examples.
Fourth, persuasion means “convincing an audience that the way they currently see the world
is not quite right.” This is done by “taking down the parts that are not working, as well as
rebuilding something better.” In other words, you reason to “change minds forever.”
How do you do this seemingly gargantuan task? Anderson explains that priming is “the key
to prompting that worldview shift is to take the journey one step at a time, preparing our minds
in several different ways before getting to the main argument.” Priming “is not a rigorous
argument; it is simply a way of nudging someone in your direction,” he says. He cites, as
example, the speech by psychologist Barry Schwartz who in his TED talk successfully built
the case that “in numerous circumstances, too much choice actually makes us unhappy.”
Schwartz primed his talk through the following:
There was a time when jeans came in one flavor, and you thought them, and they fit
like crap, they were really uncomfortable, but if you wore them and washed them
enough times, they started to feel OK. I went to replace my jeans after years of wearing
these old ones, and I said, “I want a pair of jeans. Here’s my size.” And the shopkeeper
said, “Do you want slim fit, easy fit, relaxed fit? You want button fly or zipper fly? You
want stonewashed or acid-washed? Do you want them distressed? You want boot cut,
tapered, blah blah blah.”
By showing his stress over too many choices, Schwartz primed his audience to what he was
about to say. He made what he would later on point out – about too many choices making us
unhappy instead of the other way around – obvious and natural.
Lastly, the most direct way of telling your audience about your idea is to show it. Anderson
calls it “revelation.” You can do this in three broad ways:
1. The Wonder Walk. It is a talk based on the revelation of a succession of images

or wonder moments. In this approach, you build a sense of wonder in your
audience. You can arrange your images in such a way that the next one will be
highly anticipated. A 5-minute TED talk by David Gallo, a geologist, about the awe-
inspiring animals under the sea showed the power of carefully arranged images to
deliver your talk.
2. The Dynamic Demo. If what you are revealing is not just visual, Anderson says, if
it is a technology or a process or an invention, then you need the audience to see
it works. You need a demonstration. An example is a talk by inventor Markus
Fischer. Instead of describing his invention—a robot seagull that flies like a true
one—he made it fly, to the amazement of the audience.
3. The Dreamscape. “Some of the most powerful speeches in history have been
powerful precisely because they communicated a dream with irresistible eloquence
and passion,” says Anderson. This “ability to pattern the world in our minds and
then re-pattern it to create a world that does not actually exist but someday might”

is “so important a skill that we have multiple words to label its different flavors:
imagination, invention, innovation, design, vision.” There are many ways by which
you can share your dreams: words, images, demonstrations. A very appropriate
example is Martin Luther King Jr.’s 1963 speech at the Lincoln Memorial in
Washington, D.C. about his dream that someday all people, regardless of race,
would be truly equal.
EMAIL MESSAGES AND MEMOS
The coming of the Internet era ushered in new technologies that made communication in the
workplace more effective and efficient. An example of a digital technology that revolutionized
how we send and receive messages is the electronic mail or email. It is, according to Guffey
(2008), “the communication channel of choice for exchanging information within
organization.”
Stages of Writing an Email Message or Memo

How do we write email messages and memos? There are three stages (Guffey, 2008):
1. Analysis, anticipation, and adaptation
2. Research, organization, and composition
3. Revision, proofreading, and evaluation
In the first stage, which is equivalent to the more familiar term prewriting, you ask yourself the
following questions: Do you really need to write the email message or memo? Should you
send your message as email or should you simply say it face-to-face? What is the purpose
of your message? How will the receiver of your email message or memo react? How can you
save your reader’s time (that is, should you use bullets or asterisks to list the things you want
to say?
In stage two, you make an outline of your message or memo and you list down the ideas you
want to send. Remember that each idea or assertion or claim that you will write needs
supporting details.
In the third stage, you revise for clarity and correctness and be ready for feedback. When you
revise, take the point of view of your prospective readers. Ask yourself: If I were the reader,
would the message or memo be clear to me? Finally, do not forget to include in your email
message a line or two asking for your reader’s feedback.
Parts of the Email Message or Memo
An email message or memo has the following parts:
1. Sender Line. This is where the name and email address of the sender is written.
2. Receiver Line. This is where the name and email address of the recipient of your
message or memo is written.

3. Date Line. This is where the date: day, month, year, and time, is written.
4. Subject Line. This is where the subject of your email message or memo is written.
The subject should not be a one-word heading and should contain a verb. For
example, the subject Juan dela Cruz or Appointment is unclear, but the subject
Juan dela Cruz is appointed IT manager is clear.
5. Opening. For non-sensitive information you can be direct. For example: Please
prepare for a visit by the schools division superintendents of Central Luzon who
will evaluate our compliance with the “No Student Left Behind” program of the
Department of Education.
6. Body. This is where the author of the email message or memo writes the reasons
for writing and explains the message thoroughly.
7. Closing. This part, according to Guffey (2008) generally ends with (a) action
information, dates or deadlines; (b) a summary of the message; or (c) a closing
thought.
ACTIVITY:
Complete the task on page 237.
GENERALIZATION:
• The skill of public speaking is just as important as reading and writing. In speech making,
there are pre-writing activities that should be followed: (1) selecting a topic and purpose,
(2) analyzing your audience, and (3) gathering the materials that you will need to prepare
your speech.
• To be readable and easily understood your speech must be organized in a certain way.
The structure contains three basic parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion.
• To organize your main points, you can use the following patterns of organization: (1)
chronological order, which follows a time pattern; (2) spatial order, which discusses how
you can get from point A to point B on a map; (3) causal order, which organizes main
points so as to show a cause-effect relationship; (4) problem-solution order, arranges first
by identifying a problem, and then proposing a solution; and (5) topical order, which divides
the speech topic into subtopics, each of which becomes a main point in the speech.
• The most direct way of telling your audience about your idea is to show it. Anderson calls
it “revelation.” You can do this in three broad ways: (1) The Wonder Walk, (2) The Dynamic
Demo, and (3) The Dreamscape.
• According to Guffey (2008), there are three stages in writing emails and memos: (1)
Analysis, anticipation, and adaptation, (2) Research, organization, and composition, and
(3) Revision, proofreading, and evaluation.

EVALUATION
Answer the questions on pages 237-239
ASSIGNMENT
REFERENCES:
Manzano, B.M. et al (2018). Communication for Various Purposes. In B. Mazano, M.V.
Arador, and M.A. Ladia. (Eds.). Purposive Communication for College Freshmen
(pp. 185-209). Plaridel, Bulacan: St. Andrew Publishing House

Chapter 8
COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSES
RATIONALE:
Communication in the workplace is essential to companies. It allows companies to be
effective and productive. With the ability to communicate within the organization, employees
can experience an increase in morale, productivity, and involvement. This chapter will enable
students to understand the fundamental nature of communication in the workplace.
1. know the importance of communication for work purposes;
2. understand the purpose and parts of an interview; and
3. develop and organize presentations;
PRETEST:
CONTENT:
An interview is a two-party conversation that always has a specific purpose. One participant
in the interview always has a serious reason for being there. Most interviews contain a
question-and-answer format. It is the interviewer’s job to direct the conversation and keep
track of time. Interviewing is different from other kinds of conversation. The difference lies in
the amount of speaking by each party. In an informal conversation, the time is distributed
equally between the two parties. In an interview, the interviewee mostly does most of the
talking in a 70 to 30 percent ratio.
There are many kinds of interviews (Adler & Elmhorst, 2008):
1. Selection interviews help organizations and prospective employees screen applicants

before the hiring process.
2. Performance appraisal interviews review employees’ job performance and help set
targets for the future.
3. Disciplinary interviews help organizations decide on issues relating to employees’

misconduct or poor performance.
4. Diagnostic interviews inform health practitioners, counselors and attorneys about the
needs of their clientele.
5. Research interviews gather data for future decisions.

PLANNING THE INTERVIEW

The following pointers can help you in planning an efficient and effective interview.
1. Define the Goal. You should make your goal as clear as possible.
2. Identify and Analyze the Other Party. When you interview, you must select the person
who be the best person to give you the needed information. The success of your
interview depends on the person you choose as your interviewee. As you decide who
will you interview, consider the following factors:
a. Knowledge level. Ask questions that are related to the interviewee’s

experience and educational background. If you are the one being
interviewed, remember to figure out the knowledge level of the interviewer so
you can avoid giving too complex or too basic information.
b. The other’s concept of self. If you are in an interview, consider the other
party’s self-concept. If for example, your teacher is interviewing you about
your performance in class, consider whether s/he sees her-/himself as a
teacher doing an academic research, an inexperienced educator trying to
figure out what works best with the students, or an employee who will be in
trouble if your answer does not match her/his expectations. Each attitude will
influence the flow of the conversation, so be sensitive what role does the
other party play.
c. Your image. In any organizations, an employee’s self-image is her/his

banner. Who you are may not be as important as how others think you are.
If your boss thinks that you are demanding for a salary raise when in fact you
are just discussing the success of a project you recently completed, you are
placing yourself in a hot spot. If you are being interviewed for a job, you must
show that you are a well- informed applicant about the company’s profile. If
you appear lost in the middle of the interview, you will have poor chances of
getting hired.
3. Prepare a list of topics. It is best to go to the battlefield prepared with all the weapons
you need. Before facing the other party, write down the questions you would like to ask.
Sometimes, you do not get the information you need because you ask the wrong
questions. Interviewees, too, should also list topics in an interview. They should have a
clear plan about the kind of information they are willing to share.
4. Choose the Best Interview Structure. A highly structured interview consists of a list
of well-defined questions. The questions follow a particular order in which they are
asked. Research papers use highly structured interviews in gathering data. Answers
are easier to check and tabulate. Because they have detailed structure, it does not
require so much skill from the interviewer. Highly structured interviews may be ideal
in gathering large amount of data, but they may also be disadvantageous when the
range of topics is strictly predetermined. In some instances, the interviewer may not
have the chance to go back to intriguing and unclear answers that may arise during
the conversation.

The non-structured interview encourages a flexible conversation between the

interviewer and the interviewee. The nature of questioning varies depending on the
concerns that arise. Employers who have general agenda without specific questions
use a non-structured interview. They may want to ask employees about whether or
not they are happy with their job, if they find their co-workers stressful and why, and,
whether they are experiencing personal and work-related problems.
5. Consider Possible Questions. It is easy to formulate questions once you have

decided on your agenda. You may consider writing different question formats:
a. Open and Closed Questions. Closed questions do not give the interviewee
the chance to respond naturally. Choices are predetermined which restrict the
interviewee to explain and elaborate her/his answer. Open questions encourage
the interviewee to elaborate. These questions invite detailed answers. If you are
being asked with a closed question, you may want to turn it into an open one,
so you can share more information.
b. Factual and Opinion Questions. Factual questions look for facts. Always
consider your reason for asking a question before you decide which one to use:
factual question or opinion question.
c. Primary and Secondary Questions. Primary questions introduce the main

topic while secondary questions aim to generate more information. Secondary
questions are helpful when a previous answer does not give complete
information. They also serve as a follow up query when the given answer is
vague. Secondary questions are used also when a previous answer is
insignificant, irrelevant, or inaccurate.
d. Direct and Indirect Questions. The best way to get a direct answer is to ask
direct questions. However, some interviewees may not appreciate being asked
directly especially when their answer would put them in trouble. A direct question
will not work if the interviewee is not sure of the answer. Do not ask your
interviewee a direct question if you think s/he is not the right person to ask.It is
smart to ask indirect questions that elicit the same information as would a direct
question.
6. Arrange the Setting. When you plan an interview, determine how much time you need
to accomplish your purpose. Let your interviewee know the exact time and place of the
interview. The other party should be informed how much time you need from her/him.
If you can avoid, do not schedule an interview right before mealtime because the
interviewee might be too hungry to answer your questions. Interviews done immediately
right before or after a stressful meeting may not be successful at times because the
interviewee is too preoccupied to answer your questions.
Most importantly, always remember to respect time. Be punctual. Choose a neutral

place for the interview. A neutral place is anywhere that is away from both party’s
familiar settings. This is truly important if you want your interviewee to focus on your
questions and not on many interruptions like matters concerning her/his work. Also,

interviewing someone in a place away from work makes the person thinks more freely
and creatively.
Be cautious also of the implications of the physical arrangement of the setting. The
person sitting behind a desk demands formality and respect. If both parties sit across a
table facing each other or sit close together or sit without a barrier in between, this
arrangement suggests equality of power and touch of informality. If a supervisor wants
to assert authority over a disrespectful employee, s/he should sit behind the office desk.
If a counselor wants to create a friendly and low-anxiety atmosphere and to gain the
trust of the client, s/he has to avoid the barrier of a desk.
CONDUCTING THE INTERVEIW
An interview consists of three stages: an opening, a body, and a conclusion.
1. Opening. First impressions last. This is true about giving self-introduction during
interviews. The first 30-60 seconds of your introduction should be spent carefully,
as this is the time your interviewer makes 50 percent of her/his decision whether
to hire you or not. Twenty-five percent of the evaluation is placed during the first 15
minutes. The remaining 25 percent is difficult to recover if you badly carried out
during the first couple of minutes.
a. Greeting and building rapport. A good introduction should begin with a greeting
and self-introduction. You need to build rapport with your interviewee. An
informal conversation can help both parties feel comfortable with each other;
thus, the result is more likely to be better.
b. Orientation. In this stage, the interviewer is the one in control the most. S/He
sets the agenda and prepares the interviewee for whatever it is that may arise
during the conversation. This lessens the interviewee’s apprehension of the
unknown.
2. Body. This is the stage where questions and answers are exchanged. As an
interviewer, you must do the following tasks:
a. Do not drift from the main agenda.

b. Give your full attention.
c. Use secondary questions when needed.
3. Closing. Do not end your interview with the last answer to the last question. Plan
a satisfactory way to close it. You may consider the following tasks:
a. Review and clarify main points of the interview.

b. Make future plans of action.
c. Express appreciation.

