MODULE 4: IDEAS FOR GLOBALIZATION

“In this age of globalization, instant real time media and television, everyone
all over the world realizes that high energy usage equates with a high
standard of living and wealth”.
- John Olver

OBJECTIVES. What will you learn from this module?

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Analyze how various media drive various forms of global integration
2. Explain the dynamic between local and global cultural production
3. Explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs
4. Analyze the relationship between religion and global conflict and
peace
5. Identify the current and pressing research issue of globalization in
Mindanao
6. Analyze research issues and presents their findings to the class

INTRODUCTION

The so-called "information age" is gradually spreading its influence to the realm of religion,
namely, in the methods religions use for teaching, proselytizing, and in belief systems.
Particularly noteworthy developments include the fact that it is now possible for any
religion to spread beyond national borders, allowing even small new religious movements
to engage in overseas proselytization activities, and leading to new, hitherto unseen
religious developments. This rapid acceleration of the "information age" is now producing
a phenomenon which can be called the "globalization of religion." ― Inoue Nobutaka

The mass media are seen today as playing a key role in enhancing globalization,
facilitating culture exchange and multiple flows of information and images between
countries through social media sites, international news broadcasts, television
programming, new technologies, film, and music.
International flows of communication have been largely assisted by the development
of global capitalism, new technologies and the increasing commercialization of global
television, which has occurred as a consequence of the deregulation policies adopted by
various countries in Europe and the US in order to permit the proliferation of cable and
satellite channels. (Scribd Inc. “Globalization and Mass Media,” 2020)
 ANALYSIS. How Am I connected?

In this activity, write something about the picture below and answer the questions
provided.

1. What do you see in the picture?

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2. How did the artist/s become famous?
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3. Why do you think the artist/s became famous?
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 LESSON 1 GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES

ABSTRACTION

Globalization of Culture Through Media

by Marwan M. Kraidy

The received view about the globalization of culture is one where the entire world has
been molded in the image of Western, mainly American, culture. In popular and professional
discourses alike, the popularity of Big Macs, Baywatch, and MTV are touted as unmistakable
signs of the fulfillment of Marshall McLuhan's prophecy of the Global Village. The
globalization of culture is often chiefly imputed to international mass media. After all,
contemporary media technologies such as satellite television and the Internet have created a
steady flow of transnational images that connect audiences worldwide. Without global
media, according to the conventional wisdom, how would teenagers in India, Turkey, and
Argentina embrace a Western lifestyle of Nike shoes, Coca-Cola, and rock music? Hence, the
putatively strong influence of the mass media on the globalization of culture.

The role of the mass media in the globalization of culture is a contested issue in
international communication theory and research. Early theories of media influence,
commonly referred to as "magic bullet" or "hypodermic needle" theories, believed that the
mass media had powerful effects over audiences. Since then, the debate about media
influence has undergone an ebb and flow that has prevented any resolution or agreement
among researchers as to the level, scope, and implications of media influence. Nevertheless,
key theoretical formulations in international communication clung to a belief in powerful
media effects on cultures and communities. At the same time, a body of literature
questioning the scope and level of influence of transnational media has emerged. Whereas
some scholars within that tradition questioned cultural imperialism without providing
conceptual alternatives, others have drawn on an interdisciplinary literature from across the
social sciences and humanities to develop theoretical alternatives to cultural imperialism.

Cultural Imperialism and the Global Media Debate

In international communication theory and research, cultural imperialism theory
argued that audiences across the globe are heavily affected by media messages emanating
from the Western industrialized countries. Although there are minor differences between
"media imperialism" and "cultural imperialism," most of the literature in international
communication treats the former as a category of the latter. Grounded in an understanding
of media as cultural industries, cultural imperialism is firmly rooted in a political-economy
perspective on international communication. As a school of thought, political economy
focuses on material issues such as capital, infrastructure, and political control as key
determinants of international communication processes and effects.

