Isabela State University | ECHAGUE

Criminal Justice Education Department

CRIM PROF 214

T
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of

CRIME CAUSATION
An Instructional Material for BS Criminology Students in the
First Semester 2020–2021. Isabela State University, College of
Criminal Justice Education.

COMPILED BY: REGINALD C. SIBUG, MS CRIM, LPT

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Reginald C. Sibug, MS CRIM .1
 Isabela State University | ECHAGUE
Criminal Justice Education Department
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGOCAL THEORIES

Chapter’s Contents: A. INTRODUCTION

A. INTRODUCTION
B. IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES Criminologists study how, why, when,
where, and under what conditions crime,
C. ELEMENTS OF A THEORY
criminality, and victimization occur. Like any
D. TYPES OF EXPLANATION TO academic discipline, there are a variety of ways
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR criminologists think about and research
E. APPROACHES TO THE causality; accumulating an abundance of facts in
EXPLANATION OF CRIMES the process. These facts should be used as
F. CATEGORIES OF CRIMINOLOICAL building blocks for theory construction because
it is theory that provides meaning to what
THEORIES often seem to be unrelated facts. The causes of
G. SUPERNATURAL EXPLANATIONS TO crime are one of the important phases of the
CRIME CAUSATION: PRE- crime problem that requires more discussion,
CLASSICAL (DEMONIC ERA) investigation and research and call for more
H. FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES social and Governmental action. Why a man
becomes criminal?--is a perennial question and
o CLASSICAL scholars have sought to explain criminal
o NEO-CLASSICAL behaviour for many years.
o POSITIVIST As the various disciplines began to
grow, particularly biology, anthropology,
sociology, psychiatry, psychology, statistics,
LEARNING OUTCOMES the explanations soon shifted from rationalism
to causes which exist in the hereditary,
At the end of this topic, the students
will be able to:
constitutional, and psychological makeup of
individuals as well as the causes which exist in
1. Explain the general the physical and social environment of man.
knowledge, concept or ideas The study of criminology targets why
on the theories of crime individuals commit crimes and why they
causation. behave in certain situations. By understanding
2. Explain the meaning of
important terminologies in
why a person commits a crime, one can
the study of criminological develop ways to control crime or rehabilitate
theories the criminal. There are many theories in
3. Identify and apply the criminology. Criminology poses many
elements and empirical basis intriguing questions. One of the most
of a good theory to be valid absorbing is the age-old question of “Why?”
and scientific.
“Why do people commit crime?” “Why do
4. Explain the different types
of explanation to criminal others conform?” “How can we explain or
behavior. understand crime and criminality?” This
5. Identify and distinguish the section of the text explores a variety of
different approaches to the theoretical perspectives on such matters.
explanation of crimes.
6. Differentiate the categories
Crime is not caused by a single factor.
of criminological theories.
7. Explain the origin of crime Crime is a highly complex phenomenon which
according to supernatural changes throughout cultures and through time.
powers. Activities that are legal in one country (such as
8. Identify and explain the alcohol consumption in the United Kingdom)
three (3) main/ foundational are sometimes illegal in others (strict Muslim
theories of criminology and
countries, for example). As cultures change
its contributors.
over time, once uncriminalized behaviors can
become criminalized (and then again

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decriminalized – e.g. alcoholic beverages).
There is therefore no simple answer to the CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY
question "what is crime? And therefore, no Criminal Etiology is the division of criminology which attempts
to provide scientific analysis of the causes of crimes. It is
single reaction to' what causes crime? Often otherwise known as the area of CRIMINOGENESIS or CRIME
different types of crime have their own CAUSATION. The term etiology comes from the Greek word
separate causes. “etio” which means causation and “ology” which means the
scientific study of something.
Theory, if developed properly, is
about real situations, feelings, experience, and CRIME
human behavior. An effective theory helps us  An act committed or omitted in
to make sense of facts that we already know violation of public law, forbidding or
and can be tested against new facts. Consider commanding it (Legal Definition).
the situation of a young girl's child abuse and o Felony– An act or omission that is
her later involvement in prostitution. What punishable by the Revised Penal Code.
o Offense – An act or omission that is
about the relationship between the limited
punishable by special laws.
opportunities for legitimate work and the o Misdemeanor/ Infraction of
selection of a career in crime? Think about the Ordinance– Acts that are in violation
fact that immigrant and minority groups in of municipal ordinances, simple rules
many countries have become and regulations
disproportionately involved in crime. Or
consider the fact that some kinds of behavior  Crime is an act that is injurious,
are legally defined as criminal, while others are detrimental or harmful to society or
not. Criminological theories are tentative community (Social definition).
answers to questions about criminal behavior
(or more broadly deviant behavior) and the  Crime is an act which considered
criminal justice system (or more broadly the undesirable due to behavioral
social control system). Why? By what process? maladjustment of the offender and
How does it work? The answers may provide considered as an acts that are caused
explanations of one set of events by referring by abnormal behavior (Psychological
to other events. definition).

