7.

1: Late Childhood
Late childhood is the stage of development in the life span of an individual that begins at approximately 6 years old to
the age of twelve years. It coincides with the child’s elementary school years, entering Grade 1 at six years and
graduating from Grade 6 at age 12. Physical, motor, social, emotional, moral, and intellectual changes are sources of
anxiety for the growing child. This is a critical period for the development of his achievement motivation. The child’s
sense of competence gives him the enthusiasm to learn skills, information, and values. His success in these efforts gives
him a sense of control and sense of self-esteem. When properly guided and directed, he develops a sense of maturity.
 Characteristics of Late Childhood
Late childhood is the period of learning the basic skills in life. The child receives instruction from adults and older
children. He also learns from his experiences. His peers and other significant people in his environment can influence his
learning.
Parents, educators, and psychologists apply various names to late childhood and these names reflect the important
characteristics of the period.
      Names used by PARENTS:
 Sloppy age -  a time when children tend to be careless and slovenly about their  appearance and
when their rooms are so cluttered that it is almost impossible to get into them
 Quarrelsome age – the time when family fights are common and when the emotional climate of
the home is far from pleasant for all family members
      Name used by EDUCATORS
 Elementary school-age – the child is expected  to acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are
essential for successful adjustment to adult life
     Names used by PSYCHOLOGISTS
 Gang age – major concern is acceptance by their age mates and membership in a gang,
especially a gang with prestige in the eyes of their age-mates
 Conformity age –willing to conform to group-approved standards in terms of  appearance,
speech, and behavior
 Play age- there is an overlapping of play activities characteristic of the younger years and those
characteristic of adolescence. It is the breadth of play interests and activities rather than the
time spent in play.
 Creative age -  whether the child will become conformist or producer of new and original work
 Late- Childhood Skills:
1. Self-help skills -older children should be able to eat, dress, bathe, and groom themselves with almost as much
speech  and adeptness as an adult, and these skills should not require the conscious attention that was
necessary for early childhood
2. Social-help skills -  relate to helping others at home.. they include making beds, dusting, and sweeping; at
school, they include emptying wastebaskets and washing chalkboards; and in the playgroup, they include
helping to construct a treehouse or layout a baseball diamond
3. School skills-at school, the child develops the skills needed in writing, drawing, painting, clay modeling, dancing,
crayoning, sewing, cooking, and woodworking.
4. Play skills- learn such skills as throwing and catching balls, riding a bicycle, skating, and swimming in connection
with play
 Developmental  Task of Late Childhood
Children in their childhood need opportunities, support, and guidance so that they can develop and accomplish the
following:
  learn physical skills necessary for group and organized games
 learn to get along with age-mates and members of his family and community
 learn fundamental skills in reading, writing, and numeracy
 develop appropriate masculine or feminine social roles
 learn concepts/skills necessary for everyday living
 develop a healthy self-concept
 develop a conscience, a sense of right and wrong, and values according to his culture
 achieve personal independence  by being able to perform life skills
 learn to perform the different roles expected of him
 think rationally to adjust to situations, make decisions and solve problems

 7.2 : Physical Development during

Late Childhood
 Physical growth, which is at a slow and relatively even rate in late childhood with the typical
child gaining 5-7 pounds and growing 2 inches annually. 
 Growth trends in height of Filipino children and youth follow the general type of growth curve
showing a steady increase from early childhood to pre-puberty, followed by a period of
accelerated growth lasting through the early part of adolescence. The girls are taller until the
boys catch up with them at fourteen years of age.
  Growth trends in weight of females show a slow gain in weight during early childhood up to
about eight years but by nine years the girls are just as heavy as the boys. By ten years the
girls start to gain weight faster than the males and keep up this increase until age fourteen.
 Good health and good nutrition are important factors in a child’s growth and development. The
better the health and nutrition, the taller children tend to be in comparison with those who are
poorly nourished.
                                                          Average Height and Weight
                                                                 Filipino Boys and Girls
                                                                      6-14 years old

Height (cms.) Weight (kgs.)

Age Years
Boys Girls Boys Girls

6 105 105 17.82 17.39

7 108.5 108.5 20.45 20.21

8 113 113.5 22.45 22.25

9 117 118 24.8 24.3

10 122 123 27.7 28.2

11 126.5 128.5 31.3 32.35

12 131.5 133.5 35.6 37

13 138.5 138.5 40 41.45

14 145 141.5 44.7 44.85

 Source: FNRI-PPS, 1992 

 Body Proportions
 Although the head is still proportionally too large for the rest of the body, some of the facial
disproportions disappear as the mouth and jaw become larger, the forehead broadens and
flattens, the lips fill out, the nose becomes larger, and acquires more shape. The trunk
elongates and becomes longer, the chest broadens, the abdomen flattens, the arms and legs
lengthen, and the hands and feet grow larger but at a slow rate.
 Real Talk: Emotional stress or emotional tension also affect the physical development of the
child. Parents and teachers, by modeling stress management, can help children overcome
some of their fears and anxiety. Encouraging children to express their feelings and thoughts
can help them maintain their physical activity and relaxation so as to promote their growth and
development.

7.3 : Cognitive Development during Late

Childhood
According to Cattell’s model of mentality, this is “crystallized” intelligence, which consists of
continuously acquired patterns of adaptation to one’s culture depending on one’s age and
experience.
 Arnold Gessell, a developmental psychologist who strongly expressed the importance of biological
maturation in development, characterized mental development as behavior or qualitative patterning.
Stages of Cognitive Development by Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget viewed intelligence as a process, an assimilating activity brought about by the
individual’s interaction with his environment. First, he emphasized that intelligence is a dynamic
process, an activity. Second, he indicated that the nature of that process is organization and
adaptation. Third, in this process, the operation of certain invariant functional laws, assimilation, and
accommodation, result in many variable structures (schema or behavioral pattern, new acquisitions,
abilities, and so on) which in turn become the tools and means for further interaction with the
environment.

APPROXIMATE
STAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
PERIOD IN LIFE

SENSORIMOTOR Birth to 2 years old Children explore the world using their senses and
 ability to move. They develop object permanence
and the understanding that concepts and mental
images represent objects, people, and events

Young children can mentally represent and refer to

objects and events with words or pictures and they
PREOPERATIONAL 2 to 7 years old can pretend. However, they cannot conserve,
logically reason, or simultaneously consider many
characteristics of an object.

Children at this age are able to conserve, reverse

their thinking, and classify objects in terms of their
CONCRETE
7 to 12 years old many characteristics. They can also think logically
OPERATIONS
and understand analogies but only about concrete
events.

People at this stage can use abstract reasoning

about hypothetical events or situations, think about
12 years old to
FORMAL OPERATIONS logical possibilities, use abstract analogies, and
adulthood
systematically examine and test hypotheses. Not
everyone can eventually reason in all these ways.

 The Period of Concrete Operation

At the concrete level of operation, thinking can take place only in the presence of an objective
situation. The representation is “decentered “ from the action. “Decentering” is a development of the
thinking function where the child transfers what is now centered at the level of activity to a mental
level of assimilation. The job of decentering from the use of his own acts as signifiers
(representations) of the not-present, and the achievement of the ability to use instead centrally based
“operations” is one that requires much additional maturing and experience with the objective and the
social and interpersonal aspects of reality.
 The ability to achieve this level of operations permits the child in his thinking to reverse the process.
He is now able to perform reversible transformations and conservation. Initially, these operations are
concrete, that is, they are used directly on objects. The child can classify concrete objects, order
them, em or perform numerical operations or measure them from a spatial point of view. As the child
matures and has more experiences, his memory capacity increases and he remembers the various
connections necessary to make inferences.
 Children in their elementary years need to develop the necessary thinking skills to enhance their
sense of competence. The range of knowledge, skills, and values they develop in this stage will
determine their sense of self-efficacy. If they are able to cope with the demands of academic work,
they will feel confident and take risks. If they always fail and feel they lack skills, they may develop
inferiority or resort to other negative behavior.
Language Development
By 5th grade, a child’s vocabulary has grown to 40,000 words at the rate of 20 words per
day. Children are able to think about objects in less literal ways and develop a more sophisticated
vocabulary that allows them to tell jokes. School-aged children are also able to learn new grammar
rules with more flexibility. The school years may be the best time to be taught a second language.
 
Special Vocabularies of Late Childhood (by Hurlock)

1. Etiquette vocabulary- by the end of the first grade, children who have had training at home in using such
words as “please” and “thank you,” have as large etiquette vocabularies as those of the adults in their
environments
2. Color vocabulary- learn the names of all the common colors and many of the less common ones shortly
after they enter school and begin to have formal training in art
3. Number vocabulary- from their study of arithmetic at school, children learn the names and meaning of
numbers
4. Money vocabulary- both in school and at home, older children learn the names of the different coins and
they understand the value of the various denominations of bills
5. Time vocabulary- the time vocabularies of older children are as large as those of adults with whom they
come in contact but their understanding of time words is sometimes incorrect
6. Slang-word and swear-word vocabularies- children learn slang words and swear words from older
siblings and from the older children in the neighborhood. Using such words makes them feel “grown-up”
and they soon discover that, in addition, the use of such words has great attention value
7. Secret vocabularies- use secret vocabularies to communicate with their intimate friends. These can be
written, consisting of codes formed by symbols or the substitutions of one letter for another

7.4 : Emotional Development during

Late Childhood
Emotions are developed in the context of social groups. In the family, children learn what it (the
family) expects and what it rejects. Encouraging children to express themselves regarding these
values can be helpful for their relationship, mental health, and success.
 Children of school age come in contact with wider circles of people in school and nonhome
environment. As people talk about each other, what they like or dislike, children retain some ideas
about labels for feelings affiliated with these expressions. They begin to apply these notions to their
inner reactions and soon have names for the internal arousals of joy, sadness, fear, anger, or
embarrassment.

Real talk: Filipino culture discourages expressions of emotions so children are confused. When
they were young they were showered with hugs and kisses, with attention. As they grow older, they
are given less attention and scolded more often, at certain times for reasons they cannot
comprehend.
 Another confusing condition is the tolerance for the emotional expressions of boys and girls. Boys
should be made aware that it is all right for them to cry or to have some fears. Girls can profit from
their anger by directing their anger to constructive projects.

7.5 : Social Development during Late

Childhood
According to Mead (1934), the self emerges in the process of socialization- a process of social
interaction and social activity mediated by language.  
 Children are able to respond to a number of individuals in the group and integrate the various roles
or set of norms of the group. This takes place in what Mead calls the period of generalized others.
Around the age of eight or nine, children engage in games where they are able to take the attitudes
and responses of others in social activity and know that these roles have a definite relationship with
each other. They visualize their own action as a part of a whole pattern of group activity. This is
similar to being engaged in a game like a basketball where a player must see his or her relationship
with the roles played by others. That is, as captain guards, and forward. To play the game of life, the
individuals must know his or her role in relation to others and be aware of their values. In the process,
the individual assumes the organized social attitudes and moral ideals of the social groups or
communities to which he or she belongs. These exert an influence on his or her attitudes toward
different projects and cooperative activities, as well as social problems which the group faces, and
can direct his or her own behavior accordingly. This becomes the individual’s orientation toward the
world and his or her frame of reference.
In contrast with Freud, Erikson proposed that an individual’s personality develops throughout the
lifespan, which is a departure from Freud’s view that personality is fixed in early life. He emphasized
the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to
Freud’s emphasis on erogenous zones. He identified eight stages, each of which includes a conflict
or developmental task. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend
on the successful completion of each task. 

Developmental Successful Dealing Unsuccessful Dealing

Developmental Crisis
Period with Crisis with Crisis

Trust Versus Mistrust If babies’ needs for food, If babies’ needs for food,
comfort, and affection comfort, and affection are
Infants learn a basic Infancy are meth, they develop a not met they develop a
sense of trust dependent sense of trust in people sense of mistrust and do
Birth to 1 ½-year-old
upon how their needs are and expect those needs not expect their needs to
met. to be met in the future. be met in the future.

Autonomy versus Toddlers whose attempt

Shame and Doubt Toddlers who are
Toddler of being independent are
successful in controlling
Toddlers begin to blocked develop a sense
1 ½ to 3 years old their own actions develop
understand that they can of self-doubt and shame
independence.
control their own actions. for failing.

Initiative Versus Guilt If preschoolers succeed If preschoolers fail in

in controlling their controlling their reactions
Preschool children learn Preschool Age reactions and behavior, and behavior, they feel
to take responsibility for they feel capable and irresponsible, anxious,
3 to 5 years old
their own behavior as develop a sense of and develop a sense of
they develop self-control. initiative. guilt.

Industry Versus Elementary School When children feel they When children fail or feel
Inferiority
The school-aged child have succeeded in
must learn new skills in learning these skills, they
that they have failed in
both the academic world Age develop a sense of
learning these skills, they
and the social world. industry, making them
5 to 12 years old feel inferior when
They compare feel competent and
compared to others.
themselves to others to improving their self-
measure their success or esteem.
failure.

Identity Versus Role Adolescents who are

Confusion unable to define
Adolescents who are
themselves remain
Adolescents must decide Adolescence able to define their
confused and may isolate
who they are, what they values, goals, and beliefs
13 to early 20s themselves from others or
are, what they believe, will develop a stable
try to be like everyone
and what they want to be sense of identity.
else instead of
as an adult. themselves.

Young adults who are

Intimacy Versus unable to find someone
Isolation Young adults who
(often because they do
successfully find
Young adults face the not yet have a stable
Early adulthood someone and share their
task of finding a person identity to share) will
identities will have a
with whom they can The 20s and 30s isolate themselves and
fulfilling relationship
share their identity in an may experience
founded on psychological
ongoing, close, and loneliness, even when
intimacy.
personal relationship. involved in shallow
relationships with others.

Children begin to form friendships within the context of the peer group. The importance of friends
during childhood. As children move into early adolescence, they begin to talk about friends in terms of
shared identities and similar personalities. This is an outgrowth of the theme of cooperation in which
mutual understanding implies similarity. If individuals know and help each other at this stage, they
assume that the other person is a lot like them. Themes of trust, loyalty, and self-revelation are now
frequently mentioned in discussions of friendship.  Children are very industrious and busy where they
are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with friends. If industrious children view
themselves as successful, they will get a sense of competence for future challenges while feelings of
inferiority and self-doubt arise when they view themselves as less successful. 
In addition, children prepare children who are friendly, not aggressive, physically attractive, members
of their own race, and the same sex. it is rare for a girl and boy to be best friends in late childhood.
Some youngsters are "stars" and others are "isolates" or "rejects," at an early age. Friendless children
lack skill in joining a group, cooperating, and solving conflicts peacefully. Hurlock identified the
psychological hazards of late childhood such as:

 speech hazards- children who have difficulty speaking the language used in their school
environment may be handicapped in their efforts to communicate and may be made to feel that
 they are “indifferent” - egocentric speech, critical and derogatory comments, and boasting
antagonize their peers
 emotional hazards -if they continue to show unacceptable patterns of emotional expression,
such as temper tantrums, and if such unpleasant emotions as anger and jealousy are so dominant
that children are disagreeable and unpleasant to be with
 social hazards - children who are rejected or neglected by their peer group are deprived of
opportunities to learn to be social
 play hazards- children who lack social acceptance are deprived of opportunities to learn the
games and sports essential to gang belonging 
 moral hazards - the development of a moral code based on peer or mass-media concepts of right
and wrong which may not coincide with adult 
 hazards associated with interest - being uninterested in the things age-mates regard as
important
  hazards in sex-role typing  - when children have grown up in homes where parents play sex
roles that differ from those of their age-mates’ parents
 family-relationship hazards - it weakens family ties and leads to a habitual unfavorable pattern of
adjustment to people and problems which carries outside the home. There are common  conditions
contributing to the deterioration in family relationships in late childhood, such as:

o attitudes toward parenthood-  parents who perceive their roles unfavorably and feel that the
time, effort, and money expended on their children are unappreciated tend to have poor
relationships with their children
o parental expectations – when children fail to meet expectations, parents often criticize, nag,
and punish.
o child-training methods – authoritarian child training, commonly used in large families, both
lead to friction in the home and feelings of resentment on the child’s part. Democratic
discipline fosters good family relationships
o socioeconomic status – if children feel that their homes and possessions compare
unfavorably with those of their peers, they often blame their parents and the parents tend to
resent this bitterly.
o parental occupations –if their mothers work outside their home, children’s attitudes toward
their mothers are colored partly by how their friends feel about women working outside the
home and partly by how many home responsibilities they are expected to assume.
o changed attitudes toward parents- from contacts with their friends’ parents and as a result
of what they have read in books or see in television or in the movies, children build up
concepts of an ideal mother and father. If their own parents fall short of these ideals, they are
likely to become critical of them and compare them unfavorably with the parents of their
friends
o sibling friction – older siblings frequently criticize the appearance and behavior of the
younger child who in turn likes to teas and bully even younger siblings. If parents attempt to
put a stop to this, they are accused of playing favorites.  The children may then gang up
against them and the sibling whom they regard as the parental pet.
o changed attitudes towards relatives- older children enjoy being with relatives less than they
did when they were younger and tend to regard them as “too old” or “too bossy.”  When they
are expected to be a part of a family gathering, they often put up a protest and claim that
family gatherings “bore” them. Relatives resent these attitudes and frequently reprove the
children.
o stepparents – older children who remember a real parent who is no longer in the home
usually resent a stepparent and show it by critical, negativistic, and generally troublesome
behavior. This leads to friction in the home.
 hazards in personality development - the development of an unfavorable self-concept, which  leads to
self-rejection

 Real Talk: Children's opportunities to make friends, and the kinds of friendships they form,
depend in part on their social environment and such factors like school size.

7.6 : Moral Development during Late

Childhood
According to Piaget, between the ages of five and twelve, children’s concepts of justice change. Their
rigid and inflexible notions of right and wrong, learned from parents, become modified and they begin
to take into account the specific circumstances surrounding a moral violation. It seems that moral
relativism replaces moral inflexibility.
 Laurence Kohlberg (1981) assumes that moral reasoning parallels the child’s cognitive development.
He assumes that as a person becomes cognitively more complex, the child reaches more complex,
higher levels of moral reasoning. As an individual progresses to higher levels of moral reasoning, he
becomes more concerned with the actor’s motives than with the consequences of the actor’s actions.
Stages of Moral Development  by Lawrence Kolhberg 

Pre-Conventional Morality
Behavior is guided by rewards and punishments. Behaviors are “good” or “bad” depending
on their consequences. The child does not understand the rules of society.

Obedience or
Obeying the rules is important to avoid
STAGE 1 Punishment
punishment.
Orientation

Self-Interest Equal exchange. If one is good to others,

STAGE 2
Orientation then others will be good to you.

Conventional Morality
The child begins to grasp social rules and gains a more objective perspective on right and
wrong.

There is a sense of what “good boys” and

Social Conformity
STAGE 3 “nice girls” do. Adolescents aim to get social
Orientation
approval from those closest to them.
 Law and Order The focus is on following the rules of society,
STAGE 4
Orientation respecting authority, and doing one’s duty.

Post-Conventional Morality
At this level, emphasis is on the personal or idealized principles of a person.

The understanding is that laws, rules, and

regulations are created for the mutual benefit
of all citizens. People at this stage may
sometimes disobey rules if they find them
Social Contract
STAGE 5 inconsistent with their personal values and
Orientation
will also argue for certain laws to be changed
if they are no longer working. People
understand and believe in democracy in
action.

At this stage, people have a principled

conscience and will to follow universal ethical
principles regardless of what the official laws
Universal Ethics
STAGE 6 and rules are. Right and wrong are not
Orientation
determined by rules and laws, but by
individual reflection on what is proper
behavior.

