A Systematic Review of Waste Materials in Cement Base - 2022 - Journal of Buildi

Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103447
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Journal of Building Engineering

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A systematic review of waste materials in cement-based composites for

construction applications
Xuemei Li a, Di Qin b, Yidan Hu c, **, Waqas Ahmad d, *, Ayaz Ahmad d, e, Fahid Aslam f,
Panuwat Joyklad g
a
Changchun Sci-Tech University, Changchun, 130600, China
b
Changchun Institute of Technology, Changchun, 130021, China
c
Academy of Art, Qiong Tai Normal University, Haikou, 570000, China
d
Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad, 22060, Pakistan
e
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, 24 Warszawska Str., 31-155, Cracow, Poland
f
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, 11942, Saudi Arabia
g
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Srinakharinwirot University, Nakhonnayok, 26120, Thailand
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: There is a remarkable impact of the construction industry on the environment, contributing considerably to CO2
Construction material emissions, natural resource dwindling, and energy demand. The construction sector is now trending toward using
Waste material alternative building materials in place of natural resources and cement, therefore decreasing environmental
Recycled aggregate
impact and increasing sustainability. The research carried out for sustainable development based on waste
Waste glass
Rice husk ash
material utilization in cement-based composites has been reviewed in this study. Two approaches have been
Natural fiber adopted in this review, i.e., a scientometric analysis and a comprehensive manual review. Scientometric analysis
was performed to provide the statistical overview of the present research over the last two decades. The scope of
the study was narrowed to the utilization of waste materials, including recycled aggregates from construction
and demolition waste, waste glass, rice husk ash, and natural fibers in cementitious composites for construction
sustainability. Moreover, their various aspects were described in detail, including the influence on mechanical
and microstructural characteristics of materials, sustainability aspect, limitations, and possible improvement
techniques. It was concluded that utilizing these waste materials in cementitious materials may lead towards eco-
friendly construction; however, their impact on the performance of the resulting material is inconsistent. Their
use in lower proportions is favorable, while a higher proportion has detrimental effects on material properties.
This study also identified gaps in the present research, and future studies are suggested.
construction is clear. In this respect, as the firms are becoming more and
1. Introduction more aware that ensuring a competitive benefit depends not only on
client contentment based on minimal cost and the service provided or
Sustainability trends have accelerated recently as a result of resource the product’s quality. Clients require firms to be environmentally
constraints, resulting in an expanded number of developing challenges conscious, moral, and socially responsible [5]. Therefore, sustainability
from operational, strategic, and managerial perspectives. In addition, in construction must be explored seriously. To achieve construction
the construction industry contributes significantly to meet the re sustainability, researchers have focused on a variety of factors. The
quirements of society by improving the quality of people’s life [1–3]. advancement of industrialization and urbanization necessitates the
Nevertheless, this industry produces between 45 and 65% of waste extensive renewal of existing structures, resulting in enormous quanti
disposed of in landfills, responsible for 35% of global CO2 emissions. ties of construction and demolition (C&D) waste. The important concern
Additionally, the various activities of construction generate significant of C&D waste necessitates its safe dumping. The modern construction
amounts of toxic emissions, accounting for nearly 30% of greenhouse sector is confronted with two problems: dwindling natural materials and
gases [4]. The significance of sustainability studies in civil engineering growing C&D waste. Reprocessing C&D wastes for use in construction
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hyd12066@sina.com (Y. Hu), waqasahmad@cuiatd.edu.pk (W. Ahmad).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103447
Received 27 July 2021; Received in revised form 6 October 2021; Accepted 8 October 2021
Available online 10 October 2021
2352-7102/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Li et al. Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103447
List of abbreviation OPC ordinary Portland cement

PC plain concrete
C&D construction and demolition PPC Portland pozzolana cement
CF coconut fiber RA recycled aggregate
CH calcium hydroxide RAC recycled aggregate concrete
CRT cathode-ray tube RHA rice husk ash
CS compressive strength SCC self-compacting concrete
C–S–H calcium-silicate-hydrate SEM scanning electron microscopy
FA fly ash SF silica fume
FS flexural strength SSD surface saturated dry
GGBS ground granulated blast furnace slag STS split-tensile strength
HSC high strength concrete w/b water/binder ratio
ITZ interfacial transition zone w/c water/cement ratio
NA natural aggregate WG waste glass
NF natural fibers
materials could solve both issues concurrently. Recycling waste concrete In recent decades, considerable research has been undertaken to
from C&D debris as an aggregate has appeared as an appealing alter investigate the factors contributing to sustainable development, and
native to natural aggregate (NA) in cementitious composites [6]. Sour some meaningful conclusions were achieved. Review studies were also
ces of waste concrete include demolished building wastes, rejected carried out in the current field; however, these were mostly manual
precast concrete members, unused concrete in mixing plants, and con reviews. With the expansion of research in the field of sustainable
crete specimens from laboratories after testing [7]. Therefore, using development, researchers are confronted with an information overload,
recycled aggregate (RA) in construction will be a cost-effective and which might obstruct productive research efforts and academic collab
environmentally conscious way to reduce C&D waste volume. oration. Therefore, a strategy that enables researchers to retrieve
The other factors contributing towards sustainability in construction important data from the most dependable sources must be devised and
include the use of other waste materials [8,9] and natural fibers (NFs) applied. Due to the inherent subjective biases in literature reviews,
[10–12]. An immense volume of solid waste is derived from several scientometric approaches, when combined with a software tool, can aid
human operations. Most of the solid wastes are dangerous, combustible, in minimizing this weakness. The purpose of this study is to conduct a
chemically reactive, caustic, and infectious, and their dumping in scientometric analysis of substantial bibliometric data on utilizing waste
landfill areas has caused remarkable financial losses [13]. Therefore, materials in cementitious materials obtained from the Scopus database.
recycling waste materials for utilization in construction materials would More explicitly, a comprehensive analysis is carried out on the keywords
be preferable [14]. Each year, the United States generates tens of mil co-occurrence, bibliographic coupling of sources, articles, and countries
lions of tons of waste glass (WG) [15], with a significant amount of WG actively contributing to the field of sustainable development. This
being disposed of in landfills. While many cities are increasing their WG analysis will give a statistical overview of published data. From this
production, landfill space is becoming increasingly scarce, particularly study, researchers from different regions may profit from the graphical
in major cities. Glass is more chemically stable than certain types of solid depiction based on a scientometric analysis in developing research
waste, such as plastic and wood. Glass that has been buried for an partnerships, establishing joint ventures, and communicating innovative
extended period of time in the soil is not biodegradable [16]. Addi technologies and plans. In addition, the impact of utilizing RAs from
tionally, certain types of glass, such as cathode-ray tube (CRT) glass, C&D waste, WG, RHA, and NFs on mechanical properties, including
contain toxic elements such as mercury, cadmium, lead, and beryllium, workability, compressive, flexural, and tensile strength and micro
which pollute groundwater and soil [17]. In addition, rice husk is effi structural characteristics of cementitious composites, are reviewed.
ciently and extensively used as a fuel for rice paddy milling processes Furthermore, the sustainability aspects of utilizing these waste materials
and energy generation plants in several countries. Rice husk ash (RHA) are also described. The different limitations associated with their utili
generated has no direct use and is typically discarded into water flows, zation and possible solutions are reported. It is intended to provide in
resulting in water contamination and ecological pollution [18]. formation that will help researchers better interpret and identify the
Furthermore, it is well known that cement is the most broadly used different sustainability standards of construction and further evaluate
binding material in concrete. Cement production continues to increase and control the effects of construction on sustainability. Additionally,
at a rate of 9% per annum worldwide. Because of the vast quantity of gaps in the present research are identified, and future studies are
CO2 released into the environment during cement production, this rate proposed.
of increase poses a significant risk to the environment [19]. Waste ma
terials (WG, RHA) can be utilized in cementitious materials as an 2. Methodology
aggregate substitute [20,21] as well as a cement replacement [22,23].
As a result, natural resources can be conserved, and CO2 emissions can This research adopted two methods, including a scientometric
be minimized by reducing cement demand. Additionally, it has been analysis [35–38] and a detailed discussion on waste materials applica
explored that the use of certain waste materials in construction materials tion in cementitious composites for sustainable growth. A scientometric
also enhances their mechanical properties [24,25]. Similarly, re analysis can provide a statistical summary of the various aspects of
searchers are developing new materials from nature to meet the growing available research, while the manual reviews lack to do so [39–41].
demands for environmentally friendly materials [26,27]. NFs are Researchers have written many publications in the present study area,
eco-friendly materials used as reinforcement in composites and are and it is crucial to find the best precise database. The two highly effi
appropriate for a broad range of construction applications [28–30]. cient, broad, and impartial databases for publication search, as indicated
Further advantages of NFs include low cost, less density, and improved by Aghaei et al. [42], are the Web of Science and Scopus. Scopus has a
mechanical properties [31]. Also, the addition of NFs in construction wide coverage and revised bibliometric data relative to the Web of
materials can improve their performance [32–34]. Science [42–44]. Scopus has been used to collect the bibliometric data
2
related to the present study area in the current analysis. To retrieve the document titled “Sustainability in the construction industry: A review of
related articles from the Scopus database, the searched keywords and recent developments based on LCA”. However, Meyer C [50]. and
the number of articles resulted have been listed in Table 1. Researchers Evangelista L [51]. had 664 and 557 citations on their corresponding
in various fields have previously used related methods in their study research papers and have been listed in the leading three. Also, it was
[45–47]. The scientometric analysis sequence and various filters/limits observed that most of the articles in the top 10 were on recycled
applied at various steps are shown in Fig. 1. aggregate concrete (RAC), which indicates that the current focus of re
searchers towards sustainability is by utilizing recycled aggregates in
3. Scientometric analysis results and discussions construction materials. Fig. 3 shows the visualization of the top con
nected documents in the present study field. It was observed that the
3.1. Bibliographic coupling of sources connected documents based on citations were 56. The network of
co-citations between the writers participating in the study of sustainable
Mapping sources can visualize the analysis of development and in development is depicted in this visualization. The closeness of the arti
novations. These sources publish data within the context of pre-defined cles depicts how interconnected they are with each other in terms of
unique restrictions. The prominent sources/journals containing at least citation.
20 articles publishing the data on the area under review along with their
citations and total link strength, have been listed in Table 2. It is 3.4. Bibliographic coupling of countries
appropriate to note here that this type of research would provide state-
of-the-art infrastructure for upcoming scientometric reviews in the area Some nations have previously contributed and keep contributing
of sustainable development. Furthermore, the previous manual reviews more compared to the others in the existing study area. The leading
lack to provide these details. Construction and building materials and contributing regions with respect to the number of publications and
journal of cleaner production have been observed as the most prominent citation count in the subject topic are listed in Table 5. India, China, and
contributing journals with respect to the number of published docu the United States were the top three contributing countries in terms of
ments and citations. Additionally, the link strength implies the amount overall documents, with 358, 296, and 228 documents, respectively.
of mutual references cited by two journals. For instance, construction While based on the citation count, the top 3 participating countries were
and building materials (total link strength: 22438) shared the greatest the United States, China, and United Kingdom, with 4496, 5540, and
citations with the other journals. 7210 citations count, respectively. The number of documents, citations,
and total link strength signifies the effect of a nation on the development
3.2. Keywords co-occurrence of the present study field. The total link strength demonstrates the
impact of a region’s publications on other regions participating in these
Keywords are valuable research material that identifies and repre research areas. Compared to other regions, China had the highest total
sents the fundamental field of the research domain [48]. Table 3 lists the link strength (66277), followed by Australia (48045) and India (44918).
top 20 keywords used in the present study field having the most Thus, the aforesaid regions were judged to be the most influential
occurrence in the research articles. The most commonly occurring countries in the field of sustainable development. Fig. 4 depicts the
keywords in the relevant field are sustainable development, recycling, countries’ linkage in terms of citations. The frame size shows the re
construction industry, compressive strength, and sustainability, making gion’s participation in the subject study area. Future researchers will be
the top 5 most used keywords. Fig. 2 displays the keywords network assisted by the graphical representation of participating countries in
co-occurrence visualization and links with each other. The size of the forming scientific partnerships, creating joint venture reports, and
keyword node represents the frequency of the particular keyword, while sharing creative plans and techniques.
the location of the keyword represents its co-occurrence in published
articles. The visualization in the figure also indicates that the above 4. Classification of waste material
keywords have larger nodes compared to the others, implying that these
are the essential keywords in the present study area. Clusters of key In the last 20 years, the development of “sustainable construction”
words have been marked in the figure by distinct colors, indicating the has challenged builders and developers to use sustainable thinking in
keyword co-occurrence in different published articles. Three clusters of designing and managing construction projects [52,53]. Researchers
keywords were formed indicated by red, green, and blue. This finding have reported various approaches towards sustainability in construc
will be useful for writers when choosing keywords and retrieving rele tion. One of them having the most influence on sustainability is the
vant articles in the future. waste material utilization in cementitious composites. The disposal of
waste materials causes environmental concerns and financial loss [13,
3.3. Bibliographic coupling of documents 54]. Waste materials might be categorized into municipal, agricultural,
and industrial. The different kinds of waste materials previously utilized
The number of citations of a research article indicates the effect of in construction materials are displayed in Table 6. This study is limited
that article on a particular area of research. Articles with higher citations to review the potential of RAs from C&D waste, WG, RHA, and NFs for
will be deemed a landmark in the history of science. Table 4 lists the their use in cementitious materials, their impact on various properties of
leading 10 research articles based on citation count, their writers, and materials, and their contribution towards sustainable development in
publication year. Ortiz O [49]. had the highest citations of 719 on their the following sections.
Table 1 5. Utilization of recycled aggregates from construction and

