Education in India (For EDU 101 and 202)

Netaji Subhas Open Karnataka State Open
University University
1, Woodburn Park Manasagangotri
Kolkata 700 020 Mysore 570 006
B.Ed. CC-01
EDUCATION IN INDIA
B.Ed. - ODL PROGRAMME
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
25/2, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata-700019
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Reprinted : 2013
© All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form without written
permission from Karnataka State Open University, Mysore.
This courseware is printed and published by The Registrar, NSOU, 1, Woodburn Park, Kolkata
for limited use under a special arrangement with KSOU, Mysore to train up in-service Upper-
Primary School teachers in the State of West Bengal under the mandate of RTE Act 2009. The
use of this course content is limited to the project period of two years till March 2015. This
project is monitored by an expert committee comprising the Vice Chancellor and Director of
School of Education, NSOU, Kolkata and the representatives of KSOU, Mysore. For queries
regarding the courseware, please contact Planning and Development Section, KSOU,
Mysore 570 006.
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PREFACE
Netaji Subhas Open University is one of the premier State Open Universities in
India established in the year 1997 by a State Act (W. B. Act XIX) of 1997 and recognized
by the University Grants Commission and Distance Education Council. Consequent
upon the RTE Act 2009, the Govt. of West Bengal in its Higher and School Education
Departments has decided to introduce B.Ed. programme in the Open and Distance
Learning mode (ODL) to train up the in-service untrained teachers teaching at the
upper primary level in the State. Accordingly by its Memo No. 180-Edn. (U)/1U-97 /
12 Dated 5th February, 2013 the Govt of West Bengal identified Netaji Subhas Open
University (NSOU) as the only nodal University Capable of implementing the
programme all over the state of West Bengal. The Govt. of West Bengal also decided to
adopt the Curriculum, Syllabus and Self Instructional Materials (SIM) of a reputed
University who has the updated curriculum, syllabus and standard SIMs. Therefore,
NSOU approached the National Council for Teacher Education authorities for their
approval of the programme and they were kind enough to accord their approval vide
no. 48-18/2012/NCTE/N&S;Dtd. 19. 03. 2013. After rigorous exercise at the national
level the curriculum, syllabus and SIMs of Karnataka State Open University (KSOU)
have been identified and accordingly adopted through the signing of a tripartite MoU
among KSOU, Department of Higher Education, GoWB and NSOU. NSOU further
approached NCTE for their approval for using the KSOU course curriculum and self
learning materials and the authorities of NCTE were kind enough to allow NSOU to
use the study materials of KSOU vide no. 48-18/2012/NCTE/NS Dt.9th July, 2013.The
study materials as received are reprinted at our end. The study materials are reproduced
for exclusive use by the Counsellors and Student Teachers of the pogramme. It is expected
that Counsellors, Student Teachers and all concerned will take benefit from it and
make the most of it.
Teacher Education is an important discipline gaining further momentum as both
Govt. of India and Govt. of West Bengal are laying increasing emphasis on it as only
quality teacher education can ensure quality instruction and consequently produce
learners with a good understanding of the subjects. The quality of teacher education
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not only depends on professionally sound and relevant curriculum, but also on the way
the curriculum is transacted in the institutions. Hence, it is our earnest request to fellow
faculties and dear student teachers to take advantage of this special programme of
ODL and make a success of it. After completing of the course, the student teachers
will go back to their classrooms, and then try to make it vibrant, instil imagination in
children and ignite curiosity in them.
I am thankful to the Hon’ble Minister in Charge, Department of Higher and School
Education, Govt. of West Bengal for his continuous guidance and support. Shri Vivek
Kumar IAS, Secretary Higher Education Department has been a perpetual source of
encouragement and he extended all sorts of cooperation and guidance as and when
required. We are thankful to the authorities of the Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD), Govt. of India for their unstinted support. We must acknowledge
the instant gesture of cooperation and help extended by KSOU authorities to share
course curriculum and study materials with us. The authorities of Paschim Banga
Sarva Siksha Mission (PBSSM) were very generous to provide financial support to
make the project possible. My colleagues at the School of Education have made it
possible to reprint the SIMs within such a short period of time. They have taken care of
proof corrections, prepared the printing lay-outs and other things needed for printing.
The Publication Department has also taken the initiative to print such a quantum of
self learning materials within a very short period of time. The initiative must be
appreciated. I sincerely believe that the Self Instructional Materials as reprinted will
be appreciated by all. Any objective suggestion for its improvement from the users will
be appreciated useful.
Professor Subha Sankar Sarkar

Vice-Chancellor, NSOU
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Netaji Subhas Open Karnataka State Open
University University
1, Woodburn Park Manasagangotri
Kolkata 700 020 Mysore 570 006
B.Ed. –ODL PROGRAMME

(Bachelor of Education Programme through
Open and Distance Learning Mode)
COMPULSORY COURSE 01 (CC-01)

EDUCATION IN INDIA
BLOCK 1 : AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 7-112
BLOCK 2 : EDUCATION IN INDIA-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 113-222
BLOCK 3 : EDUCATION COMMISSIONS AND THEIR IMPACT 223-312
BLOCK 4 : EDUCATION AND VALUES 313-392
BLOCK 5 : INDIAN EDUCATIONAL RESPONSES TO SOCIAL NEEDS 393-534
BLOCK 6 : EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 535-640
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EDUCATION IN INDIA
BLOCK 01
AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
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8
B.Ed. CC-01 : EDUCATION IN INDIA
Block
1
AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
Unit - 1
EDUCATION - MEANING AND CONCEPT 13
Unit - 2
EDUCATION - CONTRIBUTIONS OF VISIONARIES 30
Unit - 3
AIMS OF EDUCATION 51
Unit - 4
INDIAN CONSTITUTION AND EDUCATION 62
Unit - 5
EDUCATION - PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS 75
Unit - 6
EDUCATION - SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS 92
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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Prof. M. G. Krishnan Chairman
Vice Chancellor
Karnataka State Open University
Mysore 570 006
Karnataka
Prof. Vikram Raj Urs Convener

Dean - Academic
Mysore 570 006
Dr. N. Lakshmi Course Coordinator

Chairperson - DOSR in Education
Mysore 570 006
Prof. B. N. Manjunathaiah Course Editor

Professor – DOSR in Education
Mysore 570 006
E. Rudramuni Course Writer

Principal
Sree Venkateshwara College of Education
Chitradurga 577 501
Dr. Thejasvi Naviloor Coordinator

Planning and Development Officer ICT Course Content
Karnataka State Open University Development and Delivery
Mysore 570 006
for limited use with special arrangement with KSOU, Mysore to train up in-service Upper-
Primary School Teachers in the State of West Bengal under the mandate of RTE Act 2009. The
regarding the courseware may please contact Planning and Development Section, KSOU,
Mysore 570 006.
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BLOCK 01 : AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Education is a powerful force in bringing rapid changes in the society. Many people
have stressed the fundamental role of education and its unique significance for national
development. Education plays an important role in the training of the teacher. Therefore,
it is essential to know more about education. The first Block of this course focuses on
the concepts of Education - meaning, its aims, aspects and of its philosophical and
sociological foundations, contributions of visionaries. This block comprises six units.
Unit 1 of this block focuses on meaning of education, its narrow and broad concepts,
liberal and utilitarian education and Education as a process –i.e., Teaching, Training,
Instruction, Indoctrination and Initiation. It stresses on Education as a product-
Knowledge, Skill, Attitude and Values and Interest. It also deals Education as
Development, Self-actualization / Self-realization. Unit 2 deals with educational
contributions of Indian and Western visionaries like Gandhi, Tagore, Vivekananda,
Aurobindo, Dewey, Rousseau, Froebel and Montessori. Unit 3 emphasizes the General
and Specific aims, Individual and Social aims of education. It also focuses on aims of
education as envisaged in the Secondary Education Commission, Indian Education
Commission and National Policy on Education (NPE).
Unit 4 deals with the Indian Constitution - its meaning and types, features of the
Constitution of India, Directive principles, Fundamental Rights and Duties and
Constitutional Provisions on Education. Unit 5 will deal about meaning of philosophy,
relationship between philosophy and education. It also deals with Impact of philosophy
on education with respect to aims, curriculum, methods and role of the teacher according
to Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism and Eclecticism as the foundations of education.
Unit 6 deals with Nature and Scope of Sociology of Education and influence of education
on Society, Culture, Social change, Modernization and Economic Development and
also explains different agencies of education.
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UNIT - 1 ❐ EDUCATION - MEANING AND
CONCEPT
Structure
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Education - Etymological Meaning
1.4. Education - Broad and Narrow Concepts
1.5. Concepts of Liberal and Utilitarian Education
1.6. Education as a Process
1.6.1. Teaching
1.6.2. Training
1.6.3. Instruction
1.6.4. Indoctrination
1.6.5. Initiation
1.7. Education as a Product
1.7.1. Knowledge
1.7.2. Skill
1.7.3. Attitude and Values
1.7.4. Interest
1.8. Education as Development
1.9. Education as Self Actualization / Self Realization
1.10. Let Us Sum Up
1.11. Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.12. Unit-End Exercises
1.13. References
1.1 Introduction
Man is a rational being. His ability to speak language and thinking is quite different
from all other animals and of high level. Naturally man likes to be active. He has the
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aspiration to achieve progress. His achievement is all round. Education is mainly
responsible for man’s intelligence, workmanship, all round development and progress.
Similarly, education is the main source for man’s progressive aspects and positive
development. Therefore, it is essential to know the concept of education.
Human beings have two aspects. One is biological and the other is sociological.
The biological aspect is maintained and transmitted by nutrition and reproduction, the
sociological aspect is maintained and transmitted by education.
In this unit, you will understand the meaning of education, after analyzing various
definitions of education. You will also learn how education is differentiated from
teaching, training, instruction, indoctrination and initiation. You will learn about
education as a product. At the end of the unit you will study the conceptualization of
education as development and as self-actualization / self-realization.
1.2 Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
● state the etymological meaning of education.
● explain the meaning of education as given by the Indians and Westerners.
● distinguish between broader and narrower meanings of education.
● distinguish between liberal and utilitarian education.
● explain education as a process.
● differentiate education from teaching, training, instruction, indoctrination and

initiation.
● explain education as a product in developing knowledge, skill, attitude, values
and interest.
● explain education as development.
● explain education as self-actualization / self realization.
1.3 Education - Etymological Meaning