DEVELOPING AND ORGANIZING THE PRESENTATION
Whatever your course is, whatever your job will be, a big part of your waking hours will be
spent on speaking with a lone person or in a big group. Salesmen, medical representatives,
and entrepreneurs present their products and services to prospective customers. Department
chairpersons present their curricular programs to their deans and explain the needed
materials like textbooks and audiovisuals to facilitate learning. IT professionals and computer
specialists discuss to people how new software applications work. Managers orient their new
employees about the company and explain policies to promote order and harmony in the
workplace.
Every student aiming to find success in the future should develop excellent presentation skills.
Delivering a presentation is not only done during formal occasions. Our informal talks with a
few people or a single person also require presentation skills. The following situations require
that you must have good spoken skills if you want to ensure success: you plan to talk to your
teacher because you think you deserve a much higher grade than what you got in the
previous semester; you are a quality control supervisor and you want to introduce a new
system of packaging the goods; you are a crime investigator and you discovered fresh
evidences you want to discuss with your team.
Even if you write a report, most of the time, you still need to present it. Sometimes, the quality
of your spoken words may determine if people will read your work or not. Further, you are
judged the way you speak in front of a big crowd. As you get promoted in your job, the more
often there will be events and occasions that you are required to speak.
Common Types of Presentational Speaking

(Source: Adler & Elmhorst, 2008)
Type of Presentation Example

Briefing and informational Announcing a new health insurance
announcements procedure
Orientation sessions Conducting new-employee
orientation
Training programs Explaining how to operate a new

computer software
Research and technical reports Describing a market research
survey
Progress reports Giving a status report on monthly
sales
Civic and social presentations Reporting on company’s
technological breakthroughs
Television and radio interviews Describing the company’s position
on an industrial accident or injury

Introductions Introducing a new employee to

other workers
Sales presentations Presenting a product to potential
customers
Project and policy proposals Proposing new travel policy to the
management
Seeking resources Making a loan request to
commercial lenders
Ceremonial Occasions Speaking at a retirement
celebration for a longtime employee
The quality of time and effort you spend preparing for your talk is more important than the
number of hours you spend. Experts suggest that knowing who your audience is of utmost
importance in designing your presentation.
Even if you write your thoughts in a letter, memo, or proposal, there are still many reasons of
presenting them in person. If your reader does not fully understand your mind, it is best to
present your ideas in person. This will help you gather immediate feedback so you can clarify
points and answer questions. When you speak with confidence and in an organized manner,
you can influence people to accept your ideas. It is something that a written document cannot
do. This is the reason that requires the students to prepare completely for their thesis defense
and oral presentation of a written report.
There are different kinds of presentations and each one demands different degrees of
preparation. For example, speakers in conferences may use a very formal language and may
delay questions until they finish their talk. Sales representatives may encourage questions
during their presentations and answer them right away. It is more like an ordinary
conversation between their prospective customers because the latter are allowed to interrupt
them with questions and make many demands. Despite of the differences, presenters still
follow the same steps and amount of planning and developing. Consider the steps below.
1. Analyze the Situation
a. Analyze the audience.

An adventure that may fascinate you may possibly bore your audience. An
approach that you think is proven and tested may not work in the situation in
which you will speak. Your wonderful ideas may be the highlight of your
presentation but having good ideas is not enough. You have to present your ideas
in a way that your listeners will understand and appreciate. For example, doctors
should not use technical terms in explaining the effect of Dengvaxia to common
people. But scientific terms are however appreciated if used to people with
medical background.
Your presentation should fit your audience’s interests, needs, and backgrounds.
Be able to identify your key audience members. Who among your audience will
decide whether to buy your ideas or not? Make your ideas appealing to this group
of people. Tailor fit your presentation to their needs, prejudices, and preferences.

The manager’s opinion should weigh more than your fellow workers’ remarks on
your presentation.
Get an idea how much your audience knows about the topic. A basic and
simplified explanation of a topic might bore and hurt a group of experts. However,
less informed audiences would require it.
You must also know what your listeners want to know. If you are invited to speak
before a group of teachers about strategies in teaching literature, talk about the
best classroom teaching and learning practices, not the best-selling novels that
you have read. If you want to get a raise in your salary, tell the management how
you can help the company better in the new position, not because you need the
money. If you are a financial adviser and you want to offer your services to an
inexperienced businessman, identify the prospect’s needs and show how you can
satisfy them.
It helps to know the style of presentation your audience prefers. Do they like a
casual talk or a formal one? Do they want a presentation with humor or one that
is dry? Some audience may not appreciate a green joke but others may enjoy it.
Identify significant demographic characteristics of your audience. How are the

audiences distributed according to sex, age, cultural background, or economic
status?
An approach may vary depending on the audience’s sex. More female

participants who uphold feminist values may require a gender-sensitive language.
A life insurance agent may differ her/his approach when the audiences are
composed of retired employees and when they are in 20’s or 30’s.
Cultural background is another demographic factor. Use politically correct words

if you do not want to get into trouble. Your gestures in expressing your point may
carry meaning that is different from the intended meaning of your message. There
are jokes and expressions that are particularly unique to one’s culture only.
Therefore, choose only the ones that fit your audience’s background.
As a presenter, you must determine your audience’s economic status. Are they a
group of wealthy people or less affluent ones? Do they drive their own cars or rely
on public transportations? Do they own their homes or are they still renting?
Consider these factors in deciding which products and services will you offer to
your audience.
If you will present before a big crowd, you must get at least a rough estimate of
the number of participants. This will help you decide how many copies will you
reproduce for your handouts and the number of activities that your audience will
do during the workshop. Will you still have time for a group presentation and an
open forum? Know how far the last person will sit away from you, so you can

adjust the size of your visuals. If you have a big audience, you must prepare for
varying needs and interests. Experts recommend that you use formal language.
You must also consider your audience’s attitude toward you, as the speaker, and
the subject. Your approach should vary from a group of people who like you as a
person (“I like Joe. He is such a charming speaker.”) to another group who feels
indifferent (“Joe is such a bore.”). Another factor to consider is your audience’s
attitude toward the topic of your presentation. Do they appreciate your stand on
the matter? Do they think that your ideas are insignificant? The audience’s
attitude toward the subject should inform your approach.
b. Analyze your goal and knowledge

You need to ask yourself why you are speaking. What is it that you want your
audience to know from you? What do you want your listeners to do after listening
to your talk? How would you know if you have achieved your goals?
Do not believe that you know enough. Always do research and find out the latest
information. It is better to exaggerate your preparation than to look like a fool on
stage.
It is important that you are sincere with what you are preaching. The audience
can feel if you are faking it. So always believe in the product that you are selling.
Trust your ideas with all your heart. When you are truly excited to present a topic,
which you really care about, you become more enthusiastic, your facial
expression and bodily movements become more natural and your voice becomes
more expressive. So, choose an approach or a topic that is close to your heart.
c. Analyze the occasion.

Consider the facilities available for you to use. Will there be enough seats for
everyone? Does the occasion provide for the following: projector, microphone,
white screen, white board, markers, easel for your charts, sound system, among
others?
You must also consider the time of the day when you will speak. After lunch
sessions might require more entertaining and more energetic speech than
morning hours. Length of speech is also vital in the preparation. You must start
and finish your presentation according to the time schedule assigned to you.
2. Set Your Goal and Develop the Thesis.

A general goal is a broad statement of what you want to accomplish. According to Adler and
Elmhorst (2008), there are three general speaking goals: to inform, persuade, and entertain.
Some experienced speakers may attempt to do more than one. Informative presentations
aim to help the audience acquire new information or skill. Persuasive presentations attempt
to influence how one feels or thinks about a particular matter.

The specific goal refers to the outcome that you desire. It is a specific statement that tells
what you want done by a specific person or group in a specific place at a specific time. If your
speech is the journey, your specific goal is your destination. What is it exactly that you want
to achieve after your presentation? Your goal should describe how you expect your
participants to react after your presentation. If you know exactly what you want to accomplish,
you will surely get it done.
Meanwhile, the thesis statement is the key idea that summarizes your message.
Methods in Defining a Thesis Statement

(Source: Addler & Elmhorst, 2008)
a. Imagine that you met a member of your audience at the elevator and had only a few
second to explain your idea before the doors closed.
b. Imagine that you had to send a one- or two-sentence email that communicated your
main ideas.
c. Ask yourself, if your listeners heard only a small portion of your remarks. What is the
minimum they should have learned?
d. Suppose that a friend asked one of your listeners about what you were driving at in
your presentation. What would you want the audience member to say?
It is important that you repeat your thesis several times in your presentation. Once in the
introduction and a lot more times in the body and the conclusion.
3. Organize the Body.

Consider these two steps in organizing the body of your talk: (1) identify the details that
support your thesis; (2) design your organizational plan.
Before you organize your body, it must be clear to you what your thesis is. Then you start
gathering information, examples, and other details to support your claim. If you are a medical
representative wanting to sell to customers (doctors and pharmacists) your product, you
might want to research which competing products they are using now and how they feel about
them. You might also want to know if they are familiar with your product and what they think
about it. If you would like to explain how a new machine works, the manual of operations
would likely be the body of your talk. If you are an insurance agent, you might want to research
about the leading insurance company in your community and the reasons of the many people
patronizing it. You can also include in your research what people might want from an
insurance company and their changing needs. Once you have gathered all the details you
need, you are ready to organize your body
Many people are not happy with speakers who are taking too long to get to the point. Some
discuss irrelevant topics and leave out important details. Those who have not mastered their
topics even mixed up their ideas. There are speakers who fail in their presentation because
they have not organized their ideas well. One good way to organize your talk is to follow this
outline (Addler & Elmhorst, 2008):

Introduction
-Attention getter
-Thesis
-Preview
Body (two to five main points)

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Conclusion
-Review
-Closing statement
Many people appreciate speakers who follow this pattern. However, many speakers still fail
to practice it. There are those who jump into the body of their presentation without giving any
preview about what they want to say. Some end their talk abruptly without their concluding
statements. Others could have done it perfectly following the five-part plan but they do not
stop after the conclusion. They still continue their talk by saying Oh, I should have told you
also that… or Did I tell you about the…? or Oh, another thing is… Such is a very poor way to
end a talk.
Another point that you should do is to identify main points and sub-points. Which are the main
ideas in your talk? The main ideas are the ones you claim to be true and they are usually
what experts say about the topic. How do you plan to support your claims? You can do this
by giving examples that are relevant to your audience’s interest and by presenting what
previous researches have said about the matter.
After gathering all the information that you need, choose the best organizational pattern for
your purpose. The following are the suggested patterns of presentation:
a. Chronological pattern. Use this pattern if you want to present your points following
their sequence in time. It is commonly used to present a process or to give instructions.
This pattern is also used to discuss events that develop over time.
b. Spatial pattern. Use this pattern to show the physical location of an object or how ideas
are put together. For example, you may want to show the location of a new building in
a school campus or parts and functions of a new product.
c. Topical pattern. If you want to group your ideas together under one topic or category,
use the topical pattern.

d. Cause-effect pattern. This shows that events happened or will happen as a result of
some circumstances. You can demonstrate using this pattern how a new monitoring
program in schools can help improve the punctuality of teachers in attending their
classes.
Another way to present a cause and effect relationship is an effect-cause structure.

Present the result first and show how it came to happen. You may use this to explain
why a school has a strict implementation of absenteeism policy and the factors that
brought this out.
e. Problem-solution pattern. You begin by presenting the problem and then propose
solutions. Make the audience recognize that there is a problem in the present situation
before you can present remedies. An IT professional may start a talk by pointing out the
difficulty and lack of efficiency in manually accessing files in an office. After the audience
realizes the problematic situation, s/he can now proceed to presenting how an office
database can improve the processing of office documents.
f. Criteria satisfaction pattern. You present a set of criteria and proceed to how you can
satisfy each audience member. This is particularly useful when you are selling a product
or service or an unpopular idea. You make your audience accept first the criteria that
you set. Afterwards, present your proposal. Look at this example: As a middle
management manager, you are assigned to present the company’s decision to defer
the employee’s salary increase. You have to start your talk by leading your audience to
understand the company’s present situation, which resulted in the deferment. If you
start by announcing your thesis first (workers’ salaries need to maintain status quo), the
audience might not listen anymore and even show violent reactions.
g. Comparative advantages pattern. This pattern works well when you compare the
products or services that your company are selling and the competing company’s. You
can demonstrate how your company’s products and services are at a greater advantage
than the other one. This pattern is useful when you want to influence your boss’ decision
on company matters.
h. Motivated Sequence pattern. It follows a five-step process, which is usually very

interactive. The steps are:
• Attention. Capture your audience’s attention by telling them about a problem.

• Need. Make them feel that the problem can affect them in many ways. They should
believe that you are there to help them find solutions.
• Satisfaction. Present the solution and show to your audience that it is workable.
• Visualization. Create a mental picture of the outcome of your proposal. Let your
audience imagine what will happen if your proposal is not adopted. Let them visualize
how your proposal will solve the problem and the benefits that go with it.
• Action. Encourage your audience to respond by asking them what they can do to
help solve the problem.