Articles searched in the Scopus database. demolition waste
S/ Searched keyword Article Article results after
N results applying limits RAs are extracted from the discarded waste generated from
dismantled concrete buildings, unused concrete, failed precast concrete
1 Recycled aggregate for 1056 578
sustainable construction members, expired concrete pavements, and tested samples in different
2 Waste material for sustainable 3920 2066 laboratories [55]. There may be several kinds of RAs, such as concrete,
construction tiles, marbles, asphalt and bitumen, and brick aggregates. The aggre
3 Natural fiber for sustainable 501 212 gates usually processed by parent or old concrete crushing, such as waste
construction
demolished concrete, are known to be recycled concrete aggregate [56].
3
Fig. 1. Scientometric analysis sequence and limits applied at various steps.
Table 2 Table 3
Top sources of documents. Keywords co-occurrence.
S/ Source/Journal Articles Citations Total link S/N Keyword Occurrences Total link strength
N strength
1 Sustainable development 972 7751
1 Construction and building materials 282 10884 22438 2 Recycling 772 6829
2 Journal of cleaner production 268 6666 21478 3 Construction industry 521 4290
3 Resources, conservation and 87 3157 6616 4 Compressive strength 515 4406
recycling 5 Sustainability 476 3771
4 Sustainability (switzerland) 74 410 6882 6 Waste management 402 3320
5 Waste management 59 2071 5056 7 Aggregates 396 3808
6 Journal of materials in civil 55 1079 5730 8 Concretes 369 3711
engineering 9 Concrete aggregates 327 3399
7 Materials 54 405 6376 10 Demolition 277 2698
8 International journal of civil 35 68 687 11 Environmental impact 277 2557
engineering and technology 12 Fly ash 272 2466
9 Journal of building engineering 27 267 3427 13 Sustainable construction 271 2078
10 Applied sciences (switzerland) 23 68 2794 14 Concrete 258 2570
11 Environmental science and 22 213 1638 15 Cements 252 2547
pollution research 16 Mechanical properties 232 1903
12 Waste management and research 22 310 2107 17 Construction and demolition waste 230 2232
13 Journal of environmental 21 508 1551 18 Waste disposal 203 1845
management 19 Durability 197 1770
20 Life cycle 185 1914
The schematic depiction of the recycling process is presented in Fig. 5.

The idea of using RAs from waste concrete has been applied since World unbound pavement sub-base materials. Currently, it is being used as
War II in Europe [57]. Recently recycled concrete aggregate was used as structural concrete as well [58]. In addition, the fine fraction of concrete
from C&D waste can be utilized in the production of concrete as cement
4
Fig. 2. Network visualization of keywords.
replacement [59]. Thus, reducing cement demand and limits the issues dissolution method [68], thermal expansion method [69], ultrasonic
associated with the production and use of cement. However, the treatment method [70], heating and rubbing method [71], presoaking
research on the use of fine fractions of waste concrete as cement treatment [72], and mechanical grinding method [73] for eliminating
replacement in concrete is limited, and this area needs further explo adhered mortar to achieve high quality of RA.
ration. It is obvious that recycling C&D waste for utilization in con
struction materials will result in eco-friendly construction [60]. This 5.2. Properties of recycled aggregate
study is limited to discuss the use of RAs in concrete as NAs replacement.
Natural coarse aggregate and adhered mortar are the most common
5.1. Recycling process of recycled concrete aggregate components of RA made from C&D waste. Fine aggregate, hydrated and
un-hydrated cement fragments make up the bulk of the old clinging
Concrete recycling requires multiple stages to obtain viable recycled mortar. The quality of RA is largely influenced by the recycling processes
concrete aggregate. The first step in the recycling process is to screen used, but its properties are predominantly determined by the water/
and sort dismantled concrete from C&D waste. Dismantled concrete cement ratio (w/c) of the parent concrete [74,75]. The most distinctive
undergoes various crushing processes to obtain the desired grading of aspect of RA is its old clinging mortar which makes it porous, inhomo
RAs based on the degree of contamination and the expected use of the geneous, and less dense due to high mortar content. The amount of
recycled materials [61]. The primary and secondary crushing of the attached mortar in RA ranges between 25% and 60% based on the size of
parent concrete is preferred for the RA process with cone crusher, jaw aggregate [74]. According to several findings, approximately 20% of
crusher, hammer mill, impact crusher, or sometimes hand crushing with cement paste is observed affixed to the RA with particle sizes ranging
a hammer [62]. Depending on the efficiency of crushing techniques, from 20 to 30 mm [76,77]. While Poon et al. [78] described that RA
distinct crushers have distinct effects on the properties of RAs, which obtained from waste concrete contains 65–70% NAs (coarse and fine)
influences the concrete quality as well [63]. Jaw crushers are normally and 35-30% of cement paste by volume.
used for primary crushing to reduce large concrete parts to a scale that is The volume of mortar attached reflects the strength properties of the
appropriate for secondary crushing. For secondary crushing, impact original concrete, the efficiency of crushing, the process of crushing, and
crushers are chosen because they create a higher-quality aggregate with the RA particle size. There is often a symbiotic interaction amongst the
less adhered mortar [64]. Crushing by primary crushers followed by attached mortar and RA quality. The existence of affixed mortar con
secondary crushers will produce the required grading for RAs [65]. The tributes significantly to its remarkably high-water absorption potential
optimum feed rate, production quality, required particle size, shape, and [51,79–82]. The porous nature of RA enables them to absorb more water
the amount of fines produced all perform a role in the selection of [83]. The ability of RA for water absorption is 2–3 times larger than the
crushers at various points. In addition to the above described dry NA, which can be up to 12% for coarse and fine RA [70,78,84]. In their
methods, some researchers also developed advanced techniques like study, Poon et al. [78] reported that it could differ up to 15%. The water
microwave heating method [66], freeze-thaw method [67], nitric acid absorption potential of RA is more for smaller particles because of the
5
Table 4 materials [65] as well as inorganic contaminations due to inner chem

Top documents based on citations. ical reactions like alkali-aggregate reaction, chloride, sulphate, silt, clay,
S/ Article Article title Citations Total link high alumina cement, and increased dust fragments [90,91]. Though the
N strength scope for the utilization of RA is now recognized, such considerations
1 Ortiz O. Sustainability in the 719 8 hamper the extensive use of RA in construction materials because it
(2009) construction industry: A review affects the workability, toughness, and reliability of concrete. As a
of recent developments based on result, certain important RA properties, for instance, particle size dis
LCA tribution, aggregate size and shape, hardness, water absorption,
2 Meyer C. The greening of the concrete 664 7
(2009) industry
porosity, impurity level, strength, and toughness, must be evaluated
3 Evangelista L. Mechanical behaviour of 557 28 prior to being used. The aforementioned lower properties and the de
(2007) concrete made with fine recycled ficiencies in RA restrict RA’s use in concrete and discourage recycling
concrete aggregates techniques due to lack of sufficient specification.
4 Sanjay M.R. Characterization and properties 399 5
(2018) of natural fiber polymer
composites: A comprehensive 5.3. Properties of recycled aggregate concrete
review
5 Behera M. Recycled aggregate from C&D 399 164 The utilization of RA in concrete has attracted attention in the con
(2014) waste & its use in concrete - A
struction industry to achieve environmentally friendly concrete for
breakthrough towards
sustainability in construction
sustainable development growth. Concrete produced of RAs processed
sector: A review from C&D waste, as a complete or partial replacement of NAs, is
6 Zhang L. Production of bricks from waste 331 49 recognized as RAC. The RAC primarily consists of the mortar phase,
(2013) materials - A review aggregate phase, and ITZ between the coarse aggregate and new mortar
7 Berndt M.L. Properties of sustainable 307 42
and old clinging mortar. Fig. 6(a) and (b) show the fundamental
(2009) concrete containing fly ash, slag
and recycled concrete aggregate
8 Saba N. A review on potentiality of nano 286 4 Table 5
(2014) filler/natural fiber filled Top 20 active researching countries in the field of sustainable development.
polymer hybrid composites
9 Corinaldesi V. Influence of mineral additions 282 47 S/N Region Articles Citations Total link strength
(2009) on the performance of 100% 1 India 358 4496 44918
recycled aggregate concrete 2 China 296 5540 66277
10 Blengini G.A. Life cycle of buildings, 279 11 3 United States 228 7210 33321
(2009) demolition and recycling 4 United Kingdom 208 5231 35450
potential: A case study in Turin, 5 Australia 196 4186 48045
Italy 6 Spain 186 4070 36132
7 Malaysia 161 3645 34381
8 Italy 147 3173 26657
larger specific surface area, the mortar content is greater [70]. More 9 Brazil 126 2144 15982
over, RA usually has a poor particle size distribution [81]. As a result of 10 Portugal 107 3581 33727
the processing and crushing by different crushers, it might be too coarse 11 Canada 93 2544 17775
12 Hong Kong 67 2079 20075
or too fine. In RA, the amount of fine fraction is higher. Because of the
13 Germany 60 1389 8310
existing adhered mortar or cement paste around, it has an old interfacial 14 Nigeria 52 398 8863
transition zone (ITZ). RA is weak in nature due to the existence of small 15 France 49 1228 6825
voids in the affixed mortar [85,86]. Due to the affixed mortar, RA has a 16 Pakistan 47 458 11521
rough surface and an uneven shape, which is often rounded. RAs exhibit 17 Iran 46 441 9210
18 Thailand 45 1053 9378
decreased mechanical properties than NA, such as lower crushing 19 Egypt 42 342 4911
strength, abrasion resistance, and impact resistance [87–89]. It may 20 South Korea 41 942 7994
contain organic impurities such as garments, textiles, and polymeric
Fig. 3. Network visualization of connected documents based on citations.
6
Fig. 4. Top active and connected countries in the present study area.
Table 6
Classification of waste materials.
Municipal Waste Industrial waste Agricultural waste
Construction and demolition waste Silica fume Rice husk ash