Etymologically the word ‘Education’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Educare’
means ‘to nourish’, ‘to bring up’, ‘to raise’, ‘to pour’, ‘to rear’. ‘Educare’ means ‘to
lead out’, ‘to draw out’. Greek word ‘Educatum’ means ‘to train’ or act of teaching or
training.
Morphologically the word ‘education’ is derived from two words ‘e’ and ‘duco’.
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‘e’ means from inside and ‘duco’ means to develop. The two words combined together
give the meaning - to make something grow or develop from within. The word ‘vidya’
is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘vid’ which means to know something. Hence ‘vidya’
means knowledge. Another word ‘shiksha’ is also derived from the Sanskrit root ‘shors’
which means discipline. Shiksha or education is termed as mental discipline attained.
The word ‘Taleem’ is derived from Arabic root ‘Jim’ which means knowledge. It also
means it is the process of providing and acquiring knowledge.
The word education is defined in many different ways. The concept of education
as a whole cannot be given by any one particular definition. The concept and breadth
of education is very diverse. Educationists, philosophers, scientists, political thinkers,
idealists have expressed their own views regarding education based on their experience,
understanding and situations.
Some of the definitions of ‘education’ are as follows:
Rig Veda - Education is something “which makes a man self reliant and selfless”.
Upanishad - “Education is that whose end product is salvation”.
Panini - “Education means the training which one gets from nature”.
Shankaracharya -”Self realization is education”.
Gandhiji - “Education means an all round drawing out of the best in a child and man
- by body, mind and spirit”.
Swami Vivekananda - “Education is the manifestation of divinity already existed in
elan”.
Tagore - “Education is that which makes one’s life in harmony with all existences”.
Sri Aurobindo - “Education is the development of happiness and character in a child”.
Plato - “Education is the best way of training children according to their good qualities
and instincts. Education is the power of sharing happiness and sorrows equally”.
Adam - “Education means the development of desired changes in a person”.
Aristotle - “Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound body”.
Froebel - “Education is leading out of hidden power in man”.
Pestalozzi - “Education is the natural, harmonious and progressive development of
man’s innate powers”.
T. P. Nunn - “Education is the complete development of the individuality of the child,
so that he can make an original contribution to the best of his capacity”.
UNESCO - “Education includes all the process that develops human ability and
behaviour”.
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‘Check Your Progress’ – 1
1. Define the etymological meaning of the term education.
2. What is the meaning of education according to Gandhiji?
1.4 Education - Broad and Narrow Concepts

Broadly speaking, education means not the communication of information by the
teacher or mere acquisition of knowledge or intelligence or experiences by a person
but it has to develop the practice (study), behaviour and skills in that person and provide
the opportunity to lead a complete life. It means that the education should make the
effort to bring out the natural hidden powers and capacities of the child.
Education is a process of development from birth to death. It includes each and
every experience of life. Experience based on culture is also education. Thus all
experiences are educative in nature. Talent is something which preexists in a child.
Education has to discover and provide suitable experiences to it and that talent has to
be bloomed. From this, child’s behavior, knowledge, language, character etc. are refined
and education is responsible for an all-round development of the child. Education is a
lifelong process. A child when educated is influenced by different media directly or
indirectly that shapes the personality.
The following definitions, stresses the broader meaning of education.
S. S. Mackenzi - In the wider sense, “it is a process that goes on throughout life,
and is promoted by almost every experience in life”.
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Durnvile - “Education in its widest sense includes all the influences which act
upon an individual during his passage from cradle to the grave”.
In a narrow sense, school instruction is called education. In this process the society
strives to achieve predetermined aims, during specific time, by providing pre-structured
textual knowledge to children. This happens with the help of certain methods of teaching.
The main purpose of education here is to bring in changes and assist mental development
of child who comes to the school. In this process, the teacher plays a dominant role
where as child is a passive listener and is forced to learn certain knowledge mechanically.
Such knowledge cannot help to bring complete development of the personality as
intended. Neither will it help the natural development of the child’s innate powers and
talents. Hence, it is of no use to him for his future life.
The following definitions make the narrow meaning of education more clear.
S. S. Meckanzi - “In narrow sense, education may be taken to mean any consciously
directed effort to develop and cultivate our powers”.
Prof. Drever - “Education is the process in which and by which knowledge,
character and behavior of the young are shaped and moulded”.
Therefore, education means both the acquisition of knowledge and experience as
well as development of skills, habits and attitudes, which help a person to lead a full
and worthwhile life in this world and to develop the wholesome personality.
‘Check Your Progress’ - 2

1. Define the narrower meaning of education.
2. Define the broader meaning of education.
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1.5 Concepts of Liberal and Utilitarian Education
Liberal Education:
General education is called liberal education. The aim of liberal education is
imparting general education for all the children up to certain age. It can sharpen the
intellect of the child to lead a general life successfully. Majority of students will apt for
liberal education. Later, they can make use of the opportunities which are available to
them in their life. At higher education level students can apt for specific courses according
to their interests.
Liberal education advocates a curriculum, which includes a wide range of subjects.
It implies a training that prepares individuals for future occupation rather than a specific
one. Modern conception of the term ‘liberal’ as applied to education is, however, wide
and comprehensive. It means that it liberalizes our minds. It implies education for
freedom to use intellectual and emotional powers, freedom from ignorance, prejudices
and wrong beliefs and freedom to think independently. According to Huxley, ‘a man
who has had a liberal education possesses the powers of self-control, adaptation, thinking
and reasoning, understands natural laws, and loves all beauty, natural and artistic’.
Utilitarian Education:
Utilitarian education has specific nature, which is imparted to children, having
special interests and aptitudes. The aim of education is to prepare a child for a specific
profession or vocation, which is useful to lead his life comfortably. Medicine,
engineering, agriculture, industrial training etc. are examples of utilitarian education.
The students’ needs and professional aspirations are expected to be satisfied in this
education, so that they can become experts in their field.
Utilitarian education will make the educative effort purposeful and will make use
of the learner’s aptitudes. It will also train the individuals for social efficiency and
social service. This education leads to full development and maturity. It will contribute
to national wealth and material progress of a country. Right type of vocational education
solves the problem of unemployment to a great extent.
Secondary education commission of 1952-53 recommends that, there should be
greater stress on crafts and productive work in all schools. Several psychologists have
realized the importance of vocational education and suggested vocational guidance in
schools to guide the students in that direction. Liberal and Utilitarian education are not
opposite to each other, they are not essentially different. We have to know both of these
from a broad point of view. They are the earlier and later phases of a continuous process.
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Each subject in the utilitarian education has its origin in the liberal education. Both are
needed for the complete development of personality.

Fill in the blanks:
1. The aim of liberal education is imparting.
2. The aim of utilitarian education is to prepare a child for a.
1.6 Education as a Process

Process is a deliberate and purposeful activity, which is carried to attain the desired
outcome or objective. Activities related to education are educative process. It is a way
of learning to the learner and instruction or guidance to the teacher. It is an activity
carried out to develop the child physically, intellectually, morally and socially.
John Adam called education process as bi-polar. In this process two poles are
involved. One is the educator and the other is the educand, learner with a learned, and
the teacher with a taught. The resultant of this process between these two is education.
Here one will teach and another will learn, one will talk and another will listen. The
activities are inter-related and dependent. J.S. Ross is of the opinion that, “like a magnet,
education must have two poles, it is a bi-polar process’’.
On the other hand, John Dewey advocates that education is not a bi-polar process.
Besides the teacher and the taught, there is another element, which is significant, i.e.
curriculum. The society will provide the curriculum for the children’s growth and
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development. The teacher, the taught and the curriculum are equally important. Hence,
education is a Tri-polar process.
The modern concept of education emphasizes self-learning and lifelong education.
Neither school nor the teacher gives the education; there are many informal as well as
non-formal agencies, and multiple media working along with the teacher, the taught
and the curriculum. Hence, modern education process cannot be a bi-polar or tri-polar
but a multi-polar process.
Student Educand
Bi-polar
Tripolar
Teacher Curriculum
Teacher
But these processes are not synonymous and do not mean the same. As student of
education, you should not be worried or confused from such terms. Let us try to learn
as to how education as a process is different from some of such apparently synonymous
terms.
1.6.1 Teaching
Teaching is one of the important processes of education. It seeks to develop all the
diverse abilities and understandings. It is the task of a teacher, which is carried out for
the development of a child. Teaching is not a simple process but a complex process. It
may take different forms. It includes training, instruction and development of
understandings as well as cognitive process and abilities, with critical thinking. Teaching
is a deliberate, systematic, purposeful activity carried on with specific intention to
bring real learning.
Teaching is an intimate contact between the teachers and taught, designed to educate
the latter. According to Gage, teaching is an individual influence of teacher over student.
Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement of learning. The
main aim of teaching is to help the child to respond to his environment in an effective
way. Teaching leads to learning. It can be considered as educative process when there
is a desirable learning.
We use many terms in our discussion relative to education which have some
connotations of education as a process. Such terms are teaching, training, instruction,
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indoctrination, initiation and so on. Sometime terms like training, indoctrination and
initiation are used as though they are synonymous with education.
1.6.2 Training
Training refers to the development of specific skills and modes of thought. Skills
like reading, writing and computation are basic and must be mastered before formal
education. For understanding facts, concepts and for the development of skills, training
is very essential. Training helps the mastery of skills. A skill is not something that can
be learnt in a flash of insight. Nor can it be learnt by reading books or by interaction
alone. It can serve as helpful guide for practice. Constant practice is essential for skill
learning, especially under the guidance of a skilled performer. Repetition strengthens
the memory. “Practice makes a man perfect”. For skill learning, constant practice with
proper guidance by a skilled person is necessary. Higher the practice of skills higher
the mastery. Repetition is the characteristic of training.
Ryle is of the opinion that training develops intellectual abilities, and practice
(drill) helps to learn skill. Practice, will not care much about intelligence but intelligence
is essential for training. Experience and efficiency is another face of training. For effective
process, training is a pre-requisite.
1.6.3 Instruction
Acquisition of knowledge, i.e. factual information is another important process of
education. Instruction is an educative process, which helps in the acquisition of such
knowledge. Instruction involves communication, especially the meaningful usage of
language, by the teacher to transfer relevant experiences to the learner. Instruction
need not mean forcing down certain things on unwilling children. Good instruction
would harness the child’s stage of conceptual development, and it helps to satisfy curiosity
and a natural desire to master certain things. Instruction makes use of the child’s firsthand
experience. Training may be a pre-requisite for instructing. Instruction is a good example
for teaching. It requires thinking, reasoning and generalization. It is a higher level of
teaching. Mere experience will not help the child to discover. To do so, right sort of
questions are to be asked at proper time and his experiences are to be guided in certain
directions. Practice is required for the child to learn to use the necessary concepts.
Further, instances are easily recognized. It is the task of the instructor to help the children
to achieve such knowledge.
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1.6.4 Indoctrination
Indoctrination is a process to teach the doctrine or principle and make the students
accept it, whether right or wrong, good or bad. It does not allow reasoning or critical
thinking. Doctrines are unscientifically related and not open to investigation. No reasons
are given but to accept them without questioning. When such doctrine is transmitted to
another, it is called “indoctrination”. Intentionally imparting something without allowing
the receiver to think or act is indoctrination. It is also called brain washing or conditioning
where, the learner is not aware of the process.
There are two types of indoctrination. One is authoritative and another is democratic
indoctrination. Authoritative indoctrination is one with compulsion and without
considering the desires and feelings of students. There is no place for open discussion
and exchange of thoughts. This was the method, which the clergymen, politicians and
the reformers followed. Another one is democratic indoctrination, which is a new
approach, which enables the students to educate themselves with interest, zeal,
contemplation with experiments and comparison on a voluntary basis. This will stimulate
the students and makes them to involve in the educative process.
1.6.5 Initiation
According to Ross, education is a process of initiating the individual in to a general
culture of society. According to Indian traditions, education is initiation into life of
spirit, training of the human soul in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtues. It is
considered as the second birth. The concept of initiation was given by R.S. Peter. He
describes education as a process of initiation and concentrated on the development of
mind in the process of education.
Knowledge is of prime concern to both the teacher and the student. To introduce
the pupil to particular faculty or domain of knowledge, to make him to know the
advantages and disadvantages of knowledge and to stimulate, to encourage and to guide
him is called “Initiation”. The concept of initiation can also be seen in Vedas and
Upanishads. To a student to enter into the area of knowledge initiation was essential.
Initiation is helpful to realize self-actualization and self-realization.
The teacher introduces the students to the knowledge according to their interests,
attitudes and abilities. The teacher initiates, the development of skills stimulates the
students to participate in educative process and develops their mind. Food and nutrition
is essential for the development of the body. Likewise education is more important for
the development of the mind and for the development of this mind initiation is important
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and a pre-requisite. The role of the teacher in initiating and inculcating useful knowledge
is very significant in the development of child’s mind.