In the early stage of cultural imperialism, researchers focused their efforts mostly on
nation-states as primary actors in international relations. They imputed rich, industrialized,
and Western nation-states with intentions and actions by which they export their cultural
products and impose their sociocultural values on poorer and weaker nations in the
developing world. This argument was supported by a number of studies demonstrating that
the flow of news and entertainment was biased in favor of industrialized countries. This bias
was clear both in terms of quantity, because most media flows were exported by Western
countries and imported by developing nations, and in terms of quality, because developing
nations received scant and prejudicial coverage in Western media.
These concerns led to the rise of the New World Information Order (NWIO) debate, later
known as the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) debate.
Although the debate at first was concerned with news flows between the north and the south,
it soon evolved to include all international media flows. This was due to the fact that
inequality existed in news and entertainment programs alike, and to the advent of then-new
media technologies such as communication satellites, which made the international media
landscape more complex and therefore widened the scope of the debate about international
flows.

The global media debate was launched during the 1973 General Conference of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Nairobi,
Kenya. As a specialized agency of the United Nations, the mission of UNESCO includes issues
of communication and culture. During the conference, strong differences arose between
Western industrialized nations and developing countries. Led by the United States, the first
group insisted on the "free flow of information" doctrine, advocating "free trade" in
information and media programs without any restrictions. The second group, concerned by
the lack of balance in international media flows, accused Western countries of invoking the
free flow of information ideology to justify their economic and cultural domination. They
argued instead ·for a "free and balanced flow" of information. The chasm between the two
groups was too wide to be reconciled. This eventually was one of the major reasons given for
withdrawal from UNESCO by the United States and the United Kingdom-which resulted in
the de facto fall of the global media debate.
 A second stage of research identified with cultural imperialism has been associated
with calls to revive the New World Information and Communication Order debate. What
differentiates this line of research from earlier cultural imperialism formulations is its
emphasis on the commercialization of the sphere of culture. Research into this area had been
a hallmark of cultural imperialism research, but now there is a deliberate focus on
transnational corporations as actors, as opposed to nation-states, and on transnational
capital flows, as opposed to image flows. Obviously, it is hard to separate the power of
transnational corporations from that of nation-states, and it is difficult to distinguish clearly
between capital flows and media flows. Therefore, the evolution of the debate is mainly a
redirection of emphasis rather than a paradigm shift.

It has become fashionable in some international communication circles to dismiss

cultural imperialism as a monolithic theory that is lacking subtlety and increasingly
questioned by empirical research. Cultural imperialism does have some weaknesses, but it
also continues to be useful. Perhaps the most important contribution of cultural imperialism
is the argument that international communication flows, processes, and effects are
permeated by power. Nevertheless, it seems that the concept of globalization has in some
ways replaced cultural imperialism as the main conceptual umbrella under which much
research and theorizing in international communication have been conducted.

Media, Globalization, and Hybridization

Several reasons explain the analytical shift from cultural imperialism to
globalization. First, the end of the Cold War as a global framework for ideological,
geopolitical, and economic competition calls for a rethinking of the analytical categories and
paradigms of thought. By giving rise to the United States as sole superpower and at the same
time making the world more fragmented, the end of the Cold War ushered in an era of
complexity between global forces of cohesion and local reactions of dispersal. In this complex
era, the nation-state is no longer the sale or dominant player, since transnational
transactions occur on subnational, national, and supranational levels. Conceptually,
globalization appears to capture this complexity better than cultural imperialism. Second,
according to John Tomlinson (1991), globalization replaced cultural imperialism because it
conveys a process with less coherence and direction, which will weaken the cultural unity of
all nation-states, not only those in the developing world. Finally, globalization has emerged
as a key perspective across the humanities and social sciences, a current undoubtedly
affecting the discipline of communication.

In fact, the globalization of culture has become a conceptual magnet attracting

research and theorizing efforts from a variety of disciplines and interdisciplinary formations
such as anthropology, comparative literature, cultural studies, communication and media
studies, geography, and sociology. International communication has been an active
interlocutor in this debate because media and information technologies play an important
role in the process of globalization. Although the media are undeniably one of the engines of
cultural globalization, the size and intensity of the effect of the media on the globalization of
culture is a contested issue revolving around the following question: Did the mass media
trigger and create the globalization of culture? Or is the globalization of culture an old
phenomenon that has only been intensified and made more obvious with the advent of
transnational media technologies? Like the age-old question about whether the egg came
before the chicken or vice versa, the question about the relationship between media and the
globalization of culture is difficult to answer.