 Children who are in their late childhood are expected to be at the conventional level of moral
reasoning. At Stage 3 they uphold conventional laws and values by favoring obedience to parents
and authority figures. Children base judgments on how they imagine others would feel about their
actions. This is sometimes called the "good boy/good girl" stage of morality. Children are most
concerned about the opinions of their family and friends.
According to Hurlock,  late childhood children began to experience conflicts whose resolution will
affect the development of their moral standards and sense of self-esteem. Their moral concepts 
change  when it comes to their perception in:

o life - while some older children find it difficult to understand that many things that move—a
river, for example—are not alive, they become increasingly aware that movement is not the
sole criterion of life
o  death- children who experience the death of a family member or pet have a good
understanding of the meaning of death, and the emotional weighting of their concepts of death
is colored by the reactions of those around them
o life after death - concepts of life after death depends mainly on the religious instruction
children receive and on what their friends believe
o bodily functions -  until children begin to study hygiene in elementary school, many of their
concepts about bodily functions are inaccurate and incomplete.  This is especially true of
internal bodily functions
 o space-  by using scales and rulers, children learn the meaning of ounces, pounds, inches,
feet, and even mile-from reports of space exploration in the mass media, they develop
concepts about outer space
o numbers-  numbers take on new meanings as older children use money and work out
arithmetic problems- by the time they are nine or ten years old, children understand number
concepts to 1,000 and beyond
o causality-  concepts of physical causality usually develop earlier than concepts of
psychological causality- children know, for example, what causes rain or snow earlier than
what causes people to become angry
o money-  children begin to understand the value of various coins and bills when they start to
use money- opportunities to use money vary markedly and are greater in the lower
socioeconomic-status families than in the upper
o time- the rigid schedule of the school day enables children to develop concepts of what they
can accomplish in a given period of time.  Social studies in school and mass media help them
to develop concepts of historical time
o self-  children’s concepts of themselves become clarified when they see themselves through
the eyes of their teachers and classmates and when they compare their abilities and
achievements with those of their peers
o  sex roles-  not only do boys and girls develop clear concepts of approved sec roles, but
before childhood is over they may also learn that the male role is apt to be considered more
prestigious than the female role
o social roles-  older children are aware of their peers’ social, religious, racial, and
socioeconomic status and they accept cultural stereotypes and adult attitudes toward these
statuses.  This leads to group consciousness and, in many cases, to social prejudice
o beauty -  older children tend to judge beauty in terms of group standards rather than
according to their own aesthetic standards.  What the group regards as beautiful or ugly, they
accept as their own concepts. 
o the Comical - older children’s concepts of the comical are based partly on what they have
observed others perceive as funny and partly on what they themselves can comprehend, as in
the case of riddles.

7.7: Self - Awareness

  Can you remember how you first became aware of yourself as an individual?
Children are not born with a sense of "me" and "mine." Their image of themselves, their ideas about
where they fit in their social world, and their feeling of self-worth develop gradually during childhood-
and continue to change throughout life.  To review: The first sign that children have a self-image
appears in the second year of life. The baby's awareness of his continuing identity develops along
with object permanence; his image of himself reflects his new ability to form mental representations.
The child's awareness of a separate identity expands when he begins to talk, learn his name, and
masters the pronouns that describe himself ( I and me ) and others ( you ).
During late childhood, youngsters' definitions of themselves are elaborated and refined. When
children of 7 or 8 are asked "Who are you?" they describe concrete, physical features, and activities. 
The basis of self-image shifts from concrete, observable characteristics to internal psychological
processes. When young children look at themselves, they focus on the exterior. Like census takers,
they are only interested in objective facts. Adolescents are more like psychoanalysts, probing the
inner world of thoughts and feelings, dreams and fantasies.
The child's image of himself depends in part on how other people respond to him.  Self-concept is
more realistic and can be influenced by peers, family, teachers, and other messages. 
 
Factors affecting the self-concept in late-childhood ( by Hurlock)

 physical condition- poor health or physical defects that cut children off from play with their peers
make them feel inferior and martyred
 body build- children who are overweight or very small for their ages may be unable to keep pace
with their peers, and, as a result, they develop feelings of inferiority
 names and nicknames –names which cause children to be ridiculed or which suggest minority-
group status, can lead to feelings of inferiority. Nicknames that make fun of a physical or
personality trait lead to feelings of inferiority, martyrdom, and resentment.
 socioeconomic status –if children feel that they have better homes, better clothes, and better
play equipment than their age-mates, they will feel superior. If they sense that their socioeconomic
status is inferior to that of their age-mates it is likely to lead to feelings of inferiority.
 school environment–competence, understanding teachers do much to bring about good
adjustment in their pupils, while teachers who use discipline that children consider unfair or that
otherwise antagonize them have the opposite influence.
 social acceptance –acceptance or the lack of it on the part of peers influences the child’s
personality through its effect on the self-concept. Very popular children and isolates are especially
affected.
 success and failure –success in the tasks the child sets out to achieve leads to a feeling of
confidence and self-acceptance, while failure makes for a feeling of inadequacy. The more
prestigious the activity, the greater the effect of success or failure on the self-concept. Repeated
failures have a damaging effect on a child’s personality.
 sex-girl recognize that the sex roles they are expected to play are inferior to male roles, and this
realization results in a corresponding decrease in self-evaluation. They incorporate society’s
evaluations of their roles as inferior and so value themselves less. 
 intelligence
o Children who are duller than average sense their inferiority and the rejectant attitude of their
group- they become shy, introverted, or apathetic and aggressive toward those who reject
them
o Children with high IQs also are likely to have poor self-concept due to the fact that adults
expect too much from them.

  Some common interests of late childhood:

 appearance-interested in their looks only if they are so homely or so different in appearance from
their age-mates
 clothes- interested in clothing like that worn by their friends-with definite color preferences in
clothing
 names and nicknames- first names are of interest to older children only when they are different
from their friends’ names – they do not like nicknames that imply ridicule
 religion-often skeptical about religious teaching and about the efficacy of prayers
 the human body- try to satisfy their curiosity about what goes on inside their bodies by asking
questions, reading books, or looking at illustrations
 health- only when they are sick are they interested in health
 sex-getting information from books or  from their friends with whom they exchange “dirty” stories
and jokes
 school- enthusiastic about their school at first. By the end of the second grade, many develop
bored, antagonistic, and critical attitudes toward the academic work though they may still like the
nonacademic aspects of school- their attitudes are greatly influenced by how interesting the
teachers make the material they are expected to learn and how they view this material in terms of
future occupations
 future vocation-interest in their future vocations is centered on jobs, children regard as
glamorous, exciting, and prestigious, or which embody activities or uniforms that are important to
them at that time
 status symbols- interested in visible symbols of the socioeconomic status of their families such
as cars or large houses
 autonomy-how much autonomy depends mainly on how much their friends have…. If they have
as much or more than their friends, they are usually satisfied

8.1: Characteristics of Puberty

The onset of adolescence is heralded by two significant changes in physical development- the
adolescent or pubertal growth spur and puberty. The changes are brought about by the activation of
the endocrine glands. The process begins as the hypothalamus instructs the pituitary to activate the
adrenal glands and the gonads (ovaries or testes). individuals in this stage need proper sex education
in order to cope with the anxieties during this stage.

PUBERTY
The word puberty is derived from the Latin word pubertas, which means “age of manhood.” It refers to
the physical rather than the behavioral changes which occur when the individual becomes sexually
mature and is capable of producing offspring.
 Puberty is the point in the development of man at which the individual becomes physically capable of
sexual reproduction. It covers the time during which the primary and secondary sex characteristics of
the body emerge. Sexual maturation follows a predictable sequence for members of both sexes. It
begins with the production of sex hormones by the ovaries in females and testes in males. These
hormones trigger a series of physiological changes that lead to ovulation and menstruation in females
and the production of sperm cells in males. These are the primary sex characteristics. Menarche or
the first menstrual period signifies this new stage of maturation for girls. The secondary sex
characteristics like the development of the breast and hips begin before menarche and continue until
the individual has reached full maturity.
 There is no one particular experience that establishes manhood in the same way that menarche
signals womanhood. However, the pubescent male experiences growth in both primary and
secondary characteristics. Growth usually occurs first in the testes in their sac-like container, the
scrotum. About a year later the developmental acceleration encompasses the penis, which becomes
larger. Internal glands in the reproductive system enlarge and begin to form and secrete a variety of
substances including mature spermatozoa.

Characteristics of Puberty (by Hurlock):

1. Puberty is an overlapping period - it encompasses the closing years of childhood and the
beginning years of adolescence. Puberty happens during the last years of childhood and the
starting years of adolescence. It is about 10 1/2 years to 13 years for girls and about two years
later for boys.
2. Puberty is a short period– lasting from 2 to 4 years or less are regarded as “rapid maturers----
girls tend to mature more rapidly than boys.
3. Puberty is manifested in both internal and external changes in the body. Primary and secondary
sex characteristics are manifested in the changes.
4. Puberty is a time of rapid growth and change. The rapid growth is called pubertal growth spurt.
5. Puberty is divided into three stages:

o Prepubescent-secondary sex characteristics begin their development but the reproductive

organs are not yet fully developed
o Pubescent– characterized by menarche for girls and nocturnal emissions (wet dreams) in
boys.
o Postpubescent–secondary sex characteristics become well developed and the sex organs
begin to function in a mature manner.

  6. A negative phase - losing some of the good qualities previously developed.  The worst of the negative
phrase is over when the individual becomes sexually mature. The negative phase is more pronounced in girls
than in boys.
  7. Occurs at a variable age- can occur between the ages of 5 or 6 and 19 years.

The Role of Significant Others

Based on many researches and studies, the concerns and problems of the growing individual in this
stage varied. They range from physical, social, emotional, academic, and moral. Growing up towards
the healthy direction depends largely on the individual’s interactions with the significant others--
parents, peer group, teachers, and authorities. The individual’s sense of self his/her capacity and
worth will develop based on how the influence of the significant others and guide him/her towards
his/her sense of independence, self-reliance, and sense of responsibility. His/her sense of
responsibility will determine how he/she will solve his/her problems, decide from himself/herself, and
act on his/her environment.
 Parents can do a lot to help their teeners cope with their “growing up pains.”  the key to prepare them
adequately for the expected physical changes. It is important to explain to them what all these mean.
Maintaining open communication between parents and children gives the young pubescent
opportunity to ask questions about their experiences. Parents who are sensitive to their pubescents’
anxieties can help by giving adequate information, and lots of support and encouragement. Parents
who make adjustments in their parenting style promote mature and responsible behavior in their
pubescents.

8.2: The Physical development during

Puberty Period
Sometimes after children are ten years old, hormonal secretions from the pituitary gland, lying at the
base of the brain, begin to stimulate other endocrine glands: the ovaries (in females), the testes (in
males), and the adrenal glands (see picture below). As hormones from these glands enter the
bloodstream, bodily changes that will eventually make the individual capable of reproducing begin to
occur.

Physical Development during Puberty Period

Four important physical changes occur during puberty, namely: changes in body size, changes in
body proportions, the development of the primary sex characteristics, and the development of the
secondary characteristics.
 Changes in the Body
The first physical change at puberty is the change in body size in terms of height and weight. The
timing of this event varies from child to child. Girls gain an average annual increase of 3 inches during
menarche. After menarche, the rate of growth slows down to about one inch a year, coming to a
standstill at around eighteen for early maturers, and early twenties in late maturers. Boys grow rapidly
between thirteen to fifteen years, with the peak occurring at fourteen years. After that growth
decelerates and continues at a slower rate until the age of twenty-one.
 Weight gain during puberty comes not only from an increase in fat but also from an increase in bone
and muscle tissues. Thus, even though they are gaining weight the pubescent child looks thin. Girls
experience the greatest weight gain just before and just after menarche. Boys experience maximum
weight gain a year or two later than girls and continue to gain even up to age sixteen. Because of the
longer growth periods, boys gain more in height and eight than do girls.
Changes in Body Proportion
The second major physical change is the change in body proportions. Certain areas of the body
become proportionally too big because they reach their mature size sooner than other areas. The
whole body attains adult proportions in all areas during the latter part of adolescence.
  Primary Sex Characteristics
The third major physical change is the growth and development of the primary sex characteristics.
The gonads or testes, which are located in the scrotum, or sac, are only 10 percent of their mature
size at the age of fourteen years. There is rapid growth for a year or two., then growth slows down.
The testes are fully developed by the age of twenty or twenty-one.
 Menarche or the first menstrual flow signifies this new stage of maturation for girls. This is the
beginning of a series of periodic discharges of blood, mucus, and broken cell tissues from the uterus.
It occurs approximately every twenty-eight days until the girl reaches menopause usually in the late
forties or early fifties.
 Secondary Sex Characteristics
The fourth major physical change at puberty is the development of secondary sex characteristics.
These are the physical features that distinguish males from females and which may be the source of
appeal among members of the opposite sex. Boys develop muscles that give shape to their arms,
legs, and shoulders. Their voice becomes husky and later increases in volume. The girls develop
wider and rounder hips as a result of the enlargement of the pelvic bone and the development of
subcutaneous fat. Shortly after the hips have started to enlarge, the breast begins to develop. The
nipples enlarge and protrude.

8.3: Concerns during Puberty

As Havighurst has pointed out,” It is a rare youngster who is never worried during this period with the
question: Am I normal?” Because boys and girls are very conscious of every change that takes place
in their bodies and because they have definite ideas about how they would like to look, they become
concerned if they feel that they are unattractive or that their appearance is sexually inappropriate.
Furthermore, the rapid changes in height and weight during puberty growth can be a source of
concern for adolescents. Some aspects of physical development that upset adolescents include:

 Sex differences in growth rates. While males and females grow at about the same rates during
childhood, females experience puberty, and the adolescent growth spurt 2 years earlier than
males.
 Different growth rates of body parts. Hands and feet grow before arms and legs, and legs grow
before the torso. Noses, ears, and jaws can outpace the growth lead to awkwardness, lack of
poise, and embarrassment.
 Irregular changes in weight and physique. The rapid gains in height, the shifts in body fat, and
the late development of muscle tissue can cause the adolescent’s physique to change
dramatically.
 Troublesome skin changes. Sweat and odor glands step up their activity, producing body odor
and the need for frequent bathing. The oil glands become active and may cause skin problems
like acne.
 Personality/Appearance. His physical growth and development make the pubescent develop
self-consciousness. He begins to worry about his personal appearance-- clothes, grooming, and
acceptability to peers.
 Relationships. The pubescent’s sense of self, his new self, his new role, and his view of the
future usually overwhelms the young pubescent, affecting his interaction with significant others.
 Variation in age maturity. Sexual maturation can begin anytime within a six-year range for both
sexes. These differences in the timing of puberty can be of significant concern for the individual.

 Effects of Deviant Maturing

Children who are most affected by the physical changes that normally occur at puberty are the
deviant maturers. A deviant maturer is one whose sexual maturation occurs a year or more from the
norm for the sex. Children who mature sexually earlier than their sex group are called early maturers
while those who mature sexually later than their sex group are called late maturers. When children
require less than the normal time for their sex group to complete the maturational process they are
called rapid maturers while those who need more than normal time are called slow maturers.
 Early growth in height and muscle is generally advantageous to boys. They usually gain leadership
status because of their physical prowess. The boy who lags behind in size, strength, and mature
appearance is at a disadvantage until he catches up in the growth spurt.
 The consequences of early pubescence are more complex for girls. Changes in the height and
shape of the body sometimes interfere with early social adjustment. They are sometimes
embarrassed by the attention given to them by older boys. They sometimes are separated from their
slow-maturing peers. They can be very self-conscious and shy away from group activities. Some girls
can be very particular with their physical appearance and begin to join maturer groups, engaging in
the maturer group’s activities. This could facilitate early maturation when other aspects of growth and
development are not neglected. If she is properly guided, the early maturing female may benefit from
the attention and guidance given to her and she could be a source of guidance and leadership for her
other peers.
 Deviant sexual maturing, whether the deviation is in the age at which sexual maturing occurs or in
the time needed to complete the sexual and bodily changes, has a profound influence on the
attitudes, behavior patterns, and self-concepts of boys and girls. Of the different forms of deviant
maturing, late and slow-maturing have, on the whole, more unfavorable effects than early and rapid
maturing.
8.4: Social Impacts of Pubertal Changes
Social Impacts of Pubertal Changes
Pubescents who are maturing physically and sexually not only come to feel differently about
themselves but come to be viewed and treated differently by other people. 
Perhaps the most intriguing phenomenon called an initiation rite, a ceremony with which the society
marks the passage of youth from childhood to adulthood or maturity. In some cultures, the beginning
of puberty is marked by violent ceremonies in which the sexual organs of men and (less often)
women are mutilated or otherwise subject to stress. For example, among the Kaguru of eastern
Africa, pubertal boys are led into the bush, stripped, and shaved of all hair, which symbolizes losing
their status as children (Beidelman, 1971). They then undergo the painful experience of circumcision
without anesthesia, learn about tribal
sexual practices, and are taught ritual songs and riddles that instruct them in the ways of manhood.
Finally, they are “anointed” with red earth to mark their new status and led back to the village for
celebrations and feasts. The Kaguru girls are initiated when they experience their first menstruation.
The genital area is cut as a mark of their new status, and they are instructed in the ways of
womanhood, usually by their grandmother, before being welcomed back into society as an adult.
Although our society has no universal rites of passage to mark one’s transition from
childhood to adolescence or from adolescence to adulthood, pubertal changes may nonetheless have
social consequences. Lawrence Steinberg (1981, 1988) reports that around age 11 to 13 when
pubertal changes are peaking, European American adolescents become more independent and feel
less close to their parents, with whom they often argue. These standoffs are more likely to involve
squabbles about unmade beds, late hours, and loud music than arguments about core values, but
they can be unpleasant nonetheless. Hormonal changes in early adolescence may contribute to
these conflicts as well as to moodiness, bouts of depression, and restlessness (Buchanan, Eccles, &
Becker, 1992; Udry, 1990). However, none of these experiences is inevitable. In fact, Mexican
American boys and their parents appear to become closer rather than more distant as puberty
arrives, suggesting that cultural beliefs about rituals signify the passage from one period of life to
another.

8.4: Emotional Development during

Puberty Period
There is evidence that changes in attitudes and behavior that occur during the puberty period are
more the result of social than glandular changes, though the glandular changes unquestionably play
some role through their influence on body homeostasis. The less sympathy and understanding the
pubescent child receives from parents, siblings, teachers, and peers and the greater the social
expectations at this time, the greater the psychological effects of the physical changes.
 Common Effects of Puberty Changes on Attitudes and Behavior

1. The desire for isolation- when puberty changes begin, children usually withdraw from peer and
family activities and often quarrel with peers and family members. They spend much time
daydreaming about how misunderstood and mistreated they are and experimenting with sex
 through masturbation. Part of this withdrawal syndrome includes the refusal to communicate with
others.
2. Boredom-pubescent children are bored with the play they formerly enjoyed, with schoolwork, with
social activities, and with life in general. As a result, they do as little work as they can, thus
developing the habit of underachieving.  This habit is accentuated by not feeling up to par
physically.
3. Incoordination- rapid and uneven growth affects habitual patterns of coordination, and the
pubescent child is clumsy and awkward for a time. As growth slows down, coordination gradually
improves.
4. Social antagonism– the pubescent child is often uncooperative, disagreeable, and antagonistic.
Open hostility between the sexes, expressed in constant criticism and derogatory comments, is
common at this age. As puberty progresses, the child becomes friendlier, more cooperative, and
more tolerant of others.
5. Heightened emotionality– moodiness, sulkiness, temper outbursts, and a tendency to cry at the
slightest provocation are characteristic of the early part of puberty. It is a time of worry, anxiety,
and irritability. Depression, irritability, and negative moods are especially common during the
premenstrual and early menstrual periods of girls. As pubescent children become more mature
physically, they become less tense and exhibit more mature emotional behavior.
6. Loss of self-confidence– the pubescent child formerly so self-assured, becomes lacking in self-
confidence and fearful of failure.  This is due partly to lowered physical resistance and partly to the
constant criticism of adults and peers. Many boys and girls emerge from puberty with the
foundations of an inferiority complex.
7. Excessive modesty- the bodily changes that take place during puberty cause the child to
become excessively modest for fear that others will notice these changes and comment on them
favorably.

 According to Hurlock, there are three A’s of unhappiness at Puberty ( 3 “A’s ), these are:

 Acceptance- both self-acceptance and social acceptance. To be satisfied with their lives to the
point that they can consider themselves happy, pubescents must not only like and accept
themselves, the happier they will be. Similarly, the more people there are whom they want to like
and accept them, the more satisfied they are with their status in the social group
 Affection- they want more affection than they formerly did because they are unhappy and
dissatisfied with themselves and with life in general
 Achievement- at a low level at this age that it makes little or no contribution to the pubescent
child’s happiness. When their achievements fall short of their potentials, most pubescents realize
it and feel guilty and ashamed. When for example, their school grades take a plunge, as they
often do during the puberty years, pubescents are aware of the fact that they can do and have
done better work than they are now doing. If parents and teachers criticize and reprimand them
for their lack of achievements, this adds to the feelings of guilt they experience and affects
detrimentally their happiness.

 Because the three A’s of happiness--- acceptance, affection, and achievement--- are often violated
during these years, puberty tends to be one of the most unhappy periods of the life span. This is
serious because unhappiness can and often does become habitual.

9.1: Adolescence
The term adolescence comes from the Latin word adolescere meaning to grow to maturity---
mentally, emotionally, socially, and physically. This point of view was expressed by Piaget as quoted
in Hurlock (1982) when he said:
                        “ Psychologically, adolescence is the age when the individual becomes integrated into
the society of adults, the age when the child no longer feels that he is below the level of his elders but
equal, at least in rights. This integration into adult society has many affective aspects, more or less
linked with puberty. It also includes very profound intellectual changes… These intellectual
transformations typical of the adolescent’s thinking   enable him to achieve his integration into social
relationship of adults, which is, in fact, the most general characteristic of this period of  development.”