Fill in the blanks.
1. John Adam called education process as a...................................................…...
2. John Dewey called education process as a ........................................................
3. Modern education process is called as a ...........................................................
Write True or False.
1. Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement of learning.
2. For skill learning constant practice is not necessary.
3. Instruction need not mean forcing down certain things on unwilling children.
4. Unintentionally importing doctrine without allowing the child to think or act
is indoctrination.
1.7 Education as a Product

So far you have learnt about the concept of education as a process. Education is
also viewed as a product. Education as a product is the end result of an activity. As a
product, education is the sum total of what is received through learning the knowledge,
skills, interests, attitudes and values that are the outcomes of learning, as a process. So
the process of education will produce the students of these qualities, hence education
is also termed as a product.
1.7.1 Knowledge
Knowledge leads to wisdom. Therefore education should lead to the acquisition
of knowledge. ‘Knowledge is virtue and knowledge is power’. Education brings this
virtue and power. Since the ancient time people had given importance to knowledge.
They have considered that man without knowledge is like an animal. Hence education
should help the individual to acquire knowledge and it is instrumental for the progress
of a society. Charles Dickens says, ‘children must be stuffed with as much knowledge
as possible, because character and sound education are associated with it’. Therefore,
the educative process ultimately leads to knowledge. Hence, knowledge is considered
as a product of education.
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1.7.2 Skill
Education also develops the various basic skills like reading, writing and
computation, which in turn helps to acquire the knowledge. Skills are very important
outcomes of education. Education helps to train the students in experimental skill,
drawing skill, constructional skill and observational skill. It also helps the student to
solve the problems by developing problem solving skill. This in turn develops the
confidence among students to face the problems in their life also.
1.7.3 Attitude and Values

Education becomes a product only when it is used as assimilation of the culture of
the society and its transmission from one generation to another. As such it perpetuates
and gives continuity to the society. Since culture is dynamic in nature, education fosters
the values, which are universally accepted as valuable at a particular point of time. For
example, in the present day world, scientific attitude, spirit of inquiry and habit of co-
operation are accepted as desirable values. Therefore, education should inculcate these
values in the minds of the students. Education directs the undeveloped capacities,
attitudes, interests and urges of the children in to healthy channels. Education will help
to cultivate moral, spiritual, social, mental, spiritual and humane values among the
students and this in turn develops the wholesome personality.
1.7.4 Interest
It is another important outcome of education. Needs and Interest of the students
are considered in various aspects of education. As a product, education develops interest
towards reading, writing and cultivating good hobbies and creates interest to participate
in various activities whole heartedly.

1. Briefly explain education as a product.
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1.8 Education as Development
Education is responsible for physical, mental and emotional development of a
person. The main function of the education is to give such training. For this, school
environment should also be helpful. According to T. P. Nunn, education is an effort to
secure for everyone the conditions under which individuality is most completely
developed. John Dewey, is of the opinion that, the development of all those capacities
(physical, mental, moral and social) in the individual will enable him to control his
environment and fulfill his possibilities. Socrates has said that the “knowledge is power”
and this knowledge can be developed by only education. P.C. Banerji has said, “education
is the development of the power of adaptation to an ever changing social environment”.
Plato also said that education “develops in the body and in the soul (of the pupil) all the
beauty and all the perfection, which he is capable of. Gandhiji also said that education
has to bring all round development of the child. Through education individual develops
the innate powers and capacities. It also brings knowledge and experience and in turn
develops the man.

1. Define education as a development according to John Dewey.
1.9 Education as Self Actualisation / Self Realisation

Self-actualization is the realization of one’s own potentialities. Individual should
be helped to know his powers and abilities and he should be free to develop them.
Then only his individuality becomes complete and unique. It is the knowledge
experiences gained at different stages through mental ability. Self-actualization is
attaining complete satisfaction for having achieved the desire and needs according to
one’s own abilities, interests and attitudes and then realizing the functions of the world
and to co-operate in the welfare and progress of mankind. Self-actualization is possible
only when the development of the child or the individual is in a balanced, harmonious
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and integrated way. For this, the teacher should create a congenial situation and try to
bring out the talents of the students and make them realize their competencies. Such
persons can develop the virtues and understand the world and contribute to the progress
of the society.
Psychologically, self-actualization means to fulfill one’s individual nature in all
its aspects. When all the basic needs are satisfied, self-actualization is possible. In
Abraham Maslow’s “Human hierarchy of needs” the highest stage is the stage of self-
actualization. According to Maslow, when the basic needs are satisfied at least minimally,
he will be motivated towards self-actualization. A self-actualized individual will be
dynamic and optimistic. He will be void of anger, distress, malice, selfishness and
aggressiveness. He behaves with love, tolerance and spirit of co-operation.
Maslow’s Needs
Self-realization is the ultimate goal of life i.e. attainment of Moksha for Indians.
Self-actualization means, to enable the children to realize themselves. Education has
to provide the means by which the child may be enabled to realize his innate power and
abilities. Then children will know their power and abilities and get satisfaction. For
self-realization it is very essential that the child must have the knowledge about himself
and about society. An individual should be allowed freedom to express his thought and
action. Then only self-realization becomes meaningful.
Ancient Indian education was also aimed at self-realization. Rig Veda mentioned
the “education makes a man self reliant and self-less”. According to Shankaracharya,
“education is the realization of the self”. The power and abilities can be used best when
they are realized rightly.
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Fill in the blanks:
1. Self actualization is the realization of one’s own...................................................
2. Education makes a man …...................…..and ………..............................……..
1.10 Let Us Sum Up

● Etymologically the meaning of the word educare means to nourish or to bring
up or to lead out.
● Broadly speaking education is a process of development from birth to death. It
is a lifelong process.
● In narrow sense, school instruction is called education.
● Education is a bipolar process, tri polar process and multi polar process.
● Teaching is a deliberate, systematic, purposeful activity carried on with specific
intention to bring real learning.
● Training refers to the development of specific skills.
● Instruction requires thinking, reasoning and generalization.
● Intentionally imparting something without allowing the receiver to think or act
is indoctrination.
● To introduce the domain of knowledge and to stimulate, to encourage and to
guide him is called initiation.
● Education is also a product. Knowledge, skills, interest, attitudes and values
are the outcomes of learning, which are the products of education.
● Education will be responsible for physical, mental and emotional development
and brings all-round development in man.
● Self-actualization is the realization of one’s own potentialities. Education will
provide the means to realize the child’s innate power and abilities.
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1.11 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’

1. Etymologically the word education has been derived from Latin Word ‘Educare’
means ‘to nourish’, ‘to bring up’, ‘to lead out’ or ‘to draw out’.
2. “Education means an all round drawing out of the best in a child and man - by
body, mind, and spirit.

1. In narrow sense, education may be taken to mean any consciously directed
effort to develop and cultivate our powers.
2. In the wider sense, it is a process that goes on throughout life, and is promoted
by almost every experience in life.