One perspective on the globalization of culture, somewhat reminiscent of cultural

imperialism in terms of the nature of the effect of media on culture, but somewhat different
in its conceptualization of the issue, is the view that the media contribute to the
homogenization of cultural differences across the planet. This view dominates conventional
wisdom perspectives on cultural globalization conjuring up images of Planet Hollywood and
the MTV generation. One of the most visible proponents of this perspective is political
scientist Benjamin Barber, who formulated his theory about the globalization of culture in
the book Jihad vs. McWorld (1996). The subtitle, "How Globalism and Tribalism Are
Reshaping the World," betrays Barber's reliance on a binary opposition between the forces
of modernity and liberal democracy with tradition and autocracy.
Although Barber rightly points to transnational capitalism as the driving engine that brings
Jihad and McWorld in contact and motivates their action, his model has two limitations.
First, it is based on a binary opposition between Jihad, what he refers to as ethnic and
religious tribalism, and McWorld, the capital-driven West. Barber (1996, p. 157) seemingly
attempts to go beyond this binary opposition in a chapter titled “Jihad Via McWorld," in
which he argues that Jihad stands in "less of a stark opposition than a subtle counterpoint."
However, the evidence offered in most of the book supports an oppositional rather than a
contrapuntal perspective on the globalization of culture. The second limitation of Barber's
book is that he privileges the global over the local, because, according to him, globalization
rules via transnational capitalism. "[T]o think that globalization and indigenization are
entirely coequal forces that put Jihad and McWorld on an equal footing is to vastly
underestimate the force of the new planetary markets .... It's no contest" (p. 12). Although it
would be naive to argue that the local defeats the global, Barber's argument does not take
into account the dynamic and resilient nature of cultures and their ability to negotiate foreign
imports.

Another perspective on globalization is cultural hybridity or hybridization. This view

privileges an understanding of the interface of globalization and localization as a dynamic
process and hybrid product of mixed traditions and cultural forms. As such, this perspective
does not give prominence to globalization as a homogenizing force, nor does it believe in
localization as a resistive process opposed to globalization. Rather, hybridization advocates
an emphasis on processes of mediation that it views as central to cultural globalization. The
concept of hybridization is the product of interdisciplinary work mostly based in intellectual
projects such as postcolonialism, cultural studies, and performance studies. Hybridization
has been used in communication and media studies and appears to be a productive
theoretical orientation as researchers in international media studies attempt to grasp the
complex subtleties of the globalization of culture.

One of the most influential voices in the debate about cultural hybridity is
Argentinean-Mexican cultural critic Nestor Garcia-Candini. In his book Hybrid Cultures
(1995), Garcia-Candini advocates a theoretical understanding of Latin American nations as
hybrid cultures. His analysis is both broad and incisive, covering a variety of cultural
processes and institutions such as museums, television, film, universities, political cartoons,
graffiti, and visual arts. According to Garcia-Candini, there are three main features of cultural
hybridity. The first feature consists of mixing previously separate cultural systems, such as
mixing the elite art of opera with popular music. The second feature of hybridity is the
reterritorialization of cultural processes from their original physical environment to new and
foreign contexts. Third, cultural hybridity entails impure cultural genres that are formed out
of the mixture of several cultural domains. An example of these impure genres is when
artisans in rural Mexico weave tapestries of masterpieces of European painters such as Joan
Miro and Henri Matisse, mixing high art and folk artisanship into an impure genre.

In media and communication research, the main question is "Have transnational

media made cultures across the globe hybrid by bringing into their midst foreign cultural
elements, or have cultures always been to some extent hybrid, meaning that transnational
mass media only strengthened an already-existing condition?" There is no obvious or final
answer to that question, because there is not enough empirical research about media and
hybridity and because of the theoretical complexity of the issue. What does exist in terms of
theoretical understanding and research results points to a middle ground? This position
acknowledges that cultures have been in contact for a long time through warfare, trade,
migration, and slavery. Therefore, a degree of hybridization in all cultures can be assumed.
At the same time, this middle ground also recognizes that global media and information
technologies have substantially increased contacts between cultures, both in terms of
intensity and of the speed with which these contacts occur. Therefore, it is reasonable to
assume that transnational mass media intensify the hybridity that is already in existence in
cultures across the globe. Consequently, the globalization of culture through the media is not
a process of complete homogenization, but rather one where cohesion and fragmentation
coexist. (Kraidy 2002)
 ACTIVITY. Essay Analysis Chart!