Waste plastic Fly ash Bagasse ash
Waste glass Slag Palm oil fuel ash
Waste rubber Red mud Natural fiber
Sewage sludge ash Tailing Corn cob ash
Paper sludge Nuclear waste Sawdust ash
Municipal solid incineration ash Coal gangue Coconut shell
difference between NA concrete and RAC. These three phases limit the
properties of the RAC. Therefore, it requires extra care regarding con
crete properties while using RA in concrete. As RA is derived from a
variety of different methods and various types of collapsed structures,
and therefore, the properties of these RAs produced from multiple
sources also fluctuate as well. A comprehensive analysis of RAC illus
trates the viability of RA use in concrete and how it can be used as a
substitute for NA has been discussed in this study.
Fig. 5. Recycled aggregate’s recycling process schematic representation.
5.3.1. Workability
The concrete properties in fresh form, such as workability, are attain similar workability when RA is used in place of NA. Even when the
significantly affected by several aspects, including the w/c, properties of w/c is kept constant, the quantity and type of RA will influence the
ingredients of concrete, most notably the aggregate, such as the aggre slump of RAC [98]. Furthermore, owing to the adhered mortar, the
gate type, maximum size, and water absorption capacity. Moreover, granular and harsher texture of RAC results in greater water require
physical characteristics of aggregates such as shape, size, and surface ment and extra energy for compaction due to the interparticle friction
texture also affect the workability of concrete. In RAC, the slump loss is [68,72,99,100]. If RA size reduces, the water demand of the matrix in
greater than that of NA concrete, and meeting the requisite workability creases because of more adherent mortar quantity. This increased water
is difficult [92–95]. Being porous, it demands additional water to ach demand makes it more challenging to control fresh concrete properties,
ieve comparable workability as conventional concrete [96]. Tabsh and affecting the mechanical properties of concrete in the hardened state
Abdelfatah [97] found that in RAC, 10% additional water is required to [96]. When coarse RA is used in dry conditions, the workability of the
7
Fig. 6. Concrete matrixes: (a) natural aggregate concrete; (b) recycled aggregate concrete.
concrete is severely hindered based on the quantity of RA used. At concrete from which RA was obtained has a major influence on the CS of
higher proportions of RA (>50%), the reduction in workability of RAC is RAC. Several investigations have shown that when RA substitution is up
quite obvious [101]. to 30%, the CS loss is insignificant [57,105,108,112]. The reduction in
Due to the decreased water content of the affixed mortar phase of CS may be likely because of the reduced strength of RA, higher porosity
aggregate, RA extracts free water from the mix at the time of mixing, of matrix, weak aggregate-matrix ITZ, and micro-cracks and ruptures,
resulting in a high water requirement for the mix to retain the same which makes the microstructure weak and reduces CS.
workability. Some researchers have devised innovative procedures to The percentage variance in the 28-day CS of RAC relative to NA
compensate for the poor workability issues associated with RA, such as concrete with varied RA replacements is shown in Fig. 7. In the majority
using presoaked aggregates instead of dry aggregates [64]. The aggre of situations, the CS of RAC decreases as the fraction of RA increases.
gates that have been presoaked are used in a surface saturated dry (SSD) Rao et al. [112] studied the impact of coarse RAs on the mechanical
state. A higher initial slump with increasing RA quantity has been strength of RAC. The RA replacement ratios were 25%, 50%, and 100%.
noticed using RA in the SSD state. This is due to RA’s high The CS of the NA concrete specimen was taken as a reference. It was
water-absorbing potential, which resulted in a higher quantity of initial detected from the experimental outcomes that the CS of specimens
free water [94,99]. But sometimes, this can result in concrete bleeding reduced by around 6.1%, 8.2%, and 13.3% at 25%, 50%, and 100% RA
[94]. The fresh properties of RAC are also affected by the initial moisture replacement, respectively, compared to the NA concrete specimen. This
state of RA. The initial moisture state of RA is primarily determined by might be due to the increased porosity caused by the addition of RAs.
its dry condition, for instance, oven-dried, air dried, or SSD. The liter Elhakam et al. [57] used RA in 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% replacement
ature reported that the reduction of RAC slumps might be resolved using ratios at two w/c of 0.60 and 0.45 and investigated their influence on
certain chemical admixtures, mineral admixtures, and superplasticizers mechanical properties. When w/c was 0.60, the CS of RAC enhanced by
(SPs) or by incorporating additional water for aggregate absorption 8% at 25% RA replacement level than NA concrete, while further in
[101]. The use of super plasticizers will compensate for the water de crease in RA amount reduced the CS by 12%, 12.4%, and 20%. In
mand of RA to preserve its desired slump [63]. According to Saravana addition, at w/c of 0.45, the CS reduced by 3%, 7.1%, 11.6%, and 16.2%
Kumar and Dhinakaran [102], the use of RAs with fly ash (FA) (20%) at 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% RA content, respectively. They examined
and SP could minimize water demand by 12.5% than without FA and the comparable CS of RAC and NA concrete when 25% RAs were used.
SPs. Kwan et al. [113] and Kou and Poon [114] reported a similar pattern of
reduction in CS with increased RA concentration, as shown in the figure.
5.3.2. Compressive strength Poon et al. [94] examined the impact of RA on CS used in different
The mechanical properties of hardened RAC, including compressive moisture conditions, i.e., such as air-dried, oven-dried, and SSD. NA was
strength (CS), split-tensile strength (STS), and flexural strength (FS), also used in similar moisture states in the control mix for comparison.
depend upon several parameters such as physical and mechanical NAs were replaced by RAs at 20%, 50%, and 100% ratios. The highest CS
properties of RA to be utilized, w/c, and the microstructure of the was observed with air-dried aggregates, while the lowest CS was noted
resulting matrix. Generally, RAC exhibits poorer mechanical charac with oven-dried aggregates. It was found that the addition of air-dried
teristics because of weak bonding among old affixed mortar and RAs lowered the CS by 7.0%, 7.4%, at 3.1% with 20%, 50%, and
aggregate, traverse fractures and cracks in the RA produced during 100% RA content, respectively. Conversely, with 20% and 100%
processing, and weak, porous adhered mortar with RA [80,96, over-dried RA content, the CS improved by 7.5% and 7.7%, respectively,
103–105]. Additionally, the properties of RAC also depend upon the while 50% RA content caused 1.2% drop in CS. This may be because of
extent to which it is replaced by RA and RA’s moisture content [81,106]. lower CS of over-dried NA concrete specimens. Furthermore, when SSD
The CS of RAC varies with RA replacement amount, w/c, RA moisture condition RAs were employed, the CS was reduced by 6.5%, 17.2%, and
condition, physical and mechanical characteristics of RA, etc. [78,81,94, 15.0% at 20%, 50%, and 100% RA replacement level, respectively,
106]. It was noticed that the CS of RAC is considerably affected by RA compared to SSD state NA concrete specimens. It was described that
replacement content (%) at constant w/c [107,108]. As per literature, at moisture state of RAs affects the workability of fresh concrete which
100% replacement, the CS of RAC may reduce up to 30% [79,91,94,105, further disturbs the compaction and ultimately CS of specimen. As a
109,110]. Similarly, some researchers concluded the reduction in CS by result, while manufacturing RAC, the moisture conditions of the RAs
12% and 25% with RA replacement of 100% [64,80,82]. In several other must be considered not only for estimating the water demand, but also
studies, CS of RAC with 100% RA has been shown to be up to 60% [111] for altering other technical parameters that affect CS. In general,
and 76% [70] of NA concrete. Katz [70] stated that the age of parent air-dried is the best moisture state for large-scale manufacture of
8
Fig. 7. Influence of recycled aggregate replacement on 28-days compressive strength in comparison to the natural aggregate concrete. Type 1: RA from Tseung Kwan
O site, Type 2: RA from Kai Tak airport in Hong Kong. Type 3: RA with 100% old concrete from Tseung Kwan O site.
moderate strength RAC. Only in extreme cases should SSD condition RAs negligible in most cases; instead, other factors like aggregate quality and
be utilized [94]. w/c may affect its performance. Rao et al. [112] observed from their
experimental study a decrease in STS of 12.7%, 23%, and 24% at 25%,
5.3.3. Split-tensile strength 50%, and 100% replacement with RA, respectively. Similarly, Elhakam
The RAC exhibits similar behavior for STS as CS. Numerous previous et al. [57] also observed decreasing STS trends with increasing RA, as
studies on RAC have shown that the effect of RA on STS is less than its seen in the figure. In general, it has been discovered that the STS of RAC
effect on CS. According to some writers, the decrease in STS is up to 10% is mainly dependent on the surface features and quality of RA rather
by comparing various RA substitution ratios [93,106,115]. However, than the replacement ratio of RA [93,116]. Conversely, in certain cir
some researchers found greater loss in STS of RAC than NA concrete. The cumstances, RAC showed comparable [81] or superior performance [64,
influence of RA content on 28-days STS of RAC is depicted in Fig. 8. It is 117] than traditional concrete in terms of STS. According to Etxeberria
clear from the figure that the effect of RA content on STS is almost et al. [64], the increased STS of RAC is attributable to the water
Fig. 8. Influence of recycled aggregate replacement on 28 days split-tensile strength in comparison to the natural aggregate concrete. Type 1: RA from Tseung Kwan
O site, Type 2: RA from Kai Tak airport in Hong Kong. Type 3: RA with 100% old concrete from Tseung Kwan O site.
9
absorption ability of the adhered mortar, which facilitates the formation the NA concrete for all grades on concrete. While a further increase in
of a proper bond among the aggregate and matrix. They noted RA content resulted in a decrease of FS up to 25.6% at 100% RA pro
improvement in STS by 19.3%. 8.4%, and 9.2% with RA content of 25%, portion in 20 MPa concrete. At the other concrete grades, i.e., 30 MPa,
50%, and 100%, respectively, than the NA concrete. Matias et al. [23] 35 MPa, and 40 MPa, the maximum reduction in FS was noted at 50%
reported that the increased STS is a result of RA’s rough surface, which RA replacement ratio, which was 8.9%, 8%, and 15.2%, respectively.
promotes matrix adhesion. The RAC containing RA produced from high The weak ITZ between RA and cement matrix due to the rounded shape
strength concrete (HSC) exhibits better STS compared to the RAC con of RA could be a main factors reducing the mechanical properties of RAC
taining RA produced from normal strength concrete. Kau and Poon [119].
[114] and Kou et al. [107] found comparable STS of RAC to NA concrete.
Also, with increasing RA quantity in RAC, the effect on STS was almost 5.3.5. Microstructure
negligible. However, substantial variations in the STS of RAC and con The microstructure of RAC is very distinct from that of traditional
ventional concrete have been observed up to a certain point [111,112, concrete, especially at ITZ. RAC has two ITZs, namely new and old ITZs.
118]. McNeil and Kang [83] described in their study that the affixed New ITZ is among RA and new matrix while old ITZ is among RA and old
mortar acts as a weak point that can collapse under load, resulting in attached mortar [91,120]. Fig. 10(a) shows the scanning electron mi
decreased STS. To enhance its performance, it is necessary to establish a croscopy (SEM) images of old ITZ among aggregate and old mortar,
smoother zone near the ITZ. where Fig. 10(b) shows SEM images of new ITZ among aggregate and
new mortar. A prominent free gap can be observed at the old ITZ of the
5.3.4. Flexural strength matrix and micro-cracks at the new ITZ. Thus, the quality of RAC is a
Researchers also investigated the modulus of rupture of RAC, and result of the combined action of both ITZs, since ITZs have a major effect
findings suggest that the RA replacement quantity has a slight impact on on the mechanical properties. Numerous findings have established that
the RAC FS [105]. Some authors stated that the FS of the RAC is not the ITZ of RAC is extremely weak [78,107,121]. This ITZ is the weakest
significantly different even though it contains 100% RA compared to NA link and the phase that limits the strength of RAC because it serves as a
concrete [112]. Topcu and Sengel [95] discovered that with increasing barrier among the cement matrix and coarse aggregate phases in con
RA amount in the matrix, the FS of RAC reduced. Some other researchers crete [91,122]. It also acts as a load transfer barrier because cracks
reported a decrease in FS of RAC up to 10% [93,106]. Bairagi et al. [111] develop first near the ITZ. Poon et al. [78] performed SEM analysis on
have found a substantial variation in FS between RAC and traditional RAC to study the microstructure of ITZ and discovered that it is
concrete at various w/c ratios. Other researchers discovered that the composed of porous and loose hydrates that are granular. Thomas et al.
reduction in FS of RAC ranged between 16 and 23% depending on the [118] also performed SEM analysis to examine the surface morphology
percentage substitution ratio of RA [101,116]. The FS of RAC as deter of RAC and determined that it is made of weakly affixed mortar. Due to
mined by various researchers is depicted in Fig. 9. The figure demon the porous nature of ITZ, RAC has decrease strength in that region as
strates a decrease in FS as the RA quantity increases in RAC. The compared to the surrounding mortar matrix [123–125]. The weak
experimental study of Rao et al. [112] noted a decrease in FS of RAC by microstructure of RAC results in lower concrete stiffness and unable to
20.3%, 15.5%, and 5.0% then NA concrete using 25%, 50%, and 100% resist stress transfer through this phase. Therefore, the improvement of
RAs, respectively. Sonawane et al. [116] used RAs in 10%, 20%, and microstructure has been one of the major aspects to enhance the me
30% ratios in two different grades of concrete (i.e., M − 30 and M − 40) chanical properties of RAC.
and found a slight decrease in FS in comparison to the NA concrete at all
replacement levels of RAs, as seen in Fig. 9. Limbachiya et al. [119] 5.3.6. Improvement techniques for recycled aggregate concrete
performed an extensive study to investigate the mechanical properties of The possible advantages and disadvantages of incorporating RA into
RAC containing RAs in 30%, 50%, and 100% contents as NA replace concrete have been thoroughly reviewed. Several methods have been
ment. At 30% replacement ratio RA, the FS was observed to be similar to suggested to enhance the efficiency of RAC, considering these factors.
Fig. 9. Influence of recycled aggregate replacement on 28-days flexural strength in comparison to the natural aggregate concrete.
10
Fig. 10. SEM images of ITZ between: (a) Aggregate and old mortar; (b) Aggregate and new mortar [120].
Fig. 11. Microstructure of recycled aggregate with: (a) 0%; (b) 1%; (c) 2% and (d) 3% nano-silica [129].
11
These methods can be classified into three broad categories, each of mixing method is the triple mixing method which further improves the
which has been discussed in depth below: RA surface and ITZ by covering them with pozzolanic materials. It was
stated that compared to the double mixing process, this mixing tech
5.3.6.1. Addition of mineral admixtures. To enhance the mechanical nique has a great effect on developing the various characteristics of
performance of RAC, it is important to improve the concrete quality by concrete both at fresh at hardened state [121]. Fig. 12(a) and (b) display
modifying its poor ITZ and matrix. By adding mineral admixtures such the microstructure of ITZ of RAC prepared with normal mixing method
as silica fume (SF), FA, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), and triple mixing method, respectively. Although both have the same
metakaolin, and nano-silica, the microstructure of RAC may be mix proportions, their ITZs are significantly distinct because of different
enhanced. Mineral admixtures serve as micro fillers, fill voids in the mixing methods. In the case of the normal mixing method (Fig. 12(a)), a
matrix, and densify the ITZ among the cement matrix and aggregate. prominent crack is observed perpendicular to the ITZ, while adopting a