4. Plan the Introduction and Conclusion.

The introduction is the most important part of your talk. This is the stage where the
audience forms their first impression of you and your topic. Be sure that you plan your
introduction carefully because it will affect how your listeners respond to the rest of your
presentation.
A meaningful introduction contains a thesis and a preview. Consider the following functions
of your introduction:
a. Capture the listener’s attention. It is difficult to capture the audience’s attention when
they are not ready to listen to your presentation or when their mind is filled with so many
concerns. To capture their attention, you can start your talk by presenting a problem
that concerns them or begin with a task that challenges what they know about the topic.
b. Show how important your talk is. If your audiences see that the topic of your
presentation is important to them, they will be interested to listen. So, start by telling
them the advantages they will get by listening. For example, if you want to convince a
group of employees to shift to a new health plan, start by enumerating to them the
benefits they can get and how the company will benefit from it. Tell the audience that if
they do not listen, they will miss the opportunity to see another option for a health plan
that could be more beneficial than the existing one.
c. Set the mood for the topic and setting. If your purpose is to encourage employees to
continue working productively together, acknowledge their outstanding performances
by highlighting the company’s improvement through the latter’s cooperation and hard
work. Make them feel good about themselves. If you want your customers to buy more
life insurances, tell them how miserable and financially difficult life could be if they get
sick and eventually die. Their families would suffer the most because they are not
prepared for these eventualities. But if they are insured, they might not suffer that
seriously.
d. Establish your credibility. This may no longer be needed if you are given a proper
introduction or the audience already knows that you are an expert.
e. State your thesis clearly. Before you proceed to the body of your presentation,
introduce your thesis clearly. Let your audience know the objectives you set for your
talk and how you plan to achieve them. In this way, the listeners will be guided and
informed where you are leading them.
HOW TO BEGIN A PRESENTATION
1. Ask the audience a rhetorical question without necessarily requiring for a response.
2. Begin with an anecdote.
3. Use a quotation to start up your talk.
4. Include startling facts in your opening.
5. Talk about your listeners’ needs and concerns
6. Tell about the significance of the occasion.
7. Inject humor.

PARTS OF THE CONCLUSION
Experts say that talks should not be ended abruptly with a lame comment: That’s all for today.
It is not proper and it does not leave the audience something to think about. It is, therefore, a
must that the conclusion must be composed of two parts: the review and the closing
statement.
The review is a restatement of your thesis. For emphasis, you have to mention your thesis
once in the introduction, two to three times in your body, and once more in the conclusion.
The review is something that the audience ponders after your talk.
The closing statement aims to give your presentation a sense of completion. Never leave
your audience wondering if you have finished already or not yet. This is the part of your
presentation where you encourage your listeners to do something in accordance with your
purpose.
HOW TO CLOSE A PRESENTATION
Several of the techniques used in opening a presentation can also be used in your closing.
As discussed above, they are: use of a rhetorical question, an anecdote, a quotation, startling
facts, humor, talking about listeners’ needs and concerns, and telling about the significance
of the occasion. The following are other techniques that may also be used in closing a
presentation:
1. Go back to the theme where you started. Refer to your theme and give new insights
and further details. Give attention only to the key points.
2. Ask for a desired result. You can appeal for action after your presentation. This
works well if you have been very persuasive and your audience is emotionally
invested.
3. End with a challenge. The aim of this technique is to demand your listeners to do
something.
ACTIVITY:
Answer the activity on page 242.
GENERALIZATION:
• An interview is a two-party conversation that always has a specific purpose. One

participant in the interview always has a serious reason for being there. Most interviews
contain a question-and-answer format.
• According to Adler & Elmhorst (2008), the different kinds of interviews are: selection
interviews, performance appraisal interviews, disciplinary interviews, diagnostic
interviews, and research interviews.

• In planning an efficient and effective interview, one must (1) Define the Goal, (2) Identify
and Analyze the Other Party, (3) Prepare a list of topics, (4) Choose the Best Interview
Structure, (5) Consider Possible Questions, and (6) Arrange the Setting.
• In formulating interview questions, you may consider writing different question formats:
Open and Closed Questions, Factual and Opinion Questions, Primary and Secondary
Questions, Direct and Indirect Questions.
• An interview consists of three stages: an opening, a body, and a conclusion.
EVALUATION
Answer the questions on pages 243-244.
ASSIGNMENT:
REFERENCES:
Manzano, B.M. et al (2018). Communication for Work Purposes. In B. Mazano, M.V.

Chapter 9
COMMUNICATION FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES
RATIONALE:
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) teaches students to use language
appropriately to study and publish in the academy. Also, EAP focuses on the processing
and creation of English as it is used in the academic context. This chapter will enable the
students to learn how to use communication for academic purposes.
1. evaluate messages and images of different types of texts;
2. employ various semiotic systems in understanding multimodal texts; and
3. practice critical reading and listening;
PRETEST:
CONTENT:
Genres are categories of texts which follow specific (1) rules which simply mean the things
that can and cannot be done and (2) convention which refers to the traditional or expected
ways of doing things.
Genre offers consensual, structured ways of writing, reading, and thinking, and serves as a
contract between the writer and the reader in which particular expectations are observed and
followed.
Academic genres are those genres of written and oral communication privileged in places
of higher learning like genres are those genres of written and oral professional and
comprehensive universities. They are governed by rules and conventions regarding
language, standards, and ethics of research, and professional conduct where one is expected
to achieved through practice.
GENRES OF ACADEMIC WRITING
1. ABSTRACT
An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference
proceeding or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help the
reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. It always appears at the beginning of a
manuscript, acting as the point-of-entry for any give scientific paper. In science, an
abstract may act as a stand-alone entity in lieu of the paper

2. BOOK REVIEW
This genre of academic writing typically evaluates recently written works. It offers a
brief description of the key points of a text and often provides a short appraisal of its
strengths and weaknesses. Unlike articles, book reviews tend to be solicited. They
typically range from 500 to 750 words but may be longer of shorter. The length and
depth of research book reviews vary from journal to journal.
3. LABORATORY REPORT
Experimental reports, also known as "lab reports,” detail the results of experimental
research projects and research, and professional conduct where one is expected to
acknowledge sources.
4. RESEARCH ARTICLE
A research paper is the culmination and final evaluation, organization, and composition.
We can think of the product of an involved process of research, critical thinking, source
research paper as a living thing, which grows and changes as the student explores,
interprets, and evaluates sources related to the specific topic.
5. CONFERENCE PRESENTATION
Conferences are a major source of cutting-edge research, particularly in science and
engineering. At conferences, researchers present papers on the research they are doing
and obtain feedback from the audience. The papers presented in the conference are
then usually published in a volume called a conference proceeding.
ACADEMIC REFERENCE SKILLS
Reference skills is an umbrella term that comprises a range of sub-skills relating to various
types of reference materials. Sometimes, the reference skills are sub-divided into language
reference skills, which include the efficient use of dictionaries, books, and academic reference
skills, which also include library use, and giving references in theses and dissertations. At
times the label "research skills" is used instead of "academic reference” skills.
"It might also include the keeping of record cards (or information on computer)-on which note
books, journals, and articles are referred to—and the layout of research papers. Occasionally
the term" study skills” is used to refer to some of the more mechanical aspects of the above,
but this is to be discouraged as it can be confusing. It will be seen that using a dictionary and
the library are, in any case, far from being "mechanical skills" (Jordan, 1997).
AUDIENCE, TONE, AND CONTENT
Imagine yourself reading one long block of text, with each idea blurring into the next. Even if
you are reading a thrilling novel or an interesting news article, you will likely lose interest in
what the author has to say very quickly.
During the writing process, it is helpful to position yourself as a reader. Ask yourself whether
you can focus easily on each point you make. One technique that effective writers use is to

begin a fresh paragraph for each new idea they introduce. Paragraphs separate ideas into
logical, manageable chunks.
One paragraph focuses on only one main idea and presents coherent sentences to support
that one point. Because all the sentences in one paragraph support the same point, a
paragraph may stand on its own. To create longer assignments and to discuss more than
one
point, writers group together paragraphs. Three elements shape the content of each
paragraph:
THINKING ABOUT ACADEMIC PURPOSES
When we write, it is tantamount to know the purpose by which we write. The purpose for a
piece of writing identifies the reason you write a particular paper. Basically, the purpose of a
piece of writing answers the question, Why? For example, Why write a diary? Your answer
expresses your emotions and insights. Another is, why do we write a book review? Your
answer gives an evaluation of the book and recommendation for others to read it, too.
In academic settings, the reasons for writing fulfill four main purposes: to summarize, to
analyze, to synthesize, and to evaluate. You will encounter these four purposes not only as
you read for your classes but also as you read for work or pleasure. Because reading and
writing work together, your writing skills will improve as you read.
Writing often has many purposes, and whenever we write, we usually focus on one. When
you get an assignment or see a need to write, ask yourself what is your prime purpose for
writing: Is my purpose to entertain, inform, persuade, or demonstrate my writing ability? You
also ask yourself: What are my goals? What are my audience's expectations, and do they
affect the way I define my purpose?
Likewise, you can also start to think of your audience, too, by asking the following questions:
1. What do I want my audience to do, think, or feel? How will they benefit from what I will tell them?
2. What does this writing task ask me to do? Do I need to show that I have expertise on a specific
subject matter or content? Do I have an assignment that specifically asks me to use a specific
strategy or genre (e.g., memo, essay, email, note, speech)—to compare two concepts, perhaps, or
to argue a position?
3. What are the best ways to achieve my purpose? What kind of stance should I take? Should I write
in a particular way? Do I have a choice of medium? Does my text require any special format or design
elements?
Eventually, your professors will ask you to complete your assignments, specifically designed
to meet one of the four purposes. As you will see, the purpose for writing will guide you
through each part of the paper, helping you make decisions about content and style. For now,
identifying these purposes by reading paragraphs will prepare you to write individual
paragraphs and to build longer assignments.

THINKING ABOUT THE AUDIENCE
Audiences may be defined as known, multiple, or unknown. Known audiences can include
people with whom you are familiar as well as people you may not know personally but those
whose needs and expectations you know. Examples of these are your relatives, family
members, friends, teachers, classmates. You would know the readers' wants and needs,
even if you have not met them personally, if you have a specific shared context.
For instance, you have experienced war on drugs, computer games, a strong earthquake or
you are all active social media users. You may not know these people but you know about
the experience or the game and what they need to know, and you know how to write about it
in ways they will be able to relate. You often write memos or reports for multiple audiences.
These may be written initially for your teachers or supervisors, but they may pass them along
to others.
Writing a Synthesis
A synthesis combines two or more items to create an entirely new item. The purpose of the
synthesizer is to blend the notes from individual instruments to form new, unique notes. An
academic synthesis paragraph considers the main points from one or more pieces of writing
and links the main points together to create a new point, one not replicated in either
document. Remember that the synthesis paragraphs consider each source and use
information from each to create a new thesis. A good synthesis does not repeat information.
The writer uses a variety of sources to create a new idea.
Writing an Evaluation Paragraph
An evaluation judges the value of something and determines its worth. Evaluations in
everyday experiences are often not only dictated by set standards but also influenced by
opinion and prior knowledge.
For example, at work, a supervisor may complete an employee evaluation by judging the
subordinate's performance based on the company's vision, mission, and goals. If the
company focuses on improving communication, the supervisor will rate the employee's
customer service according to a standard scale.
However, the evaluation still depends on the supervisor's opinion and prior experience with
the employee. The purpose of the evaluation is to determine how well the employee performs
at work. An academic evaluation communicates your opinion, and its justifications, about a
document or a topic of discussion.

Writing an Analysis Paper
An analysis paper stresses that you perform many tasks: formulate a thesis, gather sources,
evaluate them, use them to support your original ideas and meticulously document everything
you have done. You can save yourself a great deal of time, however, by doing a few simple
things before you begin writing like brainstorming, clustering, interviewing, and free writing.
An analysis paper is a type of essay that analyzes, examines, and interprets things such as
an event, a book, poem, play or other work of art. An analytical essay means you will need
to present some type of argument, or claim, about what you are analyzing.
According to Bullock and Goggin (2013), there are key features when doing textual analysis,
and these are:
1. A summary of the text

Your readers may not know the text you are analyzing, so you need to include it or
tell them about it before you analyze it.
2. Attention to the context

Text do not exist in isolation. They are influenced by and contribute to ongoing
conversations, controversies, or debates. In order to understand the text, you need
to understand the larger context.
3. A clear interpretation or judgment

Your goal in analyzing a text is to lead readers through careful examination of the
text to an interpretation or reasoned judgment, generally announced clearly in a
thesis statement. When you interpret something, you explain what you think it means
like, for instance, when analyzing three beauty product advertisements, you could
start by stating what you think the ads are doing to the target buyers. You can also
judge the effectiveness of the ads, perhaps noting that they promise the impossible
like promising a happy ending to your love story simply by using a mouthwash, soap,
or any product.
4. Reasonable support for your conclusions

Written analysis of a text is generally supported by evidence from the text itself and
sometimes from other sources. Writers might support their interpretation by quoting
words or passages from a written text or referring to images in a visual text.
Guidelines in writing textual analysis:
1. Choosing a text to analyze.

Generally, your professor might assign a text or a type of text to analyze like a poem
in a literature class, the work of a political philosopher in a political science class, a
speech in a history or communication course, a painting or sculpture in an art class,
or a piece of music in a music class. If you must choose a text to analyze, look for
one that suits the demands of the assignment-one that is not too large or complex
to analyze thoroughly like Nick Joaquin's novels or paintings of Amorsolo but also
not too limited or brief to generate sufficient materials like a short paragraph about a
fast food chain. Be sure you understand what the assignment requires you to do.
Ask your professor for clarifications if you are not certain of what to do.