Read thoroughly the essay above about “Globalization of Culture through Media”
by Marwan M. Kraidy. Use the chart below as a guide to check your understanding about
the essay.

Introduction (identify the work)

Thesis Statement

Part 1 (explanation and details)

Part 2 (explanation and details)

Part 3 (explanation and details)

Part 4 (explanation and details)

Conclusion
Essay Rubric
5 • has a strong central idea (thesis) that is related to the topic;
points • provides compelling support to the thesis topic;
• has a clear, logical organization with well-developed major points that are
supported with concrete and specific evidence;
• uses effective transitions between ideas;
• uses appropriate words composing sophisticated sentences; expresses
ideas freshly and vividly;
• is free of mechanical, grammatical, and spelling errors. is not more or
less than required page length.
4 • has a strong central idea that is related to the assignment;
points • has a clear, logical organization with developed major points, but the
supporting evidence may not be especially vivid or thoughtful;
• uses appropriate words accurately, but seldom exhibits an admirable style
while the sentences tend to be less sophisticated;
• has few mechanical, grammatical, and spelling errors that do not distract
from the overall message.
• is substantially more or less than required page length.

3 • not quite a 4-point essay, but better than a 2-point essay.

points • is not related to the assignment
• is substantially more or less than required page length.

2 • is not related to the assignment

points • has a central idea that is presented in such a way that the reader understands
the writer’s purpose;
• has an organization that reveals a plan, but the evidence tends to be general
rather than specific or concrete;
• uses common words accurately, but sentences tend to be simplistic and
unsophisticated;
• has one or two severe mechanical or grammatical errors.
• is substantially more or less than required page length.

1 point • lacks a central idea (no thesis);

• lacks clear organization;
• is not related to the assignment;
• fails to develop main points, or develops them in a repetitious or illogical way;
fails to use common words accurately;
• uses a limited vocabulary in that chosen words fail to serve the writer's
purpose; has three or more mechanical or grammatical errors.
 LESSON 2 GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION

ABSTRACTION

Religion and Globalization: New Possibilities, Furthering Challenges

As a contested term, globalization has many definitions, each worthy of merit.
Generally, globalization is first thought of “in economic and political terms, as a movement
of capitalism spreading across the globe.” It calls to mind “homogenizing exports of the US”
such as Nike, McDonald’s, and MTV. However, since globalization can be defined as a
process of an “ever more interdependent world” where “political, economic, social, and
cultural relationships are not restricted to territorial boundaries or to state actors,”
globalization has much done with its impact on cultures.
As goods and finance crisscross across the globe, globalization shifts the cultural
makeup of the globe and creates a homogenized “global culture.” Although not a new
phenomenon, the process of globalization has truly made the world a smaller place in which
political, social, and economic events elsewhere affect individuals anywhere. As a result,
individuals “search for constant time and space-bounded identities” in a world ever changing
by the day. One such identity is religion.
Generally, religion is a “system of beliefs and practices.” More specifically, the word
comes from the Latin “religare” which means “to bind together again that which was once
bound but has since been torn apart or broken.” Indeed, with the globalization of economics
and politics, individuals feel insecure “as the life they once led is being contested and changed
at the same time.” Hence, “in order for a person to maintain a sense of psychological well-
being and avoid existential anxiety,” individuals turn to scripture stories and teachings that
provide a vision about how they can be bound to a “meaningful world,” a world that is quickly
changing day-by-day.
 Nonetheless, the relationship between globalization and religion is one with new
possibilities and furthering challenges. On the one hand, while religion takes advantage of
communication and transportation technology, it is at the same time the source of
globalization’s greatest resistance by acting as a haven for those standing in opposition to its
power. On the other hand, because globalization allows for daily contact, religion enters a
circle of conflict in which religions become “more self-conscious of themselves as being world
religions.” This essay argues that the relationship between religion and globalization is
complex, one with new possibilities and furthering challenges. However, this essay cannot
provide a comprehensive overview of religion and globalization, as the terrain is too vast.
Still, it does provide several examples to illustrate the complex relationship between the two.
First, this essay explains how globalization engenders greater religious tolerance
across areas such as politics, economics, and society. Second, it explains that as globalization
does so, it also disrupts traditional communities, causes economic marginalization, and
brings individuals mental stress, all of which create a backlash of religious parochialism.
Third, although globalization paves the way in bringing cultures, identities, and religions in
direct contact, this essay also explains that globalization brings religions to a circle of
conflicts that reinforces their specific identities. Finally, using three paradigmatic individuals
and their use of religious ideals in their human rights work, this essay provides some
suggestions on how not just religions but humanity can use existing religious principles as
ways to overlook religious and cultural differences.