This Module provides an overview of MALA IN SE AND MALA PROHIBITA

some of the key criminological theories that We can distinguish between classes of crime by
seek to explain the causes of crime. Each of the considering the harm associated with a given act, allowing us
to divide criminal behavior into two main forms: mala in se and
theories covered has its own strengths and mala prohibita.
weaknesses, has gaps and may only be Mala in se, Latin for “evil in itself,” refers to crimes that
applicable to certain types of crime, and not are intrinsically evil, such as murder. Although societies may
others. There is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ theory. differ on what constitutes murder, all prohibit the behavior.
This term contrasts with mala prohibita, Latin for “wrong
The theories covered can be categorized into because it is prohibited,” which refers to activities that have
three main approaches: biological, been out lawed not because they are obviously or inherently
psychological, and sociological. evil, but because they violate certain societal standards

B. IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES CRIMINAL

 person who committed the crime or
CAUSATION antisocial act. (Criminological sense)
 refers to anything that produces an
effect (Eme, 2009).  person found guilty of a crime and
sentenced by a court. There must be a
CAUSES OF CRIME final verdict of his guilt (Legal sense)
 refers to the factors or circumstances
that apply significantly more to CRIMINOLOGY
offenders than to non-offenders and  Criminology is a body of knowledge
that potentially a direct but not regarding delinquency and crime as
necessarily immediate link to crime. social phenomena (Tradio definition)

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PHENOMENON  The basic goal of theory is explanation.
A phenomenon is something which can be observed Explanations are important because
(observable); any fact, circumstances , or experiences which
can be explained scientifically.. they help us figure out why things are
the way they are, and they suggest what
might be done to change things. In this
 Criminology is a multidisciplinary study
sense, criminological theory’s main job
of crimes (Bartol definition).
is to render crime more understandable
 Criminology is a body of knowledge
regarding crime and criminals as a  Theory is the Foundation of
social phenomenon. It includes in its criminology and of criminal justice.
scope the process of making of laws,
MICROTHEORIES vs. MACROTHEORIES
breaking of laws, and reaction towards
Some theories concern the activities of individuals, and
the breaking of laws. (Sutherland attempt to explain why individuals commit acts of delinquency.
definition) These kinds of theories are often called microtheories. Other
theories deal with the larger social and cultural context in
SCHOOL OF THOUGHT which humans act, and address the issue of why rates of
delinquency are higher in some settings, or among some
 A system of beliefs accepted and collections of people, than in others. These theories are called
explained by some group of macrotheories (Williams and McShane, 1994:8–9; see also,
individuals. Akers, 1994:4–5; Gibbons, 1994: 8–11).

THEORY CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY

 Theory is a series of statements that seek  A proposition/assumption that
to understand and explain a particular attempts to explain criminal behaviour
phenomenon (Okada, 2015). (crime), and behaviours of key actors
(e.g. police, attorneys, prosecutors,
 A theory is said to be a set of judges/magistrates, social welfare
assumptions, propositions, or accepted officers, victims/witnesses, accused and
facts that attempts to provide a etc.,) in the criminal justice system.
rational explanation of cause and effect
(causal) relationships among a group of  Basically, theories about the causes of
observed phenomena. crime are based on:
 Religion
 In short, a theory is an idea or set of  Philosophy
ideas that is intended to explain facts  Biology
or events.  Politics
 Economy
 Any system of ideas arranged in rational  social forces.
order that produce general principles  The aim of criminological theory is to
which increase our understanding & gain an understanding of crime and
explanations. criminal justice. Theories are useful for
addressing the issues of which policies
 theory is a systematic collection of are more or less likely to work.
concepts and statements purporting to
explain events or behavior (Timasheff, C. ELEMENTS OF A THEORY: EMPIRICAL
1957). BASIS FOR CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES

 A theory is a set of interconnected How do we know if a theory offers a

statements or propositions that explain sound explanation of crime or criminal
how two or more events or factors are justice? The various theories that will be
related to one another. (Curran and explored provide different, sometimes
Renzetti, 199422) contradictory, explanations of crime. How
do we judge which explanation is
preferable over another, or which is the
best amongst several theories? The weakest

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reason for accepting or rejecting a theory deficiency explains their criminal
of crime is how well it conforms to one’s behavior cannot also claim that family
own beliefs, ideologies, or preferred socialization is the basic cause of
policies. If criminological theories are to be criminal behavior.
scientific, then they must be judged by
scientific criteria. The most important of 2. Scope:
these is empirical validity, the extent to
 A theory’s scope refers to its range, or
which a theory can be verified or refuted
with carefully gathered evidence. But there ranges, of explanations. Does it
are several other major criteria by which explain crimes committed by males
theories can be assessed. These include AND females? Does it explain ALL
internal logical consistency, scope and crimes or just property crime? Does it
parsimony, testability, empirical validity, explain the crime committed by ALL
and useful ness and policy implication. ages or just juveniles? Better theories
(For discussions of the criteria for will have a wider scope or a larger
evaluating criminological theories, see range of explanation.
Schrag, 1962; Gibbons, 1979: 14 16; Vold  The scope of a theory refers to the
and Bernard, 1986:340-363; Liska, 1987: range of phenomena which it
14-25; Shoemaker, 1990: 3-11; Barlow and
proposes to explain. For instance, a
Ferdinand, 1992:189-99; Tittle, 1995:17-
theory that accounts only for the
53).
crime of check forgery may be
Theories are explanations of a natural accurate, but it is obviously very
or social behavior, event, or phenomenon. limited in scope. A better theory is
We must apply the scientific criteria to test one which accounts for a wide range
our theories. Akers and Sellers (2013) have of offenses including check forgery. A
established a set of criteria to judge theory of juvenile delinquency that
criminological theories: does not relate as well to adult
criminality is more restricted than one
1. Logical consistency: that accounts for both juvenile
 is the basic building block of any delinquency and adult crime. A theory
theory. It refers to a theory’s ability to that explains only the age distribution
“make sense”. Is it logical? Is it of crime has a more limited scope
internally consistent? Are the than one that explains the age, race,
theoretical constructs, propositions, sex, and class distributions of crime.
boundary conditions, and
assumptions logically consistent with 3. Parsimony:
each other? If some of these “building  Parsimony, the conciseness and
blocks” of a theory are inconsistent abstractness of a set of concepts and
with each other (e.g., a theory propositions. Parsimony examines
assumes rationality, but some how much of a phenomenon is
constructs represent non-rational explained with how few variables. A
concepts), then the theory is a poor parsimonious theory is concise,
theory. elegant, and simple. There are not too
many constructs or hypotheses.
 The basic prerequisite for a sound Simply put, parsimony refers to a
theory is that it has clearly defined theory’s “simplicity”.
concepts and that its propositions are
logically stated and internally 4. Testability/ Falsifiability:
consistent. For example, a theory  A scientific theory must be testable by
which proposes that criminals are objective, repeatable evidence. If a
biologically deficient and that theory cannot be tested against

