processes

Article
A Comparative Study of Virgin Coconut Oil, Coconut
Oil and Palm Oil in Terms of Their Active Ingredients
Suryani Suryani 1, *, Sariani Sariani 2 , Femi Earnestly 1 , Marganof Marganof 3 ,
Rahmawati Rahmawati 4 , Sevindrajuta Sevindrajuta 4 , Teuku Meurah Indra Mahlia 5 and
Ahmad Fudholi 6
1 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Muhammadiyah University of West Sumatera,
Padang 25171, West Sumatera, Indonesia; femiumsb@gmail.com
2 Department of English, Politeknik Negeri Padang, Padang 2500, West Sumatera, Indonesia;
sarianipasni@yahoo.com
3 Department of Forestry, Faculty of Foresttry, Muhammadiyah University of West Sumatera, Padang 25171,
West Sumatera, Indonesia; marganofkarani@ymail.com
4 Department of Agro Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Muhammadiyah University of West Sumatera,
Padang 25171, West Sumatera, Indonesia; rahmawati_3007@yahoo.co.id (R.R.); juta_indra@yahoo.co.id (S.S.)
5 School of Information, Systems and Modelling, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
University of Technology Sydney, Sydney NSW 2007, Australia; tmindra.mahlia@uts.edu.au
6 Solar Energy Research Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Malaysia;
a.fudholi@ukm.edu.my
* Correspondence: suryani@umsb.ac.id




Received: 21 November 2019; Accepted: 19 March 2020; Published: 30 March 2020


Abstract: This research aims to study the unique factors of virgin coconut oil (VCO) compared with
coconut oil (i.e., coconut oil processed through heating the coconut milk and palm oil sold on the
market). Its novelty is that it (VCO) contains lactic acid bacteria and bacteriocin. Lauric acid content
was analyzed by the Chromatographic Gas method. Isolation of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) was
conducted by the dilution method using MRSA + 0.5% CaCO3 media. Iodium number, peroxide, and
%FFA were analyzed using a general method, and isolation bacteriocin by the deposition method
using ammonium sulfate. In addition, macromolecular identification was conducted by 16S rRNA.
VCO was distinguished by a higher content of lauric acid (C12:0) 41%–54.5% as compared with 0%
coconut and 0, 1% palm oil, respectively. The VCO also contains LAB, namely Lactobacillus plantarum
and Lactobacillus paracasei, and can inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Klebsiella, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Proteus, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes,
Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhosa and bacteriocin. Comparison with VCO is based on having a high
content of lauric acid, 54%, and LAB content. The difference between VCO and coconut oil and palm
oil is fatty acids. In VCO there are lauric acid and stearic acid, namely lauric acid VCO (A) 54.06%,
VCO (B) 53.9% and VCO (C) 53.7%. The content of stearic acid VCO (A) is 12.03%, VCO (B) 12.01%
and VCO (C) 11.9%. Coconut oil contains a little lauric acid, which is 2.81%, stearic acid 2.65% and
palmitic acid 2.31%. Palm oil can be said to have very little lauric acid, namely in palm oil 1, 0.45%,
and even in palm oil 2, 0%; in turn, palmitic acid palm oil 1 has 2.88% and palm oil 2 palmitic acid
has 24.42%.

Keywords: bacteriocin; lactic acid bacteria (LAB); lauric acid; virgin coconut oil (VCO)

1. Introduction
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be made through several methods, such as by fermenting coconut
milk [1–3] and by adding microbes (Lactobacillus fermentum and Lactobacillus plantarum) as starter