1. General education is for all the children up to certain age.
2. Specific profession or vocation.

1. Bi-polar.
2. Tri-polar.
3. Multi polar.
2. 1. True.
2. False.
3. True.
4. False.

1. As a product education is the sum total of what is received through learning the
knowledge, skills, interests, attitudes and values that are the outcomes of learning
as a process. So the education will produce the students of these qualities. Hence
education is also a product.
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1. According to John Dewey, education is the development of all those capacities
(physical, moral, mental and social) in the individual which will enable him to
control his environment and fulfill his possibilities.

1. Self.
2. Self reliant and selfless.
1.12 Unit-End Exercises

1. Explain the broader and narrower meaning of education.
2. Differentiate between
A. Teaching and Indoctrination
B. Training and Instruction
3. What is the importance of initiation in education?
4. Explain education as a product with suitable examples.
5. Explain education as -
A. Self actualization
B. Self realization
1.13 References
1. NCERT - The Teacher and Education in Emerging Society, New Delhi.
2. Taneja. V. R - Educational Thoughts and Practices.
3. N. R. Swaroop Saxena - Foundations of Educational Thoughts and Practices.
4. Bhatia and Bhatia - Theory and Principles of Education.
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UNIT-2 ❐ EDUCATION-CONTRIBUTIONS OF
VISIONARIES
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Indian Visionaries
2.3.1 Gandhiji (Basic Education)
2.3.2 Tagore (Artistic Self Expression)
2.3.3 Vivekananda (Man-Making Education)
2.3.4 Aurobindo (Integral Education)
2.4 Western Visionaries
2.4.1 John Dewey (Progressive Education)
2.4.2 Rousseau (Child Centered Education)
2.4.3 Froebel (Early Childhood Education)
2.4.4 Montessori (Early Childhood Education)
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 References
2.1 Introduction
Education goes on changing from time to time. We notice greater diversity in the
system of education as the years pass. Learned teachers and thinkers have been
contributing new views on education with improved and changed techniques. They
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have been throwing new light on the theory and practice of education and showing
various possibilities in this field which is a very important field of human welfare.
Many eminent personalities have worked in this field and have explored fresh
approaches in the field of teaching and learning. Based on their knowledge, experience
and experimentation they have given guiding and inspiring ideas for the benefit of
teacher. In this Unit, you will study the views of Indian and Foreign Visionaries like
Gandhi, Tagore, Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Dewey, Rousseau, Froebel and Montessori
on Education.
2.2 Objectives
After going through this Unit you will be able to:
● explain the views of the Indian educational Philosophers like Gandhiji, Tagore,
Vivekananda and Aurobindo.
● evaluate the educational contributions of Gandhiji, Tagore, Vivekananda, and
Aurobindo.
● comprehend the views of the Western educational philosophers of John Dewey,
Rousseau, Froebel and Montessori.
● assess the educational contributions of Dewey, Rousseau, Froebel and
Montessori.
● bring out the significance of the educational ideas of these visionaries of education
for the present educational system.
2.3 Indian Visionaries

2.3.1 Mahatma Gandhi (Basic Education)
Mahatma Gandhi was a great leader, a practical philosopher and a political reformer
of modern India. He was an apostle of peace, truth and non-violence. To him ‘truth is
God’ and ‘God is truth’. He regarded his own life as ‘an experiment with truth’. Gandhiji
is more known as the emancipator and prophet in the arena of politics, social service
and spiritual dynamics. He is one of the greatest teachers of the mankind. “Basic
Education” system was the important contribution of Mahatma Gandhi.
He believed in: almighty God, God as truth, ethics, morality, fearlessness and
conscious. God is the source of light and life. He had a strong faith towards truth,
ahimsa and love. According to Gandhiji, realization of truth is the ultimate goal of
human life. He advocated truth in all our personal and social dealings.
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He regarded ahimsa (non-violence) as the only means to the realization of truth
and God. Ahimsa is a positive concept and it is external as well as internal. He advocated
that the only true religion of man was the religion of love. It is through love, we can
attain truth. His love attained the form of universal love. Gandhiji believed in the human
brotherhood and in the establishment of ‘a universal community of free persons without
artificial barrier of caste, creed, color, wealth and power’. This community will be a
“spiritual society” based on love, truth, justice, sathyagraha and non-violence.
Gandhiji’s greatest creed was service of God through service of humanity (social
service). He sacrificed his life for establishing an ideal state ‘Rama Rajya’ a classless
society. He believed in simple living and high thinking. In his philosophy of education,
he considered, education is a potent force for social reconstruction. It is an activity,
which is necessary not only for social progress but also for moral, political and economic
development. Along with principle of Basic education his philosophy of life was also
included in education. His educational thought is relevant to life, the needs and aspirations
of the emerging Indian society. His principle was to develop the individual through
social contact and social service.
His ‘education’ is characterized as naturalistic in its setting, idealistic in aims and
pragmatic in its methods and programs. According to Gandhi, ‘By education, I mean
all round drawing out of the best in child and man - body, mind and spirit”. His conception
of education stands for harmonious development of all the aspects of human personality
- intellectual, physical, spiritual and so on.
All round development of man was the important aim of education to Gandhi. He
wanted to train the Hand, Heart and Head of the child. Vocational training and efficiency
is also one of the aims of education, which means, education must enable every individual
to earn his living independently. Therefore, he emphasized the vocational education.
He has given importance for character formation. He emphasized culture - its preservation
and enhancement. Gandhiji laid a great stress on the cultivation of moral, spiritual,
social, ethical and aesthetic values.
Gandhiji’s highest contribution in the field of education is the Basic education. Its
salient features are as follows-
1 It satisfies the basic needs of the children and the society.
2 It is useful, productive and suited to the villagers.
3 Education is through Mother Tongue.
4 Learning and earning, self-supporting and education proceeds in nature.
5 It promotes cultural heritage, provides citizenship training and also solves
employment problem to some extent.
6 Free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of fourteen.
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7 Satisfies democratic, secular and social principles
8 Body and mind are encouraged for the mastery of a useful basic craft.
Curriculum constitutes practical activity like spinning, weaving, agriculture and a
craft centered activity. No importance is given to text book. Gandhian approach
emphasized on health, cleanliness, play and citizenship, languages, mathematics. Social
studies, drawing, general science, home science, music, nature study, astronomy were
other subjects. Importance is given for good handwriting.
Gandhiji emphasized to make productive craft and vocation as means of education.
Learning by doing and learning by experience were encouraged. Correlation was
established in the teaching methods. Co-curricular activities were also associated with
craft centered methods.
2.3.2. Tagore (Artistic Self Expression)

Rabindranath Tagore a poet, modern saint and educationist, was born in 1861 in
Calcutta. He received education mostly at home as he refused to follow ‘the beaten
track of learning’. He developed a taste towards literature and understanding of human
nature. Tagore’s interest in education made him to start a school in 1901 at Bolpur. It
was called ‘Shanti Niketan’ which, later on developed into a famous university known
as “Viswa Bharati University” which stands for international knowledge and
understanding.
Tagore was Indian in spirit. He was greatly inspired by Indian philosophy, epics,
Vedas and Upanishads. He was a true Vedantist. He developed a faith in humanity,
brotherhood of man and fatherhood of God. Tagore was an individualist and naturalist
besides being a realist too. He said that ‘our education should be in full touch with our
complete life’. He combined eastern ideals with western service. He said that ‘the best
function-of education is to enable us to realize that to live as man is great, requiring
profound philosophy for its ideal, pooling for its expression and heroism in its conduct’.
Love and action are the only medicines through which perfect knowledge could be
achieved.
Tagore’s educational philosophy is firmly based on his philosophy of life and on
naturalism, humanism, idealism and internationalism. The three cardinal principles of
his educational philosophy are -1. Freedom 2. Creative self-expression 3. Active
communion with nature and man.
Tagore wanted education to develop freedom and creative self- expression. He
aspired to inculcate education in free atmosphere. The child’s mind should be brought
in contact with nature. For him, nature was the greatest educator. Tagore conceived
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education as dynamic, living and closely associated with life. He wanted man to be in
harmony with his surroundings. The aim of education was to bring in the concept of
joy, freedom, play, creative self-expression, activity principle, integration and co-
ordination of all knowledge. To develop a sense of unity in the world and promote a
well balanced harmonious and integrated personality of the child. He also aimed at an
integrated culture of the east and the west along with the values of the past with the
new values.
Tagore aimed at harmony with the universe necessary for self-realization. He
advocates both individual and social aim of education. In total, Tagore’s aim of education
consisted of 1. physical development 2. individual development 3. moral and spiritual
development 4. harmonious development and international understanding. Shanti
Niketan gave importance to art, among the other subjects, learnt in the open air are
music and picture making, dancing and dramatic art. The pupil is taught to master
some form of handiwork or other. He is recommended frequent excursions and tours to
gain firsthand knowledge. There are three sources of knowledge - Nature, Life and
Teacher. The teacher enkindles independent thinking, imagination and judgement.
Tagore emphasized on the self-expression of the child through various forms of
art, music, drama and handicraft. The artistic self-expression being the aim of education
was very much pleasing to Tagore. In his curriculum, he recommended language,
literature, history, geography, nature study, science, music and art. He emphasized the
mother tongue as the medium of instruction. He was for activities like dancing, dramatics,
drawing, music, arts and community service. He believed in activity and creative methods
of teaching. According to Tagore, Teaching while walking was the best method of
teaching, which is helpful for direct observation. Tagore believed in complete learning.
Therefore, he considered that direct experience, activity method, research method,
discussion method and self expression were the good techniques of teaching.
2.3.3. Vivekananda (Man-Making Education)