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empirical findings, it has no scientific failure to refrain from crime then
value. proposes low self-control as a cause of
law violation, then one's proposition
 A good scientific theory needs to be is tautological. Given the definition of
testable. It must be open to possible low self-control, the proposition can
falsification. “Every genuine test of a never be proven false, because self-
theory is an attempt to falsify it or to control is defined by the very thing it
refute it. Testability is falsifiability; but is hypothesized to explain. It simply
there are degrees of testability: some says that a person who has low self-
theories are more testable, more control has low self-control, or that a
exposed to refutation than others; person who violates the law violates
they take, as it were, greater risks… the law.
One can sum up all this by saying that
the criterion of the scientific status of
Tautology
a theory is its falsifiability, or When considering a theory, we need to avoid making a
refutability, or testability” (Popper, tautology, also referred to as circular reasoning. A
1965, pp. 36-37). tautology exists when someone defines the outcome variable,
sometimes called the dependent variable, as its own cause. If
we assert that flames cause fire, we are identifying the
 British philosopher Karl Popper stated outcome by using a synonym for the cause.
in the 1940’s that for theories to be
valid, they must be falsifiable. 5. Empirical validity:
Falsifiability ensures that the theory is  Empirical validity simply means that a
potentially disprovable, if empirical theory has been supported by research
data does not match with theoretical evidence.
propositions, which allows for their
empirical testing by researchers. In  This is the MOST IMPORTANT
other words, theories cannot be CRITERION for judging a theory. For a
theories unless they can be empirically theory to be logical, parsimonious, and
testable. non-tautological means little if it turns
out to be false.
 It is not enough for a theory to fit
known facts about crime or contain 6. Usefulness and policy implication:
empirical evidence consistent with its  Finally, the value of a criminological
propositions. It must also be possible theory can be further evaluated by its
to subject the theory to empirical usefulness in providing guidelines for
falsification; in other words, it must effective social and criminal justice
be open to evidence that may counter policy and practice. Every
or disprove its hypotheses with criminological theory implies a
negative findings. If it is not falsifiable therapy or a policy. The basic
in this sense, it is not testable assumption in theory-guided practice
(Stinchcombe, 1968). is that the better the theory explains
the problem, the better it is able to
 A theory may be untestable because guide efforts to solve the problem.
the definitions of its concepts and its
propositions are stated as a tautology.  all theories should suggest how to
A tautology is a statement or control, prevent, or reduce crime
hypothesis that is true by definition or through policy or program. The
involves circular reasoning. If, for premise of a particular theory will
example, one begins with the guide policy-makers. For example, if a
definition of low self-control as the theory suggested that juveniles learn

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how to commit crime through a characteristics of the individual offender to
network of delinquent peers, non-offenders.
b. Medical Approach – It explains the role of
policymakers will try to identify
physical and mental conditions of the
juveniles at-risk for joining delinquent individual prior or after the commission of
subcultures. the criminal acts. It further explains that
even if an individual commits an offense,
 All major criminological theories have proper medical examinations will show
that the offender is mentally ill at the time
implications for, and have indeed
of the commission of the offense.
been utilized in, criminal justice policy c. Biological Approach – It explains
and practice. Every therapy, treatment inheritance as a cause of crime. It also
program, prison regimen, police proposes that human beings commit crime
policy, or criminal justice practice is because of internal factors over which they
based, either explicitly or implicitly, have little or no control.
d. Physiological Approach – It explains that,
on some explanation of human nature instinctively, it is the nature of a human
in general or criminal behavior in being to acquire all the physical needs in
particular. Every recommendation for order to satisfy all his wants. In short,
changes in our legal and criminal every man possesses integrity and
justice system has been based on some whenever we lose sight of a human as a
whole we violate that integrity.
underlying theory that explains why
e. Psychological Approach – Intelligence,
the laws have been enacted, why the emotion and education of the individual
system operates as it does, and why must be taken into consideration in
those who are in the system behave as relation to the wrongful act he has
they do. committed. Research showed that once the
community and its members deprive the
individual of his natural needs, crime will
D. TYPES OF EXPLANATION TO be committed as a result of such
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR frustration.
f. Psychiatric Approach – This approach
1. Single or Unitary Cause - This approach explains that the cause of behavioural
views that criminal behavior is caused difficulties is to be found in emotional
only by one factor or variable which is tension originating in early life conflict
any of the following: social, biological, with the family. Moreover, behavioural
patterns will be established which will later
or mental.
become permanent and fixed and it is hard
for any correctional institution to change
2. Multiple Factor Theory - This approach this attitude if he is never caught of
views that criminal conduct is not a violation of law or ordinance.
product of a single cause or factor but a g. Psycho-Analitical Approach – This is based
combination of several factors. Some upon the Freudian theory which traces
factors are playing a major reason while behaviour as a deviation to the repression
the other is playing the minor role. This of basic drives and needs – It is the
is the accepted theory of crime biological requirement for the well-being
causation. of an individual.