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Processes 2020, 8, 402 2 of 11

cultures [4,5]. VCO can also be produced through centrifugation [6] and microwave processes [7], and
by fermentation without the addition of microbes as a starter [8]. This oil is called virgin oil because it
is made without any heating [9].
VCO has been used widely because it is believed to have benefits compared to coconut oil, made
through a heating process, and palm oil. VCO is useful against microbes, bacteria and viruses [10],
and is useful for helping one lose weight in terms of metabolism. VCO contains medium chain
triglycerides [11,12], which is initially digested or processed in the body from carbohydrates that
can cut back hunger [13]. Thus, it causes people to consume less carbohydrates, which eventually
reduces body weight [14,15]. VCO also affects the healing after an ovariectomy [16] and can be used
as an antioxidant [17]. VCO can also reduce blood pressure. In addition, VCO can also be used for
skincare [18–20], as an external drug, such as wound medicine, and can function as a probiotic [4,21–23].
VCO and palm oil have different characteristics with different functions [24–26]. VCO gravitates
more towards medicine, probiotics and cosmetics, whereas palm oil characteristics are quite suitable to
be converted to diesel fuel. Other vegetable oils than palm oil have also been proven to be economical
and can be converted to biodiesel production at a large scale [27–29]. The chemical composition of
VCO has been studied in including the iodine number, the saponification number, the amount of
free fatty acids (%FFA), viscosity and color. This chemical composition needs to be examined prior
to consumption in order to follow Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC) standardization,
because VCO is originally made from fresh coconut milk [30].
VCO has been known for its high lauric acid content, which is between 46.36% and 48.42% [31]
Processed from coconut milk, which is high in carbohydrates and proteins, the fermentation process
of VCO results in lactic acid bacteria (LAB) [32–35]. LAB from VCO have been isolated and their
antimicrobial ability also has been studied [36]. This atypical microbial ability exists because LAB
contains bacteriocin, which can kill pathogenic bacteria. Further, bacteriocin from Lactobacillus
plantarum [34,35,37,38] has been isolated as well. Thus, the aim of the research was comparison of the
psychochemical parameters and contents of the fatty acids (lauric, palmitic and stearic) of coconut oil,
palm oil and VCO as indicators of the characteristics of each oil. The antimicrobial ability of VCO was
also analyzed.
The newest fact referring to VCO, which is yet to be acknowledged, is the presence of lactic acid
bacteria (LAB) in the oil and blondo layers (VCO dregs). This LAB will be present when VCO is made
through traditional fermentation processes or fermentation using the existing bacteria in the air [36].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The samples were three types of virgin coconut oils, with different methods of extraction/fermentation,
coconut oil derived from heating coconut milk and consumer-grade palm oil.

2.1.1. Chemical Material

For lauric acid analysis, -hexane (p.a), CHCl3 and Aquadest reagent for sample preparation,
namely saturated NaCl, Na2 SO4 anhydrate, BF3, methanol and N2 gas to stop the oxidation occurring,
were used. The internal fatty acid standard was used. Whereas, for acid number analysis (%FFA),
95% alcohol (pa), blue bromothymol indicator, phenolphthalein indicator, HCl 0.5 N standard solution
and KOH standard solution were used. KOH ethanolic, HCl 0.5 N standard solution was taken
for saponification number analysis, and potassium iodide was used for peroxide number analysis.
Meanwhile MRSA (deMann Rogosa Sharpe Agar) p.a + 0.5% CaCO3 media was used for isolation of
lactic acid bacteria and in order to increase their amount using MRS media. The materials used for
isolation bacteriocin were MRSB media (Merck), Lactobacillus plantarum M0, ammonium sulfate (NH4 )
2SO4 , phosphate buffer, DEAE cellulose, butanol, SDS stacking gel and markers.
Processes 2020, 8, 402 3 of 11

2.1.2. Instruments
The instrument used where ordinary laboratory glassware, such as petri dishes, Erlenmeyer flasks,
test tubes and beaker glass, all of them made by Pyrex. In addition, gas chromatography (GC) GC–MS
Shimadzu QP 2010S (Shimadzu Corp, Kyoto, Japan) was set for lauric acid analysis and Autocklav
Yamata SN 21 for sterilization and laminar flow as the working media for isolating the bacteria and for
performing antimicrobial analysis.