Adolescent Years
It is customary to regard adolescence as beginning when children become sexually mature and
ending when they reach the age of level maturity. Studies of changes in behavior, attitudes, and
values throughout adolescence show marked differences during the early part of the period. As a
result, it is divided into two subdivisions, early and late adolescence. The division is placed at around
17 years, at about the same time they pursue collegiate courses or begin to be apprentices in the
world of work. Early adolescence extends roughly from thirteen to sixteen or seventeen years while
late adolescence is a short period from the age of 16 to 18 up to twenty-one for those who would like
to continue to depend on others for financial support until they are through with college course. 

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence

The developmental tasks of adolescence are focused on developing independence in preparation for
adulthood and in establishing a sense of identity. Achieving independence is facilitated by developing
intellectual skills and concepts necessary for the development of socially responsible adults. Schools
and colleges try to build values that are in harmony with those held by adults. Parents also contribute
to this development. Sometimes the adult-fostered values clash with peer values. Adolescents find
themselves caught between adult and peer standards of socially responsible behavior and as
expected, they have choices.

Characteristics of Adolescence
1. An important period-rapid physical and mental development occurs. These give rise to the
need to form mental adjustments and the necessity for establishing new attitudes, values, and
interests.
2. A  transitional period- is neither a child nor an adult. If adolescents behave like children, they are
told to “act their age.” If they try to act to act like adults, they are often accused of being “too big
for their britches” and are reproved for their attempts to act like adults
3. A period of change- during early adolescence, when physical changes are rapid, changes in
attitudes and behavior are also rapid. As physical changes slow down, so do attitudinal and
behavioral changes.

 heightened emotionality- depends on the rate at which the physical and psychological
changes are taking place
 rapid changes that accompany sexual maturing-making young adolescents unsure of
themselves, of their capacities, and other interests- have strong feelings of instability which
are often intensified by the ambiguous treatment they receive from parents and teachers.
 changes in their bodies, their interests, and in the roles the social group expects them to
play create new problems
 values- most adolescents no longer think that a large group of friends is a more important
indication of popularity than friends of the type that are admired and respected by their
peers. They now recognize quality as more important than quantity
  ambivalent about changes- while they want and demand independence, they often dread
the responsibilities that go with independence and question their ability to cope with these
responsibilities.

4. A problem age- many adolescents are inexperienced in coping with their own problems, rebuffing
attempts on the part of parents and teachers to help them. Because of their inability to cope with
problems alone as well as they believe they can, many adolescents find that the solutions do not
always come up to their expectations.
5. A time of search for identity- to establish themselves as individuals is by the use of status
symbols in the form of cars, clothes, and other readily observable material possessions.  They
hope in this way to attract attention to themselves and to be recognized as individuals, while at the
same time, maintaining their identity with the peer group.
6. A dreaded age-the belief that adults have poor opinions of them makes the transition into
adulthood difficult. By so doing, it leads to much friction with their parents and places a barrier
between them and their parents which prevents them from turning to their parents for help in
solving their problems.
7. A  time of unrealism- tendency to look at life through rose-tinted glasses. They see themselves
and others as they would like them to be rather than as they are. The more unrealistic their
aspirations are, the more angry, hurt, and disappointed they will be when they feel that others
have let them down or that they have not lived up to the goals they set for themselves.
8. The threshold of adulthood-begin to concentrate on behavior that is associated with the adult
status—smoking, drinking, using drugs, and engaging in sex.  They believe that this behavior will
create the image they desire.

9.2: Physical Development during

Adolescence
Growth is far from complete when puberty ends, nor is it entirely complete at the end of early
adolescence. There is a slackening of the pace of growth, and there is more marked internal than
external development during later adolescence.
As is true to all ages, there are individual differences in physical changes. Sex differences are
especially apparent. Even though boys have their growth spurt later than girls, their growth continues
longer, with the result that, at maturity, they are usually taller than girls. Because boy’s muscles grow
larger than those of girls’ at all ages after puberty, boys surpass girls in strength, and this superiority
increases with age.
Satisfaction with the physical changes that take place as children’s bodies are transformed into adult
bodies is so important. A person’s physical appearance, along with his sexual identity, is the
characteristic that concerns most adolescents and affects their self-confidence.
Concern about normality will persist until the physical changes on the surface of the body have been
completed and adolescents can be sure that their bodies conform to the norms of their sex groups.
Anxiety on the sex-appropriateness of their bodies continues until the growth and development of the
primary and secondary sex characteristics have been completed. Adolescents also have to be
watched because they usually exert effort to develop endomorphic bodies since social reactions to
body build usually favor endomorphy.
For many girls, menstruation is a serious concern. They suffer physical discomforts like cramps,
headaches, backaches, swollen ankles, and breast tenderness, as well as weight gain.
It is unusual for adolescent boys and girls not to be concerned about their physical attractiveness.
They realize that people treat those who are attractive more favorably than those who are less
attractive. They are also aware of the role of attractiveness in their being liked as friends, leaders,
group members, and object of admiration of the members of the opposite sex. Consequently, they
spend proportionally more time and thought on how they can improve their looks.
 

9.3: Cognitive Development during

Adolescence
Just as there is a spurt in physical and sexual development, there is also a “cognitive spurt.” The
changes that take place in the adolescent’s intellectual growth are both quantitative and qualitative.
During middle childhood, mental growth tends to be fairly even. During adolescence, however, some
abilities and skills appear to develop more than others. It appears that intellectual skills tend to
become more specialized during adolescence, and the individual may demonstrate what appears to
be emerging special interests, such as an aptitude for science or verbal skills.
This differentiation and specialization of abilities are sometimes heavily weighted by social-cultural
factors. Although mental skills of childhood tend to remain the same throughout childhood until
adolescence, some adolescent’s life circumstances may result in dramatic changes in intellectual
performance. An example would be an adolescent who, because of his association with a peer group
that does not value schooling, may show a decline in his school performance.
According to Piaget, adolescent cognitive development is now at the formal operation stage. The
following chart shows a comparison/transition from concrete operations to formal operations stage:
 

Concrete Operations Stage Formal Operations Stage

Can think about the possible as

Focus on the relationship
well as the real, can now deal
between objects that they
The Separation of Possibility and with things one might be able to
classify, categorize and order;
Reality think about and with symbols and
dependent on concrete objects
words that transform concrete
for successful problem solving
experiences.

Can solve equations only if all

Solve algebraic equations/use a
elements are represented in
second-order symbolic system
The Use of Symbols to terms of concrete, first-order
(symbols that represent other
Represent Other Symbols symbols; needs visual clues to
symbols (example: algebraic x
deal with the complex symbolic
and y) and metaphors.
relationships.

The Ability to Coordinate Multiple They may not proceed Is able to raise and test a
Factors in Problem Solving systematically in solving a hypothesis about a given
problem and may not be able to problem in a systematic fashion;
 perceive the interaction of marked ability to deal with many
several factors in a situation. facts simultaneously.

Although not all adolescents attain formal operations during early adolescence, there is evidence that
some older adolescents may go beyond formal operations or to the second phase of formal
operations. This phase has been called problem finding in contrast to the problem solving that
characterizes formal operations. Thus, the thinking of some older adolescents aged 15 to 20 years
old might be considered “divergent” (moving towards new or creative solutions or the identification of
alternatives) rather than “convergent” (moving toward known or accepted solutions to problems). this
type of thinking characterizes older adolescents. Intelligence is identified by the quality of questions
asked rather than the arrival at known conclusions.
Thinking about the meaning of words leads the adolescent to the creation of ideals. Thinking about
“what would be” makes him question “what it,” and is sometimes the basis for conflicts between hos
and adults. He begins to criticize the conditions of his own environment or the persons in his family
and school. “My teacher is not good, she does not know how to teach and yet she scolds us very
often.”
According to David Elkind (1984), teenagers are particularly likely to harbor such beliefs. Taken
together, he calls them the “personal fable,” the conviction that “I am special--- what is true for
everyone else is not true for me.” Up to a point, this fable supports an optimistic outlook on life, but it
becomes dangerous if it leads people to take foolish risks.
Although most adolescents have reached the level of formal operational reasoning, their cognition at
times often retains an immature quality. This is not really surprising; they have recently developed the
ability to reason abstractly, but have little experience upon which to base their abstract thoughts.
David Elkind (1984) has pointed out that adolescents often possess a form of egocentrism of young
children and similarly distorts their perception of reality. There are four primary features of adolescent
ego-centrism. As you will readily notice, the thinking of fully mature adults is not always free of these
characteristics. However, the four reality-distorting activities described by Elkind are more
characteristic of the adolescent stage than any other -- and help explain why conversations between
adolescents and adults are sometimes so frustrating to both parties.

1. The primary characteristic of adolescent egocentrism has been termed the imaginary audience by
Elkind. The adolescent often feels that he or she is the focus of everyone’s attention. If he
stumbles or stammers, everyone will notice, talk about, and never forget the event.  Of course, the
crowd is no more interested in his minor tragedies than in their own. The audience that the
adolescent believes detects his every flaw does not really exist-- it’s imaginary.
2. Adolescent egocentrism also manifests itself in what Elkind calls the personal fable. The
adolescent often feels that her problems- over school, complexion, friends -- are totally unique,
having never been experienced by anyone else in a remotely similar way. Understandably, this
form of egocentric thinking can heighten the adjustments that are a normal part of adolescence
and can lead to a sense of isolation in some adolescents.
3. Adolescent egocentrism is typified by an unusual degree of hypocrisy. Adolescents are even more
likely than adults to condemn in others the same actions and traits that they find acceptable in
themselves. The adolescent is outraged when she learns that her friend had a luncheon with a
friend. She is jealous but excuses herself for talking with her neighbor because it was just plain
courtesy.
4. Finally, adolescent egocentrism is characterized by what Elkind (1984) colorfully calls
pseudorapidity. This often involves an overreliance on the power of logic. The adolescent might
say, “ If alcoholics know they’re going to die from cirrhosis of the liver, why don’t they just stop
 drinking.” the cold logic of their argument makes it difficult for them to consider that it’s difficult for
alcoholics to stop their consciousness-numbing addiction for many psychological and physical
reasons. At other times, however, this pseudostupidity takes the form of using unnecessary
convoluted and complex logic when simpler thinking will suffice. These unusual patterns of logic
also tend to make reasoning with adolescents a notable challenge.

 
An important product of thinking about ideals is adolescents’ future orientation. The future orientation
of the adolescent is a way of developing goals and organizing immediate activities meaningfully in
terms of nature is an important skill of adulthood. “I have to study harder in Mathematics. I’ll need this
when I take up Engineering in college.”

9.4: Identity Development

As Erikson pointed out, adolescence is a time of “finding yourself,”  determining “who am I?” or “who
will I be?” It is when most people first construct a coherent “life story” of how they got to be the way
they are.
In some societies, most people enter the same occupation as their parents and live in the same town.
The parents may even choose their children’s marriage partners. The western society offers young
people far more choices about education, career, marriage, political and religious affiliation, where to
live, sexual activity, and so forth. All that freedom is invigorating but also somewhat frightening.
An adolescent’s concern with decisions about the future and the quest for self-understanding has
been called an identity crisis. The term crisis implies more emotional turbulence than in typical.
According to Marcia(1980),  identity development has two elements; whether one is actively exploring
the issue and whether one has made any decisions. We can diagram the possibilities using the
following grid:

            Has explored or is exploring the issues                     Has not explored the is

             Identity  Forec

Decisions
already made      Identity Achievement
  Decisions not
yet made
Identity Moratorium    Identity Diffusion

Those who have not yet given any serious thought to making any decisions and who have no clear
sense of identity are said to have identity diffusion. They are not actively concerned with their
identity at that moment. Identity diffusion is more common among people with low self-esteem and a
hopeless, pessimistic attitude toward life. People in identity moratorium are considering the issues
but yet making decisions. They experiment with various possibilities and imagine themselves in
different roles before making a choice. Researchers distinguish between two kinds of moratorium ---
simply delaying a decision and actively searching for a decision (Crocetti, Rubini, Luyckx, and
Meeus, 2008).
Identity foreclosure is a stare of reaching firm decisions without much thought. For example, a
young man might be told that he is expected to go into the family business with his father, or a young
woman might be told that she is expected to marry and raise children. Decrees of that sort were once
common in North America and Europe, and they are still common in other societies today. Someone
who accepts such decisions has little reason to explore alternative possibilities.
Finally, identity achievement is the outcome of having explored various possible identities and then
making one’s own decisions. Identity achievement does not come all at once. For example, you might
decide about your career but not about marriage. You might also reach identity achievement and then
rethink a decision years after.

Conditions influencing the adolescent’s self–concept  

 Age of maturing: early maturers, who are treated as near-adults, develop favorable self-concepts
and thus make good adjustments.  Late maturers, who are treated like children, feel
misunderstood and martyred and thus are predisposed to maladjusted behavior.
 Appearance: being different in appearance makes the adolescent feel inferior, even if the
difference adds to physical attractiveness. Any physical defect is a source of embarrassment
which leads to feelings of inferiority. Physical attractiveness, by contrast, leads to favorable
judgments about personality characteristics, and this aids social acceptance.
 Sex-appropriateness: sex- appropriate appearance, interests, and behavior help adolescents
achieve favorable self-concepts. Sex-appropriateness makes them self-conscious and this
influences their behavior unfavorably
 Names and nicknames: adolescents are sensitive and embarrassed by members of the peer
group judge their names unfavorably or if they have nicknames that imply ridicule
 Family relationships: an adolescent who has a very close relationship with a family member will
identify with this person and want to develop a similar personality pattern.  If this person is of the
same sex, the adolescent will be helped to develop a sex-appropriate self-concept.
 Peers: peers influence the adolescent’s personality pattern in two ways. First, the self-concepts of
adolescents are reflections of what they believe their peers’ concepts of them are, and, second,
they come under peer pressures to develop personality traits approved by the group
 Creativity: adolescents who have been encouraged to be creative in their play and academic work
as children develop a feeling of individuality and identity that has a favorable effect on their self-
concepts. By contrast, adolescents who have been forced to conform to an approved pattern
since earliest childhood lack a feeling of identity and of individuality.
 Level of aspiration: if adolescents have unrealistically high levels of aspiration, they will
experience failure. This will lead to feelings of inadequacy and to defensive reactions in which
they blame others for their failures. Adolescents who are realistic about their abilities will
experience more successes than failures. This will lead to greater self-confidence and self-
satisfaction, both of which contribute to better self-concepts.

Factors influencing adolescent attitudes toward education

 PEER ATTITUDES –whether they are college-oriented or work-oriented
 PARENTAL ATTITUDES- whether parents consider education a stepping-stone to upward social
mobility or only a necessity because it is required by law.
 GRADES which indicate academic success or failure
 The relevance or practical value of various courses
 Attitudes toward teachers, administrators, and academic and disciplinary policies
 Success in extracurricular activities
 Degree of social acceptance among classmates

9.5: Emotionality during Adolescence

Adolescence has been thought of as a period of “storm and stress” - a time of heightened emotional
tension resulting from the physical and glandular changes that are taking place.
While adolescent emotions are often intense, uncontrolled, and seemingly irrational, there is generally
an improvement in emotional behavior with each passing year. Emotional maturity is said to have
been achieved if the individual does not “explode,” have temper tantrums, or sulk when disappointed.
Another important indication of maturity is when the individual assesses a situation critically instead of
reacting irrationally and emotionally to a situation. He is able to think about the circumstances, make
decisions, act accordingly, and solve problems rather than engage in unhealthy emotional outbursts.
He should be encouraged to discuss his problems with his “significant others.”
As he matures, he gets involved in different interpersonal relations. It is but normal to have conflicts in
any relationship. How an adolescent manages and resolves conflict is an important factor in
maintaining healthy relationships. In a study of conflict management styles (Buenaventura, 1995),
Filipino first and second-year adolescents were found to be accomodating, I.e., they show low
assertiveness and high cooperativeness which are important in the preservation of a relationship. As
junior and senior students mature, they begin to use a problem-solving style characterized by high
assertiveness and high cooperativeness. Parties in conflict seek to find a mutually acceptable solution
that will satisfy their interests. They try to study an issue in an attempt to find innovative possibilities.
Adolescents must also learn how to use emotional catharsis to clear their system of pent-up
emotional energy. They can engage in strenuous physical exercise, at play, or at work. Crying and
laughing are considered unfavorable, but are allowed since they provide an outlet for pent-up
emotions. Sharing one’s emotional problem with a friend, writing a letter, or praying hard can also
facilitate a better understanding of the problem and lead to insight. Though peers are the first ones to
be solicited for advice, adolescents should be encouraged to share their worries and anxieties with
the appropriate members of their families.

9.6: Social Changes during Adolescence

One of the most difficult developmental tasks of adolescents relates to social adjustments. These
adjustments must be made to achieve the goal of preparing themselves for adult patterns of
socialization.
During early adolescence, peer-group acceptance is very important to an adolescent. He wears the
same type of clothes, engages in the same activities, and does the same things to be accepted by his
peer group.
As adolescence progresses, peer-group influences begin to wane. The reasons for this: first, most
adolescents want to become individuals in their own right; hence, they begin to establish their identity;
and second, in the adolescents’ choice of their companions. They have a tendency to narrow down
their friends to a smaller number.
Adolescents want as friends those whose interests and values are similar to theirs, who understand
them and make them feel secure, and in whom they can confide problems and discuss matters they
feel they cannot share with their parents or teachers.

Adolescent social groupings

1. CLOSE FRIENDS- the adolescent usually has 2 or 3 close friends or confidants. They are of the
same sex and have similar interests and abilities. Close friends have a marked influence on one
another, though they may quarrel occasionally.
2. CLIQUES- are usually made up of groups of close friends. At first, they consist of members of the
same sex, but later include both boys and girls
3. CROWDS- made up of cliques and groups of close friends, develop as interest in parties and
dating grows. Because crowds are large, there is less congeniality of interest among the members
and thus a greater social distance between them
4. ORGANIZED GROUP- adult-directed youth groups are established by schools and community
organizations to meet the social needs of adolescents who belong to no cliques or crowds. Many
adolescents who join such groups feel regimented and lose interest in them by the time they are
16 or 17
5. GANGS-adolescents who belong to no cliques or crowds and who gain little satisfaction from
organized groups may join a gang. Gang members are usually of the same sex, and their main
interest is to compensate for peer rejection through antisocial behaviour.

Conditions contributing to acceptance and rejection in

adolescence
Acceptance syndrome

 Favorable first impression as a result of an attractive appearance, poise, and cheerfulness

 A reputation as a good sport and one who is fun to be with
 The appearance that conforms to that of peers
 Social behavior characterized by cooperativeness, responsibility, resourcefulness, interest in
others, tact, and good manners
 Maturity, especially in terms of emotional control and willingness to conform to rules and
regulations
 Personality traits that contribute to good social adjustments, such as truthfulness, sincerity,
unselfishness, and extroversion
 A socioeconomic status that is equal to, or slightly above, that of the other group members and a
good relationship with family members
 Geographic proximity to the group permits frequent contacts and participation in group activities

Alienation syndrome

 An unfavorable first impression as a result of unattractive appearance or an aloof, self-centered

attitude
 A reputation as a poor sport
 Appearance that does not conform to group standards of physical attractiveness or grooming
 Social behavior characterized by showing off, teasing and bullying others, bossiness,
uncooperativeness, and lack of tact
 Lack of maturity, especially in the areas of emotional control, poise, self-confidence, and tact
 Personality traits that imitate others, such as selfishness, stubbornness, resentfulness,
nervousness and irritability
 A socioeconomic status below that of the group and poor relationships with family members
 Geographic isolation from the peer group or inability to participate in group activities due to family
responsibilities or a part-time job

Recreational interests of adolescents:

 GAMES-organized games and sports lose their appeal as adolescence progresses, and the
adolescent begins to prefer spectator sports. Games requiring intellectual skill, such as card
games, increase in popularity.
 RELAXING- Adolescents enjoy relaxing and talking with their friends. They often eat while
gossiping and exchanging jokes, and older adolescents may smoke, drink, or take drugs.
 TRAVELING- the adolescent enjoys traveling during vacations and may want to go farther and
farther away from home. Parental affluence and youth hostels make travel possible for many
adolescents
 HOBBIES- because hobbies are, for the most part, solitary recreational activities, unpopular
adolescents are more interested in hobbies than popular ones. Many pursue useful hobbies; girls
may make their own clothes, and boys enjoy repairing radios, bicycles, or cars.
 DANCING- although many boys have little interest in dancing, they, like girls, try to become good
dancers because it is an important part of dating.
 READING- because adolescents have limited time for recreational reading, they tend to prefer
magazines to books. As adolescence progresses, comic books and comic strips lose some of
their appeals, and newspapers gain in popularity.
 MOVIES-going to the movies is a favorite clique activity and later a popular dating activity. Girls
prefer romantic movies, while boys like those dealing with adventure.
 RADIO AND RECORDS- adolescents enjoy listening to the radio while studying or engaging in
solitary forms of amusement. Programs of popular music are the favorites. They also enjoy
listening to records.
 TELEVISION- television watching loses some of its appeals as adolescence progresses, partly
because the adolescent becomes increasingly critical of the programs and partly because the
adolescent cannot study or read and watch television simultaneously
 DAYDREAMING- in a typical adolescent daydream, adolescents see themselves as conquering
heroes gaining prestige in the eyes of the peer group by their achievements. Daydreaming is a
popular recreation among all adolescents when they are bored or lonely.