According to the literature, the addition of these mineral admixtures modified (triple) mixing method resulted in improved and denser ITZ
increased the compactness of concrete by forming a secondary calcium- (Fig. 12(b)).
silicate-hydrate (C–S–H) gel, which fills voids and empty capillary
spaces in the matrix, thus decreasing the concrete’s porosity and 6. Utilization of waste glass
contributing to its strength and toughness [86,126–128]. The micro
structure of RAC containing various contents of nano-silica has been Glass production requires a significant amount of energy due to the
shown in Fig. 11, obtained from a study performed by Wang et al. [129]. hours spent melting silica at an elevated temperature [133]. For
Fig. 11(a) shows the SEM image of RAC without nano-silica, whereas container glass, the temperature is retained at 1500 ◦ C for 24 h; for plate
Fig. 11(b)–(d) depicts SEM images of RAC with varying nano-silica glass, it is maintained for 72 h [134]. To manufacture 1 kg of plate glass,
contents. The microstructure of RAC was improved, establishing a approximately 17 MJ of fossil fuel energy is consumed, and approxi
denser and more compact matrix due to the addition of nano-silica and mately 0.6 kg of CO2 is emitted [135]. Annual energy consumption for
continuous to enhance with increased nano-silica content. Thus, it is glass manufacturing in Europe exceeds 350 PJ, accounting for roughly
obvious that modifying the microstructure of RAC will improve its me 20% of overall industrial power consumption [135]. As a result, recy
chanical properties. cling WG effectively is generating increased interest on a global scale.
Recycling WG for use in the manufacture of glass products is a common
5.3.6.2. Coating recycled aggregate with cement slurry or admixture sol way to repurpose WG. Recycling, on the other hand, is a complicated
ution. Other techniques, such as coating the surface of RA with a cement process. WG must be cleaned, sorted, and melted before it can be used to
paste or impregnating it with mineral admixture solution, often assisted make glass plates and containers [136]. Another method of recycling
in filling the cracks and voids in the RA [121]. Impregnating RA with an WG is to use it in the production of construction materials. WG can be
SF solution or other minerals contributes to penetrate the SF grains into crushed and blended with cement and aggregates to partially replace
the aggregate cracks and voids [130]. SF’s filling effect helps improve cement and aggregates in concrete [20,137–141]. The scope of this
the ITZ of concrete during the hardening process. Moreover, the study is limited to discuss the use of waste glass as cement replacement
pozzolanic reaction of calcium hydroxide (CH) and SF creates an inferior only. The use of WG in concrete has a number of advantages. To begin,
C–S–H that strengthens the weak RA structure and forms a more the glass utilized in concrete does not need to be melted, thereby
enhanced zone. Other pozzolanic materials such as FA, GGBS, etc., reducing energy requirements. Second, the management of working
exhibit a similar influence. This eventually contributes to the improve groups is significantly streamlined. For example, cleaning and sorting
ment of RAC’s strength and durability. Martirena et al. [131] investi glass are not required. Third, due to the widespread use of concrete in
gated the impact of cement coating on the surface of RA, as well as the construction, WG consumption will be high. Fourth, glass contains toxic
characteristics and usage of treated RA in concrete. The treated RA elements that can be trapped and solidified within concrete. According
(0.16–1.23 mm of cement slurry on the exterior surface) indicated a to current research, recycling WG in concrete is the preferable method
noticeable decrease in porosity (55% less), resulting in less water ab [137,138]. Thus, the incorporation of WG into construction materials as
sorption. The small layer of coating enhanced the performance of treated an aggregate substitute will help conserve natural resources and address
RA concrete. Li et al. [132] examined the impact of a pozzolanic powder waste management issues. While its use as a cement substitute helps to
(GGBS, SF, and FA) coating on RA. Different pozzolana mixtures were reduce cement demand, which in turn helps to reduce CO2 emissions.
tested, and it was determined that the combination of Portland cement,
SF, and FA is more efficient for high-strength RAC with improved den 6.1. Properties of composites containing waste glass
sity and ITZ. This may be due to the more improved packing of the
matrix because of voids filling. 6.1.1. Workability
Powder WG is typically used in place of cement. Islam et al. [142]
5.3.6.3. Mixing process modification. There are several novel methods performed a flow test on WG powder mortar mixtures. For mix prepa
that have been used to improve the efficiency of RAC during the mixing ration, the water/binder ratio (w/b) was maintained at 0.5. The findings
stage. It has been found that by using better mixing methods, some of the indicated that the flow diameter increased as the percentage of WG used
drawbacks of RAs, and RAC, might be resolved. There are three distinct as a cement substitute increased. The reference mix had a flow diameter
modified mixing methods, namely the double, two-stage, and triple of 132.5 mm, whereas mortar samples containing 25% WG as cement
mixing process. The CS and durability properties of the RAC produced substitute had a flow diameter of 135 mm. As a result, there was a slight
by the double mixing process are considerably improved in comparison increase in the flow. Aliabdo et al. [141] ] used a slump test to determine
with the concrete manufactured by the standard mixing process [122]. the workability of concrete incorporating WG powder. The slump of a
Another enhanced mixing method for RAC is the two-stage mixing mix containing WG powder as a cement substitute improved as the WG
process, in which the mixing phase is divided into two phases and is powder content increased. The smooth surface and low capacity of WG
entirely based on adding water to the mix at various times. Half of the powder to absorb water may contribute to the slump increase. Addi
measured water is added first with aggregates, followed by binding tionally, WG powder contains coarser particles than cement, which may
materials for a denser ITZ. The leftover water is then put in at various explain why the slump improved. Soliman and Tagnit-Hamou [143] also
intervals [91]. The CS of RAC was observed to be increased up to 21%, demonstrated that substituting WG powder for cement improved the
with the reason that an improved and stronger ITZ was developed by workability of concrete, which could be attributed to the WG powder’s
filling cracks and voids on the surface of RAs [91]. The third novel lower water absorption and smoother texture than cement particles.
Another factor that contributes to increased workability is cement
12
Fig. 12. SEM image of ITZ of recycled aggregate concrete with: (a) Normal mixing method; (b) Triple mixing method [132].
dilution. The reasons outlined above account for the initial decrease in microstructure of the matrix over time, resulted in an increase in CS. The
the formation of cement hydration products. As a result, the number of variation in 28-day CS with increasing WG content as a cement
products available for combining disparate particles is insufficient. Due replacement is depicted in Fig. 13. At lower replacement ratios, a slight
to the fact that WG powder has a lower specific surface area than increase in CS can be observed. Rehman et al. [24] investigated the ef
cement, the combined surface area of cement and WG powder is fect of using WG powder as a cement replacement (20%, 30%, and 40%)
reduced. As a result, the water requirement for particle surface lubri and steel slag as a fine aggregate substitute (40%, 60%, and 80%) in
cation is reduced, resulting in an increase in slump. self-compacting concrete (SCC) on mechanical properties. When 20%
cement was replaced with WG powder, they observed an increase in CS,
6.1.2. Compressive strength but it decreased as the WG powder content was increased further. When
Islam et al. [142] performed a CS test on mortar specimens con all other ingredients were kept constant in proportion, increasing the
taining recycled WG in place of cement. When compared to control steel slag content increased the CS of SCC. The CS of concrete improved
mortar specimens, recycled WG mortar had a lower CS at 7, 14, 28, and as the steel slag content increased at a constant WG powder content. The
56 days of age. At 90 days, there was an increase in CS; the highest CS maximum increase in CS was observed when 20% WG powder was used
value was obtained with a 10% cement replacement. Similarly, 15% in place of cement, and 80% steel slag was used in place of fine aggre
cement replacement after 180 days and 20% cement replacement after gate. On the other hand, as the WG powder content increased while the
365 days demonstrated the highest CS. The reason for this could be that steel slag content remained constant, the CS of SCC decreased slightly.
the pozzolanic behavior of glass, which reacted slowly and improved the When WG powder and steel slag were used in place of 40% cement and
Fig. 13. Influence of cement replacement by waste glass powder on 28-days compressive strength of composites. WG1: glass powder derived from waste glass fibers,
WG2: glass powder derived from recycled glass.
13
40% fine aggregate, respectively, the minimum CS was 5.7% lower than 40% glass powder were used in place of cement and aggregate, the
the control specimen. The increase in CS with the addition of steel slag minimum STS was 5.6% less than that of the control mix. Whereas
could be attributed to the pozzolanic action of steel slag or the hardness Al-Zubaid et al. [144] observed a decrease in STS when various types of
difference between steel slag and the aggregates replaced. Al-Zubaid WG were added to concrete. However, using green glass at a ratio of 13%
et al. [144] ] studied the influence of brown WG, green WG, and neon in place of cement resulted in a 16.2% improvement in STS compared to
WG on the mechanical characteristics of concrete with 11%, 13%, and the control mix. Aliabdo et al. [141] reported an increase in STS of
15% cement replaced. The optimal results were obtained with neon WG 16.6%, 19.4%, and 5.9% for 33 MPa concrete containing 5%, 10%, and
at a concentration of 13% because of neon glass’s higher SiO2 percent 15% WG powder, respectively. Whereas STS decreased by 10% and
age (68%) and cement’s high CaO content (66.11%), which when mixed 13.8% when 20% and 25% WG powder was substituted for cement in a
with water generated a substantial amount of CaCO3. Anwar [145] also 33 MPa concrete mix, respectively. Additionally, when cement was
observed an increase in CS at lower WG powder proportions. The CS replaced by 5%, 10%, or 15% in 45 MPa grade concrete, the STS in
improved by 16.6% over the reference sample at 10% WG powder creases by 11.7%, 13.0%, or 18.1%, respectively. Whereas, at 20% and
content. The increase in CS occurred as a result of the glass powder’s 25% replacement, there was a slight decrease in STS of 1.0% and 2.3%,
pozzolanic reaction. Due to the fact that the glass powder acts as a respectively. When more than 20% of cement is replaced with WG
pozzolanic material, it mitigates the effect of carbonation and powder, STS decreases. The reasons for increased STS at lower WG
strengthens the concrete. Thus, because the glass powder has a smaller contents and decreased STS at higher WG contents are identical to those
particle size, it interacts more readily with the lime in the cement, previously described for CS.
increasing the CS content of the concrete. Aliabdo et al. [141] found a
5.1% increase in CS for 33 MPa concrete containing 5% WG powder in 6.1.4. Flexural strength
place of cement when compared to the reference mix. Whereas CS Fig. 15 illustrates the effect of using WG powder as a cement sub
decreased as more WG powder was added, as illustrated in the figure. stitute on the FS of composites. It also exhibits a nearly identical trend to
Additionally, the CS of concrete mix grade 45 MPa increased 2.5% with CS and STS. For example, Rehman et al. [24] demonstrated increased FS
a 5% replacement rate and 4.8% with a 10% replacement rate when at 20% and 30% WG powder contents but decreased FS at 40% WG
compared to the reference mix. When WG powder was used to replace powder contents. FS was greatest when 20% WG powder was used in
more than 10% of the cement, a decrease in CS was observed; this place of cement, and 80% steel slag was used in place of fine aggregate.
decrease could be attributed to the increased percentage of cement As with the CS, the maximum FS was observed when neon glass was
replacement, which resulted in cement dilution. A similar trend was replaced at a 13% replacement ratio [144]. Additionally, adding WG up
observed in numerous studies involving the use of WG as a cement to a 20% content increased FS, whereas increasing the WG content
substitute [146]. As a result, WG powder is preferable as a cement further decreased FS compared to the reference sample [145]. Hama
replacement only at low replacement ratios. [147] also reported a maximum FS at a 20% cement replacement by WG
powder. However, several studies have reported a decrease in FS when
6.1.3. Split-tensile strength WG powder is used in place of cement [144,148], as illustrated in the
Fig. 14 illustrates the effect of using WG as a cement substitute on figure. The reasons for composites with WG addition exhibiting CS
STS. Additionally, it indicates that when the WG content is low, the STS behavior also apply to their flexural behavior.
can be increased, whereas when the WG content is high, the STS de
creases in comparison to the reference samples without WG. Similar to 6.1.5. Microstructure
the CS, Rehman et al. [24] noted that when 20% of cement was replaced Numerous previous studies have revealed that the size of WG used to
with WG powder and 80% of cement was replaced with steel slag, the replace aggregates has a substantial influence on the ITZ and porosity of
maximum improvement in STS was 13.2%. When 40% steel slag and the composites’ matrix. Afshinnia and Rangaraju [149] discovered a
Fig. 14. Influence of cement replacement by waste glass powder on 28-days split-tensile strength of composites.
14
Fig. 15. Influence of cement replacement by waste glass powder on 28-days flexural strength of composites.
weak glass-matrix ITZ and increased porosity when coarser WG was compared it to a control mix (Fig. 18). The glass particles appear to have
used as an aggregate replacement, as shown in Fig. 16. WG aggregates been completely compressed and scattered within the hydration prod
have a smooth particle surface that interfaces with the cement paste, ucts of a compact, dense, and mature gel containing needle-shaped
resulting in minimal mechanical interlocking between the two phases. ettringite crystals. Due to the pozzolanic properties of WG powder, the
The weak bond between WG and cement matrix is also reflected in C–S–H gel in samples containing WG powder contains more calcium and
composites’ mechanical properties. On the other hand, incorporating alkalis than the reference sample. Therefore, composites containing WG
finer WG can improve the microstructure of composites [149]. Soliman powder have improved mechanical properties.
and Hamou [150] used SEM to examine the microstructure of a com
posite composed of 50% quartz sand and 50% recycled WG with an 7. Utilization of rice husk ash
average particle size of 275 μm. It was described that the bond between
WG and cement matrix is comparable to that between quartz and cement Rice husk is efficiently and extensively utilized as a fuel for rice
matrix, as illustrated in Fig. 17. As a result, the microstructure study paddy milling processes and energy generation plants in several coun
supports the use of finer WG as an aggregate substitute. Kong et al. [151] tries. This burning process produces a pozzolanic material called RHA,
investigated the microstructure of WG powder under a variety of curing which contains more than 75% silica by weight (after incineration, 20%
conditions. The study demonstrated that when WG powder composites of the rice husk stays in the form of RHA. The ash generated by this
were cured in microwave or steam rather than under standard curing process has no direct use and is typically discarded into water flows,
conditions, the WG powder exhibited strong pozzolanic reactions. Matos resulting in water contamination and ecological pollution. The ash
and Sousa-Coutinho [152] used SEM to examine the microstructure of produced from rice husk at less than 500 ◦ C has a lower pozzolanic effect
mortar containing 10% WG powder as a cement replacement and due to incomplete ignition and the existence of unburnt carbon. A
Fig. 16. Microstructure of composites with: (a) Natural aggregate; (b) Waste glass aggregate (size: 4.75–9.5 mm) [149].
15
pozzolanic properties because of the conversion of silica to amorphous