Swamy Vivekananda was a practical saint of modern India. He wanted to revise
the ancient wisdom of India. He preached and practiced the principles of truth, honesty,
sacrifice, brotherhood of man and realization of God. He had great faith in man. He
was a world teacher and great educationist.
Vivekananda was born in Calcutta (1863). His early name was Narendranath Dutta.
He came under the influence of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. There he was transformed
and realized his self as a part of higher self (Atma). He was enlightened and got ‘viveka’
i.e. knowledge, which was unique in all respects. His Principal remarked ‘Narendra is
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really a genius. He is bound to make his mark in his life’. He was the forerunner of
Gandhi and many faiths in the welfare of mankind. He stood for universal brotherhood.
He realized the dignity and diversity of human beings.
Vivekananda was a true Vedantist and a follower of Ramakrishna. The ultimate
goal of human life is to attain wonderful unity with the creator. He described God as
supreme power, infinite existence, infinite knowledge and infinite bliss. Man is
incarnation of God. He emphasized the eternal communion of man with God. He held
that religions differ in understanding god and worked for the good of mankind. For
hire, goal of life is freedom. Freedom is attained by work, worship, contemplation and
knowledge.
According to Vivekananda, ‘education is the manifestation of divinity which already
exists in man’. Knowledge resides within the individual. He discovers it. ‘Perfection is
already inherent in man and education is the manifestation of the same’. He was a
revolutionary in the field of education. Education is the concentration of mind and the
collection of facts. He had great concern for masses of mankind. He asked, ‘education
that does not help the common mass of people to equip themselves for real life, which
does not bring the strength of character, a spirit of philanthropy and the courage of lion;
is it worth the name?’. Education is that, which enables one to stand on his own legs.
Education should form the character, strengthen the mind and expand the intellect.
He summed up the aim of education in one sentence. ‘The end of all education,
and all training should be élan-making.’
1. Education must create faith in one’s own self. This step leads to education and
perfection. He must know his latent powers. This leads to completion and divine
life.
2. Education should create self-confidence and self-reliance. Shradha leads to
self-knowledge and material prosperity. It makes him to attain perfection and
achieve glory of life.
3. Education should develop moral character- we must have life building, man
making, character making and assimilation of ideas. ‘The beauty and glory of
life lies in character making.’
4. Education is worthless if it ignores the practical side of life, everyone should
get his primary needs satisfied, stand on his own legs. He favored western
knowledge and engineering.
5. Education has to promote universal brotherhood. Atman is same in all forms of
life; the difference is in its manifestation. Education should call forth this power
in every man. He stood for internationalism and unity of mankind.
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6. Book learning is not education. It should aim at the infinite development of
energy, zeal, courage and patience.
7. Education should generate the spirit of renunciation. We should work for others
and be able to do something for the world.
8. Man is higher than all animals and none is greater than man.
Vivekananda had clear cut ideas about education.
1. The child does his own growing (self-education). Growth is a natural process.
The child teaches himself. Opportunity should be provided and obstacles
removed, nothing should be forced on the children.
2. Teaching should be adjusted to the needs of the children. Teachers should come
down to the level of the students.
3. Concentration is the essence of education. It is the only valid method to attain
knowledge and education. ‘The treasure home of knowledge can be opened
only through the key of concentration.’ He recommends Brahmacharya and
Shradda to be the best techniques and tools of concentration.
4. Learning can be mastered within a short time.
5. He was a champion of universal education i.e. education for all. Education
should reach all persons in villages.
6. Vivekananda advocated national system of education. It must be based on our
national needs, problems and aspirations. He insisted on mass education also.
His curriculum includes history, grammar, language, literature, philosophy,
theology, vedanta, geography, psychology, economics, social science, science
and western knowledge and technology.
2.3.4. Aurobindo (Integral Education)

Sri Aurobindo was a saint and spiritualist. He practiced ‘yoga’ and ‘sadhana’.
The main aim of his sadhana was complete yoga and complete education. It was aimed
at the achievement of ‘world welfare’ through the study and deep thinking of ancient
Indian philosophy of life and spiritualism. It awakens in man the sadhana and yoga,
truth, enlightenment, power and consciousness to develop the instinct of devotion to
God and deep thinking. By this, man can conquer ‘self’ and the soul rises to extreme
heights and becomes one with God. The second objective of complete education is
aimed at studying spiritualism and philosophy of life. He had more faith in spiritualism
and believed that the development of man’s inherent powers was the main aim of
education.
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Educational philosophy
According to Aurobindo, both matter and spirit are necessary for the well being of
mankind and education should help in bringing a balanced development of both. The
Mother, true representative of Aurobindo has therefore said that education through
Science and Technology would enable ‘the material basis stronger, complete and more
effective for the manifestation of the spirit’.
Aurobindo held that much professional integral education must emphasize the
psychic and cognitive aspects in addition to the physical as denoted by the matter and
spirit. The cultivation of these aspects of education must be the aim of integral education.
The practices of the four austerities constitute the four fold aspects or discipline (tapasya).
These are – Beauty, Power, Knowledge and Love.
The discipline of Beauty should involve a program of physical education in order
to build a body. The austerity for Power relates to the control of sensations, which
should be trained to acquire and develop knowledge. The discipline of Knowledge
helps developing a mental makeup or an active and alert mind. The discipline of Love
is the formation of desirable feelings and emotions, which should be directed
towards, whole hearted clarity and goodwill towards others and communion with the
divine.
Thus, integrated education aims at facilitating the manifestation of these four aspects
of the supreme consciousness. “Know thyself’ (Tatwamasi). If you can know yourself,
you will know the whole world and have the key to unravel the mysteries of the universe.
Understanding the self (Atman) or knowing the inner aptitude and aspirations of the
child is the main task of the teacher. Sri Aurobindo has aptly pointed out that the duty
of the teacher is to show the child where the true knowledge is and how that knowledge
can come to the surface. The teacher even need not try to bring out the knowledge,
which is the function of the child. This is the first principle of the true method of
education.
Second principle is that the child should be consulted in his growth. Nothing should
be imposed on him from above, but should start from within. Aurobindo is of the
opinion that the education has to provide the opportunities for the natural development
of the child. Thirdly, the child should be led from near to far, from known to unknown,
which emphasizes experiences as the basis for all learning.
Sri Aurobindo has succinctly remarked that a good teacher has no method and
also has every method. His educational thoughts constituted physical, mental, psychic
and spiritual subjects in the curriculum. Language, Science, Mathematics, Social science
and subjects which, promotes Internationalism are also included.
We can find that Aurobindo’s ideals, principles were still influencing on most of
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the peoples in his Ashram at Pondicherry. Persons of all ages, races, castes, religions
were influenced by the Ashram. They lived like one family. Its fame spread far and
wide. It became the center of spiritualism and sadhana. English, French, German,
Languages, Science and Art subjects were taught in these schools. Freedom, free thinking
and collective living were encouraged. Western and oriental education was also
given.
Fill in the blanks:

a. The most important contribution of Mahatma Gandhi is ………. system of
education.
b. The three sources of knowledge according to Tagore are………,
…………….and……….
c. The end of all education, and all training should be ……………………..
d. The main aim of education according to Aurobindo is ………………….
1. List four important features of Basic Education.
2. Mention the important principles of Tagore’s educational philosophy.
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3. Write four important educational ideas of Vivekananda.
4. Mention four austerities given by Aurobindo.
2.4 Western Visionaries

2.4.1 John Dewey (Progressive Education)
John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist and a practical teacher
who made significant contributions in the field of philosophy and education. He was
born in Vermont in New England in 1859. He realized that the traditional methods of
schooling were useless and that human contacts of everyday life provide unlimited,
natural dynamic learning situations. In 1896, he established ‘Laboratory school’. All
his theories were tested, modified and clarified with practical experience of the school
situation. The main purpose of the school was to carry on research and experiment in
new ideas and methods of education. Dewey’s aim was to ‘create conditions for the
discovery of more natural ways of teaching and learning’.
He is of the opinion that ‘the school is not a preparation for life, it is life’. The
school was experimental in two ways. 1) It made constant use of experiment and enquiry
about the children’s method of learning. 2) It was a laboratory for the transformation of
school in to a miniature society. The teaching was done by means of problems arising
in actual life.
Dewey believed in the theory of evolution of mind and knowledge. According to
him the mind has an instrumental characteristic and it is a part of our evolution. Dewey
believed in change. Knowledge helps man to direct the change. Knowing and doing
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are one. Mind and action are one and inseparable. He has given a higher place to action
than knowledge. According to him, knowledge and thinking are closely associated
with action. These ideas made him to introduce the problem solving technique as a
fundamental basis of education. He mentioned four steps in analyzing the problem. In
applying the process of thinking Dewey says -
1. Student should be provided experience by engaging him in activities and then
he would confront with the problem.
2. He must obtain information to deal with the problem.
3. Then hypothesis or suggested solutions must be formulated, and
4. He should be given opportunities to test his ideas and confirm the truth. Dewey
stressed the importance of science and of scientific method as central in human
affairs.
Dewey was called a great experimentalist. He wanted to put the experience in
order to acquire education. He advocates ‘education of experience, by experience and
for experience’. He believed in the organic relationship between the individual and the
society. The individual should commune with his fellow beings and appreciate their
achievements. Education can break down the artificial barriers such as language, caste,
color, creed, nationality, religion etc.
Dewey’s educational doctrines are based on psychological approach to the social
aspects of education. He recognized the individual differences and considered the
interests and impulses of child. Dewey regards the child as the core of the educational
process. The four basic interests of the child are conversation, inquiry, concentration
and artistic expression. Therefore, education should be based on these four basic interests.
Education should aim at social efficiency. It should produce social consciousness
in the child. He considered the school as a social institution, therefore should grow out
of the home life. The teacher should channelize the child’s activities in to social settings.
The school is a social environment, ‘simplified, purified, balanced and graded’.
Originality and initiative should be the qualities of school life.
School should be a fundamental method of social progress and reform. He wanted
a new ‘social education’. To him, education is the means of social continuity and
development of individuality. Dewey did not believe in traditional curriculum i.e.
subjects. He wanted that the school curriculum should be organized round the child’s
activities and not subjects. He favored social experiences to be the main components
of curriculum. Dewey used ‘project’ as the center of learning. Knowledge should be
correlated with the project. He made provision for aesthetic, moral and religious education
in his curriculum.
Dewey’s method of teaching consists of three processes:
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1. continuance of psychological order in the curriculum,
2. retention of problem method, and
3. extension of social opportunity.
He mentioned five steps in problem solving or experimental method as essential:
1. the genuine situation of experience
2. the problem should arise from the situation to stimulate the thinking of the`child
3. obtaining information or make observation needed to deal with the problem
4. the suggested solutions, and
5. opportunity to test his ideas by application.
Dewey very much emphasized the role of the teacher. Teacher should have more
concern with the pupil’s impulses and interests than imparting knowledge. He should
guide and provide opportunities to learn naturally. He favored self-discipline rather
than rigid discipline. Dewey prescribed wider range of experiences and progressive
activities.
2.4.2 Rousseau (Child Centered Education)