 Common social interests of adolescents

 PARTIES: Interest in parties with members of the opposite sex first manifests itself at about age
13 or 14. Girls enjoy parties more than boys throughout adolescence
 DRINKING: drinking on dates or at parties becomes increasingly more popular as adolescence
progresses. Girls rarely drink with members of their own sex, as boys do.
 DRUGS: while far from universal, the use of drugs is a popular clique and party activity, beginning
in early adolescence.  
 CONVERSATIONS: all adolescents derive a sense of security from getting together with a group
of peers and talking about the things that interest or disturb them. Such get-togethers provide an
opportunity to blow off emotional steam and get a new perspective on their problems.
 HELPING OTHERS: many young adolescents are sincerely interested in trying to help people
they feel have been misunderstood, mistreated, or oppressed. As adolescence progresses, this
interest wanes for two reasons. First, adolescents start to feel that there is nothing they can do to
right these wrongs and, second, they feel that their attempts are often unappreciated.
 WORLD AFFAIRS: through courses in school and the mass media, adolescents often develop an
interest in government, politics, and world affairs. They express this interest mainly through
reading and discussions with their peers, teachers, and parents.
 CRITICISM AND REFORM: almost young adolescents, but especially girls become critical and
attempt to reform their parents, peers, schools, and communities. Their criticisms are generally
destructive rather than constructive, and their suggestions for reform are usually impractical.

9.7: Changes in Morality during

Adolescence
Adolescents are expected to replace the specific moral concepts of childhood with general moral
principles and to formulate those into a moral code that will act as a guide to their behavior. Equally
important, they must now exercise control over their behavior.
During adolescence, boys and girls have reached what Piaget has called the stage of formal
operations in cognitive development. They are now capable of considering all possible ways of
solving a particular problem and can reason on the basis of hypotheses or propositions. Thus, they
can look at their problems from several points of view and can take many factors into account when
solving them.
According to Kohlberg, the third level of moral development, post-conventional morality, should be
reached during adolescence. This is the level of self-accepted principles and it consists of two stages.
In the first stage, the individual believes that there should be flexibility in moral standards if this will be
advantageous to group members as a whole. In the second stage, he conforms to both social
standards and internalized ideals to avoid self-condemnation rather than to avoid social censure. In
this stage, morality is based on respect for self and others rather than on personal barriers.
Studies of moral development have indicated that the only effective way people of any age can
control their own behavior is through the development of conscience, an inner force that makes
external controls unnecessary. When adolescents learn to associate pleasant emotions with group-
approved behavior, and unpleasant emotions with group disapproved behavior, they will have the
necessary motivation to behave in accordance with group standards.

The pattern of changes in religious interests

 Period of religious awakening: when adolescents prepare to join the church of their parents, their
interest in religion is heightened. As a result of this increased interest, they may either become
extremely enthusiastic about religion- even to the point where they think they want to devote their
lives to it- or they may grow skeptical of the religious beliefs they accepted unquestioningly during
childhood. They often compare these beliefs with those of their friends or analyze them critically in
terms of their increased knowledge. 
 Period of religious doubt: As a result of a critical examination of their childhood beliefs,
adolescents often become skeptical of religious forms, such as prayer and formal church rituals,
and later begin to doubt religious content, such as teachings about the nature of God and life after
death. For some adolescents, doubt leads to a lessening of all religious observances, while others
attempt to find a faith that meets their needs better than that of their family. 

 Period of religious reconstruction: sooner or later, most adolescents feel the need of some
religious faith, even though they find their childhood faith no longer meets their new faith--- the
faith of an intimate friend of the same or of the opposite sex or one of the new religious cults.
These cults are constantly springing up in different parts of the country and have a strong appeal
to the older adolescents and young adults who lack religious ties. Such young people are easy
prey to any new or different religious cult

9.8: Enhancing Family Relationships

Common causes of family friction during adolescence

 Standards of behavior: adolescents often consider their parents’ standards of behavior old-
fashioned and resent having to conform to standards different from those of their peers
 Methods of discipline: when adolescents regard disciplinary methods used by their parents as
“unfair” or “childish,” they rebel. The greatest rebellion occurs in homes where one parent is
perceived as having more authority than the other. This is especially so when the mother has the
greater authority. By contrast, egalitarian marriage relationships tend to be related to a moderate
amount of rebellion.  
 Relationships with siblings: the adolescent may be scornful of younger siblings and resentful of
older ones, leading to friction with them as well as with parents, whom they may accuse of
“playing favorites.”
 Feeling victimized: adolescents often become resentful if the socio-economic status of their
families makes it impossible for them to have the same status symbols--- clothes, cars, etc. – their
friends have; if they must assume many household responsibilities, such as care of younger
siblings; or if a stepparent comes into the home and tries to “boss” them. This antagonizes
parents and adds to an already strained parent-adolescent relationship.
 Hypercritical attitudes- family members resent adolescents’ hypercritical attitudes toward them
and the general pattern of family life.
 Family size: In medium-sized families--- three to four children--- there is more friction than in small
or large families. Parents in large families will not tolerate friction while, in small families, they are
more permissive and adolescents feel less need to rebel
 Immature behavior: parents often develop punitive attitudes when adolescents neglect their
school work, shun their responsibilities, or spend their money foolishly. Adolescents resent these
critical and punitive attitudes
 Rebellion against relatives: parents and relatives become angry if adolescents openly express
their feelings that family gatherings are “boring” or if they reject their suggestions and advice
 Latchkey problems: the new and more active social life of adolescents may result in the breaking
of family rules concerning time to return home and the people they associate with especially
members of the opposite sex.

 Common obstacles to making the transition to maturity

 Poor foundations: adolescents who did not establish good foundations during childhood will be
unable to master the developmental tasks of adolescence
 Late maturing: late maturers have less time in which to master the developmental tasks of
adolescence than early maturers or those who mature at the average age. Many late maturers
have barely completed the puberty changes when adolescence is drawing to a close
 Prolonged treatment as children: adolescents who, because they were late maturers, are often
treated as children at the time when their contemporaries are treated as near adults. As a result,
they may develop feelings of inadequacy about their abilities to assume the rights, privileges, and
responsibilities that go with adulthood.
 Role change: adolescents who go to work after completing high school, or after dropping out of
school, undergo a drastic role change almost overnight. They must assume adult roles earlier
than their contemporaries who continue their education, and they are deprived of the opportunity
to make a slow transition into adulthood.
 Prolonged dependency: a prolonged state of dependency as when adolescents continue their
education into early adulthood, is a handicap in making the transition to adulthood. Because girls,
as a group, are more apt to be forced into a state of prolonged dependency than boys, they are
especially handicapped in making the transition into adulthood.

As adolescence progresses, the frictional relationship is gradually replaced by a more pleasant and
affectionate relationship.
The parent-adolescent relationship improves when parents begin to realize and accept that their sons
and daughters are no longer children and when they try to understand the new cultural values of their
adolescents. They begin to relax in their discipline and try to understand their children’s standards of
behavior. Adolescent, on the other hand, begins to share anxieties and experiences with their
parents. Thus, both parties enjoy a more pleasant and affectionate relationship.
Relationship with siblings, grandparents, and other relatives improves as adolescence progresses.
With their newly acquired poise and self-confidence, adolescents begin to appreciate older siblings
and accept younger siblings’ behavior. They begin to treat grandparents and other relatives more
graciously and heed their criticisms more gratefully.

1. Parent and Adolescent Conflict. It is the family where an individual should experience the most
stable relationship individual should experience. Parents and adolescents usually develop
conflicts even if they are most familiar with each other, living in the same unit, which is the home.
They are also attached to each other by the greatest interpersonal emotion which is love. Yet, a
 survey of adolescent problems shows that family relations are one of the highest sources of an
adolescent’s problems.

One of the most complaints of adolescents about their parents is that the latter treats them as
unthinking. They are reminded of the same things so they sound like a “broken record.” “They seem
not to realize that I have grown and am not a kinder pupil anymore.” Stubbornness ( not heeding the
former’s reminders and advice) and their lack of cooperation with them when peer and parent conflict.
Joseph R. Thomas (1980) cites seven ways to effectively manage conflicts in the family:

1. Be willing to discuss matters and to give consideration to the views of others.

2. Stick to the point and don’t inject irrelevances and recall instances when the other person goes
wrong.
3. Don’t argue at mealtime, or in front of others, or bring others into dispute.
4. Don’t abuse anyone physically, verbally, or psychologically, or resort to unfair tactics to win your
point.
5. Look at areas of agreement and the possibility of compromise.
6. Be willing to admit it when you are wrong.
7. Be willing to forget the disagreement once it’s behind you and to forgive or apologize if either is
called for.

2. Expanding the possibilities of nonviolent conflict resolution by changing oneself is a very

real possibility for all. Parents should be positive and open to their children. If they want their
children to be good then they should also be good. Without this critical link, the whole chain of
parenting for peace and justice comes apart.
3. Mutual problem solving with children can absolutely minimize conflicts.

10.1: Early Adulthood

The term adult comes from the  Latin word “adultus” which means “grown to full size and strength” or
“matured.” An adult is someone who is responsible, mature, self-supporting, and well-integrated into
society. Also, people do not develop these attributes and characteristics at the same time and with
the same skills. This adult stage has three sub-stages of development. The first stage is early
adulthood, the second stage is middle adulthood, and the third stage is late adulthood.
 Early adulthood extends from the age of 18 to approximately age 40 when the physical and
psychological changes which accompany the beginning of the loss of reproductive capacity
appear. This period is studied as a series of stages that start with the ’20s. Commitments are made
and the individuals have a well-defined sense of who they are. It is in this stage that they have moved
from a period of exploration to one stabilization. They are refining or improving the patterns of their
lives which are done by accepting and accommodating social norms.

Characteristics of Early Childhood

Hurlock describes the characteristics of early childhood. These include:

1. The “setting-down age.”When adults of today start to settle down depends upon two factors. First, how
soon they are able to find a lifestyle that meets their needs throughout life. Second, the responsibilities they
must assume before doing so. Once individuals decide upon the pattern of life they believe will meet their
needs, they develop patterns of behavior, attitudes, and values that will tend to be characteristically theirs
for the remainder of their lives
 2. The “reproductive age.” Parenthood is one of the most important roles in the lives of most young adults.
Those who were married during the latter years of adolescence concentrate on the role of parenthood during
their twenties and early thirties; some become grandparents before early adulthood ends.
 3. A “ problem age.” In the years from the beginning of legal adulthood to thirty, most men and women are
adjusting to marriage, parenthood, and jobs. Consequently, most men have made their adjustments to their work
earlier and are now concentrating on adjustments related to problems of parenthood.
 4. A “ period of emotional tension.” When emotional tension persists into the thirties, it is generally
expressed in worries. What young adults worry about will depend on what adjustment problems they are facing
at the time and how much success or failure they are experiencing in meeting these problems.  Their worries
may be mainly concentrated on their work because they feel they are not advancing as rapidly as they had
hoped to, or their worries may be concentrated on marital or parenthood problems. When adults feel that they
have not been able to cope with the problems in the major areas of their lives, they are often so emotionally
disturbed that they contemplate or attempt suicide
 5. A “period of social isolation.” Isolation is intensified by a competitive spirit and a strong desire to rise on
the vocational ladder. To achieve success, they must compete with others—thus replacing the friendliness of
adolescence with the competitiveness of the successful adult—and they must also devote most of their energies
to their work, which leaves them little time for the socialization that leads to close relationships. As a result,
they become self-centered, which contributes to loneliness
 6. A “time of commitments.” Establish new patterns of living, assume new responsibilities, and make new
commitments. While these new patterns of living, new responsibilities, and new commitments may change
later, they form the foundations on which later patterns of living, responsibilities, and commitments will be
established.
 7. A “ period of dependency.” Some young adults resent this dependency, though they realize it is essential if
they are to get the training needed for their chosen careers. Many take the financial support of their parents of
educational institutions, or of the government for granted, but feel no obligation to be dominated in any way by
those who have financed their training for their future careers. They expect and demand the same autonomy that
their self-supporting age-mates have.
 8. A “ time of value change.” There are many reasons for value changes. First, if young adults want to be
accepted by members of the adult group, they must accept the values of the adult group. Second, young adults
soon discover that most social groups hold conventional values about beliefs and behavior, just as they do about
appearance. Third, young adults who become parents not only tend to change their values earlier and more
radically, than those who are unmarried or childless, but they also shift to more conservative and traditional
values. In general, the values of most young adults change from egocentric to social. Members of the “me”
generation--- those who think mainly of their own happiness and desire for self-indulgence--- gradually become
more socially conscious and concerned as they assume the roles of spouse and parent.
 9. The “ time of adjustment to new lifestyles.”The most common are adjustments to new family-life patterns
and new vocational patterns, especially large and impersonal work units in business and industry
 10. “A creative age.” Many young adults pride themselves on being different and do not regard this as an
indication of inferiority. Because they are no longer shackled by the restrictions placed on their behavior by
parents and teachers, young adults are free to be themselves and to do what they want to do.

 Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

Among the developmental tasks in early adulthood, those relating to occupation and family life are the
most numerous, the most important, and the most difficult to master. Even when adults have had
some work experience, have married, and have become parents, they must still make major
adjustments to these roles.
The other developmental tasks of adulthood--- finding a congenial social group, adjusting to changes
in recreation necessitated by adult patterns of living, and taking on civic responsibilities are easier for
adults to master because they acquired a background of training and experience in these during
childhood and adolescence. Thus these adjustments are mainly revisions of patterns of behavior that
have already been established.

10.2: Physical Development in Early

Adulthood
Early adulthood is generally a time of peak physical health. People in their twenties and thirties are
considered young adults. If you are in your early twenties, you are probably at the peak of your
physiological development. Your body has completed its growth, though your brain is still developing
Physically, you are in the “prime of your life” as your reproductive system, motor ability, strength, and
lung capacity are operating at their best. However, these systems will start a slow, gradual decline so
that by the time you reach your mid to late 30s, you will begin to notice signs of aging. This includes a
decline in your immune system, your response time, and your ability to recover quickly from physical
exertion. 
A conclusion is made with a detailed look at the influence of health habits on physical development in
the stage of adulthood. It is important to maintain a state of physical health. Although people are at
their strongest here, lack of exercise is very harmful to a person‘s health. It is recommended that
people get 30 minutes of moderate exercise at least five days a week to maintain a healthy body. It
has many advantages to those who do engage in this activity: it reduces the risk of osteoporosis,
optimizes the immune response of the body, may decrease stress and anxiety, and provides a feeling
of accomplishment. Ultimately it helps people maintain their physical health longer. Along these same
lines, people must reduce their caloric and be more conscious of nutrition during early adulthood.
Teenagers may be able to maintain their health on a diet of soda and chips, but as bodies enter
middle adulthood they grow less and will not burn through the excess fat and calories

10.3: Sexual Development in Early

Adulthood
Men and women tend to reach their peak of sexual responsiveness at different ages. For men, sexual
responsiveness tends to peak in the late teens and early twenties. Sexual arousal can easily occur in
response to physical stimulation or fantasizing. Sexual responsiveness begins a slow decline in the
late twenties and into the thirties although a man may continue to be sexually active throughout
adulthood. Over time, a man may require more intense stimulation in order to become
aroused. Women often find that they become more sexually responsive throughout their 20s and 30s
and may peak in the late 30s or early 40s. This is likely due to greater self-confidence and reduced
inhibitions about sexuality.

According to Hurlock, there are many factors that influence sexual

adjustments:
 attitude toward sex: Attitudes toward sex are generally influenced by the way men and women
received sexual information during childhood and adolescence. Once unfavorable attitudes have
developed, it is difficult if not impossible to eradicate them completely.
 past sexual experiences: The way adults and peers reacted to masturbation, petting, and
premarital intercourse when men and women were younger and the way they themselves felt
about them affect their attitudes toward sex. If a woman’s early experiences with petting were
unpleasant, for example, this may have colored her attitude toward sex unfavorably.
 sexual desire: Sexual desire develop earlier in men than in women and tends to be persistent,
while that of women is periodic, fluctuating during the menstrual cycle. These variations affect
interest and enjoyment of sex, which in turn affects sexual adjustments.
 early marital sexual experiences: The belief that sexual relations produce states of ecstasy
unparalleled by any other experiences causes many adults to be so disillusioned at the beginning
of their marital lives that later sexual adjustments are difficult or even impossible to make.
 attitudes towards the use of contraceptives: There will be less friction and emotional conflict if
husband and wife agree concerning the use of contraceptives than if they feel differently about
this matter.
 effects of vasectomy: When men have had vasectomy operations, it eliminates any fear of
unwanted pregnancy. This has a favorable effect on women’s equal adjustments but it may make
men question their virility.

10.4: Cognitive Development in Early

Development
Perry noted that over the course of students’ college years, cognition tended to shift
from dualism (absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking) to multiplicity (recognizing
that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known) to relativism (understanding
the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors).

 STAGES OF PERRY’S SCHEME

Summary of Position in Perry’s

Basic Example
Scheme

The authorities know “the tutor knows what is right and wrong”

Dualism
The true authorities are right, the “my tutor doesn’t know what is right and wrong
others are frauds but others do”

Multiplicity There are some uncertainties and

“my tutors don’t know, but somebody out there
the authorities are working on them
is trying to find out”
to find the truth

(a) Everyone has the right to their “different tutors think different things.”
own opinion “there is an answer that the tutors want and we
(b) The authorities don’t want the
 right answers. They want us to think
have to find it”
in a certain way

“There are no right and wrong answers, it

Everything is relative but not equally
depends on the situation, but some answers
valid
might be better than others.”

You have to make your own “What is important is not what the tutor thinks
decisions but what I think.”

Relativism
First commitment “for this particular topic, I think that….”

Several Commitments “for these topics, I think that….”

“I know what I believe in and what I think is

Believe in own values, respect
valid, others may think differently and I’m
others, be ready to learn
prepared to reconsider my views”

Furthermore, the argument about the possible growth of intelligence versus the slowing down or
decline of intelligence in adulthood has contrasted fluid with crystallized intelligence. It has drawn
some conclusions about the intelligence argument. It has raised the possibility of the fifth stage of
cognitive development. It has described the decision-making processes of adulthood and has
highlighted the importance of certain career decisions and other decisions.
John Holland (1985) proposed that there are six personality types as well as varying types of work
environments.  The better matched one’s personality is to the workplace characteristics, the more
satisfied and successful one is predicted to be with that career or vocational choice. Research
support has been mixed and we should note that there is more to satisfaction and success in a career
than one’s personality traits or likes and dislikes. For instance, education, training, and abilities need
to match the expectations and demands of the job, plus the state of the economy, availability of
positions, and salary rates may play practical roles in choices about work.

Holland’s Six Personality Types

https://www.careerkey.org/fit/personality/holland-personality-types
  Likes to work with animals, tools, or machines; generally avoids social
activities like teaching, healing, and informing others;
  Has good skills in working with tools, mechanical or electrical drawings, machines,
Realistic or plants and animals;
  Values practical things you can see, touch, and use like plants and animals, tools,
equipment, or machines; and
 l Sees self as practical, mechanical, and realistic.

 Likes to study and solve math or science problems; generally avoids

leading, selling, or persuading people;
Investigative   Is good at understanding and solving science and math problems;
  Values science; and
  Sees self as precise, scientific, and intellectual.

 Likes to do creative activities like art, drama, crafts, dance, music, or

creative writing; generally avoids highly ordered or repetitive activities;
Artistic   Has good artistic abilities -- in creative writing, drama, crafts, music, or art;
  Values the creative arts -- like drama, music, art, or the works of creative writers;
and
  Sees self as expressive, original, and independent.

 Likes to do things to help people -- like, teaching, nursing, or giving first aid,
providing information; generally avoids using machines, tools, or animals to
Social achieve a goal;
  Is good at teaching, counseling, nursing, or giving information;
  Values helping people and solving social problems; and
  Sees self as helpful, friendly, and trustworthy.

 Likes to lead and persuade people, and to sell things and ideas; generally
avoids activities that require careful observation and scientific, analytical
Enterprising thinking;
  Is good at leading people and selling things or ideas;
  Values success in politics, leadership, or business; and
  Sees self as energetic, ambitious, and sociable.
  Likes to work with numbers, records, or machines in a set, orderly way;
generally avoids ambiguous, unstructured activities
Conventional   Is good at working with written records and numbers in a systematic, orderly way;
  Values success in business; and
  Sees self as orderly, and good at following a set plan.