2. Considering the rhetorical situation.

a. Purpose. Why are you analyzing this text? Your purpose may be: to demonstrate
that you understand it or to persuade that the text demonstrates a certain
message. Are you using the text as a way to make some other points?
b. Audience. Are your readers likely to know your text? How much detail will you
need to provide?
c. Stance. What interests you about your analysis? Why? What do you know or
believe about your topic, and how will your own beliefs affect your analysis?
d. Media/Design. Are you writing an essay for a class? Your answers may be: to
publish it in a journal or magazine or to write something for the Web. If you are
analyzing a visual text, you will probably need to include an image of the text.
CONVENTION AND REFERENCE STYLE
Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual
boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of
academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third person rather than the first-person
perspective, a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word
choice. Like the jargon adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic
writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group
of scholarly experts.
A citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source that you consulted and obtained
information from while writing your research paper. The way in which you document your
sources depends on the writing style manual your professor wants you to use for the class
(e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago, Turabian). Note that some disciplines (e.g., law, medicine) have
their own citation method.
Citations show your readers where you obtained your material. These references provide a
means of critiquing your study and offer the opportunity to obtain additional information about
the research problem under investigation. The act of citing sources is also a defense against
allegations of plagiarism.
Properly citing the works of others is important because:
1. Proper citation allows readers to locate the materials you used. Citations other
sources help readers expand their knowledge on a topic. In most areas in the social
sciences, one effective strategy for locating authoritative, relevant sources about a
topic is to follow footnotes or references from known sources "citation tracking.”
2. Citing other people's words and ideas indicates that you have conducted a thorough
review of the literature on your topic; therefore, you are operating from an informed
perspective. This increases your credibility as the author of the work.

3. Other researcher's ideas can be used to reinforce your arguments or, if you disagree
with them, can act as positions from which to argue an alternative viewpoint. In many
cases, another researcher's arguments act as the primary context from which you can
emphasize a different viewpoint or clarify the importance of what you are proposing.
4. Just as other researcher's ideas can bolster your arguments and act as evidence for
your ideas, they can also detract from your credibility if they are found to be mistaken
or fabricated. Properly citing information not unique to you prevents your reputation
from being tarnished if the facts or ideas of others are proven to be inaccurate or off-
tangent.
5. Outside academe, ideas are considered intellectual property and there can be serious
repercussions if you fail to cite the reference where you got an idea. In the professional
world, failure to cite other people's intellectual property ruins careers and reputations
and can result in legal action. Given this, it is important to get into the habit of citing
sources.
Tips: In any academic writing, you are required to identify for your reader which ideas,
facts, theories, concepts, among others are yours and which are derived from the
research and thoughts of others. Whether you summarize, paraphrase, or use direct
quotes, if it is not your original idea, the source must be acknowledged. The only.
exception to this rule is information that is considered to be commonly known facts (e.g.,
Corazon C. Aquino is the first woman president of the Republic of the Philippines). Note,
however, that any "commonly known fact" is culturally constructed and shaped by social
and aesthetical biases. If you are in doubt about whether a fact is common knowledge or
not, protect yourself from any allegations of plagiarism and cite it, or ask your professor
for clarification.
STRUCTURE AND WRITING STYLE
Referencing your sources means systematically showing what information or ideas you are
quoting or paraphrasing from another author's work and identifying where that information
came from. In doing research, citation is a norm, but one must delineate the source of original
thoughts and ideas--whether from the researcher her- /himself or from another researcher.
Procedures used to reference the sources you have relied upon vary among different fields
of study. However, always speak with your professor about what writing style for citing
sources should be used for the class because it is important to understand fully the citation
style to be used in your paper and to apply it consistently. If your professor defers and tells
you to "choose whatever you want, just be consistent," then choose the citation style you are
most familiar with or that is appropriate to the discipline (e.g., use APA if it is an education
course; use MLA if it is a general writing course).

General Guidelines in Referencing
1. On referencing other people's work. Referencing other people's research is never an

indication that your work is substandard or lacks originality if placed in the proper
context. In fact, the opposite is true. If you write your paper without adequate
references to previous studies, you are signaling to the reader that you are not familiar
with the literature about the topic, thereby, undermining the validity of your study and
your credibility as a researcher. Including references in academic writing not only
defends you against allegations of plagiarism, but it is one of the most important ways
to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of previous studies about the
research problem. It is the intellectual packaging around which you present your study
to the reader.
2. On finding that your idea has already been examined by another researcher. Do not
ignore another author's work because doing so will lead your readers to believe that
you have either borrowed the idea or information without properly referencing it (this
is plagiarism) and/or that you have failed to conduct a thorough review of the literature.
You can acknowledge the other research by writing in the text of your paper something
like: (see also Ladia, 2002), then citing the complete source in your list of references.
Using the discovery of prior research is an opportunity to demonstrate the importance
of the problem being investigated and, if applicable, as a means of delineating your
analysis from those of others (e.g., prior studies within five years and do not take into
account current conditions). Reacting to prior research can include: stating how your
study updates prior research; offering a new or different perspective; using a different
method of data gathering; or describing a new set of recommendations, best
practices, or working solutions.
3. On using an adapted version of someone else's work. You still must cite the original
work. For example, maybe you are using a table of statistics from a journal article
published in 2017 by author Ladia, but you have altered or added new data to it.
Reference the revised chart as: (adapted from Ladin, 2017) then cite the complete
source in your list of references. You can also use other terms in order to specify the
exact relationship between the original source and the version you have presented,
such as, based on Ladia (2017)... or summarized from Ladia (2017)... Citing the
original source helps the reader locate where the information was first presented and
under what context it was used as well as evaluate how effectively you adapted it.
4. On citing for several authors who have published very similar information or ideas.
You can indicate that the idea or information can be found in the work of others by
stating something similar to the following example:
Though in fact many authors have applied this theory to understanding the effects
of multi-lingual language relations among nations (e.g., see Ladia, 2014; Manzano,
2015; Arador, 2018), little attention has been given to applying the language theory
to examining the development of non-government organizations in a globalized
society.

If you only reference one author or only the most recent study, then your readers
may assume that only one author has published on this topic or conclude that you
have not reviewed the literature thoroughly. Referencing all relevant authors of prior
studies gives your readers a clear idea of the breadth of analysis you conducted in
preparing to study the research problem. If there has been a lot of prior research on
the topic, cite the most comprehensive and recent works because they will
presumably discuss and cite the older studies. However, note that there has been a
significant scholarship devoted to the topic, so the reader knows that you are aware
of this.
5. On finding exactly what you want to say in the writing of another researcher. In the
social sciences, the rationale in duplicating prior research is generally governed by
changing circumstances or conditions that warrant a new investigation. If someone
else has thoroughly investigated precisely the same research problem as you, then
you likely will have to change your topic, or at the very the problem. However, if it is
someone else's particularly succinct expression, but it fits perfectly with what you are
trying to say, then you can quote it directly, referencing the source. Do not see this as
a setback or discouraged by the fact that the brilliant idea or important insight that you
came up with on your own has already been identified by someone else. Discovering
an author who has made the same point that you have is an opportunity to add
legitimacy to, as well as reinforce the significance of, the research problem you are
investigating. The key is to build on that idea in new and innovative ways.
6. On citing a source of long ago. Obviously, any resource used in writing your paper
should be cited, regardless of when the study was completed. However, in building a
case for understanding prior research about your topic, it is generally true that you
should focus on citing the most recently published studies because they presumably
have built upon the research of older publications. To ensure novelty of your topic, the
most ideal is within five years. This is particularly true of new or revised editions of
books, unless an older edition has unique information not carried over into recent
editions, Remember that when referencing prior studies, use the research problem as
your guide concerning what to cite.
STEPS IN WRITING AN INDEPENDENT RESEARCH
Plan the Research Process
Effective time management may be the most important factor in determining the success of
your research project. If you give yourself plenty of time to do each step properly, you will
have the chance to savor your deepening expertise in a particular subject-and you will avoid
the desperation that leads some students to resort to plagiarism.
Above all, be realistic. A research project takes time—you simply cannot put it off until a
couple of days before the due date. As soon as you have an assignment, draw up a workable

plan with plenty of intermediate goals (“benchmarks") to measure your progress toward the
final goal of a completed paper. Generally, about one third of your available time is allotted
to each of the three phases of the research project: (1) conducting research, (2) writing your
rough draft, and (3) revising the draft following the many little things that research entails.
The Research Phase
You cannot really begin until you have a very specific topic in mind, not just a general subject
area. Do yourself a favor-discuss your topic with your professor before you begin. Sometimes
research materials may be difficult to obtain, for example, you may have to wait for reserved
books at the library or there is no available study about your topic. Factor this into your
research plan. Merely collecting materials is not research. Conversely, collecting materials
from a variety of sources — reading it carefully, taking notes properly, and truly familiarizing
yourself with the material — is research.
Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Identify a problem or ask a question

2. Conduct a literature review
3. Form a hypothesis; give operational definitions to variables
4. Choose research design or method
5. Collect data
6. Analyze data
7. Disseminate findings
Ways of Organizing a Proposal
As a student you can always organize a proposal in various ways, but you will always
start with a problem. Here are some possible solutions to a problem you might pose
(Bullock and Goggin, 2013):
For Multiple Solutions
Identify possible solutions Call for action or reiterate

Introduce and Propose a solution and
and consider their pros your posed action
explain the problem give reasons why it is best
and cons

For a Single Solution
Introduce and Explain the proposed Give reasons that makes Call for action or reiterate
explain the problem action it the best solution your proposal
Anticipate
and answer
questions
It may seem tedious and would entail a lot of painstaking work, but you must keep careful
records of your source materials throughout the research phase for two reasons: (1) to
avoid plagiarism in writing your paper and (2) to compile your bibliography efficiently and
strategically.
Always keep all of your research materials. You will, certainly, need them when you are
writing your draft, which is no time for a hasty trip to the library to retrieve a source you
meant to copy earlier, and you may also need it in order to defend yourself against a
charge of plagiarism.
In the course of gathering information you will soon find your imagination teeming with
ideas about how to organize your paper the way you may want to work it out, or even
adjusting your topic altogether, perhaps making it more general or more specific. Write
these ideas down as soon as they occur to you do not tell yourself that you will remember
them later, you may not be able to recall them. Keep an “idea note-book" or digital file
separate from your research notes.
The Writing Phase
Avoid conducting your research and writing your draft simultaneously—these are
separate processes, both physically and mentally. Each requires concentration.
A research paper is a work developed from an outline. You will need an introduction of
the topic, a well-organized and informative body, and a well-reasoned conclusion.
Remember to save all your drafts. Each version of your draft--from the very first tentative
rough draft to the polished and revised final version-should be saved separately. If you
are working with handwritten and typewritten drafts, this is not an issue. If you are working
on a computer, though, do not simply keep using the "Save" command over and over on
the same file; rather, give each draft its own file name, such as:
research_paper_1st Draft, OR research_paper_2nd Draft.
This technique will guide you as you progress in your research paper writing.

The Revision Phase
Remember that revision means "re-seeing." You must spend enough time to stand back
from your rough draft and see it in its entirety. Take special care that you have avoided
plagiarism by following the correct procedures for quoting, paraphrasing, and citing your
sources.
Revising a research paper takes a good deal longer than revising a "normal" essay.
Besides the writing itself, you will need to double-check your sources and assemble your
bibliography, which can be a time-consuming process if you have been careless in the
research phase of the project.
As noted above in "The Writing Phase," you must save all your drafts, including the
earliest handwritten rough drafts as described earlier.
PROPER NOTE-TAKING PROCEDURES
There are three very good reasons to develop good note-taking habits. Firstly, evaluating
and integrating information is one of the main skills that define a college education-you
will be doing a lot of this not only in your academic career, but in any career open to you
once you have a college diploma. Secondly, by taking notes efficiently you will not waste
valuable time in the revision phase verifying and correcting references that should have
been recorded properly in the research phase. Finally, good note-taking is essential to
avoid plagiarism.
Here are some note-taking tips taken from Bullock and Goggin (2013) that you might find
useful:
1. Create a "paper trail." As soon as you decide that a given source might be useful for
your project. Photocopy the relevant pages of books and journals and print out pages
of online sources. Be sure that you also have copies of the copyright page of a book
or journal indicating the title, edition, publisher, and so forth) and the exact URL as
well as the access date of online sources.
2. If you are unable to make photocopies from a book that seems useful-perhaps, due
to library restrictions or the lack of a photocopier-try the time-honored method of
copying out passages on three-by-five or four-by-six index cards, ensuring the
inclusion of page numbers.
3. Throughout the research phase, and especially when you are doing seemingly
mechanical or even "mindless” tasks like photocopying or hand-copying, your
unconscious mind is working on the project and you will generate all kinds of ideas
about the focus, organization, and writing of your paper. As soon as you become
conscious of any such idea, record it immediately in a separate "idea note-book." Do
not kid yourself into thinking you will remember things later because you might fail to
recall them.