Jean Jacques Rousseau, educational philosopher born in Geneva (France), 1762,
was a man full of contradictions. He developed love towards nature. He evolved a
theory of education, which is called naturalism. He advocated ‘State of Nature’, ‘Natural
man’ and ‘Natural civilization’. He said that man is born free but with full of bondage.
Naturally he wanted to liberate himself from the bondage of society. “Emile” – is a
classic educational treatise of Rousseau.
Rousseau said that human nature is good and should be allowed to develop freely.
Therefore, education has to be in harmony with original and unspoiled human nature.
Learning takes place when child is free to develop and grow according to his natural
impulses. Education is necessary because child is immature and unable to take care of
himself. Natural instincts and interests of the child were given consideration in
the educational aims. ‘The attainment of fullest natural growth of the individual’ was
the aim of education to Rousseau. He is of the opinion that Natural man is greater
than citizen. So, Men should be educated first for manhood and then for
citizenship.
Simple and direct methods of instruction were, advocated by Rousseau. He has
given more importance to the senses than books. Child should be taught by experience
and not verbally. He advocated play-way method. In every play he wanted to give some
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instruction to the child. ‘Know childhood’ was the first percept. The teacher should
study the nature of his pupil. Rousseau divides the stages of human development in to
infancy, childhood, adolescence and youth. He has included the age between five years
to twelve years in childhood. He lays emphasis on training of senses. Child should
learn through experiences. Early education of the child should be negative. Negative
education does not consist of teaching virtue or truth but in shielding the heart from
vices and mind from errors. He was against imparting any education to the child.
According to him,” in childhood the aim of education is not to utilize time but to lose
it”. Childhood should be for its own sake. “Nature desires that children should be
children before they are men”.
Rousseau recommends different methods of teaching. According to him ordinary
school subjects are simply facts which are beyond the comprehension of the child. So
he recommends that direct education at this stage is the training of mind through physical
activities. “Exercise the body, the organs, the senses and powers, but keep the soul
lying fallow as long as you can”. This is the stage for sense training. Senses are the
instruments of intellect. These are the fast faculty to take form and attain perfection,
therefore to be cultivated first. These are the basis for thought and reason. Feet, hands
and eyes are our first teachers. Some general ideas may be taught.
Learning through self-experience and learning by doing are more effective than
book learning. Rousseau is of the opinion that the child will learn his morality by
natural consequences of his own actions. With regard to the discipline, he wanted
complete freedom as the first step to induce discipline in the child. The child himself
will learn natural discipline. The school organization should be in natural surroundings.
He gave a new direction to the teaching profession by advising the teacher to study the
subjects they have to act upon.
Geometry, drawing and music should be taught through experience, projects and
active doing. Instruction must confirm with the child’s ability. Happy childhood is his
main rule. “Treat your pupil according to his age” is the most-practical suggestion of
Rousseau. He had shown the characteristic differences at the various stages in child’s
life. He laid down that child can reach maturity or perfection only if appropriate activities
are provided at each stage.
2.4.3. Froebel (Early Childhood Education)

Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel, a German was born on 1783. His philosophy
was absolute idealism. He gave a place to education and the development of the
individual. The ideas he preached were ‘unity in diversity’ and his ‘theory of
development’.
42
Froebel had a profound faith in religion. To him, there was an underlying unity in
all things. So he says ‘all things have come from the Divine Unity (God) and have their
origin in the Divine Unity. All things live and have their beings in and through the
Divine Unity. The Divine affluence that lives in each thing is the essence of each thing.’
The education is to lead man to this pure inner law of Divine Unity. Education should
enable an individual to know him-self and mankind.
Froebel believed in the unity of man, nature and God and also in the diversity
within that unity. He prescribed that man should be conscious of these things. The
purpose of education, according to him was to expand the life of the individual until it
comprehends this existence through participation in all pervading activity.
According to his theory of development all things are growing, everything develops
according to a universal or creative force. In respect of the development of mind, he
said that mind is developed when it has the power and skill and variety in dealing with
knowledge. Mind has three activities - knowing, feeling and willing. The mental
development should be in accordance with all these. Individual must develop from
within, self- active and free.
Froebel believed that mind evolved from within. Education is the active means to
bring the man to a higher level in the evolutionary process. He wants the complete
development of the child through spontaneous self-activity. He wanted unified
development of the intellectual, physical and moral aspects of man’s nature. He
considered mind, body and soul as one.
Education must unfold the child’s innate powers and his spiritual nature may be
awakened. Freedom is given to the child in order to develop his energies, curiosity and
activity. Froebel is of the opinion that life around the child is education. School is a
place where the child learns truth, justice, responsibility, initiative and co-operation.
He has given importance to the teacher who controls the growth of the child. He favoured
school without books. He stressed on activity and social participation. Play became a
means of individual development. He opposed rigid discipline and traditional formality
of school atmosphere.
The Kindergarten
Kindergarten means a garden in which children may grow naturally like a plant
under the care of an expert gardener. Books and intellectual tasks are absent in
kindergarten schools. Self-activity, creativeness and social participation are
characteristics. Song, movement and construction are the form of expression and these
co-ordinate with one another. All the songs deal with common objects of life. Each
song of Froebel consists of three parts:
43
a. a motto for the guidance of the mother
b. a verse music to sing to the child
c. a picture illustrating the verse.
Froebel provided some gifts and occupations to stimulate activity so that the children
could move the limbs and use their minds. The gifts were the sphere, the cube and the
cylinder. The spheres refer to balls rolled and tossed by children. The cubes were used
as building blocks. Froebel developed a series of building blocks for the benefit of
children in the kindergarten schools. The cylinders are useful in the plays as stationary
or movable elements.
The ball was selected as the first gift because of its universal appeal to children as
a playing thing. There were six woolen balls of different color, material, form, motion,
direction and muscular sensibility. There are other gifts for later stages, like square and
triangular tablets, sticks and rings. Froebel’s occupation comprises of construction with
paper, sand, clay, wood and other materials. There are many others like mat and paper
weaving, stick shaping, sewing, bead threading paper pricking and drawing. These
gifts and occupations lead to the closer identification of the child with the divine spirit
and social unity.
Constructive work should be given importance in the educational process. It should
be the beginning and end. He recognized industrial training on social and economic
grounds. Drawing, manual works are the important activities in kindergarten schools.
His curriculum includes
1. Religion and religious instruction
2. Natural Science and Mathematics
3. Language
4. Art and objects of art. Provision was also made for nature study and gardening.
2.4.4 Montessori (Early Childhood Education)

Montessori’s (1870-1952) House of Childhood was situated in the slums of Rome.
She established the center of gravity of her system in the environment. The new approach
of Montessori method has been described ‘as a joyful process of self-discovery and
self-realization’. The Montessori method is based on the following principles:
Education as development: Montessori considered education as a development from
within. She says, “The child is a body which grows and a soul which develops. We
must neither mar nor stifle the mystery which lies within these two forms of growth,
but wait for the manifestations which we know will succeed one another”. The education
has to unfold the child’s hidden powers.
44
Principle of freedom: Montessori believes that freedom is fundamental right of everyone.
Liberty is to be given to child. “The school should permit free and natural manifestations
of the child, if he is to be educated in a scientific manner”. Discipline must come
through liberty. She stressed self-discipline, which comes through activity in an
atmosphere of freedom and non-intervention.
Principle of individuality: Montessori insists on the maximum development of child’s
individuality. Only liberty ensures such a development. Therefore, the child should be
free to make his own choice, to handle the materials and work on its own pace. The
child will learn by its own mistakes. The satisfaction that the child gets from its work
motivates further.
Principle of auto education: According to Montessori, self education is the best method
by which the child learns in his own way and at his own pace. She has given didactic
apparatus, which controls every error and the child is able to correct himself. Here the
teacher becomes more passive and the child becomes more active and responsible.
Principle of sensory training: According to Montessori, the senses play a very important
role in the process of education. The senses are the gate-ways of knowledge. Hence
education should be imparted through the senses. The child should be allowed to get
direct experiences with some objects like pieces of wood, bells etc.
Principle of muscular training: She stressed muscular training as a part of early
education of children. Child should know the proper use of his muscles, because it
facilitates activities like writing, walking and running.
Principle of social development: Montessori observes, “the discipline to which the
child habituates himself here is in its character not limited to the social development
but extends to society”. She has called upon school to behave in such a way as to
ensure the comfort and welfare of the group.
The practices of the Montessori system fall into three:
1. The exercises of practical life
2. The exercises in sensory training
3. The didactic exercises.
In the house, the pupils learn to do ordinary works independently like washing
their hands, cleaning their nails, brush their teeth and so on. Exercises are arranged to
train the child necessary in dressing and undressing. The furniture in the house are of
such a size, that the pupils can handle them easily. Montessori devised certain gymnastic
exercises to develop coordinated movements, especially for the children.
45
Montessori invented the techniques and instruments necessary for sensory training.
Varied type of apparatus facilitates perception, touch, hearing etc. were devised she
considered that, no intellectual development is possible without the ability to make
fine sensory discrimination. Sense training prepares the child directly for intellectual
education by perfecting the sense organs.
The didactic exercises are meant for teaching reading, writing and arithmetic. In
her system, the teaching of writing precedes the teaching of reading. Letters are cut in
a sand paper and painted on card board to learn the alphabets. The letters are impressed
on the minds of children through visual approach. The pupils are also taught the phonetic
sounds of the letter and practiced in analyzing the spoken word into sounds. They were
taught to reconstruct the word with sand paper letters. They were also taught to handle
the pen properly through exercises. Slips of paper or cards are used as didactic material
for teaching reading. A name is written on the card. Sentences indicating commands
are written on slips of paper. Montessori’s concept of reading is that, it is ‘the
interpretation of an idea from the written signs’. The child is expected to read the
sentences mentally. Ten rods are used for teaching numbers. Children are asked to
arrange them in order of size and count them.
The Montessori system has several important things. The procedures are scientific,
individualistic and psychologically sound. It has given importance to sensory training.
The reading and writing taught in this system are unique. It has given complete freedom
to children. The exercises provided are very useful and practical. The teacher acts as
the observer. The environment is regulated to get auto education easily.