E. APPROACHES TO THE 2. OBJECTIVE APPROACH - It is derived

EXPLANATION OF CRIMES from the social science point of view
that offenders are normal beings upon
1. SUBJECTIVE APPROACH - Deals with who have played the external
the biological explanation of crimes, criminogenic forces. It deals with the
focused on abnormalities or aberration study of groups, social process and
that primarily exist within the criminal institutions as productive deviant
himself. behaviour.
a. Anthropological Approach – This approach a. Geographical Approach – It considers
had tried to compare the physical climate as one of the factors that lead
individuals to do a criminal act.

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Criminal Justice Education Department
b. Ecological Approach – It concerns itself males as a group commit so many
with the biotic grouping of men thus, more violent and criminal acts than
resulting from migration competition
females? How do we explain the
and division of labor. Migration is a
conduct from one place to another differences in homicide and drug use
which sometimes create conflict among different classes and groups
between the immigrant and the within the same society?
inhabitant of such place thus leading to The second question raises the
social discrimination. issue of explaining differences among
c. Economic Approach – Financial
hardship is one of the primary causes
individuals in committing or refraining
of criminality, therefore, it is necessary from criminal acts. Why are some
for every human being to contemplate individuals more likely to break the
or consider with deep regret and law than others? By what process or
compassion the strong temptation under what circumstances do people
which has frequently prevailed for so
typically, and not just in a specific,
many years from want of the
necessities to support life. individual case, reach the point of
d. Sociological and Cultural Approach – It obeying or violating the law? Why
is concerned with the influences on does one person commit a crime, given
behaviour of group life, including rules a certain opportunity, while another
and statutes, social classes and social does not, given the same opportunity?
mobility, subculture, cliques and social
Why are some people more likely than
changes.
others to commit frequent crimes or
3. CONTEMPORARY APPROACH - it is pursue criminal careers?
the combination of different
approaches to explain the reasons or The first set of questions focuses
causes for the commission of crimes on societal and group patterns, the
which focuses on the psychoanalytical, second on individual differences. A
psychiatric and sociological theory that addresses broader
explanations crime. questions about differences across
societies or major groups in society is
F. CATEGORIES OF CRIMINOLOGICAL called a "MACRO" theory. Conversely,
THEORIES
one that focuses specifically on small
group or individual differences is
1. MACRO-LEVEL THEORIES and
MICRO-LEVEL THEORIES referred to as operating on the
Theories of criminal and “MICRO” level of analysis (Orcutt,
deviant behavior try to answer the 1983; Alexander et al., 1987). Hence,
question of why social and legal norms Structural or macro theories focus on
are violated. This question has two differences in group and societal rates
inter related parts: (1) Why are there of crime, while processual or micro
variations in group rates of crime and theories address individual differences
deviance, and (2) why do some and social processes.
individuals come to commit criminal
and deviant acts? The first question 2. BIOLOGICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND
poses the problem of trying to make SOCIOLOGICAL
There are other ways to classify
sense of the differences in the location
criminological theories. One com mon
and proportion of deviant and
way is to refer not just to micro or
criminal behavior in various groups
macro, but to several levels of
and societies. For example, why does
explanation that ascend from the
the United States have such a high rate
smallest to the largest unit of analysis.
of crime compared to Great Britain,
Such a classification typically
Western Europe, and Japan? Why do
categorizes the theories according to
THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
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the general scientific discipline from behavior primarily by genetic,
which the explanatory variables are biological, or other properties inherent
drawn. The most common in the individual. Proponents of the
classifications are: BIOLOGICAL NURTURE position look to the social
theories that explain crime with one or environment for causal factors; they
more genetic, chemical, neurological, believe human behavior is largely the
product of social interaction.
or physiological variables;
PSYCHOLOGICAL theories based on
G. SUPERNATURAL EXPLANATIONS TO
personality, emotional maladjustment, CRIME CAUSATION: PRE-CLASSICAL
mental retardation, psychic (DEMONIC ERA)
disturbance, or psychological traits; Prior to the eighteenth century,
and SOCIOLOGICAL theories that explanations
explain crime with cultural, structural, of a wide
and socio-demographic variables. (See variety of
Nettler, 1984; Gibbons, 1979; Vold phenomena
and Bernard, 1986; Liska, 1987; tended to be
of a
Williams and McShane, 1988;
religious,
Shoemaker, 1990; Jensen and Rojek,
theological
1992.) or spiritual nature.
Just as the categories of During the medieval period,
structure and process overlap to some the most common explanations for the
extent, some theories will draw from commission of wrong act is said to be
two or more disciplines. For instance, caused by the devil. From this account,
contemporary biological theories do method uses in the determination of
not rely exclusively on genetic or truth (trial) were arbitrary and
biochemical factors, but also draw unreasonable. Although through the
from psychological or sociological Middle Ages (1200-1600), superstition
variables as well. Other theories, such and fear of satanic possession
as social learning, are clearly social- dominated the thinking. People who
violated social norms or religious
psychological, utilizing both
practices were believed to be witches
sociological and psychological
or possessed by demons. The
variables. prescribed method for dealing with the
possessed was burning at stake, a
Whatever the classification of practiced that survived into the 17
theory that may be used, there will be Century.
some kind of overlap, shortcomings, Supernatural powers were
and loose ends. No special case will be considered the best explanation behind
made here for the order in which the crime and sin then. It was believed that
various theories are presented. The a person did not commit crimes of his
focus here is not on how best to own free will but because he was
classify each theory but rather on under the influence of evil.
introducing what each theory proposes
and on evaluating its validity. 1. DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY
 It maintains that criminal behavior was
3. NATURE AND NURTURE believed to be the result of evil spirits
Another way to categorize and demons something of natural force
theories of crime is by how proponents and controls behavior.
view the fundamental force allegedly  Terms like demons, witches and
shaping the human behavior under windigo were used for people who
study: Is it nature or nurture? had turned criminals under demonic
Supporters of the NATURE position
suggest that we can understand