4. In your notes, either summarize source material very generally, in your own words, or
quote materials exactly with quotation marks. Do not try to paraphrase at this stage
because later on you might not remember which words are yours and which ones are
from the sources.
5. Keep materials well organized. You will be amazed at how swiftly you will accumulate
piles of notes, photocopies, print- outs, and so on. It is essential that you be able to
determine precisely where a given quotation or idea came from—which source,
author, or page.
6. Keep a working bibliography-not just the authors and book titles (or URLs) you are
using but a complete record of all the information you will need later when compiling
your final bibliography, the "Works Cited" listing at the end of your paper. (Refer to the
“Making a bibliography" section for tips on how to do this correctly.) You would want
to go to the library the night before your paper is due just to find a source again in
order to get a publication date or a page number. Do not make yourself do things
twice!
7. Save copies of all your research materials, whether notes you collected on paper,
photocopies, or electronic files. Always back up digital files somewhere other than the
hard drive where you have your working files.
HOW TO WRITE A JOURNAL ARTICLE: TIPS AND TOOLS
The following tips and tools were adapted from Dr. Sarah Boon (2006).
Now that you are an undergraduate, your instructor is there to guide you through the paper
publication process, as it is in their best interests to have you publish the outcome of your
research with them. Once you become an independent researcher, whether you are in the
academe, industry, or NGO, writing research papers can be an exciting and challenging
experience.
There are many online resources and excellent books designed to provide writing advice to
researchers. The difficulty as a student researcher lies in making the time to learn how to
write a hood paper while teaching yourself statistical methods, coming up with new
pedagogical approaches to engage your team, or figuring out how to manage a work team
and applying for a research grant funds if available.
The process of writing a paper is the key step that provides links to additional resources
available. The goal is to give you a good head start on writing your next scientific paper, while
providing specific places to find more detailed advice.

Preparing to Write
The key to writing a successful research article begins well before you even start to open.
Firstly, it can be useful to save journal articles in a reference management system such as
Mendeley, Zotero, or Endnote while you are doing background reading about your research
area. This will help you keep track of all the papers related to your research and make it a lot
easier to create reference lists for future research papers. Secondly, ensure that the design
of your research project includes a well-defined research goal and series of objectives, as
this forms the foundation of your research paper. Thirdly, a good paper requires that you
maintain an excellent notes of the materials you used and the methods you applied to answer
your research question, so that readers can replace your experiment if they so choose.
Finally, many research writers suggest that you only start writing once you have completed
all of your analyses and have created a series of key plots and tables that best support your
research goal and objectives. This will give you a strong narrative to follow in outlining your
results and developing your discussion.
When you have prepared all of the above, then you can start writing.
RESEARCH PAPER STRUCTURE
A typical research paper is divided into eight sections:
1.Title
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Materials and Methods
5. Results and Discussion
6. Conclusion
7. Acknowledgement
8. References
NOTE: If you do fieldwork, you may have an additional “Study Site” section between
the “Introduction” and “Materials and Methods” sections.
1. Title and Abstract. Researchers read the title and abstract to decide whether or not
they will delve into an entire paper and grab them right away. The key is to write these
parts after the paper is completed. That way you can come up with a catchy title, and
structure the abstract as a mini-paper, with the research question and context, the key
results and the new things those results tells us, how it compares with other
researches, and a conclusion for further work.
2. Introduction. This section is all about placing your work into the broader research
context, the narrowing your focus to identify specifically what you plan to do in the
paper like your research goals and objectives.

3. Materials and Methods. If you want to provide enough details that someone else
could replicate the study, an outline of your rationale for that approach is desirable.
Lay out what you did step by step, from the beginning to end of your research. Include
not only how and why you collected data, but also how and why you applied specific
analysis techniques. It can sometimes be hard to determine how much information is
too much information. A good piece of advice is to put in more than you need, as you
can always pare it down later.
4. Results and Discussion. Reyes (2017) in her article “Demystifying the Journal
Article” states that the result section contains the meat of the paper. It is where you
present the findings of your work; hence, two points should be kept in mind. First,
make sure that your results speak to the theoretical and empirical questions that your
paper raises, in other words, that your paper is cohesive throughout. Second,
particularly for qualitative papers, organize your results analytically or thematically.
Do not just present the results based on chronological order or according to some
other simple accounting. You should be thoughtful about how to present your results
to get the most out of your findings. For some reasons, academics itemize the results
in a given paper using numbers.
Besides research results, another significant part which is combined with results is
the discussion. The findings or results are discussed based on the data or facts,
literature, and studies surveyed for the current research. Results are reported to add
new information to the body of knowledge.
5. Conclusion. The conclusion of a research paper contains the interpretation or

implications of the research. Rejection and acceptance of hypotheses are explained
in this section. Reyes (2017) also emphasizes that you may also find a combined
discussion and conclusion at the end of the paper. The differences between a
discussion and a conclusion are seamlessly presented as they vary by author or
paper, and on how writers have written up their results section. One way you can think
about it is that the discussion section allows you to step back from the results section
and reflect on the broader story or themes of your results and how they tie together.
If you see a discussion section this way, then you can think about a conclusion as
addressing three things: (1) summarizing what you did in the paper, including its main
findings; (2) acknowledging the limitations of your work; and (3) proposing steps for
future research that builds on what you have done in the paper.
6. Acknowledgement and Reference. Always be sure to recognize the contributions of

others to your research, whether they are assistants, funding agencies, or colleagues
who helped you talk through different aspects of your work. For references – this is
where the reference management system we talked about previously comes in, as it
should make it relatively easy to create the reference list.

MEDIA/DESIGN
Aware or not, we design all the texts we write by choosing typefaces, setting up texts as lists
or charts, and deciding whether to add headings, This section offers guidelines on how to
design print texts, spoken texts, and electronic texts.
The Print Text
For any printed material to be visually attractive, photos, tables, charts, and other visuals
should be provided. These images help readers understand the subject matter, and it is a
must to include them in most texts like research articles, books, magazines, journals, or
newspapers. When submitting an essay for a class, you choose a typeface and you make
the type larger or smaller when necessary. In all these instances, the message is in some
way “designed.” Designing print texts should suit your purpose, audience, genre, and subject.
Much of the advice also holds for electronic texts and for visuals that accompany a spoken
text.
Considering the Rhetorical Situation
As with all writing tasks, your rhetorical situation affects the way you design a print text.
1. Purpose. Consider how you can design your text to achieve your purpose. If you are
reporting certain kinds of information, for instance, you may want to present some
data in a chart or table. However, if you are trying to get readers to care about an
issue, a photo or pull quote might help you do so.
2. Audience. What you have to answer here is: Do you need to do anything designed
for your intended audience like changing the type size, add headings, tables and
colors?
3. Genre. What is important here is we can answer these questions: Does your genre
have any design requirement? Must (or can) it have headings, illustrations, tables,
graphs or a certain size paper?
4. Stance. How does your design reflect your attitude toward your audience and
subject? Do you need a businesslike typeface? Will plotting out statistics on a bar
graph makes them more important than they would seem in the middle of a
paragraph? Can you use color?
Elements of Design
In making decisions as regards various designs, you must consider the following:
1. What typeface(s) should you use?
2. How should you arrange your text on the page?
3. Should you include any headings?

The following guidelines were taken from Bullock and Goggin (2013) that will help you answer
each of these questions:
1. Type. You can choose from among many typefaces, and the one you choose will
affect your text – How well readers can read it and how they will perceive your tone
and stance. Times Roman will make a text look businesslike or academic. Comic Sans
will make it look playful. For most academic writing, you may want to use 10- or 11-
or 12-point type, and you may also want to use a serif face such as, Times Roman or
Bookman, which is generally easier to read than a sans serif face such as, Arial,
Verdana, or Century Gothic. It is usually a good idea to use a serif face for your main
text, reserving sans serif for headings and parts you want to highlight. Decorative
typefaces such as, Magneto, Amaze, Chiller, and Jokerman should be used sparingly
and only when they are appropriate for your audience, purpose, and the rest of your
rhetorical situation. If you use more than one typeface in a text, use each one
consistently: one face for headings, one for captions, and one for the main body of
your text. Do not go overboard. You may not have the reason to use more than two
or, at most, three typefaces in any one text.
Every typeface has a regular, bold, and italic fonts. Generally choose “regular” for the
main text, “bold” for major headings, and “italic” for titles of books and other long works
and, occasionally, to emphasize words or brief phrases. Avoid italicizing or boldfacing
an entire paragraph. If you are following MLA, APA, or some other styles, be sure that
your use of fonts conforms to its requirements.
Finally, consider the line spacing of you text. Generally, academic writing is double-
spaced, whereas letters and résumés are usually single-spaced. Some kinds of
reports may call for single-spacing. Check with your professor if you are not sure. In
addition, you will often need to add an extra space to set off parts of a text – items in
a list, for instance, or headings.
2. Layout. Layout is the way a text is arranged on a page. An academic essay, for
example, will usually have a title centered at the top, one-inch margins all around, and
double-spaced. A text can be presented in paragraphs or in the form of lists, tables,
charts, graphs, and so on. Sometimes, you need to include other elements such as,
headings, images and other graphics, captions, lists of works cited.
3. Paragraphs. Dividing a text into paragraphs focuses information for readers and
helps them process the information by dividing it into manageable chunks. If you are
writing a story for a newspaper with narrow columns, for example, you will divide your
text into shorter paragraphs than you would if you were writing an academic essay.
Normally, paragraphs are indented five spaces when the text is double-spaced –
either indent or skip a line between paragraphs that are single-spaced.
4. Lists. Put information into a list form that you want to set off and make easily
accessible. Do not forget to number the items in a list when the sequence matters
(e.g., in instructions); use bullets when the order is not important; set off lists with an

extra line of space above and below; and add extra space between the items on a list
if necessary for legibility.
5. Headings. Headings make the structure of a text easier to follow and help readers
find specific information. Some genres require standard headings, for instance,
announcing an abstract or a list of works cited. Sometimes, you want to use heads to
provide an overview of a section of a text. You may not need any headings with briefs
texts, and when you do, you will probably want to use one level at most, just to
announce major topics. Longer texts and information – rich genres such as,
pamphlets or detailed reports, may require several levels of headings. If you decide
to include headings, you need to decide how to phrase them, what typefaces and
fonts to use, and where to position them.
Visuals
Visuals add color and aesthetics to what you present, but you need to be cautious in using
photos, graphs, charts, tables, and diagrams effectively.
The first consideration for using visuals should be appropriateness to your rhetorical situation.
There are various kinds of visuals: photographs, line graphs, bar graphs, pie charts, tables,
diagrams, flowcharts, drawings, and more. Which ones you use, if any, will depend on your
content, genre, and rhetorical situation. A newspaper article on the “Train Law” might include
a bar graph or line graph, and some photographs. A report on the same topic written for an
economics class would probably have graphs but no photo. See an example of a visual for
the “Train Law.”

Guidelines in using visuals (Bullock & Goggins, 2013)
1. Use visuals as part of the content of your text; one that is as important as your words
to your message. Therefore, avoid clip art, which is usually intended as decoration.
2. Position visuals in your text as close as possible to your discussion of the topic to
which they relate.
3. Number all visuals, using a separate sequence for figures (photos, graphs, and
drawings) and tables (ie., Figure 1, Figure 2; Table 1, Table 2)
4. Refer to the visual before it appears, identifying it and summarizing its point. For
example: As Figure 1 shows, Japan’s economy grew dramatically between 1965 and
1980.
Photographs can support an argument, illustrate events and processes, present alternative
points of view, and help readers “place” information in time and space.
Line Graphs are a good way of showing changes in data over time. Each line here shows a
different set of data. Plotting the two lines together allows readers to compare the data at
different points in time.
Bar graphs are useful for comparing quantitative data. The bars can be horizontal and vertical.
Pie charts can be used for showing how a whole is divided into parts or how something is
apportioned.
Tables are useful for displaying information concisely, especially when several items are being
compared.
Diagrams, flowcharts, and drawings are ways of showing relationships and processes.
5. Provide a title or caption for each visual to identify it, and explain its significance (i.e.,
Table 1. The New Personal Income Tax Rates [For the years 2018-2011]).
6. Document the source of any visuals you found in another source. Document any
tables you create with data from another source. You need not document visuals you
create yourself or data from your own experimental or field research.
7. Obtain permission to use any visuals you found in another source that will appear in
the text you publish in any form other than for a course.
8. Label visuals to ensure that your audience will understand what they show. For
example, each section of a pie chart should be labeled to show what it represents.
When you choose visuals and integrate them into your texts, follow the same
procedures you use with other source materials.

