GE 10

ETHICS
ANGELA LOURAIN A. DIGAO
Course Instructor

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Module Template

Module 1: UNDERSTANDING MORALITY AND

Module No. & Title
MORAL STANDARDS
Hooray to a new academic year! The journey in this
pandemic has been tough yet you made it. New normal has
come, but the learning must continue. This would be pretty
exciting! As we start digging through this course pack, you
Module Overview
will start on a bird’s eye view of this subject Ethics. This
module focuses mainly on understanding morality and moral
standards. There will be activities that would really test your
knowledge.

At the end of the module, you are expected:

 Distinguish between moral and non-moral standards
 Explain moral dilemma as a moral dilemma as a moral
Module experience
 Distinguish between a moral dilemma and a false dilemma
Objectives/Outcomes
 Illustrate the three levels of moral dilemma
 Explain why only human beings can be ethical
 Analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity
 Evaluate elements of the Filipino character

This module will tackle the following topics:

Lesson 1: Moral and Non-Moral Standards
Lessons in the Lesson 2: Moral Dilemmas
module Lesson 3: The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas
Lesson 4: Freedom as the Foundation for Moral Acts
Lesson 5: The Filipino Character

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TEMPLATE 4: The Lesson Structure

Module No. Module 1: UNDERSTANDING MORALITY AND

and Title MORAL STANDARDS
Lesson No.
and Title
LESSON 3: The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas
Learning
1. Illustrate the three levels of moral dilemma.
Outcomes
Time Frame Week 5

Woopie! Welcome Lesson 3. You are going to answer this

module hence the activities intended must be done on time.
Introduction This Lesson reinforces your understanding of moral dilemmas.
After understanding the meaning of moral dilemmas, let us now
illustrate three levels of moral dilemma. Good Luck !

Read the following dilemmas.

Activity
1) The mission of Catholic School A is to serve the poor by
giving quality education. It is torn between the obligation to
charge low tuition to help the poor and to pay better
salaries to keep quality teachers.

2) Heinz's wife was dying from a particular type of cancer.

Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had
been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten
times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was
much more than the Heinz could afford.

Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from
family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife
was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or
pay the rest of the money later.

The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the

drug and was going to make money from it. The husband
was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke
into the chemist's laboratory and stole the drug.

3) A principal ought to welcome and encourage parents and

community participation in school affairs. Based on her
experience, parents and community are passive and so the

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 principal always ends up deciding and doing things just the
same. She is obliged to observe parents' and community
participation which do not give any input at all at the same
time she is obliged to accomplish things on time.

Answer the following questions:

1. Among the 3 dilemmas, which is an example of an

individual dilemma? organizational dilemma? structural
Analysis dilemma?

2. How do the 3 dilemmas differ?

A. Individual
Abstraction
This refers to personal dilemmas. It is an individual's damn-if you-
do-and-damn-if-you-don't situation. The case of Heinz as given in
the Activity phase of the lesson is one of the best known individual
dilemma's of Kohlberg's (1958).
Kohlberg's dilemma questions were as follows: "Should Heinz
have stolen the drug." (Mackinnon, B., etal 2015) If he did not
steal the drug that would mean his wife's death. He was torn
between stealing the drug and saving his wife. The dilemma is
faced by an individual who is torn between 2 obligations to save
the wife or obey the law. So this an example of an individual
dilemma.

B. Organizational

An organizational dilemma is a puzzle posed by the dual

necessities of a social organization and members' self-interest. It
may exist between personal interests and organizational welfare
or between group interests and organizational well-being...
(Wagner, J. 2019)
The example of the Catholic school in the Activity phase of the
lesson shows the dilemma between the goal of the school to give
quality education for the poor and so must charge the lowest
tuition fee possible and yet to keep quality faculty the school must
raise their salary and consequently, must raise tuition.

Organizational dilemmas may likewise occur in business, medical,

and public sector.

The following hypothetical case highlights the story of Mr. Brown,

a 74-year old man who is seriously ill of metastatic lung cancer.
Mr. Brown completed a full course of radiation therapy as well as
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chemotherapy for treatment of his cancer, and he is now
hospitalized with severe shortness of breath and pneumonia. His
physician has managed the symptoms associated with the lung
disease, including chest pain, fever, infection, and respiratory
distress, but believes that there are no other options available to
aggressively treat the underlying cancer..... Both Mr. Brown and
his wife clearly state that they want everything done....

The dilemma here lies in the conflicting concerns; a) the financial

problems of Mr. Brown and his wife, b) the hospital concern of
focusing its attention on this hopeless patient when there are other
cases which have still possible remedies, c) the other hospital
patient's concern, particularly their need of the medicine used by
Mr. Brown, c) the concern of the medical staff, et al.

Organizational dilemmas arise due to different opposing concerns

between various groupings in an organization.

C. Structural

The case of the principal whether to be participatory or non

participatory in school affairs but due to her not so favorable
experience of attempting to be participatory ended up to one-
woman rule is an example of a structural dilemma.