or non-crystalline silica [153–155]. Numerous researches have been
performed on the use of RHA as a partial replacement of cement and/or
fine aggregates in cementitious composites [18,21,156]. The chemical
composition of RHA used in the previous studies has been shown in
Table 7.
7.1. Properties of composites containing rice husk ash
7.1.1. Workability
Usually, it is noted that the utilization of RHA decreased the work
ability of fresh mix, and SP is used along with RHA to achieve the desired
workability. Bui et al. [161] investigated the workability of gap-graded
aggregate concrete with an RHA content of 10–20%. At a low w/c of
0.30–0.34, it was observed that using high binder content in combina
tion with RHA and an SP facilitated the production of a highly workable,
cohesive mix without segregation. Water demand increased because of
RHA, but the use of SP balanced this. Celik and Canakci [162] and Le
Fig. 17. Microstructure of composite containing quartz and glass sand (glass et al. [163] also reported similar observations. Salas et al. [164] per
mean particle size = 275 μm) [150]. formed the slump test to determine the workability of RHA concrete.
They noticed that at 15% and 20% RHA, the concrete mixes become
temperature range of 550–700 ◦
C can produce ash with better stiffer, necessitating the addition of an SP to maintain the required
Fig. 18. Microstructure of composites: (a) Control mix 10000 times enlarged; (b) Control mix 20000 times enlarged; (c) Containing 10% waste glass powder 10000
times enlarged; (d) Containing 10% waste glass powder 20000 times enlarged [152].
16
Table 7 RHA in place of cement at various w/b of 0.40, 0.50, and 0.60 on CS of
Chemical composition of rice husk ash used in previous studies [153, concrete. As seen in the figure, the inclusion of RHA caused a reduction
157–160]. in CS. At a w/b of 0.40, the drop in CS was 1.7% and 12.9% at a 10% and
Element oxide Range of element oxide (%) 15% RHA content, respectively. At w/b of 0.50, the CS reduced by 2.5%
SiO2 87.4–93.5
and 9.8%, respectively, and when w/b was 0.60, the CS reduced by 2.0%
Al2O3 0.13–0.83 and 11.6%, respectively, at 10% and 15% RHA proportion. It was
Fe2O3 0.1–0.6 determined that utilizing RHA at smaller proportions had a comparable
CaO 0.80–1.10 CS to the reference samples, while higher contents of RHA had shown a
MgO 0.2–0.6
significant reduction in CS of composites. Noaman et al. [168] examined
MnO 0–0.2
Na2O 0.04–0.70 the CS of composites with RHA contents of 0%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and
K2 O 1.32–3.39 25% as cement substitute at distinct w/b (0.45, 0.50, and 0.55). The
SO3 0.1–0.4 composites with 0% RHA were taken as reference for each w/b.
Loss on ignition 1.9–8.5 Generally, a minor improvement in CS was noted at RHA replacement
ratio of 10%, while further increase in replacement ratio of RHA reduced
workability. Suaiam and Makul [165] demonstrated that using a higher the CS compared to the control mix. The addition of RHA at lower
quantity of RHA as a partial substitute for fine aggregate reduced the proportions is also recommended in this study to enhance the CS.
workability, whereas up to 25% RHA content, the workability of the mix Kathirvel et al. [169] investigated the combined influence of RHA, FA,
was found to be satisfactory. Antiohos et al. [157] described that a small and limestone powder on CS of cementitious composites using ordinary
amount of SP could be used to achieve the required workability in RHA Portland cement (OPC) and Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) (con
concrete. RHA can be used as an admixture for improving the viscosity taining 20% FA). The RHA content used was 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% as
of fresh mix because it eliminates the bleeding characteristic of cement cement replacement. With OPC, the CS increased by 8.3% at 5% RHA
composites [166]. Siddika et al. [167] performed a slump test on fresh content while at 10%, 15% and 20% RHA content, the CS decreased by
concrete at three distinct w/b of 0.40, 0.50, and 0.60, containing 10% 11.0%, 17.4%, and 22.9%, respectively. With PPC, the CS was enhanced
and 15% RHA in place of cement and compared the results with the by 8.6% and 13.5% at RHA content of 5% and 10%, respectively, while
control mix (without RHA). It was noticed that at w/b of 0.40, the reduction of 1.3% and 17.8% was observed when RHA content was 15%
reduction in the slump was 22.5% and 37.5% with the addition of 10% and 20%, respectively, were used. On the contrary, some researchers
and 15% RHA, respectively, compared to the reference mix. Similarly, examined a considerable increase in CS due to the addition of RHA as
when w/b was 0.50, the reduction was 16.1% and 35.5% at 10% and cement replacement. For example, Zareei et al. [25] found improvement
15% RHA, respectively. Furthermore, the slump reduction in compari in CS by 2.1%, 4.2%, 11.0%, 11.9%, and 6.9% when RHA was used as
son to the reference mix at w/b of 0.60 was 10.5% and 24.2% with the cement replacement of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%, respectively. The
addition of 10% and 15% RHA, respectively. This study recommended improvement may be attributed to the pozzolanic reaction, high specific
the usage of water reducing admixtures along with RHA to attain the surface area, and reactive silica in RHA. Bie et al. [170] examined the
workability comparable to the control mix. effect of RHA on CS produced at various burning conditions, i.e., at
600 ◦ C for 1 h, 600 ◦ C for 2 h, and 700 ◦ C for 1 h. The samples prepared
7.1.2. Compressive strength from RHA produced at 600 ◦ C showed improved CS, while samples
Fig. 19 is generated to depict the variation in CS of composites containing RHA produced at 700 ◦ C showed reduced CS compared to the
because of the use of RHA as cement substitute based on available reference sample without RHA. It was concluded that rice husk might
literature. Siddika et al. [167] studied the influence of 10% and 15% burn more completely at a low temperature (approx. 600 ◦ C) than at
elevated temperatures. Burning rice husk at high temperatures may
Fig. 19. Influence of rice husk ash as cement replacement on 28-days compressive strength of composites.
17
result in more residual carbon in RHA. Additionally, 600 ◦ C is the 10.8%, 15.4%, 21.5%, and 27.7% with RHA replacement ratio of 10%,
optimal temperature for preparing RHA with high specific surface area 15%, 20%, and 25%, respectively. Kathirvel et al. [169] tested the FS of
because of the presence of nanoscale and amorphous SiO2. PPC composites with RHA as a partial substitute of cement. The results
showed comparable FS to the reference mix at 5%, 10%, and 15% RHA
7.1.3. Split-tensile strength content. While at 20% RHA content, a reduction of 24.7% was observed
The influence of RHA addition in cementitious composites as partial in the FS than the reference mix. Bie et al. [170] reported improved FS
replacement to cement on STS has been shown in Fig. 20. The study of with the addition of RHA in cementitious composites produced at
Siddika et al. [167] showed a decrease in STS of composites with RHA various burning conditions. The samples prepared from RHA produced
addition in place of cement, as depicted in the figure. The decrease in at 600 ◦ C for 1 h indicated increased FS by 8.4%, 12.5%, and 6.5%,
STS was observed to be 7.1% and 13.3% at an RHA replacement ratio of compared to the control mix at RHA replacement ratio of 5%, 10%, and
10% and 15%, respectively, compared to the reference mix, when w/b 20%, respectively. Similarly, the use of RHA produced at 600 ◦ C for 2 h
was 0.40. At a w/b ratio of 0.50, the reduction in STS was observed to be improved the FS by 6.6%, 22.0%, and 18.4% at a replacement ratio of
9.0% and 15.9% for the RHA content of 10% and 15%, respectively, then 5%, 10%, and 20%, respectively. Also, when RHA produced at 700 ◦ C for
that of the reference mix. Similarly, when w/b was 0.60, the STS 1 h was used as a partial substitute to cement, the FS decreased by 5.2%
reduction in comparison to the reference mix was 9.8% and 20.4% for at 5% RHA content while at 10% and 20% RHA content, the FS increased
10% and 15% RHA content, respectively. Noaman et al. [168] studied by 35.5% and 47.7%, respectively, then that of control mix. The
the impact of RHA as a cement replacement on STS of composites at w/b improvement in FS may be due to the small particle size and pozzolanic
of 0.50. An improvement of 20% in STS was observed at 10% RHA characteristics of RHA. It can be concluded that the use of RHA at higher
content than the control mix without RHA. At 15% RHA content, the STS replacement ratios have detrimental effects on the mechanical proper
was comparable to the control mix. However, further increment of RHA ties (CS, STS, and FS) of cementitious composites. However, RHA use at
resulted in a detrimental effect on STS. A reduction of 14% and 18% was lower replacement ratios is preferable as it can improve the mechanical
noted compared to the control mix when RHA content used was 20% properties of cementitious composites.
and 25%, respectively. Hence, this study proposed the use of RHA in
cementitious composites at smaller substitution levels. Likewise, 7.1.5. Microstructure
Kathirvel et al. [169] also reported the best results at 10% RHA content The reaction between the RHA, water, and CH produced during
in place of cement. With OPC, an improvement of 66.7% in STS was cement hydration results in the creation of C–S–H, which is responsible
noted, while with PPC, 16.1% improvement in STS was noted in com for the strength of cementitious composites. To verify this mechanism,
parison to their corresponding reference samples at 10% replacement of SEM was performed by Madandous et al. [160] to examine the micro
RHA. Zareei et al. [25] found enhancement in STS by 2.1%, 4.3%, structure of mortar specimens containing RHA. The SEM images
11.0%, 11.8%, and 6.9% with the usage of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and showing the microstructure of mortars with and without RHA are shown
25% RHA as cement substitute, respectively, compared to the control in Fig. 22. The microstructure of the mortar containing RHA (Fig. 22(b))
mix. shows the development of floc-like hydration products, which are joined
and lapped together by fibrous like hydrates forming a denser and more
7.1.4. Flexural strength compact matrix as compared to the cement matrix (Fig. 22(a)), where
A similar trend was also noticed in FS, as depicted in Fig. 21. Siddika the tensile-like CH crystals can be observed. These observations support
et al. [167] found a reduction in FS with 10% and 15% RHA content at the improvement in the mechanical properties of RHA-based cementi
all w/b. The reductions noted were 6.9% and 24%, 8.6% and 24.6%, and tious composites. Noaman et al. [171] conducted SEM analysis to
16.6% and 27.7% with 10% and 15% RHA content for w/b of 0.40, 0.50, investigate the microstructure of concrete containing 0–25% RHA in
and 0.60, respectively. Noaman et al. [168] found reduction in FS by place of cement. The images of SEM have been depicted in Fig. 23.
Fig. 20. Influence of rice husk ash as cement replacement on 28-days split-tensile strength of composites.
18
Fig. 21. Influence of rice husk ash as cement replacement on 28-days compressive strength of composites.
Fig. 22. Microstructure of matrixes: (a) Cement mortar; (b) Mortar containing rice husk ash as partial replacement of cement [160].
Fig. 23(a) demonstrates that the control mix (without RHA) has a high 8. Utilization of natural fibers
number of pores in its matrix, as well as a significant number of
un-hydrated cement grains of varying sizes. On the other hand, Fig. 23 NFs have obtained considerable attention in the growth of eco-
(b) identifies the specimens with 10% RHA, which have a denser matrix friendly composite materials, primarily due to their beneficial proper
with very little porosity and fewer un-hydrated cement grains than the ties. For example, cost-effectiveness, low density, adaptability, renew
control mix. A comparison of Fig. 23(a), (b), and (c) containing 0%, ability, and recyclability are a few of the advantageous properties [172].
10%, and 15% RHA, respectively, demonstrates that the presence of Types of NFs used in construction materials include palm, hemp, coco
RHA contributes to the reduction in internal porosity, total porosity, and nut, banana, bamboo, jute, abaca, sisal, kenaf, bagasse, wool, flax fabric,
un-hydrated cement grains when compared to the control mix. Addi etc. [47]. In addition to the sustainable approach, the use of NFs in
tionally, it demonstrates that the refined microstructure is a result of the construction materials can enhance their various properties [33]. The
high pozzolanic effect and filler effect of RHA particles. This result is influence of NFs on materials is determined by their type, geometry
consistent with the improved mechanical properties of composites (shape, diameter, and length), quantity, interaction with the binder, and
containing a lower amount of RHA. At higher replacement levels of orientation and dispersion within the mixture [173]. The characteristics
RHA, i.e., 20% and 25%, as shown in Fig. 23(d) and (e), respectively, the of NFs discussed in the present study have been provided in Table 8.
porous microstructure can be observed with micro-cracks. It was re
ported that at higher contents of RHA, the internal bonding of particles
8.1. Properties of composites containing natural fibers
was distorted, resulting in a less dense microstructure than the control
mix. This may be the reason for the detrimental effect of RHA on
8.1.1. Workability
cementitious composites containing higher RHA content as cement
The incorporation of NFs in composites usually decreases the
replacement.
workability of the fresh mix compared to the controlled mix. Ali et al.
[33] conducted a slump test to determine the workability of concrete
19
Fig. 23. Microstructure of composites: (a) Without rice husk ash; (b) With 10% rice husk ash; (c) With 15% rice husk ash; (d) With 20% rice husk ash; (e) With 25%
rice husk ash [171].
with coconut fibers (CFs) in various lengths and contents. The CFs of 25 Additionally, the hydrophilic moisture absorption properties of jute
mm, 50 mm, and 75 mm length and 1%, 2%, 3%, and 5% content by fiber contributed to the reduction in slump [178]. For lower fiber frac
mass of cement were used. The test results were compared to that of tions (up to 0.50%), 20 mm long jute fibers had a relatively minor effect
plain concrete (PC). It was found that the incorporation of fibers in on the concrete slump. Shorter length (i.e., 10 mm) contains a greater
concrete decreased the workability than that of PC. Also, the slump number of fibers, resulting in a greater adverse effect on the workability
decreased with an increase in fiber content. Considering the effect of of the fresh mix. Reduced fiber length increased the air content of
length on workability, the slump of the mix containing 50 mm long fi concrete and had a more detrimental effect on the slump. Similar find
bers increased compared to the mix with 25 mm fibers. However, further ings were also noted by Ahmad et al. [34] with the addition of CFs in
increase in fiber length decreased the workability. Islam and Ahmed HSC. The CFs of 25 mm, 50 mm, and 75 mm were used in 0.5%, 1.0%,
[174] examined the influence of jute fiber on the workability of fresh 1.5%, and 2.0% contents by mass of cement. The mixes containing CFs
mix using 10 mm and 20 mm long fibers with volume fractions of 0.25%, had reduced slump values compared to the plain HSC. By comparing the
0.50%, and 1.0%. The addition of jute fiber to concrete reduces its effect of length on workability, when the fiber length was increased from
workability, resulting in a loss of slump. This phenomenon may be 25 to 50 mm, the slump initially improved but then declined. The
induced by the jute fiber’s high specific surface area and small diameter. possible reasons could be: (i) For 25 mm long fibers, the fibers are more
20
Table 8 fiber content which was 8.6%, and a further increase in fiber content
Properties of natural fibers used in cementitious composites discussed in the decreased the CS by 6.3% and 9.2% at 2% and 3% fiber content,
present study. respectively, as compared to the control mix. So, this study reported the
Fiber type Length Diameter Density Tensile Reference maximum CS with 50 mm long fibers. The increase in CS may be
(mm) (mm) (g/cm3) strength attributed to the bridging effect of fibers available to resist the crack
(MPa) propagation under loading. While the reduction in CS at higher contents
Coconut 25, 50, 0.40 – – Ali et al. and longer length of fiber may be due to the creation of voids in the
and 75 [33] matrix. Contrary to this, Ribeiro et al. [177] found a decrease in CS of
Jute 10 and 0.10 1.45 480 Islam and
composites due to the incorporation of sugarcane bagasse fibers. They
20 Ahmed
[174] observed a reduction in CS by 1.7%, 6.9%, and 6.3% with fiber volume
Jute – 0.10–0.20 0.12–0.14 262.6 Yesmin and ratios of 0.5%, 1%, and 2%, respectively, as compared to the reference
Islam [175] sample. This shows that different NFs have different effects on the CS of
Coconut 25, 50, 0.32 – – Ahmad specimens. The mechanical properties of CF are superior to the sugar
and 75 et al. [34]
Hemp 6, 12, – – – Comak
cane bagasse fiber [33], resulting in improved CS. Comak et al. [176]
and 18 et al. [176] studied the influence of 6 mm, 12 mm, and 18 mm long hemp fibers at
Sugarcane 17.9 0.56 0.71 – Ribeiro 1%, 2%, and 3% ratios on cement mortars. Mostly, CS was enhanced due
bagasse et al. [177] to the incorporation of hemp fibers in cement mortar, as shown in the
figure. This study concluded the optimum results with cement mortar
reinforced with 12 mm long fibers at 2–3% ratios. Yusra et al. [179]
numerous, reducing the workability of the concrete; (ii) For 50 mm long
found detrimental effects of using bamboo fibers in HSC. The CS
fibers, the fibers are fewer, resulting in an increased slump; and (iii) For
reduction was 4.2%, 5.4%, and 12.1% with 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% fiber
75 mm long fibers, the fibers are fewer, but longer fibers reduced the
content, respectively. Ahmad et al. [34] reported improvement in CS of
workability of the concrete by restricting their flow of the fresh mix.
HSC at 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% CF content for each length of fiber (i.e., 25
Slump is reduced by increasing the fiber content. The high fiber content
mm, 50 mm, and 75 mm). This improvement was due to the resistance
impairs the workability of fresh concrete.
provided by the CF to the crack growth (bridging effect). Though,
reduction in CS in comparison to the reference sample (without fiber)
8.1.2. Compressive strength
was observed at CF content of 2% for at each CF length used (as shown in
The CS of composites containing NFs is influenced by fiber type,
the figure). The possible reasons for the reduction in CS at higher con
length, size/diameter, and amount used in the mix. As reported in the
tent of CF could be the voids created by fibers in the matrix and the
literature, the effect of various NFs on CS has been depicted in Fig. 24.
dilution of cement. Researchers also studied the impact of pretreatment
The figure illustrates that in most cases, using NFs at lower content can
of fibers on the mechanical performance of composites and found
significantly improve the CS, while higher percentages of NFs have a
improvement in comparison with the untreated composites [180].
negative effect on the CS of composites compared to the control mix. The
study of Ali et al. [33] showed improvement in CS by 18.7%, 14.9%,
8.1.3. Split-tensile strength
12.1%, and 3.4% with CF content of 1%, 2%, 3%, and 5% by cement
Fig. 25 shows the variation in STS due to the fiber addition in
mass, respectively, at fiber length of 25 mm. Similarly, at 50 mm long
comparison to the reference specimens (without fibers) based on the
CFs, the improvement observed in CS was 24.1%, 17.8%, 10.1%, and
available literature. The findings of Ali et al. [33] depict comparable STS
4.9% with 1%, 2%, 3%, and 5% CF content, respectively. However,
of specimens reinforced with CF to the reference specimen. While,
when CF of 75 mm was used, the only improvement in CS was at 1%
Ribeiro et al. [177] found reduction in STS of 1.1%, 16.0%, and 13.8%
Fig. 24. Influence of natural fibers content on 28-days compressive strength of composites.
21
with use of 0.5%, 1%, and 2% sugarcane bagasse fiber, respectively. CFs significantly enhanced the post-peak response of composites than
Comak et al. [176] reported significant improvement in STS with the the control mix. Ribeiro et al. [177] found an improvement in FS with
addition of hemp fibers. At fiber length of 6 mm, the improvement in STS sugarcane bagasse fiber than that of the control mix. They observed
was 32.2%, 44.2%, and 45.2%, with a fiber content of 1%, 2%, and 3%, improvement in FS by 13.7%, 12.8%, and 16.2% with the addition of
respectively, compared to the reference mix. Also, when fiber length was 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% fibers, respectively. This may be due to the result
12 mm, the STS improved by 23.6%, 78.4%, and 97.1%. Moreover, at of the fibers acting as a stress transfer bridge, which helps to minimize
18 mm fiber length, the improvement in STS was observed to be 61.1%, crack propagation, control their openings, and possibly delay the com
56.2%, 51.4%. The presence of fibers in the matrix resisted the crack posite’s breakage. In other words, the addition of fiber increases the
growth during loading by bridging effect, resulted in the STS’s flexural resistance of the composite, making it more flexible under
improvement. The smaller length fibers have lower bond strength with varying stress conditions. A similar pattern of increasing FS with the
the surrounding matrix and pull-out at lower loads giving reduced STS addition of hemp fibers is also reported by Comak et al. [176]. They also
compared to the longer fibers. Similarly, Yusra et al. [179] examined found more improvement in FS with increasing fiber quantity. Ahmad
increased STS than the reference mix by 23.4%, 42.4%, and 56.1% when et al. [34] found a decrease in FS at 0.5% CF content for each length of
0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% bamboo fibers were used, respectively. The re fiber used. The incorporation of CFs at 1.0% and 1.5% gave approxi
sults of Ahmad et al. [34] showed that at 25 mm CF length, a small mately similar FSs to the control mix, while 2.0% CFs resulted in FS
increase in STS of 2.9% was noted with 0.5% CF addition. While at 1.0%, reduction at each length of CF. However, the presence of CFs controlled
1.5%, and 2.0% CF content, the STS decreased by 1.2%, 5.2%, and the brittle nature of HSC to some extent.
12.5%, respectively, as compared to the control mix. When 50 mm long
CF was used, the STS improved by 17.7%, 10.3%, and 20.4% with CF 8.1.5. Microstructure
content of 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%, respectively, while at 2.0% CF con Yan et al. [181] examined the microstructure of fractured surfaces of
tent, the STS reduced by 3.2%. Similar was the trend observed when 75 concrete reinforced with CFs by performing SEM analysis. The SEM
mm long CF was used, as shown in the figure. The main benefit of using image of the fractured surface has been shown in Fig. 27(a). It shows two
fibers in cementitious composites is the improvement in the post-peak types of fiber failure, i.e., fiber rupture and fiber pull-out. When the
response of composite and reduction in brittle failure. bonding between fiber and the surrounding matrix is sufficient, fiber
rupture occurs after resisting load to its maximum tensile strength.
8.1.4. Flexural strength While fiber pull-out occurs in the case of insufficient bonding among
Fig. 26 depicts the effect of NFs addition in cementitious composites fiber and matrix, usually at a smaller fiber length. This analysis confirms
on FS. Generally, it was found that the FS of composites containing lower the lower mechanical properties, especially the STS of composites
fiber contents is less than the composites containing higher fiber con reinforced with the smaller length of fibers. Similar failures in the
tents. The study of Ali et al. [33] noted a decrease in FS compared to the fiber-reinforced matrix were also noted by Zhou et al. [180], as depicted
reference sample by 28.5% and 18.8% with 1% and 2% CF content, in Fig. 27(b). They reported that the reason for fiber pull-out could be
respectively, when 25 mm long CF was used. While for the same length the smooth surface of fiber along with shorter length. Ahmad et al. [34]
of CF, the FS of samples containing 3% and 5% CF was comparable to the studied the microstructure of CF reinforced HSC by conducting SEM
reference sample. With the use of 50 mm long CF, the FS decreased by analysis. The samples for SEM analysis were taken from the fractured
27.5%, 16.2%, 7.3%, and 7.3%. A similar decreasing trend was noted surface of specimens after performing the FS test. An image of SEM has
when 75 mm fiber was used as cement replacement, as depicted in been shown in Fig. 27(c). The figure depicts a clear gap between fiber
figure. A greater number of fibers were available for bridging cracks at and matrix, which may be due to the debonding of fiber having less
higher fiber contents, which resisted crack propagation and ultimately sufficient bond strength. A good fiber-matrix bond should have no free
controlled the reduction in FS. It was reported that the incorporation of gap, which may result in improved mechanical properties. Also,
Fig. 25. Influence of natural fibers content on 28-days split-tensile strength of composites.
22
Fig. 26. Influence of natural fibers content on 28-days flexural strength of composites.
micro-cracks can be observed in the matrix near fibers. These flaws in be achieved when produced at the temperature range of 550–700 ◦ C.
the microstructure may lead to a decrease in concrete performance. NFs can be used as reinforcement in cementitious materials. NFs
improve the performance of cementitious materials, especially post-
9. Discussions and future perspectives peak response, by resisting the crack propagation due to the bridging
effect. The type, size, and length of fibers utilized determine their in
9.1. Discussions fluence on the properties of composites. Mostly, the incorporation of NFs
improves the mechanical properties of materials. Though these are not
A comprehensive review of the utilization of various waste materials preferable to be used in higher proportions because, at higher pro
(C&D, WG, RHA, and NFs) for sustainable development has been con portions, uniform mixing of these fibers is not possible and negatively
ducted in this study. Also, their impact on material properties and sus influences the mechanical properties. Therefore, it is evident that care
tainability, as well as their limitations and their possible solutions, have must be taken in the choice of waste material to be utilized in con
been discussed. To compare the impact of various approaches, Table 9 struction materials depending upon the application of the resulting
has been generated that includes the distinct parameters reviewed in the material.
present study for each approach. It can be seen from the table that all
contribute towards sustainability in construction, more or less. How 9.2. Research gaps and future perspectives
ever, their influence on the properties of cementitious materials is
different. RAs from C&D waste have a detrimental effect on the prop After an extensive literature review, the following gaps in the current
erties of cementitious materials, including CS, STS, and FS, when used in study area were identified, and future studies are suggested.
place of NA. These materials are not preferable to be used in higher
proportions because, at higher proportions, the loss in materials strength • The long-term performance of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is
is more. The weak characteristics of RAs, including adhered mortar and still unknown. Thus, additional research in this area is necessary. It is
cracks, are responsible for the negative influence on the properties of necessary to investigate the long-term performance and improve
cementitious materials. Though, there are some improvement tech ment of the microstructure under the real application of load. ITZ
niques, as mentioned in Table 7, which can be used to control their should be studied on a nanoscale. The durability of RAC must be
detrimental effect on the mechanical properties of composites. WG can evaluated from both a material and structural standpoint. There is a
be used as NA replacement in cementitious composites as well as cement dearth of information on the utilization of RA in other types of
replacement and has a more sustainable impact due to the reduction in composites, including high-performance composites, self-
cement demand and CO2 emission. Moreover, WG can improve the compacting composites, and precast composites. An appropriate
properties of composites when used in finer particle sizes. The modeling correlation between CS, STS, and FS should be established.
improvement in mechanical properties can be attributed to the pozzo The optimal mix proportioning must be established, as well as a
lanic nature and filling effect of finer WG. However, WG is not suitable proper mix design procedure need to be developed. To gain a better
to be used in higher proportions and coarser particle size. Glass has weak understanding of the behavior of RAC, numerical modeling needs to
strength than NA, and the smooth surface of the glass has weak bond be investigated. While researchers investigated some of the proper
strength with cement matrix, resulting in lower mechanical strength of ties of RAC, additional research on the structural behavior of RAC is
composites. To compensate for the loss in mechanical strength, pozzo necessary before it is widely used in construction.
lanic materials like SF, FA, GGBS can be used along with WG. • Additional research should be conducted to resolve discrepancies in
In addition, RHA is also suitable to be used in lower proportions. the properties of composites containing WG in place of aggregate/
However, the temperature at which RHA is produced also affects the cement, particularly the effect of WG particles on the water ab
performance of composites. The best pozzolanic properties of RHA can sorption and chloride penetration resistance of cementitious
23
common glass types could be tested as an aggregate or cement