Evaluating a Design
It is important that you evaluate the relevance and appropriateness of the design and ensure
that the design suits its purpose. The typeface and any visuals should help convey the
message of the text, support its argument, or present information. If there is any key
information that should be highlighted in a list or chart, they should also be included.
The audience's needs must also be met by the design. The overall appearance of the text
must appeal to the intended reader, and its typeface should be large enough for them to read.
Moreover, the headings should be able to help them find their way through the text and the
kind of visuals should be what the audience would likely expect. Also, the visuals must be
clearly labeled and referred to in the main text so that readers know why they are there.
It is also important to check how well does the text meet the requirements of its genre by
looking at the text that it is an academic essay, a lab report, or a resumé. Do its typeface,
margins, headings, and page layout meet the requirements of MLA, APA, or whatever style
that is being followed? Are the visuals appropriately labeled and cited?
The design should always reflect the writer's stance and the following questions may help:
Do the page layout and typeface convey the appropriate tone – serious, playful, bold,
conservative, and so on? Do the visuals reveal anything about the writer's position of beliefs?
For instance, does the choice of visuals show any particular bias?
SPOKEN TEXT
In a good friend's wedding, you might be called to speak before the guest. In most instances,
you are always asked to present your oral report in class. In school and out, you may be
called on to speak in public or to compose and deliver a spoken text. This topic offers
guidelines to help you prepare and deliver effective spoken texts, along with the visual aids
you often need to include.
Key Features of a Spoken Text (Bullock & Goggin, 2013)
1. Spoken texts need to be clearly organized so that your audience can follow what you are
saying. The beginning needs to engage your audience's interest, makes clear of what you
will be talking about, and perhaps forecasts the main parts of your talk. The main part of the
text should focus on a few main points and only as many as your audience can handle.
Remember that they cannot go back to reread. On the other hand, the ending is equally
important. It should leave your audience with something to remember, think about, or do.
2. You may need to provide cues to help your listeners follow your text, especially transitions
that lead them from one point to next. Sometimes, you may also want to stop and summarize
a complex point to help your audience keep track of your ideas and follow your narrative.
3. Ensure that your tone suits the occasion. In a presentation to a panel of professors, you
probably would want to take an academic tone, avoiding too much slang, and speaking in

complete sentences. If you had occasion to speak on the very same topic to a neighbor,
however, you would likely want to speak more casually.
4. Remember that spoken texts have the added element of sound. Be aware of how your
words and phrases sound. Even if you are never called on to deliver an inaugural address,
you will find that repetition and parallel structure can lend power to a presentation, making it
easier to follow and more likely to be remembered
5. Many times, you want or need to use visuals. PowerPoint or other presentation software,
transparencies, flip charts, and so on present certain information and highlight key points for
your audience.
Considering the Rhetorical Situation
As with any writing, you need to consider your purpose, audience, and the rest of your
rhetorical situation:
1. What is your primary purpose? Is your purpose to inform, to persuade or evoke an

emotional response, or to entertain?
2. Think about whom you will be addressing and how well you know your audience. Will
they be interested, or will you need to get them interested? Are they likely to be friendly?
How can you get and maintain their attention, and how can you establish common
ground? Will they know about your subject, or will you need to provide background and
define key terms?
3. The genre of your text will affect the way you structure it. If you are making an
argument, for instance, you need to consider counterarguments—anticipate questions
from members of the audience who hold other opinions. If giving a report, you may have
reasons to prepare handouts with detailed information you do not have time to cover.
4. Consider the attitude you want to express. Is it serious, thoughtful, passionate, well
informed, funny, or something else? Choose your words accordingly.
Delivering a Spoken Text
The key to a successful presentation of a spoken text is very much dependent on delivery.
That is why it is important to follow the following guidelines from Bullock and Goggin (2013).
1. Speak clearly. The foremost aim of the spoken text is for the audience to understand
what you have to say. It is very essential that you form your words distinctly or your
talk will not succeed. Check that your pacing matches that of the audience, not too
fast nor too slow that they might sleep.

2. Pause for emphasis. As a speaker, you need to pause by thought phrases to give
listeners a moment to consider something you have said or to get them ready for a
surprising or amusing statement.
3. Avoid reading your presentation. Most speakers find it difficult to present without a
manuscript; hence, they need to write as if they were talking. If you can speak well
from notes or an outline, great--you are likely to do well. The key is to practice and to
listen to yourself when you speak. Listen for spots that sound as you are reading, and
work on your delivery to sound more relaxed.
4. Stand up straight and look at your audience. Try to maintain some eye contact
with your audience. If that is uncomfortable, you can fake it-look at your audience'
forehead and focus on it. You will appear as if you are looking at your audience even
if you are not. You must stand up straight so you would look confident in what you are
saying. When you seem to believe what you are saying, the audience will believe you
too.
5. Use gestures for emphasis. If you are not used to speaking in front of a group, you
may let your nervousness show by holding your manuscript and the paper endlessly
shaking or may be stumping your feet or turning pale. To overcome nervousness, take
some deep breaths, try to relax, move your arms as you would if you were talking to
a friend. Use your hands for emphasis. Most public speakers use one hand to
emphasize points and both to make larger gestures.
6. Practice, practice, and practice some more. Pay particular attention to how much
time you have do not go over your time limit.
Do's and Don'ts in Delivering a Spoken Text
Do's:
1. Use the planning time to prepare what you are going to say.
2. If you are allowed to have a note card, write short notes in point form.
3. Use more formal language.
4. Use short, simple sentences to express your ideas clearly.
5. Pause from time to time and do not speak too quickly. This allows the listener to
understand your ideas. Include a short pause after each idea.
6. Speak clearly and at the right volume.
7. Have your notes ready in case you forget anything.

8. Practice your presentation. If possible, record yourself and listen to your presentation. If
you cannot record yourself, ask a friend to listen to you. Does your friend understand
you?
9. Make your opinions very clear. Use expressions to give your opinion.
10. Look at the people who are listening to you.
Don'ts:
1. Write out the whole presentation and learn every word by heart.
2. Write out the whole presentation and read it aloud.
3. Use a very informal language.
4. Only look at your note card. It is important to look at your listeners when you are
speaking.
5. Use effective language for presentations
6. Explain what your presentation is about at the beginning:

• I'm going to talk about ...
• I'd like to talk about ...
• The main focus of this presentation is...
7. Use these expressions to order your ideas:

• First of all, ...
• First,
• Then, ...
• Second, ...
• Next, ...
• Finally, ...
• Lastly,...
• To sum up,..
• In conclusion, ...
8. Use these expressions to add more ideas from the same point of view:
• In addition, ...
• What's more, ...
• Also, ...
• Added to this, ...
9. To introduce the opposite point of view you can use these words and expressions:
• However, ...
• On the other hand, ...

• Then again, ...
Suggested Topics for Presentation Skills
1. Violent computer games should be banned.

2. The sale of cigarettes should be made illegal.
3. Homework should be limited to just two nights a week.
4. Should college students be required to wear a school uniform?
5. How to become the most popular teen in school.
6. Dogs should be banned from cities.
7. Teenagers must have curfews.
8. Divorce must be legalized in the Philippines.
9. Two-child policy must be implemented in the Philippines.
10. Other topics you can think of
APA FORMAT CITATION GUIDE
This is a complete guide to American Psychological Association (APA) in-text and

reference list citations (Source: American Psychological Association, Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association, 6th Edition). This easy-to-use comprehensive guide
makes citing any sources easy. Check out other citation guides on MLA 8 and Harvard
referencing.
Core Components of an APA Reference

1. APA Referencing Basics: Reference List
A reference list is a complete list of references used in a piece of writing

including the author’s name, date of publication, title and more. An APA reference
list must:
• Be on a new page at the end of the document;

• Be centered;
• Be alphabetically arranged by name of first author or title if the author is not
known, in this case, a, an, and the should be ignored.
➢ If there are multiple works by the same author, these are ordered by date. If the works are in the
same year, they are ordered alphabetically by the title and are allocated a letter (a, b, c, among
others) after the date; and
• Contain full references for all in-text references used.
2. APA Referencing Basics: In-Text Citation
In-text references must be included following the use of a quote or

paraphrase taken from another piece of work. It is also known as in-text citations
and are found within the main body of the text and refer to a direct quote or
paraphrase. They correspond to a reference in the main reference list. These
citations include the surname of the author and date of publication only. Using an
example author James Mitchell, this takes the form:
Mitchell (2018) states… OR…(Mitchell, 2018).
The structure changes depending on whether a direct quote or parenthetical

citation is used:
• Direct Quote: The citation must follow the quote directly and contain a
page number after the date, for example:
•
“Presentation skills require a juxtaposition of content and

performance” (Mitchell, 2018, p. 104).
• This rule holds for all of the various listed.

• Parenthetical: The page number is not needed.
a. Two authors. The surnames of both authors are stated with either “and”
or an ampersand “&” between.
Mitchell and Smith (2017) state… OR…(Mitchell & Smith, 2017).

b. Three, Four, or Five Authors. For the first cite, all names should be
listed:
Example:
Mitchell, Smith, and Thomson (2017) state... OR ... (Mitchell,

Smith, & Thomson, 2017).
c. Six or More Authors. Only the first author's surname should be stated
followed by et al. (see the above example).
d. No Author. If the author is unknown, the first few words of the reference
should be used. These words serve as the title of the source. Hence, the
title of a book, periodical, brochure or report should be italicized.
Example:
A guide to citation, 2017.
However, if this is the title of an article, chapter, or web page, it should be in

quotation marks.
Example:
“APA citation,” 2017.
e. Citing Authors with Multiple Works from One Year. Works should be
cited with a, b, c, among others following the date. These letters are
assigned within the reference list, which is sorted alphabetically by the
surname of the first author.
Example:
Mitchell, 2017a OR Mitchell, 2017b
f. Citing Multiple Works in One Parenthesis. If these works are by the

same author, the surname is stated once followed by the dates in
chronological or reverse chronological order.

Example:
Mitchell (2007, 2013, 2017) OR (Mitchell, 2007, 2013, 2017)
If these works are by multiple authors, the references are ordered

alphabetically by the first author separated by a semicolon.
Example:
Mitchell & Smith, 2017; Thomson, Coyne, & Davis, 2015
g. Citing a Group or Organization. For the first cite, the full name of the
group most be used. Subsequently, this can be shortened.
Example:
First Cite: International Citation Association, 2015

Further Cites: Citation Association, 2015
h. Citing a Secondary Source. In this situation the original actor and date
should be stated first followed by "as cited in” followed by the author and
date of the secondary source.
Example:
Lorde (1980) as cited in Mitchell (20)7) OR

Lorde, 1980, as cited in Mitchell (2017)
3. Citations of Different Source Types. An in-text citation does not vary depending
on source type, unless the author is unknown. However, reference list citations are
highly variable depending on the source.
How to Cite a Book (Title, not chapter) in APA Format?

Book referencing is the most basic style. It matches the template above, minus the
URL section. So, the basic format of a book reference is as follows:

Examples:
Mitchell, J. A., Thomson, M., & Coyne, R.P. (2017). A guide to citation. London,
England: My Publisher.
Jones, A. F. & Wang, L. (2011). Spectacular creatures: The Amazon rainforest
(2nd ed.). San Jose, Costa Rica: My Publisher.
4. Citation of an Edited Book in APA Format. This reference format is very similar to
the book format apart from one extra inclusion: (Ed(s)). The basic format is as
follows:
Example:
Williams, S. T. (Ed.). (2015). Referencing: A guide to citation rules

(3rd ed.). New York, NY: My Publisher.

5. Citation of a Chapter in an Edited Book in APA Format. Edited books are

collations of chapters written by different authors. To reference a single chapter, a
different format is needed. The basic structure is as follows:
Example:
Troy, B. N. (2015). APA citation rules. In S. T., Williams (Ed.). A guide to

citation rules (2nd ed., pp. 50-95). New York, NY: Publishers.
In the given example, B.N. Troy is the author of the chapter and S.T.
Williams is the editor.
6. Citation of an e-Book in APA Format. An e-book reference is the same as a book

reference except that the publisher is swapped for a URL. The basic structure is as
follows:
Author surname, initial(s) (Ed(s).*).(Year). Title (ed.*). Retrieved from URL
*optional
Example:
Mitchell, J. A., Thomson, M., & Coyne, R.P. (2017). A guide citation. Retrieved
from https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager.

7. Citation of an e-Book Chapter in APA Format. This follows the same structure as
an edited book chapter reference except that the publisher is exchanged for a URL.
The structure is as follows:
Last name of the chapter author, initial(s). (Year). Chapter title. In editor
initial(s),
surname (Ed.). Title (ed., pp. chapter page range). Retrieved from URL
Example:
Troy, B. N. (2015). APA citation rules. In S. T. Williams (Ed.). A guide to

citation
rules (2nd ed., pp. 50-95). Retrieved from https://www.mendeley.com/
reference-management/reference-manager
8. Citation of a Journal Article in Print or Online in APA Format. Articles differ from
book citations in that the publisher and its location are not included. For journal
articles, these are replaced with the journal title, volume number, issue number and
page number. The basic structure is:

Examples:
Mitchell, J. A. (2017). Citation: Why is it so important? Mendeley Journal, 67(2),

81-95.
Mitchell, J. A. (2017). Citation: Why is it so important? Mendeley Journal, 67(2),

81-95. Retrieved from https://www.mendeley.com/referencentanagement
/referencemanagermanagement/reference-manager
9. Citation of Newspaper Articles in Print or Online in APA Format. The basic

structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s). (Year, Month ‘Day). Title. Title of Newspaper,

column/section, p. or pp. Retrieved from URL*
NOTE: *Include only if the article is online.
Example:
Mitchell, J A. (2017, June 12). Changes to citation formats shake the research
world. The Mendeley Telegraph, Research News, p.9. Retrieved from
https://www.mendeley.com/referencenmanagement/reference-manager
10. Citation of a Magazine Article in Print or Online in APA Form. The basic
structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s). (Year, month day). Title. Title of the Magazine, pp.
Example:
Mitchell, J. A. (2017, June 12). How citation changed the research world? The
Mendeley, pp. 26-28.

11. Citation of a Non-Print Material in APA Format. How to cite an image in APA
Format? The basic format to cite an image is:
Example:
Millais, J. E. (1851-1852). Ophelia [painting]. Retrieved from www.tate.

org.uk/art/artworks/millais-ophelia-n01506
12. Citation of a Film in APA Format. The basic format of a film citation is:
Producer surname, initial (Producer), & Director surname, initial (Director).

(Year of Release). Title of film [Motion Picture]. Country of Origin: Studio.
Example:
Hitchcock, A. (Producer) & Hitchcock, A. (1954). Rear window. United States of

America: Paramount Pictures.
13. Citation of a TV Program in APA Format. The basic format is as follows:
Writer surname, initial(s) (Writer), & Director surname, initial(s) (Director). (Year
of
Release). Episode title [Television series episode]. In executive producer
surname, initial(s) (Executive Producer), TV series name. City, State of
original channel: Network, Studio or Distributor.