2.2. The Standardization of the VCO

2.2.1. The Determination of pH

The pH of the sample is determined using the pH meter in accordance with the applicable
general procedure.

2.2.2. The Analysis of Fatty Acid Sample Using GC–MS

Prior to injecting the sample into a GC–MS instrument, the oil sample was prepared by setting
50 g of VCO sample and adding 400 µL of NaOH Metanolic. This mixture was vortexed and heated
at 50 ◦ C for 10 min. After undergoing the cooling process, 1 mL CH3 COOH, 1 mL distilled water
and 1 mL n-hexane were added, respectively. Then this mixture was vortexed and cooled for several
minutes where two layers were formed as the result.
About 1 µL at the top layer was taken as the sample to be injected and analyzed in a GC–MS,
Shimadzu QP2010 which was equipped with capillary column of (30 m) × 0.25 mm ID; 0.25 ìm
(interspersed by DB5MS. Japan), by injecting the sample into the capillary column. The carrier gas was
helium, where the injector and detector temperatures were set at 280 ◦ C. The injection was performed
using the split mode (1:30). The column temperature was programmed to change from 50 ◦ C to 280 ◦ C
at a rate of 5 ◦ C per minute. Fatty acid ethyl esters were separated at the constant pressure (100 kPa),
and the peak was identified through the comparison of mass spectra with mass spectral as the database
(internal standard). The compound identification was with regard to the comparison of its mass
spectrum with the NIST Mass Spectral Library 2008.

2.2.3. The Determination of Water Content

Porcelain dishes along with loose-fitting covers were cleaned and dried in the dryer oven at
105 ◦C for 1 h. Then they were taken using a pair of clamps and inserted into desiccators where the
lid was detached. Soon after the dish has cooled, the lid was tightened and weighed. A 2 g sample
was weighed into the dish and undergone another eight hours dry-heating in a hot-air oven at 105 ◦ C,
until reaching a constant weight. Another cooling process in the desiccators was conducted for 30 min
before determining its water level.

2.2.4. The Determination of Acid Number

A total of 5 g of the sample was weighed into a 300 mL Erlenmeyer flask, and then 25 mL neutral
alcohol was added; after that the flask was connected to an upright condenser, and boiled for 30 min.
After cooling down, the sample was titrated with NaOH 0.1 M using a pp indicator. The volume of the
NaOH titer was recorded.

2.2.5. The Determination of Iodine Number

A total of 0.5 g of oil was weighted in a covered Erlenmeyer flask, then 10 mL chloroform was
added and shaken. Then 15 mL Wij’s solution was added and shaken slowly for another 30 min where
the Erlenmeyer continued to be covered. The lid and inner wall of the Erlenmeyer were washed with
50 mL distilled water (initially heated and cooled). The next step was titration with 0.1 N Tio (Na2 S2 O3 )
Processes 2020, 8, 402 4 of 11

until the color changed into light brown, and 2 mL of 1% starch was used as indicator. The titration
was continuously conducted until the dark blue color disappeared.

2.2.6. The Isolation of Lactic Acid Bacteria

The oil sample was diluted utilizing saline solution with dilution up to 10−7 . Then this sample
was planted on the dish containing MRSA + 0.5% CaCO3 selective media, and incubated overnight at
37 ◦ C. The growth was observed.

2.2.7. The Molecular Identification

Initially, the identification began with isolating genomic DNA of lactic acid bacteria, then,
continued by amplifying 16S rRNA gen. In order to determine the size of its DNA, this gen was
analyzed using electrophoresis gel and ended with sequencing.