Globalization Engendering Greater Religious Tolerance

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with overlapping but

distinctive ethics and interests” interact with one another. Essentially, the world’s leading
religious traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—teach values
such as human dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity. More specifically, religions
maintain the Golden Rule: “what you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others.”
Therefore, through such religious values, globalization engenders greater religious tolerance
in such areas as politics, economics, and society.
In political areas, globalization has built global political forums that integrate cultural,
ethnic, and religious differences—ideologies that were once perceived as dividing the world—
through a large number of international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and
the World Health Organization (WHO), as well regional organizations like the European
Union (EU), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), or the African Union (AU).
When discussing issues such as international peace and security, health issues, poverty, and
environment, these organizations generally share many of the same basic commitments as
religious traditions— mainly peace, human dignity, and human equality, as well as conflict
resolution in which they actively engage in negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy.
In addition to these political organizations, religious communities such as the Roman
Catholic Church, the World Council of Churches, and the Jewish Diaspora also take part in
international affairs. For instance, they have taken part in events such the Jubilee 2000, an
international effort advocating for cancelling Third World debt by the year 2000, and the
World Faiths Development Dialogue, an effort of international faith leaders along with the
World Bank to support development agendas corresponding to the UN’s Millennium
Development Goals. Furthermore, religious organizations have, themselves, been involved
in interreligious dialogue.
The Parliament of the World’s Religions of 1993, first conveyed during the 1893
Chicago World Exhibit, brought the world’s diverse faith traditions—from African
indigenous religions, the major religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), to any forms of
faith that would agree to civil dialogue through mutual encounter—to use their similar values
and discuss world affairs.
In terms of economics, as the economy of the major countries of the world has grown,
the main religions of each of those countries have also grown financially, providing more
financial resources for religions to spread their beliefs. For example, although it may seem
as an old tactic, missionary work—especially in light of globalization—is strong in many Third
World countries where religious representatives convert the natives. As a result, the major
religions today have scattered across the globe—Christianity turning “southern” and “black,”
Islam turning “Asian,” and Buddhism turning “white” and “western.” Still holding on to their
original territorial spaces where their shrines exist, religions are fulfilling their general
purpose of spreading their beliefs to people all over the world.
Finally, religion has tremendously benefited from technological advancements. For
example, websites provide information and explanations about different religions to any
person regardless of his or her geographical location, as well as provide the opportunity to
contact others worldwide and hold debates which allow religious ideas to spread.
Furthermore, television allows for religious channels that provide visual religious teachings
and practices. Hence, by making the leap onto the information superhighway, which brings
religious teachings into every home and monitor in a global setting, religions have come
together into one setting.
In short, globalization allows for religions previously isolated from one another to now
have regular and unavoidable contact. As a result, globalization brings to the light the fact
that since religions have similar values, not one of them is “correct” and, therefore, can be
changed. But as the next section shows, the same process that engenders greater religious
tolerance also creates a backlash of religious parochialism.