Below are more examples of structural dilemma.

Differentiation Versus Integration in Structural Dilemma Different

divisions have their own different culture and so coordination
between divisions or bringing them together for becomes more
difficult.

With decentralization, local governments have become more

empowered to direct their affairs just as schools have become
empowered to address their problems or are given opportunity to
localize the given curriculum.

In effect, local governments and schools have likewise become

more differentiated and so it becomes more difficult to integrate
them for a unified structure. Local governance and schools
curricula have become more complex. There is need for more
costly-coordination strategies. Any attempt to introduce reform in
society or government creates structural dilemma. For instance,
promoting or introducing universal health care, which is
tantamount to socialized health care, gives rise to a structural
dilemma, that is, a conflict of perspective of sectors, groups and
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institutions that may be affected by the decision. Why would those
who contribute less to the social fund enjoy the same benefits as
those who contributed big amounts of premium? In a study on the
prices of medicines in the Philippines, it was established that
"patients are buying medicines from the private sector at many
times their international reference price" (Ateneo de Manila
University 2019). If the government intervenes by introducing price
control, the drug stores may lose so much that they may close
shop. If the government does not do anything at all, the patients
will continue to suffer because they may not be able to afford the
high prices of medicines....

Gap Versus Overlap

There may be gaps and overlaps in roles and responsibilities. If

key responsibilities are not clearly assigned, there may be gaps or
overlaps in important tasks. If there are gaps, organizations end
up with no one doing the responsibility. If there are overlaps,
things become unclear and may lead to more confusion and even
conflict and worse wasted effort and perhaps even resources
because of the unintended overlap.

Here is an example. A patient in a teaching hospital called her

husband to report how disturbed she is and how sleepless she
was during the night. At night, she couldn't sleep because hospital
staff kept waking her up, often to repeat what someone else had
already done. This is an overlap of nurse duty. Conversely, when
she wanted something, her call button rarely produced any
response. This is a gap. There is a gap as to who according to
rule is supposed to respond to the buzzer.
(www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?Article ID528#

To illustrate further the consequence of gap and overlap, here is a

story to show what happens when there is a gap or overlap. A boy
wanted his pants shorter. So he went to his mother to ask him to
shorten it. His mother was busy computing grades and told her
son to ask his sister to do it. His sister was busy reviewing for the
final exams and asked her brother to ask their elder brother to do
it. But his older brother was also busy with his school project and
so could not also attend to it. The boy highly frustrated went to
sleep. His pants were beside him. After finishing her grades,
Mother peeped into her son's room, saw the pants and
remembered her son's request. So she took a pair of scissors and
shortened them. Before she went to bed, the sister also
remembered her brother's request. Full of remorse she went to
her younger brother's room, saw the pants, got a pair of scissors
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and shortened them, too. The older brother finally completed his
school project and suddenly remembered his brother's asking for
help to shorten the pants. So he went to his younger brother's
room, got a pair of scissors and cut them, too. When the younger
brother woke up, he was surprised to see a pair of extremely short
shorts. The pants which he wanted to make just a little bit shorter
ended up too short to him!

That is what happens when there are gaps or overlaps in an

organization. The gaps leave an important thing in an organization
undone. The overlap results in unnecessary and
counterproductive. redundant procedures which ultimately lead to
waste of resources.

Lack of Clarity Versus Lack of Creativity. If employees are unclear

about what they are supposed to do, they often tailor their roles.
around personal preferences instead of system wide goals,
frequently leading to trouble. Most McDonald's customers are not
seeking novelty and surprise in their burgers and fries. But when
responsibilities are over defined, people conform to prescribed
roles and protocols in "bureaucratic" ways. They rigidly follow job
descriptions regardless of how much the service or product suffers
and so end up uncreative.

"You lost my bag!" an angry passenger shouted, confronting an

airline manager. The manager's response was to inquire, "How
was the flight?" "I asked about my bag," the passenger said.
"That's not my job," the manager replied. "See someone in
baggage claim." The passenger did not leave as a happy airline
customer.www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?Article
ID528# The job of the manager was overdefined and made the
manager uncreative and inefficient. Her job in relation to the airline
system wide goals was neither clear and so ended up giving the
wrong answer that turned off the airline passenger.

Flexibility versus Strict Adherence to Rules

You accommodate by bending rules to help someone or you stick

strictly to rules no matter what and so unable to help someone
who is thrown into a helpless situation. Or you may become being
too accommodating that all rules are no more.

Your jobs are defined so clearly that you will stick to them even if
circumstances are such that by sticking to your job description the
service or product that your organization provides suffers.

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Excessive Autonomy Versus Excessive Interdependence This
refers to being too isolated versus too much coordination.

