Chlorine As A Disinfectant in Water Treatment
Chlorine As A Disinfectant in Water Treatment
Chlorine As A Disinfectant in Water Treatment
https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2021.38383
International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET)
ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 7.429
Volume 9 Issue X Oct 2021- Available at www.ijraset.com
Abstract: Disinfection of treated water is a necessary process. For this, chlorine and its products are widely used. During the
treatment process, chlorine is added to drinking water as elemental chlorine, sodium hypochlorite solution or dry calcium
hypochlorite. When applied to water, each of these forms “free chlorine”, which destroys pathogenic organisms. If adequate
water treatment is not readily available, the impact on public health can be devastating. Worldwide, about 1.2 billion people lack
access to safe drinking water, and about 2.4 billion people lack sanitation. As per WHO, 3.4 million people die from water-
related diseases. Drinking water chlorination will remain a cornerstone of disinfection. This is because of the wide range of
benefits provided by chlorine. However, alternative disinfectants including ozone and UV radiation are available, all disinfection
methods have unique benefits, limitations and costs. So, an engineer has to consider all the pros and cons of a disinfectant
method properly before deciding the one to adopt.
Keywords: Disinfection, Gaseous Chlorination, Sodium Hypochlorite, Calcium Hypochlorite, Ultraviolet, Ozone, Chlorine
dioxide
I. INTRODUCTION
The treatment and distribution of water for safe use is one of the greatest achievements of the twentieth century. Before cities began
routinely treating drinking water with chlorine, cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery and hepatitis A killed thousands of people.
Meeting the goal of clean, safe-drinking water requires a multi-barrier approach that includes: protecting source of water from
contamination, appropriately treating water to consumers’ taps.
During the treatment process, chlorine is added to drinking water as elemental chlorine, sodium hypochlorite solution or dry calcium
hypochlorite. When applied to water, each of these forms “free chlorine”, which destroys pathogenic organisms. In addition to
controlling disease-causing organisms, chlorination offers a number of benefits including
Risks of Waterborne Diseases: If adequate water treatment is not readily available, the impact on public health can be devastating.
Worldwide, about 1.2 billion people lack access to safe drinking water, and about 2.4 billion people lack sanitation. As per WHO,
3.4 million people die from water-related diseases. Even where water treatment is widely practiced, constant vigilance is required to
guard against water-borne disease outbreaks.
A striking example occurred in May 2000 in the Canadian town of Walkerton, Ontario. Seven people died and more than 2300
became ill after E. Coli and other bacteria infected the town’s water supply. A report published by the Ontario Ministry of the
Attorney General concludes that, even after the well was contaminated, the Walkerton disaster could have been prevented if the
required chlorine residuals had been maintained.
The challenge of Disinfection By-products (DBP): In early 1970s, EPA scientists first determined that drinking water chlorination
can develop a group od DBP known as Trihalomethanes (THMs), including chloroform. A report by the International Programme
on Chemical Safety (IPCS 2000) strongly cautions:
“The health risks from these by-products at the levels at which they occur in drinking water are extremely small in comparison with
the risks associated with inadequate disinfection. Thus, it is important that disinfection not be compromised in attempting to control
such by-products.”
The Future of Chlorine Disinfection: Despite a range of new challenges, drinking water chlorination will remain a cornerstone of
disinfection. This is because of the wide range of benefits provided by chlorine. However, alternative disinfectants including ozone
and UV radiation are available, all disinfection methods have unique benefits, limitations and costs. So, we need to consider all the
pros and cons of a disinfectant method properly before deciding the one to adopt.
A. Action Of Chlorine
When chlorine is added to the water following reactions take place:
The hypochlorous acid dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and hypochlorite ions (OCl-) as indicated below:
HOCl H+ + OCl-
It is the hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ions (OCl-) which accomplish disinfection of water. The undissociated
hypochlorous acid is about 80 – 100 times more powerful disinfectant as compared to hypochlorite ions. This chlorine existing in
water as hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ions and molecular chlorine is defined as free available chlorine.
Both the above-mentioned reactions depend on pH of water. When pH value of chlorinated water is above 3, the hydrolysis reaction
is almost complete and chlorine exists as hypochlorous acid. As the pH value increases more and more, hypochlorous acid
dissociates to form hypochlorite ions. Up to pH of 5.5 hypochlorous acid remains undissociated, while at pH> 9.5 all the
hypochlorous acid is dissociated to form the hypochlorite ions. For pH between 6 to 8, there occurs a very sharp change from
undissociated to completely dissociated hypochlorous acid with 96% to 10% HOCl, with equal amount of HOCl and OCl- ions at
pH 7.5.