According to Levinson, young adults have an image of the future that motivates them. This image is
called “the dream” and for the men interviewed, it was a dream of how their career paths would
progress and where they would be at midlife. Dreams are very motivating. Dreams of a home bring
excitement to couples as they look, save, and fantasize about how life will be. Dreams of careers
motivate students to continue in school as they fantasize about how much their hard work will pay
off.  Levinson’s stages (at least up to midlife) are presented below. He suggested that periods of
transition last about five years and periods of stability last about seven years. The ages presented
below are based on life in the middle-class several decades ago. 

LEVINSON’S STAGE THEORY

  STAGES

Leaving home, leaving family; making first choices about career

Early adult transition (17-22)
and education

Committing to an occupation, defining goals, finding intimate

Entering the adult world (22-28)
relationships

Reevaluating those choices and perhaps making modifications or

Age 30 transition (28-33)
changing one’s attitude toward love and work

Reinvesting in work and family commitments; becoming involved in

Settling down (33 to 40)
the community

Reevaluating previous commitments; making dramatic changes if

necessary; giving expression to previously ignored talents or
Midlife transition (40-45)
aspirations; feeling more of a sense of urgency about life and its
meaning

Entering middle adulthood (45- Committing to new choices made and placing one’s energies into
50) these commitments
10.5: Relationships in Early
Development
Relationships are very important during early adulthood, especially because they become even more
intimate and in some cases will lead to marriage. Happiness is tied to relationships. 
We all understand what Erikson‘s intimacy vs. isolation stage describes.  Intimacy, to Erikson,
involves elements of unselfishness, sacrifice, sexuality, and devotion. This developmental crisis of
“intimacy versus isolation” is affected by how the adolescent crisis of “identity versus role confusion”
was resolved (in addition to how the earlier developmental crises in infancy and childhood were
resolved). The young adult might be afraid to get too close to someone else and lose her or his sense
of self, or the young adult might define her or himself in terms of another person. Intimate
relationships are more difficult if one is still struggling with identity. Achieving a sense of identity is a
life-long process, but there are periods of identity crisis and stability. 
In our twenties, intimacy needs may be met in friendships rather than with partners. The kinds of
friendships shared by women tend to differ from those shared by men. Friendships between men are
more likely to involve sharing information, providing solutions, or focusing on activities rather than
discussing problems or emotions.  Men tend to discuss opinions or factual information or spend time
together in an activity of mutual interest. Friendships between women are more likely to focus on
sharing weaknesses, emotions, or problems. Women talk about difficulties they are having in other
relationships and express their sadness, frustrations, and joys.  These differences in approaches
could lead to problems when men and women come together. She may want to vent about a problem
she is having; he may want to provide a solution and move on to some activity. But when he offers a
solution, she thinks he does not care! Effective communication is the key to good relationships.

Attraction and Love

According to research, there are many factors influencing attraction such as : 

 proximity - allows people the opportunity to get to know one other and discover their similarities
—all of which can result in a friendship or intimate relationship.
 familiarity- just being around someone or being repeatedly exposed to them increases the likelihood that
we will be attracted to them. We also tend to feel safe with familiar people, as it is likely we know what to
expect from them.
 similarity - while many make the argument that opposites attract, research has found that is
generally not true; similarity is key -  we like others who are like us.
 reciprocity -we are more likely to like someone if they feel the same way toward us- relationships
are built on give and take

LOVE
Robert Sternberg’s  work has focused on the notion that all types of love are comprised of three
distinct areas: 

 intimacy: caring, closeness, and emotional support

 passion: physiological and emotional arousal; these can include physical attraction, emotional
responses that promote physiological changes, and sexual arousal
 commitment: cognitive process and decision to commit to love another person and the
willingness to work to keep that love over the course of your life.
The elements involved in intimacy are generally found in all types of close relationships—for example,
a mother’s love for a child or the love that friends share. Interestingly, this is not true for passion.
Passion is unique to romantic love, differentiating friends from lovers. In sum, depending on the type
of love and the stage of the relationship (i.e., newly in love), different combinations of these elements
are present.
Anthropologist Helen Fisher explained that she scanned the brains (using fMRI) of people who had
just fallen in love and observed that their brain chemistry was “going crazy,” similar to the brain of an
addict on a drug high. Specifically, serotonin production increased by as much as 40% in newly-in-
love individuals. Further, those newly in love tended to show obsessive-compulsive tendencies.
Conversely, when a person experiences a breakup, the brain processes it in a similar way to quitting
a heroin habit. Thus, those who believe that breakups are physically painful are correct! Another
interesting point is that long-term love and sexual desire activate different areas of the brain. More
specifically, sexual needs activate the part of the brain that is particularly sensitive to innately
pleasurable things such as food, sex, and drugs (i.e., the striatum—a rather simplistic reward
system), whereas love requires conditioning—it is more like a habit. When sexual needs are
rewarded consistently, then love can develop. In other words, love grows out of positive rewards,
expectancies, and habits.
 To help you deepen your understanding of our topic, please mouse over the video below
        Watch: “The brain in love- by Helen Fisher”(YouTube)  https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=OYfoGTIG7pY

Stein’s Typology of Singles

Many of the research findings of singles reveal that they are not all alike. Happiness with one’s status
depends on whether the person is single by choice and whether the situation is permanent. Let’s look
at Stein’s (1981) four categories of singles for a better understanding of this.

 Voluntary temporary singles: These are younger people who have never been married and
divorced people who are postponing marriage and remarriage. They may be more involved in
careers or getting an education or just wanting to have fun without making a commitment to any
one person. They are not quite ready for that kind of relationship. These people tend to report
being very happy with their single status.
 Voluntary permanent singles: These individuals do not want to marry and aren’t intending to
marry. This might include cohabiting couples who don’t want to marry, priests, nuns, or others
who are not considering marriage. Again, this group is typically single by choice and
understandably more contented with this decision.
 Involuntary temporary: These are people who are actively seeking mates. They hope to marry
or remarry and may be involved in going on blind dates, seeking a partner on the internet, or
placing “getting personal” aids in search of a mate. They tend to be more anxious about being
single.
 Involuntary permanent: These are older divorced, widowed, or never-married people who
wanted to marry but have not found a mate and are coming to accept singlehood as a probable
permanent situation. Some are bitter about not having married while others are more accepting of
how their life has developed.

Reasons Why Young Adults Remain Single

 An unattractive or sex-inappropriate appearance

 An incapacitating physical defect or prolonged illness
 Lack of success in the search for a mate
 Unwillingness to assume the responsibilities of marriage and parenthood
 A desire to pursue a career that requires working long and irregular hours or much traveling
 Residence in a community where the sex ratio is unbalanced
 Lack of opportunity to meet eligible members of the opposite sex
 Responsibilities for aging parents or younger siblings
 Disillusionment as a results of unhappy earlier family experiences or unhappy marital experiences
of friends
 Sexual availability without marriage
 An exciting lifestyle
 Opportunity to rise on the vocational ladder
 Freedom to change and experiment in work and lifestyle
 The belief that social mobility is easier when single than married
 Strong and satisfying friendships with members of the same sex
 Homosexuality

10.6: Parenthood
Galinsky(1987) identified six stages of parenthood that focus on different tasks and goals.

                                                                   Galinsky’s Stages of Parenthood

Galinsky’s Stages Age of Child Main Tasks and Goals

Stage 1: The Image- Planning for a Consider what it means to be a parent and plan for
Making Stage child; pregnancy changes to accommodate a child

Stage 2: The Nurturing Develop an attachment relationship with child and adapt
Infancy
Stage to the new baby

Stage 3: The Authority Toddler and Parents create rules and figure out how to effectively
Stage preschool guide their children’s behavior

Stage 4: The Parents help their children interpret their experiences with
Middle childhood
Interpretative Stage the social world beyond the family

Parents renegotiate their relationship with their

Stage 5: The
Adolescence adolescent children to allow for shared power in decision-
Interdependent Stage
making.

Stage 6: The Departure

Early Adulthood Parents evaluate their successes and failures as parents
Stage
Conditions Contributing to Difficulties in Marital Adjustment by Hurlock

 limited preparation for marriage: Although sexual adjustments may be easier now than in the
past because of readily available sex information in the home, schools, and colleges, and
premarital sexual experience, most couples have received little preparation in the areas of
domestic skills, child-rearing, getting along with in-laws, and money management.
 roles in marriage: The trend toward changes in marital roles for both men and women and the
different concepts of these roles held by different social classes and religious groups make
adjustment problems in marriage more difficult now than in the past when these roles were more
rigidly prescribed.
 early marriage: Marriage and parenthood before young people have finished their education and
are economically independent deprives them of the opportunity to have many of the experiences
enjoyed by their unmarried contemporaries or even by their married friends who waited to be
financially independent before marrying. This leads to constant envy and resentment which
militates against good marital adjustments.
 unrealistic concepts of marriage: Adults who have spent their lives in school and college, with
little or no work experience, tend to have unrealistic concepts of what marriage means in terms of
work, deprivations, financial expenditures, or changes in life pattern. This unrealistic approach to
marriage inevitably leads to serious adjustment problems which often lead to divorce.
 mixed marriages: Adjustments to parenthood and to in-laws--- both of which are important to
marital happiness--- are much more difficult in interracial or interreligious marriages than when
both marriage partners come from the same racial or religious backgrounds.
 shortened courtships: The courtship period is shorter now than in the past, and thus the couple
has less time to solve many of the problems related to the adjustment before they are actually
married.
 romantic concepts of marriage: Many adults have a romantic concept of marriage developed in
adolescence. Overly optimistic expectations of what marriage will bring often lead to
disenchantment which increases the difficulties of adjusting to the duties and responsibilities of
marriage.
 lack of identity: If a man feels that his family, friends, and associates treat him as “Janes
husband” or if a woman feels that the social group regards her as “just a housewife” even though
she is or has been a successful career woman, they are likely to resent the loss of their identity as
individuals which they strove hard to achieve and valued highly before marriage.

Some Important Factors Influencing Adjustment to Parenthood (by Hurlock):

 attitudes toward pregnancy: The woman’s attitude toward parenthood is colored by her physical
and emotional condition during pregnancy. In most cases, if her attitude has been unfavorable, it
improves after the baby’s birth.
 attitudes toward parenthood: Adults adjust better to parenthood if they want children because
they feel they are essential to a happy marriage, rather than because of family or social
pressures.
 age of parents: Young parents tend to take their parental responsibilities lightly and not allow
them to interfere too much with their other interests and pleasures.  Older parents tend to be more
anxious and concerned. Thus younger parents often make better adjustments.
 sex of children: Adults’ attitudes toward parenthood are more favorable if they have a child or
children of the sex they prefer.
 number of children: When adults have the number of children they consider “ideal,” their
adjustment to parenthood will be better than if they have more or fewer children than they want.
 parental expectations: If parents have a “dream-child” concept, their adjustment to parenthood
will be affected by how well the child measures up to this ideal.
 feelings of parental adequacy: Conflicts about child-training methods lead to confusion and to
feelings of anxiety about doing the job well. This has an unfavorable effect on the adult’s
adjustment to parenthood.
 attitudes toward changed roles: Parenthood means that both the man and the woman must
learn to play family-centered rather than pair-centered roles. How men and women react to these
role changes will have a profound influence on their adjustments to parenthood.
 the child’s temperament: Children who are easy to manage and who are responsive and
affectionate make parents feel rewarded for the time and effort they spend on them. This has a
favorable effect on parents’ attitudes toward their parental roles.

Factors Influencing In-Law Adjustments (by Hurlock):

 stereotypes: The widely accepted stereotype of the “typical mother-in-law” can lead to

unfavorable mental sets even before marriage. Unfavorable stereotypes about the elderly--- that
they are bossy and interfering--- can add to in-law problems.
 desire for independence: Young married adults tend to resent advice and guidance from their
parents, even if they must accept financial aid, and they especially resent such interference from
in-laws.
 family cohesiveness: Marital adjustments are complicated when one spouse devotes more time
to relatives than the other spouse wants to when a spouse is influenced by family advice; or when
a relative comes for an extended visit or lives with the family permanently.
 social mobility: Young adults who have risen above the status of their families or that of their in-
laws may want to keep them in the background. Many parents and relatives resent this and hostile
relationships with the young couple as well as marital friction are likely to develop.
 care of elderly relatives: Caring for elderly relatives is an especially complicating factor in marital
adjustments today because of present unfavorable attitudes toward older people and the belief
that young people should be independent of relatives, especially when there are children in the
family.
 financial support of in-laws: When a young couple must contribute to or assume responsibility
for the financial support of in-laws, it can and often does lead to a frictional marital relationship.
This is because the spouse whose in-laws must be aided financially resents having to make
sacrifices of wants or even needs to make this aid possible 

Criteria of Successful Marital Adjustment (by Hurlock):

 happiness of husband and wife: A husband and wife who are happy together derive satisfaction
from the roles they play. They also have a mature and stable love for each other, have made good
sexual adjustments, and have accepted the parental role.
 good parent-child relationships: Good parent-child relationships reflect successful marital
adjustment and contribute to it. If parent-child relationships are poor, the home climate will be
marked by fiction, which makes marital adjustment difficult.
 good adjustment of children: Children who are well adjusted, well-liked by their peers, and
successful and happy in school are proof of their parents' good adjustment to marriage and
parental roles.
 ability to deal satisfactorily with disagreements: Disagreement between family members,
which are inevitable, generally end in one of three ways; There is a temporary truce with no
solution, one person gives in for the sake of peace or all family members try to understand the
other's point of view. In the long run, only the latter leads to satisfactory adjustments though the
first two help to reduce the tension that friction gives rise to.
 “togetherness”: When marital adjustments are successful, the family enjoys spending time
together. If good family relationships are built up during the early formative years, men and
 women will retain close ties with their families after they grow up, marry and establish homes of
their own.
 good financial adjustments: In many families, one of the common sources of friction and
resentment centers on money. Regardless of the income, a family that learns to budget its
expenses so as to avoid constant debts and to be satisfied with what it can afford to have and do
is better adjusted than one in which the wife constantly complains about the husband earning
power or take a job supplement his earnings.
 good in-law adjustments: Husbands and wives who get along well with their in-laws, especially
parents, brothers, and sisters-in-law, are far less likely to have frictional relationships.

11.1: Middle Adulthood

Having been launched during the twenties and thirties, the individual arrives at middle age in the
forties and fifties. This period marks a turning point from the forward-looking perspective of youth.
Now the time frame subtly begins to shift, and individuals become aware that at least half of their lives
lie behind them. They are aware, not of the vast future before them, but rather of the increasingly
limited time that is left. New problems command increasing attention; health, the fate of children and
aging parents, the use of leisure, plans for old age.

 Subdivision of Middle Age:

1. Early Middle Age –from 40 to 50

2. Advanced Middle Age -50 to 60- physical and psychological  changes that first began during the
early forties become far more apparent

Whether fifty-year-olds feel frustrated or satisfied with the lives they have led depends on their self-
assessment. Their physical health, psychological well-being, feelings of sexual competence, family
status role in the community, job competence, security --- all contribute significantly to the way
individuals view their finite existence.
An individual’s feelings at middle age may also depend on gender. Because female menopause
occurs fairly early in the life cycle ( usually between the ages of forty-five and fifty ), and because it is
a decisive event, women may be more sensitive than men to lasting physical changes. Yet, for
mothers who have been charged with childrearing, middle-age is also the time children leave home:
this period thus provides an opportunity for fresh discoveries and new life experiences. Men do not
undergo the same definite physical changes, but neither do they ordinarily have the sudden
opportunity for change in their routines. Thus middle age for them may be a time of boredom, fatigue,
and occasional depression, as the chance for major changes in life slips away. Of course, such sex
differences in middle age may decline as more women join the labor force and as men come to lead
less conventional lives.

 Characteristics of Middle Age ( Hurlock):

1. A dreaded age: Many unfavorable stereotypes and traditional beliefs concerning the mental and
physical deterioration that is believed to accompany the cessation of the reproductive life. While
dreading middle age, most adults become nostalgic about their younger years and that they could
turn back the hands of the clock.
2. A time of transition: The time when men and women leave behind the physical and behavioral
characteristics of adulthood and enter a period of life when new physical and behavioral
characteristics will prevail. It is said that that this is the time when men undergo a change in virility
and women a change in fertility. In addition to role changes in the home, men must adjust to the
 changes that impending retirement and physical conditions necessitate in their work. For women,
the adjustments must be either to changing the role of housewife and mother for that of a worker
in business, industry, or one of the professions or of an “isolate” in a formerly busy home as the
“empty nest” period in home life sets in

                 Three Common and Universal Developmental Crises  ( by Kimmel)

 “Where did we go wrong syndrome”: Occurs when children fail to come up to parental
expectations and the parents then question whether they have used the right methods of
child training, blaming themselves for their children’s failures to come up to their
expectations.
 “ I hate to put mother there”: Many middle-aged parents, in trying to cope with the problems
of aging parents, feel guilty when they either cannot or do not want to have their aging
parents live in their homes.
 Trying to deal with death:  “HOW CAN I GO ON?”

3. A Time of Stress: Radical adjustments to changing roles and patterns of life, especially when
accompanied by physical changes, always tend to disrupt the individual’s physical and
psychological homeostasis and lead to a period of stress --- a time when a number of major
adjustments must be made in the home, business, and social aspects of their lives.

          Categories of Stress in Middle Age

 Somatic stress: due to physical evidence of aging

 Cultural stress: stemming from the high value placed on youth, vigor, and success by
the cultural group.
 Economic stress: resulting from the financial burden of educating children and providing
status symbols for all family members.
 Psychological stress: the result of the death of a spouse, the departure of children from
the home, boredom with marriage, or a sense of lost youth and approaching death.

4. A Dangerous Age: It is a time when individuals break down physically as a result of overwork,
over worry, or careless living. The incidence of mental illness rises rapidly in middle age for
suicides, especially among men. The so-called “middle–age revolt” of men usually coincides with
the upsets in homeostasis caused by menopause in women.
5. An Awkward Age: As Franzblau has put it, the middle-aged person “stands between the younger
‘Rebel Generation’ and the ‘Senior Citizen Generation’ – both of which are continuously in the
spotlight and suffer from the discomforts and embarrassments associated with both age groups.
6. A Time Of Achievement: According to Erik Erikson, it is a crisis age in which either “generativity”
--- the tendency to stand still--- will dominate. According to Erikson, during middle age, people
either become more and more successful or stand still and accomplish nothing more. If middle-
aged people have a strong desire to succeed, they will reach their peak at this time and reap the
benefits of the years of preparation and hard work that preceded it. Normally, men reach their
peak between 40 and 50 years, after which they rest on their laurels and enjoy the benefits of their
hard-won successes until they reach the early sixties when they are regarded s “too old” and
usually must relinquish their jobs to younger and more vigorous workers. They claim to be the “
command generation.”  According to Neugarten, “the successful middle-aged person often
describes himself as no longer ‘driven’ but as now the ‘driver’ --- in short, ‘in command.’
7. A time of evaluation: Archer has further pointed out, “The mid-years seem to require the
development of a different, generally more realistic sense of who one is… In growing up,
everyone nurtures fantasies or illusions about what one is, and what one will do. A major task of
the mid-life decade involves coming to terms with those fantasies and illusions.
8. The time of the empty nest: Unquestionably, the empty-nest period is more traumatic for women
than for men. This is especially true of women who have developed their adult years to
homemaking and who have devoted their adult years to homemaking and who have few interests
or resources to fill their time when their homemaking jobs lessen or come to an end. Many
experience a “retirement shock” similar to that experienced by men when they retire.
9. A time of boredom: Men become bored with the daily routine of work and with a family life that
offers little excitement. Women, who have spent most of their adulthood caring for the home and
raising children, wonder what they will do for the next twenty or thirty years. The unmarried
woman who has devoted her life to a job or career is bored for the same reasons men are. At no
age is boredom conducive to happiness or even contentment. Consequently, middle-age is often
one of the unhappy periods of life. In a study of pleasant and unpleasant memories over a span of
years, adults rated middle age, especially the years from 40 to 49, as the least pleasant. Only the
years after 60 did they find nearly as unpleasant.