To illustrate:

When individuals or groups are too autonomous, people often feel

isolated and disconnected School teachers working in self-
contained classrooms and rarely working with other teachers may
feel lonely and unsupported. Yet, efforts to create closer teamwork
have repeatedly failed because of teachers' difficulties in working
together. In contrast, if units and roles are too tightly linked,
people are distracted from work and waste time on unnecessary
or too much coordination. IBM lost an early lead in the personal
computer business in part because new initiatives required so
many approvals - from levels and divisions alike that new products
were over designed and late to market. Hewlett Packard's ability
to innovate in the late 1990's was hindered by the same problem.
(www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default. asp?Article
ID528#)

Structural dilemma is the dilemma arising from conflicting

concerns among various sectors of society. In the first instance of
differentiation versus integration, the dilemma is how to enforce a
decision, policy, or rule intended for everybody among many
different or unique groups or individuals. In the second, the
dilemma arises because of either gaps or overlaps in the
procedure of implementation of certain projects or policies among
involved agencies like the FBI and CIA in the U.S.A. or like the
NBI and the INP in the Philippines. GAPS creates serious
consequences. Read about the unforgettable Mamasapano
massacre in Mindanao, Philippines.

Centralized versus Decentralized Decision Making

In decentralized decision making, organizations can respond to

change more rapidly and effectively because the decision makers
are the people closest to the situation. However, top managers
may lose some control. This is the dilemma of tight
overcentralization or diffusing authority which is loose.

Structural Dilemma in a World Organization Like the UN

Succinctly put, a structural dilemma in a world organization like the

UN is the problem of the balance between world order and
national sovereignty re-stated as the balance between the
measure of international authority essential to the establishment of
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an organized common peace and the continued freedom of action
of the separate members of the world community or the balance
between interdependence and independence. (Jenks, 1971)
Source: digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/cgi/viewcontent cgi?
article=2186&context=grict

Some Structural Dilemmas of World Organization* C. Wilfred

Jenks** Georgia Journal of International & International &
Comparative Law Volume 3 1973 Issue 1

Resolving Moral Dilemmas

The following offer some techniques in resolving moral dilemma:

One way is to think of available alternative options revealing that
the dilemma does not really exist. This happens where there are
available alternative options. For instance one is experiencing a
dilemma between stealing or not stealing otherwise his family will
either die of hunger or survive. The creative moral agent will try to
think of other alternatives, like "alternative means of income or
support such as social safety net, charity, etc."

Another way is "choosing the greater good and lesser evil" or...,"
Or one may apply the situation ethics approach, following the rule,
one must do only what he can where he is. Do not resort to
extraordinary or supernatural means.

Joseph Fletcher offers some principles in resolving moral

dilemma. He uses Kant's "ought implies I can" rule. If I ought to do
something, then I can do it. By contraposition, if I cannot do
something, then I cannot be obliged to do it. Or by implication,
either I cannot be obliged to do something or I can do it. In other
words, one is only obliged to do something if and only if he can do
it. So Fletcher says, "do what you can where you are." Or quoting
St. Augustine's, "Dilige, et quod vis fac" (love and do what you
will). The extent of one's obligation and responsibility is the extent
of one's ability and the measure of the "extent" is one's capacity
for love.

Here is a situation: You are a father of seven children. On your

support, seven children plus your wife depend. You work in the
mines and receive only a minimum wage. After working like a
"carabao" in the mines, you need to ease your pains with a bottle
of gin before you lie down to rest and sleep. You also need to eat
food enough to replace your energy. Hence, spend for food, and
cigarette. Minus expenses, balance of wage is just enough for the
food of children. Nothing is left for education, and expenses.
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 Question: Should you faulted for being able sacrifice enough by
giving up your needs, so that dependents can something left for
education? You love family, but you have a need you cannot give
up. Is your case Fletcher wants picture? obligation ends where
capacity love ends. Love supposed to unconditional, no limits
sacrifice boundaries. But your love human, you are human. "You
only do what you can where you are." Others sacrifice more giving
up their gin cigarette and eat expensive food. Yes can, but can
one be faulted for not being like the others, having strength
overcome a vice? Can one not argue that the extent of ability is
the limit of responsibility? On the other hand, can it not said that
resorting to human frailty is just convenient comfortable way
justifying one's lack of moral will? That may easier than although
possible for one who has virtue as moral strength. But what can
be said of one who has no virtue strength sacrifice with discomfort
self-giving? Endless condemnation? That would un-Christian.

Identify the structural dilemma described. (Differentiation vs

integration; gap vs. overlap; lack of clarity vs. lack of creativity;
flexibility vs. strict adherence to rules; excessive autonomy vs.
independence)

1. Excessive interdependence versus too much coordination

Application
2. Unclear roles and responsibilities due to redundancy or gaps

3. Lack of resourcefulness as responsibilities a result of unclear

duties and

Well done! You have finished this lesson. Keep working and
Closure learning! Now if you are ready, please proceed to Lesson 4 which
will discuss about Freedom as the Foundation for Moral Acts.

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