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influence. The society thought that it It is called a sin - a violation of
all happened due to evil spirits. sacred obligation.
 Demonology  there is a strong adherence with
assumes that the divine intervention, where
criminal and the criminal is under divine
delinquent wrath.
behavior is 
caused by
demonic
possession.
While this view
of criminality
can be traced to
primitive
societies, it still During the ancient period criminals
maintains some are given the right of sanctuary
popularity whereby they can seek refuge
today among in the temples of God so that
laypersons. they will be free from
prosecution and punishment.
a. Temptation Model – the belief that Early American system of
a person was tempted by an evil prison management does not
spirit to do wrong, and that that allow inmates to talk with one
people are weak--temptations to another or prisoners are place
sin are impossible to avoid. in single cell so as to give them
**How criminals are treated: Public opportunity to ask for
humiliation and banishment were
forgiveness from God
frequently used by religious societies as
ways of controlling their deviant Spiritual vs. Natural Explanations
populations. For serious deviants, capital
punishment would be a final solution. SPIRITUAL EXPLANATIONS of NATURAL EXPLANATIONS of
crime are primarily attached into crime were rooted in people’s
b. Possession Model – evil spirits or religious beliefs and ideas about the nature of reality
demons entered the human soul superstitions and there is a in the physical world based on
and made people commit crimes. strong adherence with the divine observations of nature but were
Once possessed by an evil spirit the intervention. Even at present, not scientific. For example, the
some religious individuals and natural world was thought to
person is no longer responsible for groups still attribute crime to the include inherent good and evil.
his/her actions. The devil now has influence of the devil and to sinful Seeking explanations for crime in
taken control of the individual's human nature. The problem with the natural world provided a basis
mind and body resulting in evil this theory is that, because for the development of legal
spiritual influences cannot be definitions and treatment of
behavior.
observed, they cannot be proved. crime. Natural explanations of
**How criminals are treated: One way of
Thus, these theories cannot be crime make use of objects and
"curing" the individual is through exorcism- events in the material world to
considered scientific.
a religious ritual aimed at jettisoning the account for what happens
unclean spirit from the body.

Trephination
A form of surgery typically involving bone, H. FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES:
especially the skull to eliminate the evil spirits SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
residing in the heads of offenders.
I. Classical Theory [CLASSICAL SCHOOL]
2. DEVINE WILL THEORY  The Classical School in criminology
 Men manifest criminal behavior argues that people, adults and
because they are sinful so God children, act according to free will,
wants to punish them. rationally exercised, in the pursuit of
 Crime has been viewed as a happiness and the minimization of
violation of religious doctrine--
pain. According to some of the early

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proponents of this thought, such as  The basic premise in classical
Cesare Beccaria, and to some extent criminology is that actions are taken
his English utilitarian follower, and decisions are made by persons
Jeremy Bentham, ALL PERSONS, in the rational exercise of free will.
including children, are thought to All individuals choose to obey or
weigh the costs and benefits of their violate the law by a rational
proposed actions before they calculation of the risk of pain versus
embark on them, and all persons, it potential pleasure derived from an
is assumed, possess the ability to do act.
so.
 This theory of crime can be found in  Any individual has the ability to
the works of Cesare Beccaria and calculate the outcome of his own
Jeremy Bentham. Cesare Beccaria actions and can consider the
was an Italian criminologist and pleasure and pain to result from his
Jeremy Bentham was from England. activities. Every person can judge his
gains and losses before trying to act
CESARE BONESANA MARCHESE DE
BECCARIA in a specific manner.
· Father of classical Criminology
· Advocate of Freewill Doctrine Highlights of Classical School
· He was an Italian philosopher and
politician best mown for his
treatise “On Crimes and  FREEWILL THEORY (Beccaria)
Punishments (Dei Delitti e Della - Men are
Pene )” (1764), which condemned rational
torture and the death penalty being who
and was a founding work in the field of criminology.
· SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY - Social contract theory has the
stresses the idea that people were originally without freewill to
government. People then created the state through a choose
“social contract,” by which they surrendered many of their between
“natural liberties.” In return, people received the security
that government could provide “against antisocial acts.”
good or
SOCIAL CONTRACT is an imaginary agreement to sacrifice evil. Therefore, every man
the minimum amount of liberty to prevent anarchy and is responsible for his act.
chaos  UTILITARIAN HEDONISM/
JEREMY BENTHAM
- devised the Pseudo-mathematical
PAIN & PLEASURE
Formula called “felicific PRINCIPLE
calculus”. He is best known as an (Bentham)
early advocate of utilitarianism
- explains that a
and fair treatment of criminals
that influenced the development person always
of liberalism. acts in such a
- JUST DESERTS MODEL - The
way as to seek
notion that criminal offenders deserve the punishment that
should be appropriate to the type and severity of crime pleasure and
committed. avoid pain.