Example:
Catlin, M. & Walley-Beckett, M. (Writers), & Johnson, R. (Director). (2010). Fly

[Television series episode]. In Schnauz, T. (Executive Producer). Breaking
bad. Culver City, CA: Sony Pictures Television.
14. Citation of a Song in APA Format. The basic format to cite a song in APA format
is as follows:
Example:
Beyonce, Diplo, MNEK, Koenig, E., Haynie, E., Tillman, J., and Rhoden, S. M.
(2016). Hold up [Recorded by Beyonce]. On Lemonade [visual album]. New
York, NY: Parkwood Records (August 16).
15. Citation of a Website in APA Format. When citing a website, the basic structure is
as follows:
Author surname, initial(s). (Year, month day). Title. Retrieved from URL
Example:
Mitchell, J.A. (2017, May 21). How and when to reference? Retrieved from
https://www.howandwhentoreference.com
ACTIVITY:
Answer the activity on pages 247-248

GENERALIZATION:
• Genres of written and oral communication privileged in places of higher learning like
genres are those genres of written and oral professional and comprehensive universities
are called academic genres.
• Some examples of academic genres are abstracts, book reviews, lab reports, research
articles, and conference presentations.
• Reference skills comprise a range of sub-skills relating to various types of reference
materials. Sometimes, the reference skills are sub-divided into language reference skills,
which include the efficient use of dictionaries, books, and academic reference skills,
which also include library use, and giving references in theses and dissertations.
• At times, the label "research skills" is used instead of "academic reference” skills.
• A synthesis combines two or more items to create an entirely new item. The purpose of
the synthesizer is to blend the notes from individual instruments to form new, unique
notes.
• An evaluation judges the value of something and determines its worth. Evaluations in
everyday experiences are often not only dictated by set standards but also influenced by
opinion and prior knowledge.
• An analysis paper stresses that you perform many tasks: formulate a thesis, gather
sources, evaluate them, use them to support your original ideas and meticulously
document everything you have done.
• Academic writing is characterized by a formal tone, use of the third person rather than
the first-person perspective, a clear focus on the research problem under investigation,
and precise word choice.
• A citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source that you consulted and
obtained information from while writing your research paper.
• There are seven (7) steps to performing the Scientific Method: (1) Identify a problem or
ask a question, (2) Conduct a literature review, (3) Form a hypothesis; give operational
definitions to variables, (4) Choose research design or method, (5) Collect data, (6)
Analyze data, and (7) Disseminate findings.
• A typical research paper is divided into eight (8) sections: Title, Abstract, Introduction,
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgement, and
References.
EVALUATION
Complete the tasks on pages 249-256.
ASSIGNMENT:
Complete the assignment on page 257
REFERENCES:
Manzano, B.M. et al (2018). Communication for Academic Purposes. In B. Mazano, M.V.


ANSWER SHEETS
ENG 3A – Purposive Communication

Chapter 5
EVALUATING MESSAGES AND IMAGES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEXTS
PRETEST:
In this course, you will learn how to evaluate messages and images of different types of texts.
We want to know how you evaluate the things that you see, read, and share.
A. Put a check mark on the box that corresponds your answer for each of the ‘musts’ in
evaluating texts by checking for facts, bias, and fake news.
Do you the following or not? Yes No
Determine whether the article is from a legitimate website.
Check the ‘contact us’ or ‘about us’ page
Examine the headline and see whether it makes sense.
Read the article closely.
Scrutinize the sources.
Look at the ads.
Use search engines to double-check facts.
Check for bias.
B. Answer the following questions.
Question Answers
What is Fake News? Where

does it come from? Why is it so
dangerous?

How can we as individuals

ensure we are getting the best
information about current
events?
How can you make sure you do

not fall victim to fake news?
ACTIVITY:
Write true if the statement is correct, but if it is false underline what makes the sentence
wrong, then write the correct answer on the space provided.
_________________ 1. Visual elements and sound techniques can affect your interpretation
of a message.
_________________ 2. Bright lighting suggests sadness or fear, while low lighting conveys
happiness or joy.
_________________ 3. Slow-paced music uses rhythm and volume to heighten drama and
often accompanies car chases, fight scenes, and other action
packed scenes.
_________________ 4. Faster, louder, and intentionally expressive compositions can create

tension and foreboding, as in gothic films.
_________________ 5. Print-based communication is sometimes backed up by a digital form

in order to achieve a better and faster communication.
_________________ 6. Conventional media are no less than the broadcast and print-based
communication, while digital media include hypertext formats.

_________________ 7. Most of the media messages are controlled by the government and
are business motivated by commercial interests.
_________________ 8. Conventional and digital media compensate in terms of use and is

undoubtedly context dependent.
_________________ 9. Multimodal texts that were created by individuals are state-owned

and must be carefully evaluated for propaganda—publicity,
advertising, marketing, and information dissemination.
_________________ 10. The message is created by an author who controls the distribution
or dissemination of the message.
EVALUATION:
Identify the following concepts in evaluating messages and images of different types of texts.
_________________ 1. It refers to those texts that are prepared in prints, but any print text
is a multimodal text since it involves various communication
modalities.
_________________ 2. It pertains to those types of texts that use a combination of two or

more communication modes, for instance, print, image, and spoken
text as in film or computer presentations.
_________________ 3. A semiotic system which refers to the linguistic components like

vocabulary, structure, and grammar of a text.
_________________ 4. This mode refers to the volume, pitch, and rhythm of music and
sound effects of a presentation.
_________________ 5. It is a process of reading that goes beyond comprehension of a text.
_________________ 6. It requires active thinking because it goes far beyond just hearing a
speaker’s message.
_________________ 7. These are non-linguistic elements that are more revealing than
words.
_________________ 8. This sound technique that is added after the filming enhances a
scene making it realistic although the effects themselves are often
artificially produced.
_________________ 9. It refers to the structuring of information in blocks of text which are

connected by electronic links.
_________________ 10. It is a purpose of a message which provides the audience with well
argued ideas that can influence their own beliefs and decisions.

ASSIGNMENT:
Select an advertisement that catches your attention. Evaluate the advertisement, following
the guide questions. (You may use additional sheets if needed)
SOURCE
1. Who created the message? Is the source reliable? Was it by a news organization, a
public citizen, an advertising team of a reputable company, or an advertiser?
MESSAGE
2. What does the message say (subject, main point, support)?

3. Is the information fair and logical?
4. What points of view are shared in the message? Which ones are left out?
5. What images or sounds catch your attention?

MEDIUM
6. What type of text is used to deliver the message?

7. What are the advantages and limitations of the format of the advertisement?
AUDIENCE
8. Who is the target audience of the message?

9. How might other people interpret the message of the advertisement?

CONTEXT
10. What is the purpose of the message?

11. Who controls the transmission of this message?

Chapter 6
COMMUNICATION AND STRATEGIES USING TOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY
PRETEST
Listed below are interesting topics. Choose one topic from the list and write an essay about
it. Your essay should follow the linear format in writing: Introduction, Body, Conclusion. It
should be written comprehensively—no less than 1,200 words.
• Effects of Pollution • Stress impact on health

• The Changes in the Ocean • Impact of drug use on human body
• Causes and Effects of the Popularity of • The influence of my favorite movie/book
Fast-Food Restaurants on me
• Internet Influence on kids • Telling lies. The cause and effect
• Effects of professional sport on children • What causes a tsunami
• Alcohol and nervous system • What was your cause of choosing your
• Effect of school bullying on children major/your college?
• Music effects on human body • What makes a person to be a good
• Dating at young age teacher/mother/doctor/artist
• Earthquakes and potential dangers they • How happy relationships affect a person
bring • How travelling the world affects life and
• Social media effect on young people personality
• Growing up in poverty
Write your essay here:

Write your essay here:

ACTIVITY:
Write true if the statement is correct, but if it is false underline what makes the sentence
wrong, then write the correct answer on the space provided.
_________________ 1. Audiovisual media are used as instructional modes where particular

attention is paid to the audio and visual presentation of the material,
with the goal of improving comprehension and retention.
_________________ 2. Write in complete sentences on the board if your purpose is just to

note responses that will be useful in your talk.
_________________ 3. Handouts may be distributed before you begin your presentation if

your purpose is to have it as a “takeaway.”
_________________ 4. The amount of text of your presentation aid is limitless.
_________________ 5. Even without technology assistance, you can stand out as an

effective speaker if you delivered your speech enough to stand on
its own.
_________________ 6. The textual elements should be located close to or apart from your
graphic element that they are about.
_________________ 7. The principles of design such as, unity, emphasis, scale, balance,
and rhythm should be followed whenever you plan to prepare an
impressive presentation aid.
_________________ 8. The use of communication aids does not require skill because
presenters may hire a technical assistant to help them.
_________________ 9. The most important rule in preparing a communication or

presentation aid is to make it accessible for every audience member.
_________________ 10. Presentation aids should only be used to deliver information that is
important or difficult to present with spoken words only.
EVALUATION:
Identify the following concepts of communication aids and strategies.
_________________ 1. It refers to the strategic use of two or more communication modes

to make meaning.
_________________ 2. It is a communication aid that has both a sound and a visual

component (i.e., slide tape presentations, films, videoclips,
podcasts, online videos, documentaries, television programs, and
live theater productions.

_________________ 3. It is another communication aid which is very predictable and is

best used if it is accompanied with computer-based or audiovisual
media to achieve a more effective communication.
_________________ 4. This communication aid uses Presentation Software Packages.
_________________ 5. It is an example of a low-tech media which is used for the

interactive components of your speech; hence, it becomes
effective.
_________________ 6. It consists of a thin sheet of styrofoam with heavy paper bonded to

both surfaces and can stand on its own when placed in an easel
without curling under at the bottom edge.
_________________ 7. It is very useful for briefing small groups. It helps the speaker
proceed through the material by providing the audience with
something to look in addition to the speaker.
_________________ 8. This communication aid is not a substitute for a well-prepared

speech. It is only appropriate for delivering information that
audience members can take away.
_________________ 9. This is an advantage of audiovisual media which defeats the

written mode of communication and may take several weeks and
months before it reaches its destination.
_________________ 10. These are presentation aids that can fulfill several functions in
order to create an impressive presentation.
ASSIGNMENT:
Create a poster summarizing your essay’s points from the pretest. Attach your poster to this
module.

Chapter 7
COMMUNICATION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES
PRETEST:
Prepare a speech about a topic on current issues, identify your audience and situation so you
can organize an effective speech. You may need to gather your materials through self-
reflection, interview, or library research. In your speech, be sure to craft your specific purpose,
general idea, and main points. Fill out the following information about your speech:
SPECIFIC PURPOSE
GENERAL IDEA
MAIN POINTS
Write your speech here:

Write your speech here:

ACTIVITY
Identify the following concepts of communication.
_________________ 1. It is a method of analysis for audience that involves analyzing them

in terms of their sex/gender, age, racial/ethnic/cultural background,
group membership, income, among others.
_________________ 2. It is also a method which involves identifying “traits of the audience

unique to the speaking situation at hand.”
_________________ 3. This method is one of the most popular methods in gathering

materials for your speech which involves two people sharing their
views.
_________________ 4. It is an organizational pattern of your speech that follows a time

pattern.
_________________ 5. It is a talk based on the revelation of a succession of images or

wonder moments that build a sense of wonder in your audience.
_________________ 6. It is a part of an email message or memo where the name and email
address of the recipient is written.
_________________ 7. This part is where the name and email address of the sender is
written.
_________________ 8. It is another part which contains the subject of your email message
or memo.
_________________ 9. It is also a part where you can find the author’s reasons for writing
the email message or memo and explains the message thoroughly.
_________________ 10. It generally ends with action information, dates or deadlines, a

summary of the message, or a closing thought.
EVALUATION
Answer the following questions:
1. Enumerate three pre-writing activities in speech making. Explain each.

2. Why are writing skills more important than ever in today’s workplace?
3. Discuss the five patterns of organization.

4. Identify and briefly describe the four parts of email messages and memos.
5. Explain the statement: You have essentially published a memo or an email once it leaves your
hands.

ASSIGNMENT:
What main points will you consider if you need to persuade your audience that:
1. smoking is dangerous
2. perennial tardiness can harm an employee’s job performance.
3. wearing uniform every day is an important company policy.

What main points will you consider if you Chapter

need to persuade
8 your audience that:
COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSES
PRETEST:
Find a professional who has been frequently invited to deliver presentations before different
kinds of audiences. Ask your interviewee the following questions:
Question Answer
How do you get information

about your listeners?
What are the different types

of audience that you have
lectured on as a speaker?
How do you adjust your

presentations to your varying
audiences? What factors do
you consider?
What do you do if your

listeners become bored by
your presentation and,
eventually, oppose your
ideas?
Recall an instance when you

tweaked your presentation to
make it relevant to the
occasion. What strategies did
you use?