replacement in cementitious composites, as most of the literature has
either focused exclusively on soda-lime glass or does not specify the
glass type tested. Additional research areas that are not covered in
this review included the use of glass in bricks, as soil reinforcing fi
bers, as a raw material in cement production, and as an aggregate in
concrete for low load-bearing structures, such as noise barriers.
• Although numerous studies have been performed on the properties of
RHA in terms of enhancing the mechanical properties of cementi
tious materials, additional research on the long-term durability of
composites containing RHA is required. Further studies, based on the
durability of composites containing RHA, may establish an optimal
w/b ratio with ordinary cement. Mechanical and durability proper
ties of composites containing RHA could be investigated in relation
to temperature variation during curing. Additional microstructural
studies on composites containing various RHA particle sizes may be
required.
• Natural fibers may be used in place of conventional additives. They
may exhibit similar mechanical properties and have similar envi
ronmental benefits, namely, a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
and a reduction in adverse environmental impacts. Contemporary
research yields encouraging results, but additional research is
required. Additional tests are required to optimize the mechanical
properties of the composites and to investigate other properties such
as absorptivity and resistance to various environments, as well as
long-term durability issues and a life cycle assessment of the chosen
products.
10. Conclusions
In this study, the scientometric review was performed along with

comprehensive discussions on various types of waste materials utiliza
tion in cementitious materials for sustainable construction. The scope of
the study was limited to the utilization of recycled aggregates (RAs)
from construction and demolition (C&D) waste, waste glass (WG), rice
husk ash (RHA), and natural fibers (NFs). It was observed that the use of
all these waste materials contributed towards sustainability in con
struction, more or less. Also, their influence on mechanical properties of
construction materials was assessed, concentrating on workability,
compressive strength (CS), split-tensile strength (STS), and flexural
strength (FS). Moreover, limitations appended with each approach and
their possible improvement techniques were described. The following
conclusions can be made:
• The scientometric review revealed that construction and building