 The basic concept underlying this

theory was that the humans did not
act according to God’s will or under
FELICIFIC CALCULUS
the influence of any other
· “individuals are human calculators who put all the factors
supernatural power. They acted as into an equation in order to decide whether a particular
per their own free will. They acted crime is worth committing or not”.
after having judged the rewards and UTILITARIANISM
- “it is the Greatest happiness of the greatest number that is
punishments of an act. the measure of right and wrong”.
- The notion that public policy decisions should maximize

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pleasure, while minimizing pain among the general citizenry. that they will be caught. If
- A theory of morality, which advocates actions that foster they believe that the legal
happiness or pleasure and opposes actions that cause
unhappiness or harm. When directed toward making social, penalty threatens more pain
economic, or political decisions, a utilitarian philosophy than the probable gain
would aim for the betterment of society as a whole. produced by the crime, then
Hedonist
· It refers to a person who only seeks pleasure and avoids they will not commit the
pain. The term “hedonism,” was derived from the Greek crime
word HEDONE which means “pleasure”.
Rational Calculator - Punishment (of sufficient
- It refers to person’s weighing up the costs (pains) and
benefits (pleasures of the consequences of each of his severity) can deter people
action) before committing any act. from committing crime
because the cost (penalties)
 PUNISHMENT - the infliction outweighs benefits and
or imposition of a penalty in severity of punishment should
response to an offense as be proportionate to the
DETERRENT to crime. crime. The swifter and certain
the punishment, the more
PURPOSE OF PUNISHMENT IN
CLASSICAL SCHOOL effective it is in deterring
1. DETERRENCE –The prevention of criminal acts through criminal behavior.
the threat of punishment and sanctions. It has two kinds:
a. Specific deterrence –The prevention of
individuals from committing crime again by - Deterrence theory highlights
punishing them. that an individual's choice to
b. General deterrence –The prevention of people in commit or not to commit a
general or society at large from engaging in
crime by punishing specific individuals and crime is influenced by the fear
making examples of them. of punishment. It also
2. RETRIBUTION – is the notion that a wrongdoer should be includes the idea that forced
forced to "pay back" or compensate for his or her
criminal acts. Offenders should be punished because they retribution for a crime should
deserve it (known as “just deserts”. Sometimes referred reduce crime rates. This
to as “just deserts”. theory is considered an
 EQUALITY – people should be extension of the classical
given equal treatment before the approach focusing on the link
law. between punishment and
JUST DESERTS behavior at both individual
“just deserts” or deserved justice—where the goal of and group levels.
sentencing was to fit the punishment to the offense rather
than the offender.
ELEMENTS OF DETERRENCE:
**DETERRENCE DOCTRINE
1. Severity: “how harsh the
- If the punishment for a crime punishment” – refers to the
is severe, certain, and swift, intensity/ graveness or
the citizenry will rationally seriousness of penalty to be
calculate that more is to be applied after the commission of
lost than gained from crime crime. “The more serious or
and will be deterred from harmful the crime, the more
violating the law. the individual stands to gain
from it; therefore, the more
- In contemplating a criminal serious the crime, the more
act, a person take into severe the penalty should be to
account the probable legal deter it.”
penalties and the likelihood

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2. Celerity: “how quickly an Arguments About The Classical Theory
individual is punished”. – refers
1. Unfair- it treats all men as if they were
to the swiftness with which
robots without regard to the individual
criminal sanctions are applied
differences and the surrounding
after the commission of crime.
“The more immediately
circumstances when the crime is
after the commission of a committed.
crime a punishment is
inflicted, the more just 2. Unjust- having the same punishment
and useful it will be. . . . for first offenders and recidivist.
An immediate
punishment is more 3. The nature and definition of
useful; because the punishment is not individualized.
smaller the interval of
time between the 4. It considers only the injury caused not
punishment and the
the mental condition of the offender.
crime, the stronger and
more lasting will be the
association of the two II. Neo-classical Theory [NEO-CLASSICAL
ideas of crime and SCHOOL]
punishment”. (Beccaria,
1972: 1 8- l 9)
 This theory
accepted the
3. Certainty: “how sure an doctrine of free will
individual will be punished” – in general but
refers to the probability of provides
apprehension and punishment consideration due
for a crime. to some causes that
inhibits the person
in the exercise of
Both Beccaria and Bentham saw a freewill.
connection between certainty and
severity of punishment. Certainty is  causes like
more effective in deterring crime than pathology,
severity of punishment. incompetence,
insanity or any condition that will
KINDS OF DETRRENCE: make it impossible for the individual to
Specific and General Deterrence
There are two ways by which deterrence is intended to exercise free will entirely should be
operate. First, apprehended and punished offenders will taken into consideration
refrain from repeating crimes if they are certainly caught and
severely punished. This is known as “SPECIFIC DETERRENCE"  “Children and lunatics cannot calculate
or “special deterrence." Second is “GENERAL DETERRENCE,"
in which the state's punishment of offenders serves as an what is good or evil, therefore, must
example to those in the general public who have not yet be exempted from criminal liability”
committed a crime, instilling in them enough fear of state
punishment to deter them from crime (Zimring, 1971; Zimring
and Hawkins, 1973).  In the study of legal provisions, this is
termed as either mitigating or
exempting circumstances.
M’Naghten Rule
• The M'Naghten rule is a test for criminal insanity.
• Under the M'Naghten rule, a criminal defendant is not guilty
by reason of insanity if, at the time of the alleged criminal
act, the defendant was so deranged that she did not know
the nature or quality of her actions or, if she knew the
nature and quality of her actions, she was so deranged that
she did not know that what she was doing was wrong.