2.2.8. Antimicrobial Analysis

The antimicrobial analysis was carried out using the agar-disk method, which has been modified
using a disk made from filter paper. It was assumed that 1 unit of antimicrobial activity was defined
as the 1 mm2 inhibited zone area or “halo” zone. It began with testing bacteria grown on NA media
(Merck) of 1.5% agar concentration at 37 ◦ C. Incubated overnight, 1 dose of testing bacteria was moved
into test tubes containing 10 mL sterile distilled water. After that, the cell numbers were conformed
to McFarland 0.5, which was estimated to be 106 –107 CFU mL−1 . Toothpicks wrapped with cotton
and sterilized were dipped into testing bacteria (more or less 100 µL). After being left to dry, we took
the filter paper that was sterilized and perforated it like a disk with a 80 mm diameter, dipped it into
LAB isolate, and stuck it onto the solid media surface in petri dishes, which were smeared by testing
bacteria. Samples were incubated for the period of 3 × 24 h and observed until the clear zone or “halo”
zone was formed, indicating the occurrence of the growth inhibition of pathogenic bacteria by lactic
acid bacteria. Finally, the diameter of the clear zone was measured.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Composistion and Properties of VCO, Coconut Oil and Palm Oil
From the research conducted on virgin coconut oil (VCO), coconut oil and palm oil, differences
among the three were found. Virgin coconut oil contains lauric acid (53.70%–54.06%), stearic acid
(2.65%–12.10%) and lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus paracasei). Coconut oil
contains very little lauric acid (and stearic and palmitic acids), while palm oil contains only palmitic
acid. Because of the presence of lactic acid bacteria containing bacteriocin, VCO is characterized as an
antimicrobial, in contrast to coconut and palm oils.
As shown in Table 1 below, the lauric acid content of VCO is the highest with 54.06%. In contrast,
coconut oil contains only 2.81% and palm oil none (0%). Table 1 shows that there are two types of
fatty acid contents in VCO; 54.06% lauric acid and 12.06% stearic acid, and no (0%) palmitic acid.
The absence of palmitic acid is because VCO is not made of palm oil. Palmitic acid is found in palm oil.
The lauric acid content of VCO is considered high compared to what has been obtained through this
research [12]. This is because VCO is processed without heating, or through fermentation. Thus, the
fatty acid carbon bonds are not broken, in other words, the fatty acid is in the form of medium chain
triglycerides, particularly lauric acid. On the other hand, coconut oil made from cooked coconut milk
has a low lauric acid content, 2.81%, containing 2.65% saturated acids due to the production process
involving heating. Conversely, palm oil has absolutely no lauric acid content, whereas its palmitic acid
is high (2.28%) compared to VCO and coconut oil.
Processes 2020, 8, 402 5 of 11

Table 1. The results: Composition and properties of virgin coconut oil, coconut oil and palm oil.

Type of the Acid Saponification Iodine Water

Fatty Acids % %FFA pH
Oil Number Number Number Content %
Lauric Acid (C12:0) 54.06
VCO (A) 1.01 348.00 0.26 5.32 6.50 0.11
Palmitic Acid -
Stearic Acid(C18:0) 12.03
Lauric Acid (C12:0) 53.90
VCO (B) 1.03 345.70 0.25 5.24 6.40 0.12
Palmitic Acid (C16:0) -
Stearic Acid (C18:0) 12.01
Lauric Acid (C12:0) 53.70
VCO (C) 1.02 346.64 0.26 5.25 6.50 0.11
Palmitic Acid (C16:0) -
Stearic Acid (C18:0) 11.9
Lauric Acid (C12:0) 2.81
Coconut oil Palmitic Acid (C16:0) 2.31 0.39 269.62 0.28 7.02 6.90 0.11

Stearic Acid (C18:0) 2.65

Lauric Acid (C12:0) 0.45
Palm Oil 1 Palmitic Acid (C16:0) 2.88 0.39 204.00 0.51 51.00 6.60 0.09

Stearic Acid (C18:0) -

Lauric Acid (C12:0) -
Palm Oil 2 Palmitic Acid (C16:0) 24.42 0.39 203.02 0.73 49.71 6.50 0.09