1. Fill in the blanks:
a. John Dewey introduced the…………. technique as a fundamental basis of

education.
b. Rousseau advocated ……….. method.
c. According to Froebel mind has three activities like ………, ………... and
…………
d. The senses are the gate ways of ………………..
2. Mention the four steps suggested by John Dewey in analyzing the

problem.
46
3. Write four important educational ideas of Rousseau.
4. Write important features of Froebel’s Kindergarten.
5. Mention the important principles of Montessori method.
2.5 Let Us Sum Up

● ‘Basic education’ system was the important contribution of Mahatma Gandhi.
It is centered on some basic craft. He favored all round development through
education.
47
● The three cardinal principles of Tagore’s educational philosophy are freedom,
creative self expression and active communion with nature and man. According
to him the three sources of knowledge are - Nature, Life and Teacher.
● Vivekananda said, “The end of all education and all training should be man
making”. The child should grow on its own. Opportunities are to be provided
to the child. Teaching should be adjusted to the needs of the child. He has given
importance to concentration. He stressed universal education and national system
of education.
● Integral education emphasizes the psychic and mental aspects. Beauty, Power,
Knowledge and Love are four austerities suggested by Aurobindo.
● John Dewey advocates education of experience, by experience and for experience
and he was a great experimentalist. He believed in the theory of evolution of
mind and knowledge. He introduced the problem solving technique as a basis
of education.
● The attainment of fullest natural growth of the individual was the aim of education
to Rousseau.
● Simple and direct methods were recommended. Child should learn through
experiences. Early education of the child should be negative and given importance
to sense training.
● Froebel preached ‘unity in diversity’ and ‘theory of development’. He wanted
mental development through activities like knowing, feeling and willing. He
advocated early childhood education in kindergarten schools, wherein books
are absent. Creativity and active participation were stressed.
● Montessori method based on principle of development, freedom, individuality,
auto education, sensory training, muscular training and principle of social
development. The practices in this system are - the exercise of practical life,
sensory training and the didactic exercises.
‘Check Your Progress’ -1

a. Basic education.
b. Nature, Life and Teacher.
c. Man making.
d. Know thyself.
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2(1) i) Useful, productive and suited to the needs of the villagers and society.
ii) Learning and earning, self-supporting and education proceeds in nature.
iii) Free and compulsory education to all children up to 14 years of age.
iv) Body and mind are encouraged for the mastery of useful basic craft.
(2) i) Freedom ii) Creative self expression and iii) Active communion with nature
and man.
(3) i) Education should create self confidence and self-reliance, develop moral
character and promote universal brotherhood.
ii) The child grows naturally on its own. Opportunity should be provided and
obstacles are to be removed.
iii) Teaching should be adjusted to the needs of the child.
iv) Concentration is the essence of education and it is the only method to attain
knowledge and education.
(4) i) Beauty ii) Power iii) Knowledge iv) Love

a. Problem solving.
b. Play way.
c. Knowing, feeling and willing.
d. Knowledge.
2 i) Students should be provided experience engaging in activities and then he

would confront with the problem.
ii) He must obtain information to deal with the problem.
iii) Formulation of hypothesis or suggested solutions
iv) Testing the hypothesis and confirm the truth.
3 i) The attainment of fullest natural growth of the individual was the aim of
education.
ii) Simple and direct method, and play way method.
iii) Know childhood, child should be taught by experience and not verbally.
iv) Early education of the child should be negative, i.e. shielding the heart from
vices and mind from errors.
49
4 i) Kindergarten means a garden in which children may grow naturally like a
plant.
ii) Books and intellectual tasks are absent in kindergarten schools.
iii) Self-activity, creativeness and social participation stressed.
iv) Song, movement and construction are the form of expression.
5 i) Principle of development
ii) Principle of freedom
iii) Principle of individuality
iv) Principle of auto-education
v) Principle of sensory training
vi) Principle of muscular training and
vii) Principle of social development.

1. What are the salient features of ‘Basic Education’ system?
2. Explain briefly Tagore’s concept of education for artistic self- expression.
3. Explain briefly the educational ideas of Vivekananda.
4. Explain the concept of Integral education of Aurobindo.
5. Explain the educational ideas of John Dewey.
6. Explain the Child Centered Education of Rousseau.
7. Explain the important features of Froebel’s Kindergarten System of Education.
8. What are the principles involved in the Montessori Method of Education?
2.8 References
1. Bhatia and Bhatia-Theory and Principles of Education.
2. V. R. Taneja - Educational thought and Practice.
3. Nanjundaswamy A. S. - Educational theory and Practice.
4. Dash B. N. - Teacher & Education in the Emerging Indian Society, Vol. I.
5. J. Mohanty - Indian Education in the Emerging Society.
6. N.R. Swaroop Saxena - Foundation of Educational Theory and Practice.
50
UNIT - 3 ❐ AIMS OF EDUCATION
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 General and Specific aims of Education
3.4 Individual and Social Aims of Education
3.5 Aims of Education in Modern India as Envisaged in -
3.5.1 Secondary Education Commission (1952)
3.5.2 Indian Education Commission (1964)
3.5.3 National Policy on Education (1986)
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 References
3.1 Introduction
Education is a planned and purposeful activity, which is undertaken by the teacher
and the learner for achieving clear cut objectives. Without an end (aim) no purpose can
be achieved. “An aim is a foreseen end that gives direction to an activity”. The aim is
a yardstick with which we can measure our success and failures. It keeps both the
teacher and the taught on the right track. Without the knowledge of aims, “the education
is like a sailor who does not known his destination and the child is in a rudderless
vessel with the sailor, drifting along some where ashore”.
Education has several aims. The aims are not static, but they go on changing from
time to time and from place to place in accordance to the philosophy of life. In this Unit
you will study General and Specific aims, Individual and Social aims of education and
the aims envisaged in some of the commissions.
3.2 Objectives
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
● Classify the General and Specific aims of education.
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● Distinguish between Individual and Social aims of education. Identify different
aims of education.
● List out the aims as envisaged in.
a. Secondary Education Commission. (1952)
b. Indian Education Commission. (1964)
c. National Policy on Education. (1986)
3.3 General and Specific Aims of Education

Aims of education are usually classified into two categories: 1. General and 2.
Specific. The general aims are universally applicable to all times and climes. They are
determined on the basis of intrinsic values and perennial elements. General aims are
usually formulated on the basis of culture, character, knowledge, judgement etc. Specific
aims of education are determined on socio-economic conditions of the country.

a. Aims of education are classified into ……............….. and …...............……..
b. The general aims are determined on the basis of ………. values and ……….
elements.
c. Specific aims are determined on …………. conditions of the country.
3.4 Individual and Social Aims of Education

Aims of education are classified into two: i) Individual aim and ii) Social aim.
Individual aims lay emphasis on the growth of individuality and freedom. Whereas
social aims lay stress on the development of the society and its solidarity. These individual
and social aims are determined according to the political ideology or social ideas of the
concerned society.
Individual aims:
Education should aim at the training and development of the individual. The individual
is supreme, his interests and needs should be given importance over others. Every
individual is unique and can contribute to the social progress in his own way. Good
52
individuals can become good citizens. Education should prepare good individuals. Good
individuals will realize the rights and responsibilities. Social institutions, particularly,
the school should provide all favorable facilities for child’s development.
Individual development as the primary aim of education has been emphasized by
all thinkers. “Individuality is the ideal of life” according to T. P. Nunn and he added
that ‘a scheme of education is ultimately to be valued by its success in fostering the
highest degree of individual excellence.’ According to him an individual is the architect
of his own fate. He is responsible for his own destiny. Education, therefore, must cater
to the complete development of an individual. Education should develop the innate
powers and capacities of an individual.
Rousseau and Nunn are of the opinion that ‘the central aim of education is the
autonomous development of the individual’. The natural quality of the individual has
to be developed. Education has to provide an opportunity to know and develop those
qualities. No two individuals are identical in interests, powers and abilities. Therefore,
depending upon the individual traits we have to provide suitable education. Then only
proper development becomes possible.
Social aims:
Education for the individual is good, but it should not become an obstacle to the
society. Man is born in society and he is a part of the society. He can’t live without it.
He gets his needs satisfied only in the society. Man is a social being; he communicates
and exchanges his views and ideas with others. By this, he gets knowledge, information
and makes himself educated. The social value, mores and milieus make the individual
socialized. Therefore education should have social aim.
Education should also develop social consciousness. This is helpful to the society.
Social consciousness will help the individual to know how to live in a society, how to
mingle with others, how to behave and how to solve the problems. The social aim of
education has to make clear the social relation and to control the individual accordingly.
This aim of education will develop the motive of sacrifice and service among people.
School is the small reflection of the society. Hence education should be a bridge between
the individual and society.
Prof. Bagley and John Dewey hold the view that social aim of education is to
bring about social efficiency ‘in the individual’. Education should make each and every
member of the society socially efficient by utilizing the individual’s abilities and aptitudes
to the maximum extent possible. Such people will sacrifice their own desires for social
welfare and progress. Gandhiji also advocated this aim of education. Even though,
social aim of education limits the individuality, it protects society’s desires.
53
Individual aim versus social aim :
These two aims seem to be contradictory and opposed to each other. If we stress
individual aim too much, it will produce egoists, while extreme emphasis on social
aim will create suppressed personalities. Hence, these two aims should not be opposite,
but complementary to each other. One cannot exist without the other. By correlation of
both the aims we can achieve more. As the individual acts on the society, the society
also acts on the individual. Without society the individual will lose the meaning. In the
same way, society can’t exist without the individual. Therefore, education, in addition
to individual aim should have social aim also. In the words of Adam, “Individuality
requires a social medium to grow. Without social contacts we are not human”. The
synthesis of both the aims will be ideal.

a. Individual aim and social aim are …………….to each other.
b. Individual aim of education stresses the development of an ………..…..
c. Social aim of education stresses the development of the ……......………
3.5 Aims of Education in Modern India