Globalization Creating Backlash of Religious Parochialism

Since globalization is considered as “the first truly world revolution,” “all revolutions
disrupt the traditions and customs of a people”—that is, “people’s very security, safety, and
identity.” As globalization disrupts traditional communities, causes economic
marginalization, and brings mental stress, individuals feel these less desirable consequences
of globalization. With religion’s power to “convey a picture of security, stability, and simple
answers” through stories and beliefs—unlike economic plans, political programs, or legal
regulations—individuals turn to religion.
First, globalization breaks down traditional communities and replaces them with
larger, impersonal organizations. As globalization creates a “global village,” it dramatically
alters what individuals traditionally understood themselves by— “citizenship,” “nationality,”
and “immigration.” For instance, the European Union (EU) does not call their members by
country of origin but rather by their greater title, European citizens. Moreover, such
organizations set universal standards upon all members, causing individuals to believe that
they are not fairly represented. As a result, feeling that these organizations have shattered
their “protective cocoon” that has shielded them in the past, many individuals find comfort
in religion.
In giving individuals a sense of belonging, religious groups help them to find
themselves in modern times. For instance, religious leaders, pointing to modern society’s
loss of ethical values and increased corruption, preach, “the only answer to the current ‘decay’
is a return to traditional values and religious norms.” Hence, religion supplies these
individuals with a feeling of being a part of a group that represents their interests and allows
them to regain their traditional sense of who they are.
Second, globalization brings economic marginalization. For example, as transnational
corporations increasingly take over the role of the state’s involvement in the economic sector,
the government loses its status as a welfare provider. Moreover, increasing the gaps between
those who have benefit from the global market (generally the West) and those who have been
left behind (generally the Global South), globalization is seen as “Western imperialism,” as
well as “Americanization.” For instance, globalization “encourage[es] people to buy
American goods and services, which ultimately “undermines deep-rooted communal values.”
Simply put, individuals are bombarded with McDonald’s, Nike, and MTV.
By responding to individuals’ desire for welfare, as well as acting as a cultural
protection against globalization, religion plays a social role and gains more recognition from
the marginalized, particularly those in Third World countries. For instance, religious
organizations such as Catholic Relief Services, World Vision International, and Islamic Relief
Worldwide help serve the disadvantaged in areas such as poverty relief, health care, the
HIV/AIDs crisis, and environment problems. In fact, even if only promising prosperity and
hope of economic relief, these organizations draw massive followers as, by lacking “extensive
transnational bureaucracies and chains of command,” they provide “the strength of collective
identity and the depth of ethical commitments.”
Last but not least, globalization causes mental stress. Although globalization allows
for crisscrossing borders, it also leaves individuals worrying about losing work, status, or
other privileges. Moreover, since globalization favors material prosperity as the aim of life
over inner peace, individuals focus on attaining some material possession such as a house,
car, game, or simply any object. When they attain such item(s), however, they find
themselves empty inside and, therefore, realize that inner peace can never be achieved
through material possessions.
To these individuals then, religion provides them the way to inner peace and the sense
of personal fulfillment. For example, individuals who feel insecure in the globalized world,
in business or personal life, will often pray to God for his spiritual support. In addition, these
individuals realize that getting involved within their communities and organizing together in
social movements for a good cause brings more satisfaction to them than do material
possessions. They see themselves as being part of something important and worthwhile.
In short, in face of rapid changes in the globalized world, to regain the sense of
certainty, many individuals turn to religion for a clear explanation of what is going on in the
world. With its strength as a powerful identity that brings the message of unity and security
in times of crisis, religion provides the idea of a “home.” But as the last section demonstrates,
this religious identity becomes a major ingredient that reduces the self and the other to a
number of cultural religious characteristics.

Religious Identity and Globalization: Furthering Challenges

As the previous section shows, since God has set the rules and has made them difficult
to challenge, religion provides answers to questions concerning self-identity. However, in
providing such answers, religion also institutes a notion of “truth,” which implies an
automatic exclusion of the one—called an “abject”—who does not adhere to such “truth.” In
times of uncertainty like globalization, therefore, collective identity is reduced to a number
of cultural religious characteristics — “them” and “us” and “they” and “our.” In other words,
the abject suddenly becomes recognized as a threat.
For example, since the 9/11 attacks, there has been a tendency of the West to link the
religion of Islam with terrorist practices while Al-Qaeda links the US as Christian or a Judeo-
Christian nation. On the one hand, Al-Qaeda men who hijacked the planes on 9/11 saw the
passengers and those working in the World Trade Center and Pentagon as “abject” of Islam.
On the other hand, the US-led invasion of Afghanistan and then Iraq turned into wars of
“Islamofacism” and a “crusade” to the divine in getting rid of evil. Moreover, other attacks
on innocent people based on cultural religious characteristics occur today: Muslims in the
United States, Western Europe, or India, Kurds in Iraq, and Jews in France. In other words,
though socially constructed, these cultural religious characteristics become a unifying force
against others not adhering to a particular truth.
Interestingly then, the idea of religious identity in this era of globalization may hold
in line with Huntington’s thesis. According to Huntington (1990), while conflict during the
Cold War occurred between the Capitalist West and the Communist Bloc East, current and
future conflicts are most likely to occur between the world’s major civilizations, and not the
states, including Western, Latin American, Islamic, Sinic (Chinese), Hindu, Orthodox,
Japanese, and the African. In a broader sense, having paved the way for religions to come in
direct contacts with one another, globalization has, indeed, brought religions to a circle of
competition and conflicts. As long as religions see themselves as “world religions” and
reinforce their specific identities, the chance for religions to avoid conflict among one
another is grey. Luckily, the final section brings some hope on how religions can use their
existing principles as ways to overlook their differences.