ACTIVITY:
Answer the following questions:
1. Pretend that you are a feature writer in a local paper, and you were assigned to interview
someone who has done something great for the community and country. The outcome of
your interview should enable you to write an article that will gain wide readership. Write your
questions below:
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

EVALUATION:
Identify what is being described. Match column A with column B. Write only the letter of your
answer.
A B
A kind of conversation where one is
being asked to answer series of
questions.
The interviewee is presented with the

same questions in the same order. a. non-structured interview
It is a kind of interview where the b. highly structured interview

interviewer does not strictly follow a
specific set of questions.
c. interview
It requires only one correct answer
which can be verified by referring to the d. general goal
given text or other learning materials.
e. specific goal
It states what you want to accomplish.
f. thesis statement
It carries the key idea in your
presentation. g. factual questions
It arranges information according to a h. compare and contrast pattern

progression of time.
i. criteria satisfaction pattern

It arranges information according to
how things are located in physical
space j. problem-solution pattern
It arranges information by comparing

the similarities and differences of things k. motivated sequence pattern
or ideas.
l. spatial pattern
It is used when the audience might
initially oppose your solution.
m. chronological pattern
It describes the problem and then

proceed through diagnosis and analysis n. cause-effect pattern
to propose a solution.
It is a five-step process that is usually

interactive

Enumerate and describe the different steps in developing and organizing a presentation.
1. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

ASSIGNMENT
Pretend that you are a feature writer in a local paper, and you were assigned to interview
someone who has done something great for the community and country as a whole. The
outcome of your interview should enable you to write an article that will gain wide readership.
Write your questions below.

What main points will you consider if you Chapter

need to persuade
9 your audience that:
COMMUNICATION FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES
PRETEST:
Every piece of communication begins with the audience. Hence, to understand tone and
content, generate a list of characteristics under each category for each audience.
Characteristics People in your Your teacher Your administrator

barangay
Demographics
Education
Prior knowledge
Expectations
Now think about your next writing assignment. Identify your purpose and your audience.
Create a list of characteristics under each category.
Characteristics My assignment My purpose My audience
Demographics
Education
Prior knowledge

ACTIVITY:
Match the items in column A to their descriptions in column B. Write only the letter of your
choice on the space provided.
layout
a. compares quantitative data
b. displays statistical data

visual
c. presents relationships and processes
bar graph
d. exhibits changes in data over time
pie chart
e. the way a text is arranged on a page
table f. places information in time and space
g. shows how a whole is divided into

diagram parts
h. adds color and aesthetics to your

presentation
line graph

Identify the following concepts in communication for academic purposes.
_________________ 1. These are categories of texts which follow specific rules or

conventions.
_________________ 2. It is a brief summary of an academic paper that is often used to help

the reader quickly ascertains the purpose of the paper.
_________________ 3. It details the results of experimental research projects and are most
often written in experimental courses.
_________________ 4. These are a major source of cutting edge research where

researchers present papers on the research they conducted and
obtain feedback from the audience.
_________________ 5. This is an umbrella term that comprises a range of sub-skills relating

to various types of reference materials.
_________________ 6. The attitude the writer conveys about the subject of a paragraph.
_________________ 7. The individual or group whom the writer intends to address.
_________________ 8. It considers the main points from one or more pieces of writing and
links the main points together to create a new point that is not
replicated in either document.
_________________ 9. It judges the value of something and determines its worth.
_________________ 10. It pertains to all the written substance in a document.
_________________ 11. It refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the
intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas of
expertise.
_________________ 12. This term is a reference to a published or unpublished source that

you consulted and obtained information from while writing your
research paper.
_________________ 13. This section is all about placing your work into the broader research
context, then narrowing your focus to identify, specifically, what you
plan to do in the paper.

EVALUATION:
I. Writing an Evaluation Paragraph.
A. Read the following adopted paragraphs about four films, then identify the purpose of
each paragraph.
1. This film could easily have been cut down to less than two hours. By the final scene, I
noticed that most of my fellow moviegoers were snoozing in their seats and were barely
paying attention to what was happening on screen. Although the director sticks diligently
to the book, he tries too hard to cram in all the action, which is just too ambitious for such
a detail-oriented story. If you want my advice, read the book, and give the movie a miss.
2. During the opening scene, we learn that the character, Laura, is adopted and that she has
spent the past three years desperately trying to track down her real parents. Having
exhausted all the usual options—adoption agencies, online searches, family trees, and so
on—she is on the verge of giving up when she meets a stranger on a bus. The chance
encounter leads to a complicated chain of events that ultimately results in Laura getting her
lifelong wish. But is it really what she wants? Throughout the rest of the film, Laura discovers
that sometimes the past is best left where it belongs.
3. To create the feeling of being gripped in a vice, the director, May Lee, uses a variety of
elements to gradually increase the tension. The creepy, haunting melody that subtly
enhances the earlier scenes becomes ever more insistent, * rising to a disturbing crescendo
toward the end of the. movie. The desperation of the actors, combined with the claustrophobic
atmosphere and tight camera angles, create a realistic firestorm from which there is little hope
of escape. Walking out of the theater at the end feels like staggering out of a Roman dungeon.

4. The scene in which Campbell and his fellow prisoners assist the guards in shutting down
the riot immediately strikes the viewer as unrealistic. Based on the recent reports on prison
riots in both Detroit and California, it seems highly unlikely that a posse of hardened criminals
will intentionally help their captors at the risk of inciting future revenge from other inmates.
Instead, both news reports and psychological studies indicate that prisoners who do not
actively participate in a riot will go back to their cells and avoid conflict altogether. Examples
of this lack of attention to detail occur throughout the film, making it almost unbearable to
watch.
B. Consider writing an evaluation essay about a recent headline or news article that you
have read. Identify the most effective academic purpose for the assignment.
My assignment:
My purpose:

II. Writing an Analysis Paper.
Write an Analysis Paper on a topic from the listed social issues below. The paper should have
an introduction, body, and conclusion. It must not exceed two pages but not shorter than one
page.
• Drug use in sports. Analyze why top-ranked sportsmen use drugs.

• Street art and graffiti. Why is it so popular nowadays?
• Body size and modeling. How does body size influence the quality of one's life?
• Changing gender roles. Do you believe in gender roles? Why are they changing?
• Single parent families. Does it affect child psychology?
• Differences in communication bet ween men and women.
• Influence of music on health condition. Does music really have a therapeutic effect?
• Analyze cultural and historical context of the book.
• Analyze how the authors' backgrounds influenced their hooks or poems.
• Describe the mood of a literary work.
• Describe the way horror movies and TV shows influence child psychology.
• Look at a TV series that is based on true events.
• Evaluate a movie that is based on a novel.
• Why do people have phobias?
• Why do people have different tastes in music, food, clothing, among others?
• Why do some people appear to be homosexual? What makes some people introverts and
other extroverts?
• Why do people begin smoking and drinking alcohol?
• Why do teenagers so rebellious?
• Why do teenage girls idolize foreign celebrities like the K-Pop?


III. Citing References Correctly

If you are unfamiliar with APA citation styles, you may find it helpful to review first the
guidelines in "citing sources using the APA citation style" found in this chapter before
beginning this assessment developed by Any Fyn (2008).
A. Choose the best citation, then circle your answer.
1. Choose the citation that is in proper APA citation format for a book.
a. Jenkins, Henry. Fans, bloggers, and garners: exploring participatory cultures. New York: New
York University Press, 2006.
b. Jenkins, H. Fans, bloggers, and garners: exploring participatory cultures. New York University
Press, New York. 2006.
c. Jenkins, H. (2006). Fans, bloggers, and garners: Exploring participatory culture. New York:
New York University Press.
d. Jenkins, Henry, (2006). Fans, Bloggers, and Garners: Exploring Participatory Culture. New
York UP: New York.
2. Choose the citation that is in proper APA citation for a chap er from a book (no named
author of chapter).
a. Cook, V. J. (2004). "Flava 'N Gorillaz: Pop Group Names." In Accommodating Broccoli in the
Cemetary, (pp. 21-22), Simon and. Schuster: New York.
b. Flava 'n Gorillaz: Pop group names. (2004). In V. J. Cook, Accommodating Broccoli in the
Cemetery (pp. 21-22). New York: Simon and Schuster.
c. "Flava 'n Gorillaz: Pop group names," (2004). In Cook, V. J. Accommodating Broccoli in the
Cemetary (pp. 21-22). New York: Simon and Schuster.
d. V. J. Cook. 2004. "Flava 'n Gorillaz: Pop group names." In Accommodating Broccoli in the
Cemetary, pp. 21-22. Simon and Schuster: New York.
3. Choose the correct APA citation for a newspaper article.
a. Yonke, D. (2008, September 13). Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring
message that "happiness is an internal event." The Blade (Toledo, OH), p. B7.
b. Yonke, David. (2008). "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that
'happiness is an internal event"." The Blade (Toledo, OH), pp. B7.
c. Yonke, David. Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that "happiness
is an internal event." The Blade, September 13, 2008. p. B7.
d. Yorke, David. "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that 'happiness
is an, internal event'." The Blade 13 Sept. 2008: B7.

4. Choose the correct APA citation for an article from a library research database.
a. Weickgenannt, Nicole. (2008). The Nation's Monstrous Women: Wives, Widows and Witches
in Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children. In Journal of Commonwealth Literature. 43..2, pp.
65-83. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from Humanities International Complete http://0-
search.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=hlh&AN=32541323&loginpage
b. Weickgenannt, Nicole. "The nation's monstrous women: Wives, widows and witches in Salman
Rushdie's Midni ht's Children." Journal of Commonwealth Literature 43.2 (June 2008 : 65-83.
83. Humanities International Complete. EBSCO. Bowling teen State University Libraries,
Bowling Green, Oh. 31 Oct. 2008
<http://Osearch.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=h1h&AN=3254
1323&loginpage=login.asp&site=e host-live&scope=site>.
c. Weickgenannt, N. The Nation's Monstrous Women: Wives, Widows and Witches in Salman
Rushdie's Midnight's Children. Journal of Commonwealth Literature. 43.2: pp. 65-83.
Retrieved October 31, 2008, from Humanities International Complete. (2008, June).
d. Weickgenannt, N. (2008, June). The nation's monstrous women: Wives, widows, and witches
in Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children. Journal of Commonwealth Literature, 43(2), 65-83.
Retrieved October 31, 2008, from Humanities International Complete.
5. Create an APA citation for this publication:
Article Title: Truly, Madly, Depp-ly

Author: Frank De Caro
Publication: Advocate
Volume number: 906
Date: January 20, 2004
Pages: 76-77
Source: Gender Studies Database
Date of access: October 31, 2008
hyperlink: <http://0-search.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/ login.aspx?
direct=true&db=fmh&AN=GSD0048

III. Note-taking Procedures
Come up with an independent research and see to it you have the following:
• Topic proposal
• Literature review
• Data gathering
• Data analysis
You can choose from any of the following topics or you may come up with your own, provided
you have gotten the approval of your instructor.
• drug addiction
• reproductive health
• divorce
• TRAIN Law
• human rights
• crime prevention
• gender mainstreaming
• separation of church and state
• online education
IV. Writing a Research Article
Improve your notes from part III. Prepare a research article about your independent research.
Benchmark samples of research articles from different reputable, and prestigious journals
(ISI, Scopus, Elseveir, and CHED-Accredited). Follow the parts of a research article.


ASSIGNMENT
Write Randomly. Writing can help you express a lot of different things. It can also help you
establish word relationships with images and learn to be more descriptive in your language
and writing on an everyday basis.
1. Google image search for a random object, such as goats.
2. Pick one of the images and write as many words as you can to describe it in 10
minutes. Stick to single words and not phrases.
3. Spend five more minutes creating a story about the image.

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 Learner’s Module in ENG 3A – Purposive Communication

It is important to understand how the features of texts affect reading comprehension,

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 139

Forms of multimodal texts:

2. Digital. It is computer-based like slide presentations, emails, ebooks, blogs, e-

3. Live. It is a form of actual performance or an event

1. Linguistic system. It refers to the linguistic components like vocabulary, structure,

5. Spatial system. It indicates proximity, direction, position of layout, and organization

CRITICAL READING AND LISTENING

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 140

Critical Reading of Multimodal Texts

Critical Reading involves:

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 141

Listening as a Critical Thinking Activity

Listening is a voluntary active process, it is psychological. According to Lynch (2013), adults

1. Involves being able to access the strengths and weaknesses of an argument;

1. Identify support for the claims.

2. Evaluate the argument of the speaker or the text.

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 142

EVALUATING MULTIMODAL TEXTS

a) Who created the message?

a) What does the message say?

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 143

Identifying the Subject, Main Point, and Support

Evaluating Logic and Balance

When evaluating a message, it is important to examine the chain of reasoning used

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 144

Analyzing Points of View

Creating Meaning Through Images and Sounds

Multimodal texts like presentations, advertisements, newscasts, videos, broadcasts,

1. Lighting. Low lighting suggests sadness or fear, while bright lighting

2. Camera Angle. This visual element is used to position the viewers so

3. Composition. Visual elements should be arranged in a manner that they

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 145

4. Body Language. Non-linguistic elements like the body language are

3. Voice-over or Narration. Some videos or films and television shows

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 146

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 147

What is the purpose of the message?

Who controls the transmission of the message?

One critical question in evaluating messages is on authorship. The creator of the

2. Corporations. Most of the media messages are controlled by private companies.

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 148

by commercial interests, which are gained through advertising. Audiences, readers

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 149

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 150

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 151

MAJOR TYPES OF COMMUNICATION AIDS

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 152

Advantages of Audiovisual Media

a. Clarity. Using both audio and visual components provide clarity in

b. Speed. Today’s communication is immediate, with the use of audiovisual media

c. Retention. There seems an increase of message retention when audio and

Sometimes, computer technology is not available in some speaking situations. In

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 153

Examples of Low-tech Media

In public speaking, most speakers create professional posters using a full-color

Department of English Language Studies, CASS - TSU 154

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION AIDS