materials and journal of cleaner production were the most prominent
contributing journals with respective publications of 282 and 268 in
the subject topic from 2000 to 2021. The top 5 most commonly
occurring keywords were sustainable development, recycling, con
struction industry, compressive strength, and sustainability. Addi
tionally, India, China, and the United States were the top three
contributing countries in terms of overall documents, with 358, 296,
and 228 documents, respectively.
• The use of RAs in cementitious materials as natural aggregate
replacement decreased its mechanical performance by reducing
workability, CS, STS, and FS. At higher proportions, their negative
Fig. 27. Microstructure of fractured surface of fiber reinforced composites impact was found more. Hence, utilization of RA contributes towards
with: (a) coconut fiber [181]; (b) hemp fiber [180]; (c) coconut fiber [34]. sustainable development but has a negative impact on material
properties. However, applying improvement techniques might
composites. Even though numerous studies on the use of WG in reduce their detrimental effect.
cementitious composites have been conducted, the majority of them • The influence of WG as cement replacement in cementitious com
have been conducted in the laboratory. Moreover, additional testing posites on the mechanical properties was found to be inconsistent.
should be conducted to determine the durability of composites Finer glass particles resulted in improved composite performance,
containing foamed glass aggregates and ultra-lightweight fiber while coarser glass particles decreased the mechanical properties of
reinforced concrete containing expanded glass. Additionally, less composites. Also, its use in higher proportions has a negative influ
ence on the mechanical properties of composites. It was observed
24
Table 9
Comparison of various aspects of utilizing waste materials in construction.
Type of waste material Sustainability aspects Influence on material properties Limitations Improvement techniques
Recycled aggregates from Natural resources protection Reduces workability Not preferable to be used in Improvement in recycling techniques and
construction and Solve waste management Reduces strength properties of the higher proportions specifications
demolition waste problems material, especially when used in Use of mineral admixtures
Reduction in energy consumption higher proportions Coating with cement slurry or mineral
Economy admixtures
Mixing process modification
Waste glass Natural resources protection May increase or decrease Not preferable to be used in Use of pozzolanic materials
Solve waste management workability higher proportions and Use of glass in powder form (finer particle
problems Improve strength properties when coarser particle size size)
Toxic elements contained in glass used in lower proportions and
can be solidified and locked finer particle size
within composites Reduces strength properties when
Reduction in CO2 emission used in higher proportions and
Economy coarser particle size
Rice husk ash Reduction in CO2 emission Reduces workability Not preferable to be used in Use of superplasticizers
Low heat of hydration Improves strength properties higher proportions Required controlled temperature of
Natural resources protection when used in lower proportions Temperature limit for 550–700 ◦ C for production that will be
Solve waste management Decreases strength properties production suitable to be used as a pozzolan
problems when used in higher proportions
Reduces environmental pollution
Economy
Natural fibers Natural resources protection Reduces workability Not preferable to be used in Use of superplasticizers
Solve waste management Mostly improves the strength higher contents Chemical pretreatment
problems properties, especially the post- Water absorption Modification in the mixing process
Economy peak behavior of the material Mixing process limitations for Use of pozzolanic materials
large scale production
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial conbuildmat.2020.119579.
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29