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III. Positivist Theory [POSITIVIST SCHOOL] THE HOLY THREE OF CRIMINOLOGY

 It relies (POSITIVIST TRIO)
on
scientific 1. EZECHIA MARCO LOMBROSO a.k.a.
method, Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)
rather  known as the
than on “father of Modern
pure and Empirical
thought Criminology” due
and to his application of
reason, modern scientific
careful observation and analysis of
methods to trace
natural phenomena was being
criminal behavior.
undertaken to understand crime
causation.  He was considered
 It presumes that criminal behavior is as the founder of
caused by internal and external factors the Italian School of Positivist
outside of the individual's control. Criminology.
 It maintained that CRIME as any other  He was an Italian prison doctor and
act is a natural phenomenon and is criminologist working in the late 19th
comparable to disaster or calamity. century, was one of the largest
 Positivism can be broken up into three contributors to biological positivism
segments which include biological,  Published a book entitled: “The
psychological and social positivism. Criminal Man” in 1876.
Highlights of Positivist School
 THE THEORY OF ATAVISM
 POSITIVISM ATAVISM
- The application of scientific - the view that crime is due to a genetic
techniques to the study of crime and throwback to a more primitive and
criminals aggressive
- The term “positivism”, refers to a form of
method of analysis based on the human
collection of observable SCIENTIFIC being.
facts. - Atavism
- Positivists believe that causes of (from Latin
behavior can be measured and atavus,
observed. ancestor)
- It demands for facts and scientific claimed a
proof, thus, changing the study of return to a
crimes and criminals into scientific primitive or
approach. subhuman
type of man,
 DETERMINISM characterized
- the idea that criminal behavior is physically by
determined, or caused by something a variety of
(Radzinowicz, 1966). inferior
- that forces beyond the person's
control cause all or some human
behavior. Positivist criminology morphological features reminiscent of
searches for the underlying causes of apes and lower primates, occurring in
crime. the more simian fossil men and, to
THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
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Criminal Justice Education Department
some extent, preserved in modern 11. Abundance, variety, and precocity of wrinkles.
'savages." 12. Anomalies of the hair, marked by characteristics of the opposite sex.
13. Defects of the thorax, such as too many or too few ribs, or
supernumerary nipples.
ATAVISTIC STIGMATA 14. Inversion of sex characters in the pelvic organs.
- the physical features of creatures at an 15. Excessive length of arms.
16. Supernumerary fingers and toes.
earlier stage of development. A.k.a. 17. Imbalance of the hemisphere of the brain (asymmetry of the
“atavistic anomalies.” cranium)
“Lombroso concluded that
criminal behavior is the result of
immature evolution, a state he called The "mentality of atavistic individuals is that of
atavism, from the Latin word for primitive man, that these are biological
ancestor. Atavistic man is an 'throwbacks' to an earlier stage of evolution, and
evolutionary throwback with peculiar that the behavior of these 'throwbacks' will
physical characteristics that Lombroso inevitably be contrary to the rules and
called stigmata. Stigmata included expectations of modern civilized society."
facial asymmetry; an enormous jaw;
prominent cheekbones; large ears; Classifications of Criminal by Lombroso
fleshy, swollen, and protruding lips; 1. BORN CRIMINAL (The “Atavist”)– the
abnormal teeth; a receding or belief that being a criminal is inherited.
excessively long chin or a short and flat Individuals with at least five (5)
chin, such as found in apes; excessive atavistic stigmata.
arm length; more than the normal
number of fingers, toes, or nipples; and 2. INSANE CRIMINAL – those who
a series of behavioral characteristics. commits crime due to abnormalities or
He stressed that stigmata in themselves disorders.
were not the cause of crime, simply the
external signs of atavism. 3. CRIMINOLOIDS – those who have less
physical stamina/ self control.
LOBROSO’s STUDY OF ATAVISM
In November 1872, Lombroso performed an autopsy on the body of a. Criminal By Passion – those that
Giuseppe Villela, a 70-year old Calabrian brigand, whom he had examined can be easily influenced by great
in prison the previous year. The autopsy revealed an anomaly in cranial
structure, a smooth concavity the occipital area described as the median emotions. Hot-headed and
occipital fosette. impulsive persons who commit
The discovery of fosette convinced Lombroso that this violent acts when provoked
anomaly is NOT present in normal individuals, but only in skulls of madmen b. Habitual Criminal – career
and is “proof” that criminals are born.”.
offenders or who become so by
Stigmata Related to an Atavistic Criminal: contact with other criminals
1. Deviation in head size and c. Occasional Criminal – those who
shape from type common to commit crime due to insignificant
race and region from which
the criminal came.
reason that pushed them to do it.
2. Asymmetry of the face. d. Pseudo-Criminal – those who kills
3. Eye defects and peculiarities. in self-defense.
4. Excessive dimensions of the
jaw and cheek bones.
2. Enrico Ferri (1856-1929)
5. Ears of unusual size, or
occasionally very small, or  A student of Lombroso, believed
standing out from the head as that social as well as biological
to those of a chimpanzee. factors played a role, and held the
6. Nose twisted, upturned, or
view that criminals should not be
flattened in thieves, or aquiline
or breaks like in murderers, or held responsible for the factors
with a tip rising like a peak causing their criminality were
from swollen nostrils. beyond their control.
7. Lips fleshy, swollen, and protruding.
 His dissertation, published in 1878,
8. Pouch in the cheek like those of some animals.
9. Chin preceding, or excessively long, or short and flat, as in apes. was entitled Criminal Sociology.
10. Abnormal dentition. That is why he is credited as the