Conclusion

In a time in which globalization has yet to fully complete its process, religions must
use the communication easily available through advanced technology to focus more on the
humane and pluralistic forms of their teachings—values such as human dignity and human
freedom—as means to manage religious diversity and avoid violence. In other words,
religious should be open to other traditions and what they can teach. In fact, though having
“fixed texts,” the major world religions do not have “fixed beliefs,” “only fixed interpretations
of those beliefs,” meaning their beliefs can be “rediscovered, reinvented, and
reconceptualized.”
As interesting examples, in their attempt to create the tradition of nonviolence from
diverse religions and cultures, three paradigmatic individuals—Leo Tolstoy, Mohandas
Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, Jr.—have, indeed, “rediscovered, reinvented, and
reconceptualized” the beliefs of the world’s major religions. The three individuals indicate
that “it is possible for narrative diversity to generate a shared ethic without sacrificing the
diversity of particular religions.”
For instance, although coming from a gentry class in Russia and receiving fame and
fortune from his novels, Tolstoy converted to Christianity in part after reading a story about
how a Syrian monk named Barlaam brought about the conversion of a young Indian prince
named Josaphat, who gave up his wealth and family to seek an answer to aging, sickness,
and death. Deeply indebted in Buddhism for his conversion to Christianity, Tolstoy,
attempting to live his life by the teachings of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount, gave away all his
wealth and spent the rest of his life serving the poor. Nevertheless, the story about Barlaam
and Josaphat has “worked its way into virtually all the world’s religions.”
Similarly, Gandhi, when he encountered Tolstoy’s writings, drew his attention to the
power of the Sermon on the Mount. In encountering Jesus’ Sermon, Gandhi became
motivated to “turn the great Hindu narrative from the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita, in
order to find the message of nonviolence within his own religion and culture.” By finding that
Tolstoy’s understanding of the Sermon on the Mount lacked “nonviolence as an active rather
than a passive virtue . . . capable of producing an active resistance to evil,” he found it present
in the Bhagavad Gita. As a result, Gandhi transformed the Bhagavad Gita from a story that
authorized killing to one of nonviolence reflected from the story of Jacob wrestling with the
stranger and Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount.
Lastly, Martin Luther King, Jr. also drew insight from Buddhism, Hinduism,
Christianity, and Judaism. For instance, connecting Gandhi with Jesus Christ, he saw
Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolence as similar to Jesus’ suffering on the cross. Therefore,
King’s theological theme was the idea that “unmerited suffering is redemptive,” meaning he
constantly reminded blacks that they would experience a “season of suffering” before they
would achieve justice. In general terms, King’s theology focused on values grounded in
religion—justice, love, and hope. In short, as Tolstoy, Gandhi, and King illustrate, “narrative
traditions are not mutually exclusive.” They are connected through themes and, therefore,
allow religions to engage in interreligious dialogue.
As this essay’s previous sections show, religions have, indeed, taken part in
dialogues beforehand. As a further example, religious leaders gathered at the UN’s
Millennium Peace Summit in September 2000 to mark the turn of the millennium. A
milestone in itself, as the UN is not a common ground in the sense of an ecumenical meeting
inside a church, synagogue, or mosque but rather a global common ground, the Summit’s
conversation encouraged that world’s religious communities stop fighting and arguing
amongst themselves and begin working together for peace, justice, and social harmony. As
then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan addressed to the Summit, “Whatever your past,
whatever your calling, and whatever the differences among you, your presence here at the
United Nations signifies your commitment to our global mission of tolerance, development,
and peace.”
 Moreover, as transnational corporations increasingly become actors in the
international system, one could argue that religious communities have agreed on “the
emerging global ethic” which consists of three major components: 1) corporations are
prohibited from involving in bribes and corruption, 2) corporations are prohibited from
discriminating on the grounds of race, religion, ethnicity, or gender in the conduct of
business, and 3) corporations are prohibited from activities that pose a significant threat to
human life and health. Simply put, these components are, in themselves, religious values
used to regulate the way transitional corporations increasingly engage in the global market.
The bottom line is that the pieces of interreligious dialogue to manage religious
diversity and to avoid violence are there, but the problem may be of globalization’s
intentional and/or unintentional consequence of making religions more conscious of
themselves as “world religions,” as well as the undesirable consequences of disrupting
traditional communities, causing economic marginalization, and bringing individuals
mental stress—all reinforcing religious cultural characteristics and identities. Hence, the
relationship between religion and globalization has brought new possibilities but also
furthering challenges.