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Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103447

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

A systematic review of waste materials in cement-based composites for

List of abbreviation OPC ordinary Portland cement

Table 1 5. Utilization of recycled aggregates from construction and

Fig. 1. Scientometric analysis sequence and limits applied at various steps.

The schematic depiction of the recycling process is presented in Fig. 5.

Fig. 2. Network visualization of keywords.

Table 4 materials [65] as well as inorganic contaminations due to inner chem

Fig. 3. Network visualization of connected documents based on citations.

Construction and demolition waste Silica fume Rice husk ash

pozzolanic properties because of the conversion of silica to amorphous

7.1. Properties of composites containing rice husk ash

common glass types could be tested as an aggregate or cement

In this study, the scientometric review was performed along with

• The scientometric review revealed that construction and building

You might also like

A Systematic Review of Waste Materials in Cement Base - 2022 - Journal of Buildi

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Systematic Review of Waste Materials in Cement Base - 2022 - Journal of Buildi

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

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Did you find this document useful?

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A Systematic Review of Waste Materials in Cement Base - 2022 - Journal of Buildi

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Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103447

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

A systematic review of waste materials in cement-based composites for

List of abbreviation OPC ordinary Portland cement

Table 1 5. Utilization of recycled aggregates from construction and

Fig. 1. Scientometric analysis sequence and limits applied at various steps.

The schematic depiction of the recycling process is presented in Fig. 5.

Fig. 2. Network visualization of keywords.

Table 4 materials [65] as well as inorganic contaminations due to inner chem­

Fig. 3. Network visualization of connected documents based on citations.

Construction and demolition waste Silica fume Rice husk ash

pozzolanic properties because of the conversion of silica to amorphous

7.1. Properties of composites containing rice husk ash

common glass types could be tested as an aggregate or cement

In this study, the scientometric review was performed along with

• The scientometric review revealed that construction and building

You might also like

Table 4 materials [65] as well as inorganic contaminations due to inner chem