Combined available chlorine: The free chlorine can react with compounds such as ammonia, proteins, amino acids and phenol that
may be present in the water to form chloramines and chloro-derivatives which are known as combined chlorine. This combined
chlorine also possessing some disinfecting properties but not as much as the free available chlorine. Since these reactions are usually
not 100% complete, some free available chlorine exists along with combined chlorine.
2) Advantages
a) Highly effective against most pathogens
b) Provides a residual to protect against recontamination
c) Easily applied, controlled and monitored
d) Strong oxidant meeting most peroxidation objectives
e) Operationally, the most reliable
f) Most cost-effective disinfectant
3) Limitations
a) By-product formation
b) Oxidises bromide to bromine, forming brominated organic products
c) Requires transport and storage of chemicals
B. Chlorine Gas
Chlorine gas is a greenish-yellow gas. It is toxic. It is lethal at concentrations as low as 0.1% air by volume. Introducing chlorine to
water plays a very effective role for removing almost all pathogenic microorganisms. It can be used both as primary and secondary
disinfectant. Chlorine can be used as liquid or gas form. It is a very strong, oxidising agent. Both the forms (liquid and gas) can be
stored and used from gas cylinders under pressure. The chlorine cylinders can be 68 kg in weight. The system at which free chlorine
is supplied at a concentration of 0.3 – 0.5 mg/l is an ideal system. Chlorine gas may be fed directly to the point of application to the
water supply or chlorine gas may be first dissolved in a small flow of water and the chlorine-water solution is fed to the point of
application to the water supply.
The first method of application of chlorine is less satisfactory because of poor diffusion of chlorine in water. Further it is found that
at low temperatures (<10ºC) crystalline hydrates of chlorine are formed, and hence when the chlorine is directly fed through
pipelines and if temperature falls down, choking of pipes leading chlorine may take place. There is also a possibility of corrosion in
pipes and valves resulting from accumulation of undissolved chlorine gas. As such only the second method of application of
chlorine is used.
1) Advantages
a) Lowest cost of chlorine
b) Most effective
c) High quantity of free available chlorine
2) Limitations
a) Hazardous gas requiring special handling and operator training
b) Additional regulatory requirements
1) Advantages
a) It has the same effectiveness as the chlorine gas.
b) As compared to chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite reduces the hazards in storing and handling.
c) No hazardous chemicals are used in on-site generation. Only softened water and high-grade salt (NaCl) is used.
2) Limitations
a) NaOCl can be commercially supplied or generated on-site, the latter being safer due to handling reasons. In on-site generation,
salt is dissolved with soft water to make a concentrated brine that is subsequently diluted and passed through an electrolytic cell
to form NaOCl. Hydrogen is also produced in this process, and needs to be vented because of its explosive nature.
b) Higher chemical cost than chlorine gas.
c) It has a corrosive nature and lacks stability.
d) Limited shelf-life
e) Potential to add inorganic by-products
D. Calcium Hypochlorite
Calcium hypochlorite or bleaching powder is chlorinated lime, Ca(OCl2). When it is added to water it dissociates into calcium and
hypochlorite ions. These hypochlorite ions combine with hydrogen present in water to form hypochlorous acid.
Ca(OCl2) Ca++ + 2OCl-
H+ + OCl- HOCl
This process is known as hypo-chlorination.
Bleaching powder contains about 30 – 35% of available chlorine. It is very unstable compound as it goes on losing its chlorine
content when exposed to atmosphere so it requires very careful storing.
2) Advantages
a) Being solid, bleaching powder is safer and easier to handle than chlorine gas.
b) It has great stability when stored in dry place.
c) Moe stable than sodium hypochlorite, allowing longer storage
3) Limitations
a) Contamination or improper use of bleaching powder may lead to explosion, fire or release of toxic gases.
b) If it is exposed to even very small amounts of water, it can react violently to produce toxic gases, heat and spatter. The powder
is to be added in water, not the other way around.
c) Exposure to heat can cause bleaching powder to decompose rapidly, which may lead to explosion and intense fire.
d) Higher chemical cost than elemental chlorine
E. Alternative Disinfectants
Disinfectants alternative to chlorine can be broadly classified in two categories. They are as mentioned below:
1) Chlorine Based Alternative Disinfectants
a) Chloramines: These are the chemical compounds which are formed by reaction of chlorine with ammonia in water. This
reaction is as mentioned below:
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl-
NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl + H2O
NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 + H2O
NHCl2 + HOCl NCl3 + H2O
Since chloramines are very weak disinfectants they are used as secondary disinfectant i.e., as residual disinfectant. They provide
durable residual for long distribution lines and for instances where free chlorine demand is high.