Developmental Tasks in Middle Adulthood

         Challenges facing midlife adults include (Lachman):

 Losing parents and experiencing grief

 Launching children into their own lives
 Adjusting to home life without children
 Dealing with adult children who return to live at home
 Becoming grandparents
 Preparing for late adulthood
 Acting as caregivers for aging parents or spouses

11.2 : Physical Development during

Middle Adulthood
It is observed that this society of ours emphasizes the attractiveness and desirability of youth. Getting
older, particularly physical aging is not welcomed by any one of us. The decline in the physical aspect
that occurs between ages 20 and 60 seems not to be a problem to many. This may be so because
these declines can be minimized by maintaining a healthy lifestyle.
It is discernible that the first signs of aging appear during young adulthood. This is the period that the
very important parts of the body reach their maximum strength. This happens in late adolescence and
then grows weaker with each decade of adult life. This holds true of the cardiovascular and
respiratory systems as well as the sexual-reproductive systems and the sense organs such as the
eyes and ears. Whether we like it or not, youthful appearance fades rapidly, and changes in physical
appearance are visible in almost everyone by age 40.
Observing the adult stage, one perceives that the aging process is less drastic. This may be so
because older adults are likely to associate the decrements of aging with those who are truly aged,
that is older than 80. in day-to-day life, a number of adults feel that their bodies are still capable or
stable. In fact, most individuals whose bodies are properly or adequately maintained are capable of
functioning very well until at least age 70.
In everyday activities, human beings use only a portion of the capacity of their hearts, lungs,
stomachs, and so forth. Each organ has an extra capacity, called organ reserve, for usually stressful
conditions or events. It is in the reserve that the slowing down takes place as in a 55-year-old who
cannot run upstairs as quickly as an 18-year-old, yet that 55-year-old can move very easily in normal
activity.
In our body functions, there is what we call homeostasis in which our body functions adjust
automatically to keep physiological functioning in a stage of equilibrium or balance. This means that
when we are at rest, our breathing and heart rate become slow and steady; when we are active, both
increase to provide more oxygen. The homeostasis function of the older bodies takes longer to
adjust, making it harder for them to adapt to, and recover from stress. 

Changes in the Sense of Organs

All of the five sense organs show signs of aging throughout adulthood. However, the two higher
sense organs, the sense of hearing and seeing, tend to be noticeable for they are used most often in
understanding and relating with the physical and social environment.
Hearing. The ability to hear declines for everyone between ages 20 and 60. however, there seems to
be a consensus that many adults who lose some hearing between 35 and 60 can still hear well. Fry
(1983) wrote that at the age of 50, one man in every three and one woman in every four has trouble
understanding a whisper, but most can still hear soft normal conversations (40 decibels). ability to
distinguish pure tones(such as bells) slows down faster than the ability to comprehend the
conversation. The minor problem of hearing loss can be remedied through the use of a hearing aid.
Vision. The sense organ which is quite visible in its slowing down in function because of aging is
sight or vision. The ability to focus on objects at various distances shows great variation or
differences from individual to individual. This is due mainly to heredity, which affects visual acuity or
the focusing ability of the individual. This problem in vision can be corrected by wearing eyeglasses
with corrective lenses. Using corrective eyeglasses is no longer a stigma related to aging. People
nowadays tend to purchase corrective lenses for their vision problems than buy a hearing aid which
they regard as a symbol of aging. As early as late adolescence, other aspects of vision such as depth
perception, muscle resilience, and adaptation to darkness decline steadily in almost everyone. 

Physical Mobility in Middle Adulthood

 Sarcopenialikely results from leg muscles become progressively detached from the central
nervous system; exercise encourages new nerve growth
 Osteoporosis, the deterioration of bone mass, impacts both men and women
 Autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis often begin in the 50s, affecting more
women than men

Normal Physiological Changes in Middle Adulthood

 Changes in vision, more joint pain, and weight gain all occur in midlife
 Presbyopia is when the lens of the eye gets larger but the eye loses the flexibility to adjust to
visual stimuli
 The accumulation of fat in the abdomen is one of the common midlife complaints as metabolism
slows by about one-third
 Hearing loss is experienced by about 14% of midlife adults, accumulating after years of exposure
to intense noise levels
 Individuals with a healthy lifestyle or those who begin an exercise regimen in their 40s may enjoy
comparable benefits to those who began in their 20s
11.3 : Sexual Development during
Middle Adulthood
The changes in the sexual-reproductive system are more dramatic, more observable, and potentially
more troublesome than in any other body system. The impact of these changes is very much
dependent on the individual and some other related factors. 

The Female Menopausal Syndrome

The female reproductive organs function at their peak during the age of 20, and then start to become
less efficient. Fry (1983) stated that on average the weight of the uterus is greatest at age 30, and
then declines to about 53 percent weight loss by age 50. it is reported that in general, both ovulation
and menstruation are less regular in the ’30s than in the ’20s. In the late ’40s or early 50’s the
ovulation and menstruation of women stop naturally due to the decrease in estrogen manufactured by
the body. The absence of menstruation is called menopause. It is generally noticed that women today
tend to reach menopause a year or two later than their mothers and grandmothers did. Menopause is
the period where the women’s body adjusts to a much lower level of estrogen for about three years.
These years of adjustment are also referred to in all the various biological and psychological changes
that accompany menopause. The most common physical discomforts experienced during menopause
are flushes, involving the head, neck, and upper thorax; sweating that accompanies or immediately
follows the flush; hot flashes, typified by tingling over the entire body, headaches, fatigue,
nervousness and irritability; heart palpitations; restlessness; and frigidity. As production of the ovarian
hormones diminishes, the typically feminine secondary sex characteristics become less pronounced.
Facial hair becomes coarser, the voice deepens, the curves of the body flattening out, the breasts
appear flabby, and pubic and axillary hair become scantier. Just as many pubescent children go
through a” fat” period many women gain weight during menopause. Like the fat acquired during
puberty, it is concentrated mainly around the abdomen and hips, making the women seem heavier
than she actually is.  The joints, especially those of the fingers, often become painful with the decline
in ovarian functioning. This causes them to become thickened, or “Knobby.” Many women experience
personality changes during menopause. They become depressed, hostile, and self-critical and have
wide mood swings. With the restoration of endocrine balance as menopause ends, these changes
normally disappear.

  The Male Climacteric Syndrome

Male sexual organs also manifest signs of aging throughout adulthood. The downward shift in male
sexual or reproductive capacity is not abrupt. As early as age 25, reproductive potential declines
gradually as the sperm starts to decrease in number and mobility. This is also true with men’s sexual
interests and activities and the frequency of sexual activity. A number of men remain active in their
80’s while others stop virtually all sexual behavior by age 50.

  Decline in Functioning of the Sex Organs: After fifty, there is a gradual decline in gonadal activity,
although men in their seventies and eighties occasionally father children.
 Decline in Sexual Desire: A decline in sexual desire parallels the decline in sex-organ
functioning. This is due partly to the decline in gonadal functioning and partly to psychological
causes, such as unfavorable marital relationships or business, economic, or family worries.
 Decline in Masculine Appearance: With the decline in gonadal activity, the man loses some of
his typically masculine characteristics and takes on some that are more feminine. The voice, for
example, becomes somewhat higher in pitch, there is less hair on the face and the body becomes
slightly more rounded, especially the abdomen and hips.
 Anxiety about Virility: The man whose appearance and behavior seem less masculine may
become concerned about his virility. This often leads to impotence.
 Physical Discomforts: Many middle-aged men complain of depression, anxiety, irritability,
tingling sensations in their extremities, headaches, insomnia, digestive disturbances,
nervousness, flushes, fatigue, and many minor aches and pains. Some of these conditions are
real whereas others are imaginary.
 Decline in Strength and Endurance: This decline is due in part to poor health and in part to
gonadal deficiency. Because of the high social value placed on strength and endurance, men may
feel they are losing their virility when the decline in these areas sets in.
 Personality Changes: Concern about loss of virility causes some middle-aged men to behave
almost like the adolescent who is “sowing his wild oats,” This can be a dangerous period for men,
during which they may have extramarital affairs, engage in other behavior that leads to the
breakup of the family,  or cease caring about their business responsibilities.

11.4 : Cognitive Development during

Middle Adulthood
In middle adulthood, according to Levinson (1986), people go through a midlife transition, a time
when they reassess their personal goals, set new ones, and prepare for the rest of life. This transition
often occurs in response to illness, death in the family, a career change, or some other event that
causes the person to question past decisions and current goals. Just as the adolescent identity crisis
is a bigger issue in cultures that offer many choices, you would not worry about the paths not taken.
In Western society, however, you enter adulthood with high hopes. You hope to earn an advanced
degree, excel at an outstanding job, marry a wonderful person, have marvelous children, become a
leader in your community, run for political office, write a great novel, compose great music, travel the
world. You know you are not working on all of your goals right now, but you tell yourself, “I’ll do it
later.” as you grow older, you realize that you are running out of “later.” some of your early ambitions
have become unrealistic, and others will be, too, if you don’t start them soon.
People deal with their midlife transitions in many ways. Most of them abandon unrealistic goals and
set new goals consistent with the direction their lives have taken. Others decide that they have been
ignoring dreams that they are not willing to abandon. They go back to school, set up a business of
their own, or try something else they have always wanted to do. The least satisfactory outside is to
decide, “I can’t abandon my dreams, but I can’t do anything about them earlier. I can’t take the risk of
changing my life, even though I am satisfied with it.” People with that attitude become discouraged
and depressed.
The advice is clear: To increase your chances of feeling good in middle age and beyond, make good
decisions when you are young. If you care about something, don’t wait for a midlife crisis. Get started
now. 

11.5 : Psychosocial Development during

Middle Adulthood
Traditionally, middle adulthood has been regarded as a period of reflection and change. In the
popular imagination (and academic press) there has been a reference to a “mid-life crisis.” There is
an emerging view that this may have been an overstatement—certainly, the evidence on which it is
based has been seriously questioned. However, there is some support for the view that people do
undertake a sort of emotional audit, reevaluate their priorities, and emerge with a slightly different
orientation to emotional regulation and personal interaction in this time period. Why, and the
mechanisms through which this change is affected, are a matter of some debate.
 Let us take a look at the different theories regarding the social aspect during this stage:

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory, or SST ( by Laura Carstensen).

 The theory maintains that as time horizons shrink, as they typically do with age, people become
increasingly selective, investing greater resources in emotionally meaningful goals and activities.
According to the theory, motivational shifts also influence cognitive processing. Aging is
associated with a relative preference for positive over negative information. This selective
narrowing of social interaction maximizes positive emotional experiences and minimizes
emotional risks as individuals become older. They systematically hone their social networks so
that available social partners satisfy their emotional needs.

Selection, Optimization, Compensation (SOC) - by German developmental

psychologists Paul and Margret Baltes

 This model emphasizes that setting goals and directing efforts towards a specific purpose is
beneficial to healthy aging. Optimization is about making the best use of the resources we have in
pursuing goals. Compensation is about using alternative strategies in attaining those goals.

                                                                                          Levinson’S Stage Theory

  Stages

Leaving home, leaving the family; making first choices about

Early adult transition (17-22)
career and education

Committing to an occupation, defining goals, finding intimate

Entering the adult world (22-28)
relationships

Reevaluating those choices and perhaps making modifications

Age 30 transition (28-33)
or changing one’s attitude toward love and work

Reinvesting in work and family commitments; becoming involved

Settling down (33 to 40)
in the community

Reevaluating previous commitments; making dramatic changes

if necessary; giving expression to previously ignored talents or
Midlife transition (40-45)
aspirations; feeling more of a sense of urgency about life and its
meaning

Entering middle adulthood (45-50) Committing to new choices made and placing one’s energies into
 these commitments

Changed Working Conditions  that Affect Middle-Aged Workers

 Unfavorable social attitudes: While older workers used to be respected for the skills they had
acquired through years of experience, today the tendency is to regard them as too old to learn
new skills or keep pace with modern demands, as uncooperative in their relations with coworkers,
and as subject to absenteeism and accidents because of failing health.
 Hiring policies: Because of the widespread belief that maximum productivity can be achieved by
hiring and training younger workers and because employers want to spend the minimum amount
for retirement pensions, middle-aged workers have greater difficulty getting jobs than younger
ones, although this varies for different kinds of work. Thus changing jobs becomes increasingly
more hazardous with each passing year.
 Increased use of automation: Automated work requires a higher level of intelligence, more
training, and greater speed than work that is not automated. This has an adverse effect on middle-
aged men and women of the lower level of intelligence, with training for specific lines of work only,
or whose health causes them to work more slowly than younger workers.
 Compulsory retirement: With compulsory retirement now coming in the mid to late sixties, the
chances of promotion after fifty are slim, and the chances of getting a new job are even slimmer,
except at a lower level and with lower pay.

11.6 : Relationship during Middle

Adulthood
Intimate Relationships: Among the most important relationships for most people is their long-time
romantic partner. Intimacy is more than just physical in nature; it also entails psychological closeness.
Research findings suggest that having a single confidante—a person with whom you can be authentic
and trust not to exploit your secrets and vulnerabilities—is more important to happiness than having a
large social network.
Formal relationships are those that are bound by the rules of politeness. In most cultures, for
instance, young people treat older people with formal respect, avoiding profanity and slang when
interacting with them. Similarly, workplace relationships tend to be more formal, as do relationships
with new acquaintances. Formal connections are generally less relaxed because they require a bit
more work, demanding that we exert more self-control.
Informal relationships—friends, lovers, siblings, or others with whom you can relax. We can
express our true feelings and opinions in these informal relationships, using the language that comes
most naturally to us, and generally, be more authentic. Because of this, it makes sense that more
intimate relationships—those that are more comfortable and in which you can be more vulnerable—
might be the most likely to translate to happiness. 

                                                            THE FAMILY LIFE CYCLE

                                                                 By Paul Glick

Stage  1: Marriage Childless The joining of a couple through a formal marriage is a big
Family step! This stage is sometimes referred to as the
 "honeymoon phase" because of the happiness that most
couples tend to feel at this stage. There are typically no
children yet, so some of the biggest stressors on the
marriage are that of leaving the family they have always
known and getting to know each other as a new family unit.

Many couples find that this is a stressful time in their

marriage. Lack of sleep, getting to know the baby, and lack
of time for each other is commonly listed stressors for the
Children ages 0 procreation family. Often couples experience financial
Stage  2: Procreation to 2.5 stress, even when they have planned for the child. Another
Family issue in the procreation family is changing relationships
again, as they become parents and make their parents
grandparents. The distribution of household duties and
learning how to share responsibilities is often another cause
of concern.

Children ages It is important to note that only around 50% of children who
Stage  3: 2.5 to 6 are of preschool age attend preschool. Others stay home
Preschooler Family with a caregiver, parent, or another family member
(grandparents are popular choices for this option).

This can be a busy time for parents as children form

relationships outside of the family unit and may be involved
Children ages
Stage  4: School-Age 6–13 in extracurricular activities.
Family Homework and the demands of school and social life, along
with time management can be a challenge for some families
during this stage of life.

This family has many of the stressors of the school-age

family, but has additional stressors as the child (teen) is
trying to become independent. Parents may worry about
Children ages what their teen is doing—are they making good decisions,
Stage  5: Teenage 13–20 are they doing dangerous things, etc.? The teen may feel
Family the stress of trying to make good decisions while feeling that
their parents are not trusting them to do so. They may also
feel peer pressure to behave a certain way while trying to
navigate social relationships as they develop a clearer
identity.

Stage  6: Launching Children begin At this stage, children are beginning to leave home.
Family. to leave home
Helping children to prepare to leave home can be a daunting
task for the family and individual. Parents need to prepare
their child to be autonomous and should allow their child
independence as the child is ready for it. Parents and
children both need to navigate their changing relationships
 during this time.

Traditionally in the empty nest stage, the adult children have

all left home. Today, however, that empty nest may not last
for long, for two main reasons.
l Sometimes, the children return. The term "Boomerang
Children" has been coined to mean children who had left the
nest, but who have returned. Many times, the return is
Adult children financially motivated.
Stage  7: Empty Nest have left home
Family l Sometimes, the empty nesters' parents move it.
Increasingly elderly parents are leaving their homes and
moving into the homes of the middle adulthood "children".
Indeed, this is becoming so common that there is also a
term to describe it—the "Sandwich Generation" refers to
adults in middle adulthood who are caring for their parents
and for their own children.

 Attitudes Militating Against the Establishment of Good Relationship

With a Spouse
    Husband’s attitudes:

o Dissatisfaction with sexual adjustments

o If he is successful vocationally, the feeling that his wife has not kept face with him in his
upward climb.
o If he is unsuccessful vocationally, the feeling that his wife has been of no help and may even
have handicapped him.
o The feeling that he and his wife have little in common because she has refused to be
interested in the things that are important to him.
o A critical attitude toward his wife’s management of the home and the family finances and a
belief that her child-training methods have been too permissive.
o Dissatisfaction with his wife’s appearance
o The feeling that his wife dominates him and treats him like a child

 Wife’S Attitudes:

o Dissatisfaction with sexual adjustments

o Disillusionment with her husband because of his lack of vocational success
o The feeling of being a slave to the home or to an elderly relative
o The belief that her husband is stingy about money for clothes and recreation
o The belief is that her husband does not appreciate the time and effort she has devoted to
homemaking.
o The feeling that her husband spends too much time and money on members of his own family.
o The suspicions that he is involved with another woman
Happy Healthy Families
Our families play a crucial role in our overall development and happiness. They can support and
validate us, but they can also criticize and burden us. For better or worse, we all have a family. In
closing, here are strategies you can use to increase the happiness of your family:

 teach morality—fostering a sense of moral development in children can promote well-being

 Savor the good—celebrate each other’s successes
 Use the extended family network—family members of all ages, including older siblings and
grandparents, who can act as caregivers can promote family well-being
 Create family identity—share inside jokes, fond memories, and frame the story of the family

Forgive—Don’t hold grudges against one another

12.1: Late Adulthood

At this time most individuals lose their jobs, begin to fail physically (and sometimes mentally), settle
firmly in their ways, fear changes, and crave security. In our society, the elderly are typically seen as
passive, letting things happen to them but hoping to avoid the unpleasant or unexpected. They take
an increasing interest in the past and may attach new significance to religion. Old age means losing
one’s friends and, often, one’s spouse through death. It may mean becoming unable to take care of
one’s home or oneself. It may mean becoming unable to care for one’s home or oneself, with the
increasing possibility of being placed in a special facility for the elderly.
Old age could be a much happier and fuller time. The mental or physical decline does not have to
occur: persons can remain vigorous, active, and dignified until their eighties or even nineties. Further,
the older person has vast reservoirs of knowledge, experience, and wisdom, on which the community
can draw.

Age Categories
  Senescence, or biological aging,  (senescence, can be traced back to Latin senex, meaning “old”)

o The Young Old—65 to 74:  This group is less likely to require long-term care, to be
dependent or to be poor, and more likely to be married, working for pleasure rather than
income, and living independently- is less likely to experience heart disease, cancer, or stroke
than the old, but nearly as likely to experience depression.
o The Old Old—75 to 84:  This age group is more likely to experience limitations on physical
activity due to chronic diseases such as arthritis, heart conditions, hypertension (especially for
women), and hearing or visual impairments. Rates of death due to heart disease, cancer, and
cerebral vascular disease are double that experienced by people 65-74. 
o The Oldest Old—85 plus:  This group is more likely to require long-term care and to be in
nursing homes. 
o The Centenarians: People aged 100 or older, are both rare and distinct from the rest of the
older population. These “super-Centenarians” have led varied lives and probably do not give
us any single answer about living longer. 

Developmental Task ( Havighurst-1952)

 Adjustment to decreasing physical strength and health

 Adjustment to the death of a spouse
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
 Adjustment to retirement and reduced income
 Meeting social and civic obligations
 Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements

 Characteristics of Late Adulthood (by Hurlock):

1. A period of decline: SENILITY refers to the period during old age when a more or less complete
physical breakdown takes place and when there is mental disorganization.  The individual who
becomes eccentric, careless, absentminded, socially withdrawn, and poorly adjusted is usually
described as SENILE. Senility may come as early as the fifties, or it may never occur because the
individual dies before deterioration sets in. The decline comes partly from physical and partly from
psychological factors. The physical cause of decline is a change in the body cells due not to specific
disease but to the aging process. The decline may also have psychological causes. Unfavorable
attitudes toward oneself, other people, work, and life, in general, can lead to senility, just as changes
in the brain tissue can. Individuals who have no sustaining interests after retirement are likely to
become depressed and disorganized. As a result, they go downhill both physically and mentally and
may soon die.
2. Individual differences in the effects of aging: Aging affects different people differently. People age
differently because they have different hereditary, different socioeconomic and educational backgrounds, and
different patterns of living. These differences are apparent among members of the same sex, but they are even
more apparent when and women are compared because aging takes place at different rates for the two sexes.
3. Judged by different criteria: Many elderly people do all they can to camouflage the telltale physical signs
of aging by wearing clothes like those worn by younger people, and trying to keep up a pace that often
overtaxes their strength and energy. This is their attempt to create the illusion that they are not yet elderly or
old.
4. Social attitudes toward old age: The significance of unfavorable social attitudes toward the elderly is that it
affects the way elderly people are treated. Instead of the reverence and respect for the elderly, characteristics of
many cultures, social attitudes result in making the elderly feel that they are no longer useful to the social group
and hence, are more of a nuisance than an asset.
5. Aging requires role changes: It is expected that old people will play a decreasingly less active role in social
and community affairs, as well as in the business and professional worlds. Because of unfavorable social
attitudes, a few rewards are associated with old-age roles no matter how successfully they are carried out.
Feeling useless and unwanted, elderly people develop feelings of inferiority and resentment--- feelings that are
not conducive to good personal or social adjustments.
6. Poor adjustment: Those who have a history of poor adjustments tend to become more maladjusted as age
progresses than those whose earlier personal and social adjustments were more favorable. Butler has pointed out
that the elderly are disproportionately subject to emotional and mental problems. The incidence of
psychopathology rises with age-notably depression and paranoid states—increases steadily with each decade, as
do organic brain diseases after age 60… suicide also increases with age, and the rate of suicide is highest in
elderly white men.