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Criminal Justice Education Department
one who developed the field of sociological definition of crime that
criminal sociology. would designate those acts which can
 The Concept of SOCIAL DEFENSE - be repressed by punishment-- Crime is
This theory of punishment asserts an immoral act that is injurious to
that its purpose is not to deter but society. These constituted "Natural
to defend society from criminal Crime" and were considered offenses
predation. The only reasonable violating the two basic altruistic
rationale for punishing offenders is sentiments common to all people,
to incapacitate them for as long as namely, probity and pity. He thought
possible so that they no longer offenders in crime against person
posed a threat to the peace and lacked the natural moral sentiment of
security of society. “pity,” (compassion, sympathy) while
 Under Ferri’s influence, positivism property offenders were deficient in
developed into a multiple factor “probity” (integrity, honesty).
approach, seeking many different
causes for a single criminal act, an NATURAL CRIME
approach that had an immense  considered offenses violating the two basic altruistic
sentiments common to all people, namely, probity (respect
impact on American criminology for property rights of others) and pity (infliction of
(Grupp, 1968). suffering on others) which are universally condemned.
 He argued that criminal behavior
could be explained by studying the Types of Criminal by Garofalo
interaction of a range of factors. a. Murderer- This refers to a criminal
He observed: who kills another person and is
 First, physical factors in relation satisfied from vengeance or
to crime such as race, revenge. This type of criminal
geography and temperature, totally lacks both pity and probity
climate, etc. and kill whenever opportunity
 Second, individual factors in arises.
relation to crime such as age, b. Violent Criminal- those who
sex, somatic [body] conditions commit very serious crimes. This
and psychological variables. criminal lack pity and can be
 Third, social factors in relation influenced by environmental
to crime such as population, factors such as consumption of
religion, economic and culture/ alcohol or the fact that criminality
custom. is endemic to criminal’s particular
population.
Factors to Criminality by FERRI
c. Deficient Criminal- It refers to a
1. Physical and geological environment
2. The individual person who commits crime against
3. Social environment. property like thieves and robbers.
This type of criminal totally lacks
probity.
3. Raffaele Garofalo (1852-1934) d. Lascivious Criminal- It refers to a
 An Italian jurist and a student of Cesare person who commits crime against
Lombroso at University of Turin. chastity like acts of lasciviousness,
 He rejected the doctrine of free will seduction, adultery and the like.
and supported the position that crime
can be understood only if it is studied
by scientific methods.
 Garofalo rejected the classical principle
that punishment should fit the crime,
arguing instead that it should fit the
criminal.
 Garofalo rejected the legal definition
of crime and attempted to formulate a

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Criminal Justice Education Department
CLASSICAL vs. POSITIVIST
SPIRITUAL EXPLANATIONS of NATURAL EXPLANATIONS of ACTIVITIES
crime are primarily attached crime were rooted in people’s
into religious beliefs and ideas about the nature of reality
superstitions and there is a in the physical world based on
Learning Task #1
strongadherencewiththedivine observations of nature but were
intervention. Even at present, not scientific. For example, the 1. Define Criminological theory and state the
some religious individuals and natural world was thought to importance of studying it as future
groups still attribute crime to include inherent good and evil.
the influence oy cannot be Seeking explanations for crim
criminologist.
proved. T 2. Differentiate:
a. MACRO vs. MICRO theories of
crime causation
b. NATURE vs. NURTURE as
determinant of behavior
DIVISIONS OF POSITIVISM c. BIOLOGICAL vs. PSYCHOLOGICAL
vs. SOCIOLOGICAL perspectives of
1. Biological – this refers to the set of crime causation
theories that point to physical, d. SUBJECTIVE vs. OBJECTIVE
physiological and other natural factors approach to the explanation of
as the causes for the commission of crimes
crimes of certain individuals. e. SUPERNATURAL vs. NATURAL
explanation of crime
2. Psychological – refers to the theories f. Demonological vs. Devine-will
that attribute criminal behavior of Theory of crime causation
individuals to psychological factors, g. SEVERITY vs. CELERETY vs.
such as emotion and mental problems.
CERTAINTY of punishment
3. Give hypothetical examples of the
3. Sociological - refer to things, places and
following concept:
people with whom we come in
a. Freewill doctrine
contact with and which play a part in
b. Pain and pleasure principle
determining our actions and conduct.
c. Deterrence doctrine
These causes may bring about the
d. Specific deterrence and General
development of criminal behavior.
(largest contributor to positivism)
Deterrence
e. Neoclassical theory
REFERENCES: f. Positivist theory
4. Give at least three
A. Books attributes/contributions/statements about
1. Clifton L. Smith, David J. Brooks (2013) the following founding personalities in
Security Science criminology:
2. Tancangco, D.L. (2018). Theories and a. Cesare Beccaria
Cause of Crime.
b. Cesare Lombroso
3. Timpac, Theodore (2015) Introduction to
Criminology and Psychology of Crime c. Jeremy Bentham
4. Okada, D.C. (2015). Criminological Theory d. Enrico Ferri
and Crime Explanation. e. Raffaelle Garofalo

B. Electronic Media Sources ACADEMIC REQUIREMENT #1b:

1. Important theories in criminology (2019) “MY THEORY OF CRIME”
https://notesmatic.com/2016/12/theories-  Applying the different criteria of a
in-criminology/ good criminological theory, formulate your
2. Akers, R.L., & Sellers, C.S. (2013).
Criminological theories: Introduction, very first theory of crime causation and site
evaluation, and application. New York: a hypothetical example on how your theory
Oxford. works.
3. Winters, R. C. et.al. (2014). An Give a title/name of your theory,
Explain your theory,
Introduction to Crime and Crime
Site hypothetical example
Causation.

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Reginald C. Sibug, MS CRIM .17