Stearic Acid (C18:0) -

From Table 1 above it can be said that VCO has an acid number of 1.0165, which is higher than
coconut milk (acid number of 0.39695) and palm oil (acid number of 0.39645). VCO water content
is similar to palm oil, which is 0.11%, whereas coconut oil processed through heating has a lower
water content of 0.10%. However, the water content of the three samples still meet the limit standard
of cooking oil 2177 SNI 3741 2013. In other words, the smaller number of the three samples’ water
content simplifies the heating process so the three samples can be used as biodiesels, in accordance
with current guidelines.
The analysis result of %FFA contains 0.264 VCO, 0.281 coconut oil and 0.51 palm oil. It shows
that VCO heating process is much better than other oil samples according to the study of the VCO
saponification number being 348.003, whereas coconut milk has a saponification number of 269.6266
and palm oil 204.0045. The high saponification number reflects the number of the fatty acid molecules.
The bigger the saponification number, the smaller the molecules, or consisting of smaller fatty acid
molecules or shorter chains, and vice versa. Hence, the higher saponification number of the VCO is
because it consists of medium chain triglyceride fatty acids [14,31,39–41]. The higher saponification
number compared to palm and coconut oils mean that the saponification occurring in VCO is greater,
even though still within tolerable limits.

3.2. Result of Lactid Acid Bacteria Isolation

Figure 1 below presents the isolated result of lactic acid bacteria onto VCO, coconut oil and palm
oil. It is shown that VCO contains lactic acid bacteria, as when it was being isolated using MRSA
+ CaCO3 selective media, the lactic acid bacteria colony that can grow in the “Halo” area is found.
This area is a clear zone where it can produce lactic acid, neutralizing CaCO3 . It is in line with, and as
an addition to, the results in Figures 2 and 3, pointing out the identification of the lactic acid bacteria
using 16S rDNA, which turned out to be Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus paracasei as mentioned.
 Figure 1 below presents the isolated result of lactic acid bacteria onto VCO, coconut oil and palm
oil. It is shown that VCO contains lactic acid bacteria, as when it was being isolated using MRSA +
CaCO3 selective media, the lactic acid bacteria colony that can grow in the “Halo” area is found. This
area is a clear zone where it can produce lactic acid, neutralizing CaCO3. It is in line with, and as an
addition to, the results in Figures 2 and 3, pointing out the identification of the lactic acid bacteria
Processes 2020, 8, 402
using 16S rDNA, which turned out to be Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus paracasei as6 of 11
mentioned.

Processes 2020, 8, x 7 of 11

Figure 1. Lactid
1. Lactid acid
acid bacteriaisolate
bacteria isolate grown
grown in
inMRS
MRS+ +0.5% CaCO
0.5% 3 media.
CaCO
Processes 2020, 8, x Figure 3 media. 7 of 11

It can be seen, in Figure 1, there is a clear area; in the middle there is a white dot that is a colony
of lactic acid bacteria present in the VCO oil. This is proof that VCO contains lactic acid bacteria
[29,32].
Meanwhile, in Figure 2, is a petri dish filled with coconut oil and palm oil grown on the same
media. No visible growth of lactic acid bacteria was observed. This proves that lactic acid bacteria do
not exist in coconut oil and palm oil. This is in accordance with [8,35,42] but not so in [35], who only
uses MRSA media without the addition of CaCO3. But growing colonies are not in the “Halo” area.

Figure 2. Result of lactid acid bacteria isolation from coconut oil and from palm oil with no evidence
of growth.

3.3. Molecular Identification of Lactid Acid Bacteria

Figure
The 2. Result
Result identification
molecular
Figure 2. of lactid
of lactid acid
acid bacteria
bacteria isolation
of lactic from coconut
coconut
acid bacteria
isolation from oil and
produced
oil and from palm
palm oil
Lactobacillus
from oil with no
no evidence
plantarum,
with evidence
as shown in
of
the datagrowth.
below Figures 3 and 4.
of growth.