12.2: Physical Development during Late

Adulthood
In the Philippine culture, the negative stereotype about the elderly is not noticeable, although very few
Filipino families influenced by Western culture seem to show negative attitudes towards late
adulthood. This may be so because of their emphasis on growth, strength, and progress. In general,
the Filipinos view their late adults with respect. And so, ageism which is a prejudice against an age
group does not prevent the Filipino elderly from living lives as actively and happily as they might; it
does not also preclude much day-to-day contact between those over 65 and those younger.
Ageism may be the most destructive social prejudice of all. Professionals who specialize in old age,
particularly those trained in geriatrics ( the field of medicine concerned with the care of the aged) who
spend most of their time with people who are sick and infirm, should show utmost attention to the
many healthy aspects of an older person’s life. Gerontologists should lead in preventing and
remedying cultural biases concerning late adulthood. Aging should be seen as a normal and natural
continuation of our development, rather than as something to be feared. If this is so, we will become
much more content with the unfolding of our lives.
 

The Aging Process

Growing older cannot be prevented; enescence, or the weakening and decline of the body, begins
almost as soon as growth stops. From that time on, the decline is gradual throughout adulthood. The
two higher sense organs which are vision and hearing continue to become poorer as aging goes on.
It is impaired vision more than hearing that is common among late adults. The lower sense organs
such as taste, touch, smell, and the sense of pain and balance are also impaired in many of the very
late adults. Because of aging, osteoporosis occurs. This is described as a loss of bone calcium that
causes bones to become more porous and fragile. This problem starts in middle age and is the main
cause of older people’s being much more likely to break a bone, particularly the hip bone, than the
younger individuals. It is very much noticeable that the gradual slowdown of functioning of the
cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and genital-urinary systems really affects the movements of
late adults. It comes to a point where severe disability or even death may occur when an injury to the
body is sudden. 
The elderly are more likely to experience many illnesses due to their body’s impaired resistance to
them. Due to the advanced learning in health care and medicine, many of the problems faced by
today’s cohort of elderly may be significantly reduced in future cohorts. This may be so because
modern medicine and good knowledge in human behavior allow more and more individuals to live the
full length of the human life span and make all the years of the life span good ones. It is hoped that a
great number of people will survive until age 85 or so and then die quickly and easily with natural
death.

 Aging is caused by a number of things. These are:

1. Wear and Tear. The wear and tear theory of aging states that the human body is like a machine.
The parts of a machine deteriorate and so with the human body. The parts of the human body
deteriorate as the years of exposure to radiation, pollution, disease, inadequate nutrition, and various
other stresses accumulate.
2. Aging DNA. In the wear and tear theory of aging, deterioration may take place molecule by molecule, as well
as organ by organ. Throughout the life span, radiation bombards the DNA in the replicating cells of the human
body, gradually creating mutations in structure in more and more cells. This means that their instructions for
performing their functions, including the production of new cells, become inadequate. In due time, there
develops an error catastrophe, a constellation of errors that is so extensive that the body can no longer control or
segregate the error. Disease or infirmity takes place and death occurs.
3. Molecular Aging. The biochemical process through which certain kinds of molecules become linked with
other kinds is called cross-linkage. This is so, because certain proteins of the body, notably collagen and elastin,
form connective tissues which bind the cells of the body together. In due time, the molecules of these proteins
become cross-linked or attached to other molecules. When this happens, the proteins become less elastic and
more brittle. And so, cross-linkage could be the underlying cause of major changes in the cardiovascular
system, such as the hardening of the arteries. Because of aging that disposes the human body to the continuing
increase in cross-linkage, each cell of the body becomes less flexible and adaptable.
4. Decline of the Immune system. It is a fact that the immune system protects the human body against disease
by recognizing foreign substances in the circulatory system, and then segregating and destroying them. When
the human body gets sick, its immune system marshalls its forces to fight and destroy the invader. There are two
types of cells that the immune system can work with. These are the B-cells which are manufactured in the bone
marrow, and the T-cells which are made by the thymus. It is true that the thymus starts to shrink during
adolescence. Researchers in this area believe that a reduction of T-cells may explain why the immune system
becomes less efficient with aging. Furthermore, the mechanisms that regulate B- and T-cells also become less
well adapted with age. Because of aging, autoimmune diseases, in which the immune system attacks normal
body tissues rather than the harmful invaders become more common in late adulthood.
5. Limit in Cell Production. It was Leonard Hayflick who discovered that cells cultured from human embryos
do not multiply infinitely. Cells that are cultured from adults showed a lesser number of doublings before they
stopped dividing, with the total number of times a cell divides being generally related to the age of the human
donor. It is now concluded, based on a number of researches, that there is a limited number of times the cells of
living creatures, even in ideal conditions, will produce.

Primary Aging
 Primary aging is the process by which cells irreversible stop dividing and enter a state of permanent
growth arrest without undergoing cell death. Primary aging refers to the inevitable changes
associated with aging to the skin and hair, height and weight, hearing, and eyes.

 Skin and hair: skin becomes drier, thinner, and less elastic with scars and imperfections more
noticeable and hair graying and loss more prevalent.
 Height and weight: older people are more than an inch shorter than during early adulthood and
often weigh less than in mid-life due to loss of bone density and muscle loss

Vision issues that arise impact the lens and optic nerve and make it harder to see in situations that
were previously unaffected

 Glaucoma: when the pressure in the fluid of the eye increases

 Cataracts: cloudy or opaque areas of the lens of the eye that interfere with passing light
 Macular degeneration: most common cause of blindness in people over 60
 Diabetic retinopathy: damage occurs to the retina due to diabetes mellitus

Hearing. Hearing loss is experienced by 30% of people age 70 and older with almost half of people
over 85 having some hearing loss

 Conductive hearing loss: may occur because of age, genetic predisposition, or environment and
involves structural damage to the ear
 Sensorineural hearing loss is due to a failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the
brain and can be caused by prolonged exposure to loud noises
 Temporal theory of pitch perception is the sound’s frequency coded by the activity level of a
sensory neuron
 Presbycusis is age-related sensorineural hearing loss resulting from degeneration of the cochlea
or associated structures of the inner ear or auditory nerves
 Ménière’s disease results in a degeneration of inner ear structures that can lead to hearing loss,
tinnitus (constant ringing or buzzing), vertigo (a sense of spinning), and increased pressure
 Cochlear implants, a treatment option for Ménière’s disease, are electronic devices that receive
incoming sound information and stimulates the auditory nerve to transmit the information to the
brain
 People may use elderspeak or patronizing form of speech when talking with older adults

  Secondary Aging
Refers to changes that are caused by illness or disease. These illnesses reduce independence,
impact the quality of life, affect family members and other caregivers, and bring financial burden. 

  Heart disease is the leading cause of death from chronic disease for adults older than 65 with a
variety of underlying mechanisms and about 90% preventable when improving risk factors.
  Age is one of the most important risk factors for developing cancer with prostate and lung cancer
common in men and breast and lung cancer common in women. Older adults with cancer have
different needs than younger adults.
  Hypertension, high blood pressure, and associated heart disease and circulatory conditions,
increase with age.
  Stroke is a leading cause of death and severe long-term disability.
  Arthritis is used to mean any disorder that affects joints. There are over 100 types of arthritis with
the most common forms being osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease) and rheumatoid arthritis.
 Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of
insulin. T2D primarily occurs as a result of obesity and lack of exercise with lifestyle a major
factor.
  Osteoporosis is a disease in which bone weakening increases the risk of a broken bone and
becomes more common with age.
  Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system
mainly affecting the motor system. Causes of Parkinson’s disease are generally unknown, but
both genetic and environmental factors are thought to be involved

 Common Changes In Motor Abilities:

    Strength: Elderly people tire quickly and require a longer time to recover from fatigue than younger
people
    Speed: A decrease in speed with aging is shown in tests of reacting time and skilled movements,
such as handwriting. It is especially marked after age sixty .
    Learning new skills: Even when the elderly believe that learning new skills will benefit them
personally, they learn more slowly than younger people and the end results tend to be less
satisfactory.
   Awkwardness: Old people tend to become awkward and clumsy, which causes them to spill and
drop things, to trip and fall, and to do things in a careless, untidy manner. The breakdown in motor
skills proceeds in inverse order to that in which the skills were learned, with the earliest learned skills
being retained longest.
12.3: Cognitive Development during
Late Adulthood
The ability to remember which is called memory declines with age, although to some elderly, memory
loss is a minor problem and it may occur only in some types of memory. There are four types of
memory that are affected by age, each lasting longer than the other. The first type is sensory register,
which is the momentary afterimage that occurs in the brain after a person perceives something. The
second one is primary memory, which is memory over a short period of time. The third type is the
secondary memory, which is stored for several minutes or hours. This memory shows the greatest
loss with age. And the fourth one is tertiary memory, which is a memory for information stored in the
mind relatively long ago.
As generally observed older adults are less efficient than younger adults at organizing new
information, particularly when presented with test problems requiring logical analysis. And the least
apparent is in the ability to express information. Since vocabulary and language skills are built as
earlier skills, many older people continue to improve in self-expression.

 Learning in Old Age

A person does not become senile simply because he becomes old.  Symptoms of senility include
severe memory loss, rambling conversation, disorientation, and personality change that occurs
because of a disease. A disease called dementia, which refers to a pathological loss of intellectual
functioning, does occur more often with age. When it happens before 60, it is called presenile
dementia; after age 60 it is called senile dementia. The chronological cut-off is arbitrary
 New Research on Aging and Cognition

 The ACTIVE study found to support that the brain can be trained to build a cognitive reserve to
reduce the effects of normal aging
 Older adults generally have greater emotional wisdom or the ability to emphasize with and
understand others
 Older adults do not generally show impairment on tasks that test sustained attention
 Problem-solving tasks that require processing non-meaningful information quickly also decline
with age

 Cognitive Function in Late Adulthood

 Dementia, severely impaired judgment, memory, or problem-solving ability can occur before old
age and is not inevitable
 Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia and is incurable while other
nonorganic causes of dementia can be prevented
 Delirium (acute confused state) is an organically caused decline from a previous baseline
functioning that develops over a short time period and can involve other neurological deficits
 Alzheimer’s is a progressive disease causing problems with memory, thinking, and behavior and
will develop slowly and worsen over time
 Common symptoms include emotional problems, difficulties with language, and a decrease in
motivation
 Alzheimer’s is not a normal part of aging and the cause is poorly understood
12.4: Sexual Development during Late
Adulthood
It has been suggested that active sex life can increase longevity among the elderly. Dr. Maggie Syme
found in her research on sexuality in old age that, “Having a sexual partnership, with frequent sexual
expression, having a good quality sex life, and being interested in sex have been found to be
positively associated with health among middle-aged and older adults.”
There are a number of associated health benefits with practicing positive sexual health. Positive
sexual health often acts as a de-stressor promoting increased relaxation. Researchers also report
health benefits such as decreased pain sensitivity, improved cardiovascular health, lower levels of
depression, increased self-esteem, and better relationship satisfaction. This could also imply that
there are negative consequences of poor sexual health or lack of sexual activity, including
depression, low self-esteem, increased frustration, and loneliness.

 Common Factors Affecting Sexual Behavior in Old Age:

 The pattern of earlier sexual behavior: People who derived enjoyment from sexual behavior
and were sexually active during the earliest years of their marriage continue to be sexually more
active in old age than those who were less active earlier.
 Compatibility of spouses: Where there is a close bond between husband and wife built on
mutual interests and respect, the desire for intercourse is much stronger than when a frictional
relationship exists.
 Social attitudes: Unfavorable social attitudes toward sex in old age make many elderly men and
women feel that interest in sexual matters not only is ‘not nice’ but may even be perverted.
 Marital status: Married people are likely to continue sexual activity into old age. Those who are
single or divorced or whose spouses have died usually do not have a strong enough sex drive to
make them seek new sex partners.
 Preoccupation with outside problems: When either or both spouses are preoccupied with
financial, family, or other problems, it tends to weaken sexual desire. If they eat or drink
excessively in order to escape from these problems, their sexual desires are further weakened.
 Overfamiliarity: Being together too much over a long period of time tends to deaden a couple’s
sexual desire in old age.
 Impotence: Many men who find themselves impotent on one occasion, regardless of the
condition that gave rise to it, withdraw from further sexual activity to avoid the ego-shattering
experience of repeated episodes of sexual inadequacy.

 Common substitute sources of sexual satisfaction:

 Masturbation: There is evidence that masturbation is widely practiced by elderly men and women
who have few if any other sexual outlets, particularly those who are becoming senile.
 Erotic dreams and daydreams: Erotic dreams and daydreams are a common substitute source
of sexual satisfaction among elderly women who are widowed or divorced and also among those
who are married but whose husbands are unable, because of falling health or impotence, to
engage in sexual activities. This substitute source of sexual satisfaction is more common in
women than in men.
 Thinking about sex: Many elderly men who are sexually deprived not only think about sex but
talk about it with their contemporaries. In addition, they like to look at pornographic pictures and
tell off-color jokes. Elderly women seldom engage in this form of substitute satisfaction.
 Sexual recrudescence: Elderly men may be sexually attracted to young girls or women, and
some may want to marry girls young enough to be their granddaughters. Occasionally they may
rape children or adults. Older women may play with dolls, assume a mothering role with someone
else’s child, or become infatuated with men young enough to be their grandsons.

12.5: Developmental Theories in Late

 

Adulthood
Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair
According to Erikson, as a person grows older and enters into the retirement years, the pace of life
and productivity tend to slow down, granting a person time for reflection upon their life. They may ask
the existential question, “It is okay to have been me?” If someone sees themselves as having lived a
successful life, they may see it as one filled with productivity. Here integrity is said to consist of the
ability to look back on one’s life with a feeling of satisfaction, peace, and gratitude for all that has
been given and received. Thus, persons derive a sense of meaning (i.e., integrity) through careful
review of how their lives have been lived. Ideally, however, integrity does not stop here but rather
continues to evolve into the virtue of wisdom. If a person sees their life as unproductive, or feels that
they did not accomplish their life goals, they may become dissatisfied with life and develop despair,
often leading to depression and hopelessness. 

 Robert Peck’s Developmental Tasks

The theory focuses on aging and the aging process. Peck’s theory has 3 developmental tasks
processes include:

 Ego differentiation versus Work Role Preoccupation: The older adult adjusts to retirement and
enjoys leisure activities that they were unable to partake in while they were gainfully employed.
 Ego Transcendence versus Ego Preoccupation: The individual accepts their own mortality
without fear.
 Body Transcendence versus Body Preoccupation: The aging person maintains a sense of
well-being, happiness, and satisfaction despite the physical declines associated with the aging
process.

Disengagement Theory (by Cumming and Henry )

Is the most controversial theory of development in old age. This particular thing explains that in old
age the individual and society mutually withdraw from each other. Disengagement happens through a
combination of four processes:

1. As early as in late middle age, an individual’s social sphere becomes increasingly narrow.
2. Individuals anticipate these changes and accept their participation in this “narrowing.”
3. As individuals become less role-centered, their style of interaction changes from being active or
dynamic to a less dynamic or a passive one.
4. Due to the change in their style of interaction, older people are less likely to be taken for new
roles.

 Activity Theory (by Havighurst and Albrecht)

It is true that disengagement does occur for some elderly individuals in one area of life. It is also
observed that disengagement in one area can lead to reengagement in other areas. The more
activities older people engage in, and the more roles they participate in or play, the greater or better
their life satisfaction.

 Continuity Theory 
Old age makes people neither more nor less engaged in life than they were; rather, older people are
essentially the same in their approach to living as they were when they were younger. According to
this theory, basic personality characteristics, whether genetic or the result of experiences, remain
stable with time.

 Discontinuity Theory
The discontinuity can be caused by occurrences that may alter cognitive and behavioral patterns.
This theory explains that in late adulthood, life events such as retirement, change of residence, failing
health, and death of a spouse may cause substantial discontinuity in personality and behavior.
 

Diversity Theory
This theory explains that the patterns of psychosocial development in late adulthood are at least as
varied as in earlier periods. It is believed by gerontologists that variability and diversity increase with
age; so, by late adulthood, the multiplicity of patterns and personalities is greater than at any other
age.

Personality Typology
Gerontological research ( the study of old age ) focuses in particular on the coping mechanisms that
people use to adjust to their changing circumstances, and then to describe this behavior in terms of
personality types. The assumption made by the personality typology theorists is that during our early
life stages, we develop certain behavioral patterns in order to cope with the challenges and changes
with which we are confronted. These coping styles gradually develop into specific personality types. A
person’s personality type then serves as a prediction mechanism of the way in which he or she will
act in a specific situation. These theorists maintain that it is more important to know how people have
coped with challenges in the past than to have knowledge of the specific situation with which they are
confronted in the present.
In an early study, Reichard, Livson, and Petersen (1962 ) investigated the personality types of men
who could adjust successfully and those who adjusted unsuccessfully to retirement and aging. They
identified five personality types:

 The mature type: these men evaluate themselves realistically, are accepting, and do not show
significant conflict. They accept the aging process and experience their lives in general as
satisfactory.
 The rocking chair type: these men are passive, are satisfied to be free of responsibilities, and
are happy to leave activities to others.
 The armored type: these men develop certain defense mechanisms such as denial and
projection to protect themselves from the fear of aging. They also try to remain active.
 The angry type: these men do not adjust well to retirement. They usually feel embittered, since
they believe that they have not reached their goals. They tend to act aggressively and accusingly
towards others
 The self-hate type: these men also struggle to adjust to retirement and feel that they have failed.
However, they are inclined to turn their anger towards themselves and blame themselves. 

THE PERSONALITY TYPES AND ADJUSTMENT PATTERNS OF THE ELDERLY

                    Neugarten, Havighurst and Tobin

PERSONALITY LEVEL OF LIFE

LIFESTYLE DESCRIPTION
TYPE SATISFACTION

High

Reorganizers Involved in many activities; replaces

previous activities with new ones.

Moderately active: involved in one or High

two activities
Focused

INTEGRATED Low level of activity and little High

involvement

Disengaged

Hangs on to activities of middle age; High

Holding-on type if successful in this enjoys life
satisfaction

ARMOURED- Low to moderate involvement in

Constricted
DEFENDED fewer activities; rigid personality Moderate to high
 Support Moderate to high
Moderate to a high level of activity;
Seekers very dependent on emotional
support for life satisfaction.

PASSIVE
DEPENDENT Low level of activity; passive
spectator of life
Apathetic Low to moderate

Poor emotional control and

Disorganized Low to moderate
intellectual deterioration
UNINTEGRATED

  12.6: Relationships in Late Adulthood

During late adulthood, many people find that their relationships with their adult children, siblings,
spouses, or life partners change. Roles may also change, as many are grandparents or great-
grandparents, caregivers to even older parents or spouses, or receivers of care in a nursing home or
other care facility.

  Grandparenting
It has become increasingly common for grandparents to live with and raise their grandchildren, or
also to move back in with adult children in their later years. Grandparenting typically begins in midlife
rather than late adulthood, but because people are living longer, they can anticipate being
grandparents for longer periods of time. 

 Three Styles of Grandparents (Cherlin and Furstenberg ,1986) :

 Remote: These grandparents rarely see their grandchildren. Usually, they live far away from their
grandchildren but may also have a distant relationship. Contact is typically made on special
occasions such as holidays or birthdays. 
 Companionate Grandparents: These grandparents do things with the grandchild but have little
authority or control over them. They prefer to spend time with them without interfering in
parenting. They are more like friends to their grandchildren.
 Involved Grandparents: These grandparents take a very active role in their grandchild’s life. The
grandchildren might even live with the grandparent. The involved grandparent is one who has
frequent contact with and authority over the grandchild.

Types of Grandparents: (https://www.oversixty.com.au/lifestyle/family-pets/5-types-of-

grandparents)
 The “formal” grandparent:  These grandparents take on traditional roles, believing there are
appropriate guidelines for grandparents to follow. They provide background support, take
grandchildren out on occasional outings, play a role in both children and grandchildren’s lives but
are not overly involved.
 The “fun seeker” grandparent: These grandparents are all about having fun with their
grandchildren. They love to bring their inner child out to play and entertain their grandchildren.
 The “surrogate parent” grandparent: These grandparents have had to take over the care-
taking role for their grandchildren. This means these grandparents are much more of a parental
figure and the relationship between grandchild and grandparent is more akin to parent and child.
 The “reservoir of family wisdom” grandparent: These grandparents are the head and authority
of the family. They dispense advice and have particular ideas of what and how things need to be
done.
 The “distant” grandparent: This grandparent plays only a small role in the life of their
grandchildren. They usually only meet during special occasions like holidays and birthdays.