ACTIVITY. The World’s Religions Differentiated!

Compare and contrast the following religions using a Venn diagram.
1. Judaism and Christianity
2. Islam and Hinduism
3. Sikhism and Jainism
4. Confucianism and Buddhism
 LESSON 3 RESEARCHING GOBALIZATION (MINDANAO)

ABSTRACTION

The Land of Promise

Mindanao’s economy thrives on agriculture, fishing, and forestry. It is the country’s
foremost source of crops such as banana, coffee, and pineapple, and other agricultural
commodities–which is why the region is called the major breadbasket of the Philippines.
Mindanao is also the major supplier of rubber, cattle, and goats. Its economy is about 14% of
the whole country’s Gross Domestic Product and grew by 7.1% in 2017.
Of the cities and provinces comprising the island, the growth centers have been Metro
Davao and Metro Cagayan de Oro. Aside from being agro-industrial centers, these metro
cities are experiencing a boom in trade and tourism and the surge of call center companies
that have chosen these cities as their base. Opportunities for a better life continue to flourish
as jobs are created and cities transformed to provide modern conveniences and upgraded
lifestyles.

Gearing Up for Globalization

Mindanao Development Authority Chief Emmanuel Pinol has stressed that
supporting the agriculture sector would be the key for the island group’s participation in
globalization. Local measures need to be implemented to ensure that Mindanao is not left
behind in terms of global competitiveness. Under the Duterte administration’s “Build, Build,
Build” program, the government has allocated a budget of P7 trillion for infrastructure
projects until 2022. The plan for Mindanao is to build, expand, and modernize airports,
seaports, and maritime facilities. Public transport systems and the Mindanao Railway
System are also being set up with Davao City eyed for the pilot run. A new airport will soon
rise in Bukidnon, and the Cagayan de Oro Port will soon see the country’s biggest terminal
set to accommodate 3,000 passengers.
Aside from infrastructure development, the Mindanao Development Authority and
Philippine Institute of Development Studies identified modernization of the agriculture
sector as essential towards Mindanao’s globalization. Also, of equal importance are
investments in human capital—reeducation of the workforce towards technological
innovations, and better access to education especially for indigenous communities.

Robust Real Estate Growth

Mindanao’s reported robust growth rate by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA)
was at 7%. Fanning this growth are real estate developments, BPO businesses, agricultural
export products, and a lot of construction activities. While the strongest contributing factor
is agriculture, the rush of property developers in urban centers like Davao continues to
contribute to Mindanao’s economic advancement. High rise offices, residential
condominiums, and township projects built on global standards are changing the skylines of
urban centers in the islands. Luxury developments that capitalize on the bounty of the
region’s picturesque natural resources are also on their way to capture the market of tourists
and investors. And the region’s population is quickly embracing this lifestyle change as
evidenced by the uptake of these property developments.
The globalization of Mindanao is taking shape, and this direction is a positive and
welcome perspective especially for its people who have endured long years of lagging behind
in development and living in uncertainties.
 ACTIVITY. Minute Paper Reflection!

Answer the questions below.

1. What are the current issue of the Philippine economy specifically in Mindanao area?
State at least one issue and explain it briefly.
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2. How does globalization in Mindanao affects the economy of the Philippine? Explain
in not more than 50 words.
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