3.3. Molecular Identification of Lactid Acid Bacteria

The molecular identification of lactic acid bacteria produced Lactobacillus plantarum, as shown in
the data below Figures 3 and 4.

Figure 3. Lactid
Figure 3. Lactid acid
acid bacteria
bacteria gene
gene sequence
sequence from
from isolation of Lactobacillus
isolation of Lactobacillus plantarum.
plantarum.

Figure 3. Lactid acid bacteria gene sequence from isolation of Lactobacillus plantarum.
 The molecular identification of lactic acid bacteria produced Lactobacillus plantarum, as shown in
the data below Figures 3 and 4.

Processes 2020, 8, 402 7 of 11

It can be seen, in Figure 1, there is a clear area; in the middle there is a white dot that is a colony of
lactic acid bacteria present in the VCO oil. This is proof that VCO contains lactic acid bacteria [29,32].
Meanwhile, in Figure 2, is a petri dish filled with coconut oil and palm oil grown on the same
media. No visible growth of lactic acid bacteria was observed. This proves that lactic acid bacteria do
not exist in coconut oil and palm oil. This is in accordance with [8,35,42] but not so in [35], who only
uses MRSA media without the addition of CaCO3 . But growing colonies are not in the “Halo” area.

3.3. Molecular Identification of Lactid Acid Bacteria

The molecular identification of lactic acid bacteria produced Lactobacillus plantarum, as shown in
the data below Figures 3 and 4.
Figure 3. Lactid acid bacteria gene sequence from isolation of Lactobacillus plantarum.

Figure 4. The result of molecular identification of lactid acid bacteria showing Lactobacillus paracasei.

3.4. Result of Antimicrobial Analysis

The antimicrobial ability of VCO is also analyzed below. Antimicrobial analysis was performed
with Lactobacillus paracasei and Lactobacillus plantarum lactic acid bacteria onto the following testing
bacteria: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Proteus,
from [31,35], Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, and Salmonella typhosa.
As seen in Figure 5 below, clear zones show that the growth of pathogenic bacteria was inhibited
by Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus paracasei.
As illustrated in Figure 5, VCO has the antimicrobial ability derived from two types of lactic acid
bacteria against nine testing bacteria. It is seen that these lactic acid bacteria have a good ability to kill
pathogenic bacteria, e.g., Listeria monocytogenes and E. coli, as stated in [8], where the antimicrobial
ability of Lactobacillus plantarum is found to be most effective against Listeria monocytogenes, E.coli and
Bacillus subtilis testing bacteria.
In Table 2 it can be seen that the lactic acid bacteria present in the VCO are able to inhibit the
growth of pathogenic bacteria as Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella, Staphylococcus
epidermidis, and Proteus, in accordance with [36].
 The antimicrobial ability of VCO is also analyzed below. Antimicrobial analysis was performed
with Lactobacillus paracasei and Lactobacillus plantarum lactic acid bacteria onto the following testing
bacteria: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Proteus,
from [31,35], Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, and Salmonella typhosa.
As seen
Processes in 8,
2020, Figure
402 5 below, clear zones show that the growth of pathogenic bacteria was inhibited8 of 11
by Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus paracasei.

Result of antimicrobial analysis of Result of antimicrobial analysis of

Lactobacillus plantarum lactid acid Lactobacillus plantarum lactid acid
bacteria onto E. coli testing bacteria. bacteria onto S. aureus testing bacteria

Figure 5. Results of the antimicrobial analysis of Lactobacillus plantarum lactid acid bacteria onto E. coli
Figure
and5.S.Results
aureus of the antimicrobial
testing bacteria. analysis of Lactobacillus plantarum lactid acid bacteria onto E. coli
and S. aureus testing bacteria.