Advantages
Reduce the formation of THMs
Don’t oxidise bromide to bromine
More stable residual than elemental chlorine
Excellent secondary disinfectant
Lower taste and odour
No by-products are formed
Disadvantages
Weak disinfectant
Require shipment and handling of ammonia or ammonia compounds
Ammonia is toxic to fish and may pose problems for aquarium owners
Cause kidney problems if not removed from water
b) Chlorine Dioxide: Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is generated on-site at water treatment facilities. In most generators sodium chlorite
and elemental chlorine are mixed in solution, which instantaneously forms chlorine dioxide.
2NaClO2 + Cl2 2NaCl + 2ClO2
Since chlorine dioxide gas is unstable, it is commonly generated at the point of its use by the introduction of sodium chlorite
solution into the chlorinator discharge line. However, the aqueous solution of chlorine dioxide is stable. Chlorine dioxide has an
oxidising capacity 2 ½ times that of chlorin. Further, it is most effective in the removal of taste and odours, particularly those which
are caused by phenolic substances and algal growths. It is also reported to be more effective than chlorine as a bactericide and as a
sporicide. Chlorine dioxide characteristics are quite different from chlorine. In solution it is a dissolved gas which makes it largely
unaffected by pH but volatile and relatively easily stripped from solution. Chlorine dioxide is also a strong disinfectant. It produces
residual but it is rarely used.
Advantages
Effective against Cryptosporidium
Up to five times faster than chlorine at inactivating Giardia
Disinfection is only moderately affected by pH
Will not form chlorinated by-products
Doesn’t oxidise v=bromide to bromine
More effective than chlorine in treating taste and odour
Selective oxidant used for manganese oxidation and targeting some chlorine resistant organics
Limitations
Highly volatile residuals
Requires on-site generation
Requires high level of technical competence and monitoring equipment
Occasionally poses unique odour and tase problems
High operating cost
Advantages
Strongest disinfectant available
produces no chlorinated THMs
Effective against spores at high concentrations
Efficiency unaffected by changes in temperature and pH value of water
Bactericidal action is more rapid than chlorine
Doesn’t impart offensive taste and odour to water
Limitations
Process operation and maintenance requires high level of technical competence
Provides no protective residual
Higher operating and capital costs
Difficult to control and monitor
Ozone more costly than chlorine
b) Ultraviolet Radiation: UV rays, generated by a machine which contains mercury-vapour lamp enclosed in a quartz globe. These
lamps commonly use 220 V DC supply. When UV radiation penetrates the cell wall of an organism, it damages genetic material
and prevents the cell from reproducing. It is effective on both active bacteria and spores. The destructive power of these rays
begin in blue-green region of the spectrum with a wavelength of 0.490µ and increases in effectiveness to 0.149µ.
Advantages
Effective in inactivating most viruses, spores and cysts
No chemical generation, storage or handling
No by-products produced
Limitations
No residual
Low inactivation of some viruses (reovirus and rotavirus)
May require additional treatment steps to maintain high-clarity water
Requires large surface area of water.
More recently drinking water providers have faced an array of new challenges, including:
To meet these new challenges, engineers must design unique disinfection approaches to match each system’s characteristics and
source water quality. While chlorination remains the most commonly used disinfection method by far, water systems may use
alternative disinfectants. No single disinfection method is right for all circumstances, and in fact, water systems may use a variety of
methods to meet overall disinfection standards and to provide residual protection throughout the distribution system.
V. CONCLUSION
Although we have a number of alternative disinfectants to chlorine, still chlorine is widely used worldwide because of the following
reasons:
1) Potent Germicide: Chlorine reduces the level of many disease-causing microbes in drinking water to almost immeasurable
levels.
2) Taste and Odour Control: Chlorine disinfectants reduce many disagreeable tastes and odours. It oxidises many foul-smelling
algae secretions, sulphides and odours from decaying vegetation.
3) Biological Growth Control: Chlorine disinfectants eliminate slime bacteria, moulds and algae that commonly grow in water
supply reservoirs, on the walls of water mains and in storage tanks.
4) Chemical Control: Chlorine disinfectants destroy hydrogen sulphide and remove ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds
that have unpleasant tastes and hinder disinfection.
5) Residual Disinfection: We require a residual level of disinfection of water in pipelines to prevent microbial re-growth and help
protect treated throughout the distribution system.
Although chlorine has several limitations such that it imparts bad taste and odour to water and produces DBPs; it is still in use due
to the above-mentioned advantages. All the disinfectants have their own pros and cons which are to be kept in mind while deciding
the disinfectant method for the particular water treatment system.
REFERENCES
[1] Drinking water chlorination: A Review of Disinfection Practices and issues – https://waterandhealth.org
[2] Water Supply Engineering – Dr. P.N Modi
[3] Chlorination: An Overview – https://www.sciencedirect.com
[4] A Systematic review of chlorine-based surface disinfection – https://www.sciencedirect.com