12.7: Retirement
Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A
person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours or workload. Many people choose to retire when
they are old or incapable of doing their job. People may also retire when they are eligible for private or
public pension benefits, although some are forced to retire when bodily conditions no longer allow the
person to work any longer (by illness or accident) or as a result of legislation concerning their
position.
In the near-retirement phase, employees become increasingly aware that they are approaching
retirement and that adjustments are necessary to establish a successful transition. Some can
experience either positive or negative feelings about this, while others experience ambivalent
feelings. In this phase, good planning is necessary to facilitate the adjustment.

 Six Phases of Retirement

( Source: https://www.investopedia.com/articles/retirement/07/sixstages.asp)

 Pre-Retirement: Planning Time: During the working years, retirement can appear to be both an

oncoming burden and a distant paradise. Workers know that this stage of their lives is coming and
do everything they can to save for it, but they often give little thought to what they will actually do
once they reach the goal—the current demands that are placed upon them leave them little time
to ponder this issue.
  The Big Day: Smiles, Handshakes, and Farewells: By far the shortest stage in the retirement
process is the actual cessation of employment itself. This is often marked by some sort of dinner,
party, or other celebration and has become a rite of passage for many, especially for those with
distinguished careers. In some respects, this event is comparable to the ceremony that marks the
beginning of a marriage.
   Honeymoon Phase: I'm Free! :  Once the retirement celebrations are over, a period often
follows when retirees get to do all the things that they wanted to do once they stopped working,
such as travel, indulge in hobbies, visit relatives, and so forth. This phase has no set time frame
and will vary depending upon how much honeymoon activity the retiree has planned.
 Disenchantment:  After looking forward to this stage for so long, many retirees must deal with a
feeling of letdown, similar to that of newlyweds once the honeymoon is over.
 Reorientation: Building a New Identity: Retirees begin to familiarize themselves with the
landscape of their new circumstances and navigate their lives accordingly. This is easily the most
 difficult stage in the emotional retirement process and takes both time and conscious effort to
accomplish.
 Routine: Moving On: A new daily schedule is created. Retirees can enjoy this phase of their lives
with a new sense of purpose.

  The Effect of Retirement

Retirement not only results in a decrease in economic, social, and personal status but also in an
increase in free time. This does not mean that retirement necessarily has negative consequences for
the individual. Social scientists indicate the following

 Health: Retirees do not experience a decline in health because of retirement. More often,
individuals retire because of ill health.
 Activity: Retirees’ patterns of activity do not necessarily decrease. Persons who followed an
active lifestyle previously tend to maintain an active lifestyle after retirement ( e.g. by doing
volunteer work)
 Social and leisure activities: Retirees’ social and leisure time activities also do not change
dramatically. In fact, retirement has no significant influence on the individual’s social network,
frequency of social interaction, and social support. (Only those who had  no social support outside
the work situation could be negatively affected)

 Independent Periods of Developmental Changes during Late Adulthood After

Retirement: by Fisher
Stage 1: Continuity with middle age- was described by some people as similar to middle age but
without employment. Working was replaced by relaxation, sleeping late, travel hobbies, and
volunteering. For others, continuity with middle age meant ongoing responsibility as well as
continuing hobbies or activities related to their work prior to retirement. Many said that this was a
carefree time but also expressed concern about their finances and about their own health and the
health of relatives or friends.
Stage 2:  An early transition - was often initiated by the death of a spouse, onset of poor health, or
the need to relocate. Sometimes it was the result of accumulated losses related to the death of a
spouse or the need to care for relatives. Some of the events experienced were involuntary, and
others, such as seeking part-time paid employment, volunteer work, or relationships, were personal
decisions.
Fisher suggested that the events and choices made during early transition move older adulthood in a
new direction. The five tasks is necessary for adaptation in later adulthood and old age:

 Recognition of aging and definition of instrumental limitations

 Redefinition of physical and social life space
 Substitution of alternative sources of need satisfaction
 Reassessment of criteria for evaluation of the self; and
 Reintegration of values and life goals

Stage 3: Revised stage- was a time of adapting to the choices made in the previous stage. The
participants generally maintained their independence and control over their lives. Many continued
with the same kinds of activities. Some affiliated with other adults for socialization, and for some,
organizational membership was a way to achieve their goals. Lifestyle changes were highly
individualized, and some individuals adapt to changes positively. 
Stage 4: A later transition - resulted primarily from loss of health and mobility, and the necessity of
establishing new goals and activities. Some participants made the transition from greater
independence to dependence voluntarily by applying for entry into a retirement community while they
were still alive, but most made the transition as a result of disabling events. The loss of independent
living was triggered by disabilities, illnesses, and accidents, as well as the death of a spouse, a
relative’s relocation, or the loss of a caregiver.
Stage 5: A final period- was a time of stability and included revised goals and activities implemented
within a context of limited mobility. Some of the participants enjoyed positive new activities and
growth in settings that included nursing homes, although they also experienced resignation and
loneliness. The participants generally described their movement as sequential through the periods,
although there were expectations when a spouse had died before completing all periods or a
participant had experienced a disabling illness before or during the first period and gone directly into
the later transition period. The experience of returning to earlier stages occurred among subjects who
remarried. For those who experienced Fisher’s framework sequentially, the periods, beginning with
retirement and ending with death, differed in length. For women who had experienced little or no
employment outside their home, retirement was an elusive concept.

  

                                              Common Characteristics of Good and Poor Adjustment in Old Age

                  Good Adjustment                               Poor Adjustment

· Strong and varied interests · Little interest in the world  of today or the
individual’s role in it
· Economic independence, which makes
independence in living possible · Withdrawal into the world of fantasy
· Many social contacts with people of all ages, not · Constant reminiscing
just the elderly
· Constant worry, encouraged by idleness
· The employment of work which is pleasant and
useful but not overtaxing ·  A lack of drive, leading to low productivity in all
areas
· Participation in community organizations
· The attitude that the only activities available are
· The ability to maintain a comfortable home ‘make-work’ activities and, therefore, a ‘waste of
without  exerting too much physical effort time’
· The ability to enjoy present activities without · Loneliness due to poor family relationships and
regretting the past lack of interest in contemporaries
· A minimum of worry about self or others · Involuntary geographic isolation
· Enjoyment of day-to-day activities regardless of · Involuntary residence in an institution or with a
how repetitious they may be grown child
· Avoidance of fault-finding especially about living · Constant complaining and criticizing of anything
conditions and treatment from others. and everything
 · Refusal to take part in activities for the elderly on
the grounds that they are ‘boring’

13.1: The Psychology of Facing Death

                                  " 
A man who has found something he is willing
to die for is not fit to live."
                                                                                 
- Martin Luther Hing Jr. (1964)
 

"This is perhaps the greatest lesson we learned from our

patients: LIVE, so you do not have to look back and say, “God,
how I have wasted my life!”
                                                                                 
- Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1975)
 

The worst thing about death is the fact that when a man is
dead it’s impossible any longer to undo the harm you have you
have done him or to do the good you haven’t done him. They
say: live in such a way as to be always ready to die. I would
say: live in such a way that anyone can die without you having
anything to regret.
                                                                                 
- Leo Tolstoy (1865/1978)
Have you ever heard the advice, “Live each day as if it were going to be your last?” The point is to
appreciate every moment, but the advice would be terrible if you took it seriously. If you really
believed you would die today, you certainly wouldn’t plan for the future. You wouldn’t save money or
worry about the long-term health consequences of what you ate or drank.
Just thinking about the fact of eventual death evokes distress, and to go with life effectively, we try to
shield ourselves from thinking too much about dying. According to terror management theory, we
cope with our fear of death by avoiding thoughts about death and by affirming a worldview that
provides self-esteem, hope, and value in life. When something reminds you of your mortality, you do
whatever you can to reduce your anxiety. You reassure yourself that you still have many years to live.
“My health is good, I don’t smoke, I don’t drink too much, and I’m not overweight.” If that isn’t true,
you tell yourself that you plan to start to quit smoking, you are going to cut down on your drinking, and
any day now you are going to start losing weight. You also think about the good job you have ( or
hope to have), the high salary you earn (or expect to earn), and the exciting things you will do during
the rest of your life.
Still, even excellent health merely postpones death, so a reminder of death redoubles your efforts to
defend a belief that life is important. You reaffirm your religious beliefs, your patriotism, or other views
that help you make sense of life and find meaning in it. You become more dutiful than usual in
upholding the customs of your society. You also take pride in how you have contributed to your
family, your profession, or something else that will continue after you are gone. Up to a point, these
affirmations are good, although it is also true that people who are reminded of their own mortality
sometimes become hostile to those who disagree with or challenge their beliefs.
The advances in modern medicine have raised new ethical issues with regard to dying. We can now
keep people alive long after they have lost most of their physical and mental capacities. Should we? If
someone is bedridden and in pain, with little hope of recovery, is it acceptable to help the person
hasten death? A growing number of people have to face these difficult decisions for themselves and
their family members.
Proximity to death is often associated with a need to put life into context, to complete life tasks that
remain possible, and to resolve difficulties in order to gain a sense of fulfillment and a feeling of
having made a contribution to the lives of others. As Erikson described it, the final stage of life can be
described as a period of ‘integrity versus despair’, in which people look back on their lives and
consider whether it was well-ordered and meaningful (resulting in feelings of integrity) or unproductive
and meaningless (resulting in despair). For those who have concerns about the events of their lives, it
may be a time of reconciliation and attempts at making life more meaningful. A failure to express
forgiveness, where appropriate, was associated with more depressive symptoms, as were unresolved
differences between individuals.
 Close proximity to death may also trigger an exploration of personal grounds for faith. Not
surprisingly, levels of depression can be high in the weeks and months before death among people
who know they are going to die.

13.2: The Process of Dying

Aspects of Death
One way to understand death and dying is to look more closely at physiological death, social death,
and psychological death. These deaths do not occur simultaneously, nor do they always occur in a
set order. Rather, a person’s physiological, social, and psychological deaths can occur at different
times. 
Physiological death occurs when the vital organs no longer function and may take 72 or fewer hours

 Digestive and respiratory systems begin to shut down

 Circulation slows and mottling may occur
 Agonal breathing, the gasping, labored breaths caused by an abnormal pattern of brainstem reflex
may occur
 Someone is brain dead when there is no longer brain activity, referred to as clinically dead
 A vegetative state occurs when the cerebral cortex no longer registers electrical activity but the
brain stem continues to be active 

Social death begins earlier than physiological death and occurs when others begin to withdraw from
someone who is terminally ill or has a terminal illness diagnosis

 Doctors, as well as family members and friends, may spend less time with patients after their
prognosis becomes poor and
 People in nursing homes may live as socially dead for years with no one visiting or calling 

Psychological death occurs when the dying person begins to accept death and withdraw from
others and regress into the self

 This can take before physiological death and may even bring it closer as people give up their will
to live
 Interventions based on the idea of self-empowerment for terminally ill individuals has been
associated with a perceived ability to manage and control things resulting in better mental health

13.3: Developmental Perspectives on

Death
Developmental Perspectives on Death
 Infants and toddlers cannot understand death. They function in the present and are aware of loss
and separation, as well as disruptions in their routines. They are also attuned to the emotions and
behaviors of significant adults in their lives, so the death of a loved one may cause a young child
to become anxious and irritable, cry, or change their sleeping and eating habits.
 A preschooler may approach death by asking when a deceased person is coming back and might
search for them, thinking that death is temporary and reversible. They may experience brief but
intense reactions, such as tantrums, or other behaviors like frightening dreams and disrupted
sleep, bedwetting, clinging, and thumbsucking. Similarly, those in early childhood (age 4-7), might
also ask where the deceased person is and search for them, as well as regress to younger
behaviors. They might also think that the person’s death is their own fault, as per their belief in the
power of their own thoughts and “magical thinking.” Their grief might be expressed through play,
rather than verbally.
 Those in middle childhood (ages 7-10) begin to see death as final, not reversible, and universal.
Seeing death as a human figure who carried their loved one away. They may not really believe
that death could happen to them or their family, maybe only to the very old or sick—they may also
view death as a punishment. They might act out in school or they might try to keep a bond with
the deceased by taking on that person’s role or behaviors.
 Preadolescents (ages 10-12) try to understand both biological and emotional processes of death.
But they try to hide their feelings and not seem different from their peers; they may seem
indifferent, or they may have outbursts. 
 Adulthood? We’ve learned about adults becoming more concerned with their own mortality during
middle adulthood, particularly as they experience the deaths of their own parents. Recently,
(Sinoff, 2017) research on thanatophobia, or death anxiety, found differences in death anxiety
 between elderly patients and their adult children. Death anxiety may entail two different parts—
being anxious about death and being anxious about the process of dying. The elderly were only
anxious about the process of dying (i.e., suffering), but their adult children were very anxious
about death itself and mistakenly believed that their parents were also anxious about death itself. 

Impact of the Type of Death

  The death of a child can take the form of a loss in infancy such as miscarriage or stillbirth or
neonatal death, SIDS, or the death of an older child. In most cases, parents find the grief almost
unbearably devastating, and it tends to hold greater risk factors than any other loss. This loss also
bears a lifelong process: one does not get ‘over’ the death but instead must assimilate and live
with it. Intervention and comforting support can make all the difference to the survival of a parent
in this type of grief but the risk factors are great and may include family breakup or suicide.
Feelings of guilt, whether legitimate or not, are pervasive, and the dependent nature of the
relationship disposes parents to a variety of problems as they seek to cope with this great loss.
Parents who suffer miscarriage or a regretful or coerced abortion may experience resentment
towards others who experience successful pregnancies.
  Suicide. When a parent loses their child through suicide it is traumatic, sudden, and affects all
loved ones impacted by this child. Suicide leaves many unanswered questions and leaves most
parents feeling hurt, angry, and deeply saddened by such a loss. Parents may feel they can’t
openly discuss their grief and feel their emotions because of how their child died and how the
people around them may perceive the situation. Parents, family members, and service providers
have all confirmed the unique nature of suicide-related bereavement following the loss of a child.
They report a wall of silence that goes up to around them and how people interact with them. One
of the best ways to grieve and move on from this type of loss is to find ways to keep that child as
an active part of their lives. It might be privately at first but as parents move away from the silence
they can move into a more proactive healing time.
  The death of a spouse is usually a particularly powerful loss. A spouse often becomes part of
the other in a unique way: many widows and widowers describe losing ‘half’ of themselves. The
days, months, and years after the loss of a spouse will never be the same, and learning to live
without them may be harder than one would expect. The grief experience is unique to each
person. Sharing and building a life with another human being, then learning to live singularly, can
be an adjustment that is more complex than a person could ever expect. Depression and
loneliness are very common. Feeling bitter and resentful are normal feelings for the spouse who is
“left behind”. Oftentimes, the widow/widower may feel it necessary to seek professional help in
dealing with their new life.
 Death of a parent. For a child, the death of a parent, without support to manage the effects of the
grief, may result in long-term psychological harm. This is more likely if the adult carers are
struggling with their own grief and are psychologically unavailable to the child. There is a critical
role of the surviving parent or caregiver in helping the children adapt to a parent’s death. Studies
have shown that losing a parent at a young age did not just lead to negative outcomes; there are
some positive effects. Some children had an increased maturity, better coping skills, and
improved communication. Adolescents valued other people more than those who have not
experienced such a close loss.
 When an adult child loses a parent in later adulthood, it is considered to be “timely” and to be a
normative life course event. This allows the adult children to feel a permitted level of grief.
However, research shows that the death of a parent in an adult’s midlife is not a normative event
by any measure, but is a major life transition causing an evaluation of one’s own life or mortality.
Others may shut out friends and family in processing the loss of someone with whom they have
had the longest relationship.
 Death of a sibling. The loss of a sibling can be a devastating life event. Despite this, sibling grief
is often the most disenfranchised or overlooked of the four main forms of grief, especially with
regard to adult siblings. Grieving siblings are often referred to as the ‘forgotten mourners’ who are
made to feel as if their grief is not as severe as their parent's grief.  However, the sibling
relationship tends to be the longest significant relationship of the lifespan, and siblings who have
been part of each other’s lives since birth, such as twins, help form and sustain each other’s
identities; with the death of one sibling comes the loss of that part of the survivor’s identity
because “your identity is based on having them there.” The sibling relationship is a unique one, as
they share a special bond and a common history from birth, have a certain role and place in the
family, often complement each other, and share genetic traits. Siblings who enjoy a close
relationship participate in each other’s daily lives and special events, confide in each other, share
joys, spend leisure time together (whether they are children or adults), and have a relationship
that not only exists in the present but often looks toward a future together (even into retirement).
Surviving siblings lose this “companionship and a future” with their deceased siblings.

13.5: Grief
Grief is the psychological, physical, and emotional experience and reaction to loss. Grief reactions
vary depending on whether a loss was anticipated( when a death is expected and survivors have time
to prepare to some extent before the loss) or unexpected and whether it occurred suddenly or after a
long illness. Struggling with the question of responsibility and what if is particularly felt by those who
lose a loved one to suicide.   Complicated grief involves a distinct set of maladaptive or self-defeating
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that occur as a negative response to a loss. Disenfranchised grief
may be experienced by those who have to hide the circumstances of their loss or whose grief goes
unrecognized
It has been said that intense grief lasts about two years or less but grief is throughout life. Layers of
grief include an initial denial marked by shock and disbelief and anger towards those who could not
save the person’s life or that life did not turn out as expected. Grief and mixed emotions go hand in
hand with normal contradictions arising throughout our grieving. We are often asked to grieve
privately, quickly, and to medicate our suffering. The fading affect bias suggests that negative events
tend to lose their emotional intensity at a faster rate than pleasant events. 

 Bereavement is the outward expression of grief and mourning and funeral rites are expressions of
loss reflecting personal and cultural beliefs Culture does not provide set rules for how death is viewed
and experienced. Regardless of variations in conceptions and attitudes toward death, ceremonies
provide survivors a sense of closure after a loss. In most cultures, after the last offices have been
performed and before the onset of decay, relations or friends arrange for ritual disposition of the
body. There are various methods of destroying human remains, depending on religious or spiritual
beliefs and practical necessity
Regardless of variations in conceptions and attitudes toward death, ceremonies provide survivors a
sense of closure after a loss. These rites and ceremonies send the message that death is real and
allow friends and loved ones to express their love and duty to those who die. Under circumstances in
which a person has been lost and presumed dead or when family members were unable to attend a
funeral, there can continue to be a lack of closure that makes it difficult to grieve and to learn to live
with loss. And although many people are still in shock when they attend funerals, the ceremony still
provides a marker of the beginning of a new period of one’s life as a survivor.

  Models on Grief
 Stages of Loss by Kübler-Ross
Kübler-Ross described five stages of loss experienced by someone facing the news of their
impending death that provide a framework (not a linear progression) for understanding the
psychological experience of an impending death

o Denial is often the first reaction to overwhelming, unimaginable news and protects us by
allowing the news to enter slowly
o Anger provides us with protection by energizing us to fight against something and providing
structure to an unknown situation
o Bargaining involves trying to think of what could be done to turn the situation around
o Depression involves feeling the full weight of loss and is an important part of the process of
dying
o Acceptance involves learning how to carry on and incorporate this aspect of the life span into
daily existence

Model of Grief by Worden

Worden’s model of grief explained it through four different tasks the individual must complete

 Accepting the loss has occurred

 Working through and experiencing the pain associated with grief
 Adjusting to the changes the loss created in the environment
 Moving past the loss on an emotional level

 Four Stages of Grief by Parkes

Parkes broke down grief into four stages: shock, yearning, despair, and recovery

 How to cope with Grief by Strobe and Shut

Strobe and Shut suggested individuals cope with grief through an ongoing process:
            Loss-oriented: grief work, intrusion on grief, denying changes toward restoration, and breaking
of bonds or ties
            Restoration-oriented: attending to life changes, distracting oneself from grief, doing new
things, establishing new roles and relationships

 The following strategies have been identified as effective in

the support of healthy grieving:
 Talk about death. This will help the surviving individuals understand what happened and
remember the deceased in a positive way. When coping with death, it can be easy to get wrapped
up in denial, which can lead to isolation and a lack of a solid support system.
 Accept the multitude of feelings. The death of a loved one can, and almost always does, trigger
numerous emotions. It is normal for sadness, frustration, and in some cases exhaustion to be
experienced.
 Take care of yourself and your family. Remembering to keep one’s own health and the health
of their family a priority can help with moving through each day effectively. Making a conscious
effort to eat well, exercise regularly, and obtain adequate rest is important.
 Reach out and help others dealing with the loss. It has long been recognized that helping
others can enhance one’s own mood and general mental state. Helping others as they cope with
the loss can have this effect, as can sharing stories of the deceased.
 Remember and celebrate the lives of your loved ones. This can be a great way to honor the
relationship that was once had with the deceased. Possibilities can include donating to a charity
that the deceased supported, framing photos of fun experiences with the deceased, planting a
tree or garden in memory of the deceased, or anything else that feels right for the particular
situation.