Tablein
As illustrated Antimicrobial
2.Figure 5, VCOactivity
has theanalysis of LAB in
antimicrobial the form
ability of clear
derived zonetwo
from diameter
types (mm).
of lactic acid
bacteria against nine testing bacteria. It is seen that these lactic acid bacteria have a good ability to
No. Testing Bacteria Lactobacillus plantarum Lactobacillus paracasei
kill pathogenic bacteria, e.g., Listeria monocytogenes and E. coli, as stated in [8], where the antimicrobial
1. Escherichia coli 16 16
ability of Lactobacillus plantarum is found to be most effective against Listeria monocytogenes, E.coli and
2. Listeria monocytogenes 17 18
Bacillus subtilis3.testing Bacillus
bacteria.
substiliss 15 11
In Table 4.2 it can be seen that
Salmonella the lactic acid bacteria
typhy 12 present in the VCO are able 11 to inhibit the
5. Staphylococcus aureus 11
growth of pathogenic bacteria as Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 11 Klebsiella,
Pseudomonas
Staphylococcus6.epidermidis, and Proteus, in accordance with 17 [36]. 14
aeruginosa
7. Klebsiella 13 12
Table 2. Antimicrobial activity analysis of LAB in the form of clear zone diameter (mm).
Staphylococcus
8. 13 12
epidermidis
Lactobacillus Lactobacillus
No. 9. Proteus
Testing Bacteria 14 13
plantarum paracasei
1. Escherichia coli 16 16
4. Conclusions
2. Listeria monocytogenes 17 18
3. Compared with Bacillus
coconut substiliss
oil and palm oil, virgin coconut15oil (VCO) has a higher11 content of lauric
4.
acid and lactic acidSalmonella typhy
bacteria. Nevertheless, 12 of water, free fatty11acid and iodine
based on the content
5.
number, VCO has Staphylococcus
other features aureus 11 it has lactic acid bacteria
in the field of health because 11 that can kill
6.
pathogens, Pseudomonas
characterizing aeruginosa
it as an antimicrobial, in contrast 17
to coconut and palm oil. 14The lauric acid
7.
content of the VCO is theKlebsiella 13
highest (54.06%) compared to the lauric 12
acid content of coconut oil (0.45%)
8. Staphylococcus
and palm oil (0%). Having a highepidermidis
acid number, 1.10165, and13 12
high saponification number and iodine
9.
number demonstrate theProteus
characteristic of VCO, as it contains14 13
lauric acid with small molecules, which
are medium-chain triglycerides (MCT). In the future, a more specialized assessment needs to be done,
4. Conclusions
especially in the economic field to examine whether VCO is more appropriate as a fuel alternative or
as an antimicrobial.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: S.S. (Suryani Suryani) and S.S. (Sariani Sariani); resources: M.M.,
and S.S. (Suryani Suryani); methodology: S.S. (Suryani Suryani) and M.M.; software: S.S. (Suryani Suryani);
validation: S.S. (Suryani Suryani), M.M.; formal analysis: S.S. (Suryani Suryani) and M.M.; writing—original draft
preparation: S.S. (Sariani Sariani), T.M.I.M. and S.S. (Suryani Suryani); writing—review and editing: S.S. (Suryani
Suryani), R.R., F.E., S.S. (Sariani Sariani) and A.F.; project administration: S.S. (Sevindrajuta Sevindrajuta) and R.R.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Processes 2020, 8, 402 9 of 11

Funding: This research was funded by DRPM Kemenristekdikti, Indonesia year 2019, grant number:
232/SP2H/LT/DRPM/2019 dated DIPA 05 December 2018, SP DIPA-042.06.1.401516/2019, Directorate of Research
and Community Service, Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Institution.
Acknowledgments: There was great supports received for the establishment of this research, therefore gratitude
is given to: (1) Head of Basic Laboratory LLDIKTI, Area X. (2) Head of LPPM University of Muhammadiyah, West
Sumatera. (3) Head of Agriculture Product Technology Laboratory, Andalas University. (4) Head of Biochemistry
Laboratory, Medical Faculty, Andalas University. The benefactors do not have any role in this research design; data
collection, analysis, or data interpretation; manuscript writing, or in any decision made in publishing the result.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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