Soon after attaining the independence, a great responsibility was laid on our
shoulders to shape the future of our country. To do this we need leaders and experts in
all walks of life. Our country demands the future generation to become capable of
taking up the responsibilities of national development. Education is the only means to
achieve this. Hence formulation of good education policies with suitable aims of
education and proper organization to achieve those aims is the foremost and prime
need of the day. So the Govt. of India appointed some commissions to formulate suitable
aims of education.
3.5.1 Secondary Education Commission (1952)

In 1952, Secondary education commission was appointed under the chairmanship of
Dr. A. Lakshmanswamy Mudaliar to examine the prevailing system of secondary
education in the country and to suggest measures for its organization and improvement.
The commission, after considering the political, social and economic conditions and
needs recommended the following aims:
54
1. Development of democratic citizenship: The success of the democracy depends
on every citizen. Every individual should be trained for citizenship. It involves
intellectual, social and moral qualities. Clear thinking, receptivity to new ideas,
scientific attitude, open mindedness, independent judgement, capacity to
distinguish between truth and propaganda were the qualities to be developed
through education.
2. Training in the art of living: Education is to train children in the art of living
efficiently. Progress of a society is possible only by mutual co-operation.
Individual should support others and get the support of others. Development of
discipline, co-operation, social sensitiveness and tolerance are necessary for
mental good will. These are to be developed through education.
3. Improvement of vocational efficiency: Education is to improve the vocational
efficiency of every individual. Success of democracy depends upon efficient
citizens. Vocational training is necessary for improving efficiency. Appreciation
of dignity of labor should be inculcated. Emphasis on craft, sculpture and
engineering etc., should be made. Commission suggested vocationalization of
education with diversified courses.
4. Development of personality: The education is to bring the development of
wholesome personality i.e. physical, mental, social, moral and spiritual
development. To achieve this, education should provide creative and constructive
activities. Opportunities are to be provided to the students in schools to cultivate
such qualities and to develop their personality to the fullest extent.
5. Education for leadership: Ideal leadership is required at all levels and in all
spheres of life. Education should develop leadership qualities among students.
To develop this, certain socially desirable qualities like- discipline, tolerance,
sacrifice and social service are required. Good education can do this function.
3.5.2 Indian Education Commission: (1964)

Indian education commission (1964-66) was set up under the chairmanship of Dr.
D. S. Kothari. This commission analyzed the problem of national development and
recommended that education should be related to life, needs and aspirations of the
people. It has to become a powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural change
in our country. To achieve this, the commission has recommended the following aims
of education.
1. To increase productivity: India is one of the poorest nations in the world. The
55
problem of unemployment and under employment is also there. The per capita
income is very low. The gross national product is not satisfactory. Under such
conditions education should be related to productivity.
Priority should be given to the following:

a. Science education should become an integral part of education. Work-
experience should be introduced at all stages of education.
b. Application of science to productive process including agriculture and
work-experience should be related to technology and industry.
c. Secondary education should be vocationalized and emphasis should be
on technical agricultural education at higher education level.
2. To achieve social and national integration: Absence of national unity gives

shelter to the selfish individuals who do not care for the interests of the nation.
National unity is essential for national reconstruction. The feeling of social and
national integration can be best developed through education. The commission
has suggested the following steps to be taken to strengthen national unity:
a. Adoption of common school system.

b. Making social and national service obligatory for all students at all stages.
c. Development of appropriate language policy.
In addition, it emphasized mother tongue as the medium of instruction, promotion

of national consciousness and to foster a sense of national solidarity among the
students. It also encouraged the inculcation of democracy, secularism and
socialism.
3. To accelerate the modernization: Science based technology involves social

and cultural changes, which are generally described as ‘modernization’. The
knowledge has increased rapidly from a few decades. The education is to keep
pace with the advances in knowledge, with the changes of curriculum, methods
of teaching and adopting new techniques. Education has to develop proper
interest, skills, attitude and values, so that the pace of modernization be
accelerated.
The commission recommended for rapid advancement towards modernization
and creation of new social order based on the process of modernization. It emphasized
56
vocational subjects, science and research. It also stressed the inculcation of value-
oriented education.
3.5.3 National Policy of Education: (1986)

Since the adoption of the 1968 policy on education, there had been considerable
expansion in educational facilities in our country. However, the general formulations
are not completely implemented. As a result, problem of access, quality, quantity, utility
and financial outlay, accumulated over the years, assumed massive proportions. So
they had to be tackled with the utmost urgency. The Government of India announced in
January 1985, that a new education policy would be formulated in the country. A status
paper “Challenge of Education - A Policy Perspective”, was issued by the Ministry of
Education, Government of India.
A comprehensive appraisal of the existing system of education was made. There
was a country-wide discussion on educational reform. Finally the New National Policy
on Education 1986 was approved by the Parliament in May 1986. The important aims
formulated in new education policy are as follows:
1. The education is essentially for all. This is fundamental to all round development.
2. Education should further the goals of socialism, secularism and democracy.
3. Education should develop the manpower. It has to bring human resource
development.
4. “Education is a unique investment in the present and future”. It is the main aim
of national policy of education.
5. Up to a given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location of sex,
have access to education of comparable quality.
6. It aims at common educational structure, of 10+2+3 years, which has been
accepted in all parts of the country. For the first 10 years efforts will be made
towards an elementary education comprising of 5 years of primary and 3 years
of upper primary, followed by 2 years of high school.
7. The policy aims at national curricular framework, contains a common core
along with other components which are flexible.
8. It aims at removal of disparity and equalizing educational opportunities to all.
This includes education for women, scheduled caste, scheduled tribes,
handicapped and the minorities.
57
9. Education has to strengthen international co-operation and peaceful co-
existence.
10. Minimum levels of learning will be laid down for each stage of education.
11. Providing resource support for implementing of educational transformation,
reducing disparities, universalization of elementary education, adult literacy,
scientific and technological research etc.
12. It aims at accelerating the implementation of three-language formula and the
development of three languages.
13. It aims at pooling of resources in the field of research in education, science and
technology and to establish network arrangements between different institutions
in the country.
14. The policy aimed to overhaul the system of teacher education and give all needed
facilities for their progress.
15. Open and distance learning, non-formal educational programs and open-university
system are to be encouraged.
16. It proposed for de-linking degrees from jobs.
17. The policy recommends National Service Scheme, National Cadet Corps etc., to
promote social and national development. The sports and physical education are
considered as an integral part of education.
18. It aims at strengthening national institutes like UGC, NCERT, NUEPA,NCTE,
AICTE, IMC, ICAR etc.
19. Work experience is viewed as purposive and meaningful manual work organized
as an integral part of the learning process.
20. To develop awareness of the importance of protection of environment and
observance of small family norm.
21. In higher education in general and technical education in particular, steps will be
taken to facilitate inter-regional mobility.
22. By providing equal access to every Indian of requisite merit regardless of his
origin.
58
1. Mention the important aims of education recommended by Secondary Education

Commission.
2. List out the major aims of education suggested by Indian Education Commission.
3.6 Let Us Sum Up

● ‘An aim is a fore seen end that gives direction to an activity’.
● Aims are classified into General aims and Specific aims.
● Aims of education can also be classified into Individual aims and Social aims.
● Education should train and develop the individual. Every individual is unique.
His interest and needs should be given importance. Good individuals will become
good citizens.
● Education should also aim at social development. Man is a social being. He
gets his needs satisfied only in the society. Education should develop social
consciousness and bring about social efficiency.
● Individual and social aims should not be opposite, but complimentary to each
other. One can’t exist without the other. By co-relation of both the aims we can
achieve more.
● Government of India has appointed commissions to re-orient and formulate the
system of education to meet the demands of the country.
59
● Secondary education commission (1952-53) aimed at the development of
democratic citizenship, training in the art of living, improvement of vocational
efficiency by vocationalization of education with diversified course, development
of wholesome personality and education for the development of leadership
qualities.
● Indian education Commission (1964-66) stressed that the education should
increase productivity, achieve social and national integration, accelerate
modernization, inculcate social, spiritual and moral values.
● National Policy on Education (1986) gave importance to the education to all up
to a given level irrespective of caste, creed, color or sex. It stressed the education
for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, physically challenged, minorities
and to provide suitable facilities to these groups. It aimed at a common
educational structure of 10+2+3. It suggested a national curriculum with common
core elements and equal opportunities. Encouraged distance education and gave
importance to science, technology and research. Sports, teacher education and
work experience were also stressed upon. It also aimed at strengthening national
institutions.

1. 1. General & Specific.
2. Intrinsic, Perennial
3. Socio-economic

1. 1. Complimentary.
2. Individual.
3. Society.

1 Aims are as follows:
i) Development of Democratic Citizenship.
ii) Training in the art of living.
60
iii) Improvement of vocational efficiency.
iv) Development of Personality.
v) Education for Leadership.
2. Aims are as follows:

i) To increase productivity.
ii) To achieve social and national integration.
iii) To accelerate modernization.

1. “Individual aims and social aims are complimentary but not contradictory”.
Elucidate this statement.
2. What are the important aims of education recommended by The Secondary
Education Commission? (1952)
3. Discuss the aims of education recommended by National Commission. (1964)
4. What are the important aims formulated in New Education Policy? (1986)
3.9 References
1. J. Mohanty - Indian Education in the Emerging Society.
2. B. N. Dash -Teacher and Education in the Emerging Indian Society.
3. P. D. Shulda - National policy on education.
4. V. R. Taneja - Educational Thought and Practice.
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UNIT - 4 ❐ INDIAN CONSTITUTION AND
EDUCATION
Structure
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Objectives
4.3. Constitution - Meaning, Types
4.4. Features of Constitution of India
4.5. Directive Principles, Fundamental Rights and Duties
4.6. Constitutional Provisions on Education
4.7. Let Us Sum Up
4.10. References
4.1 Introduction
The constitution of India is a very important document in the independent India.
The framers of our constitution have taken sufficient care to ensure that different aspects
of life like Fundamental Rights, The Directive Principles of State Policy etc., are duly
enshrined in its pages.
New constitution was implemented in India on Jan 26th1950. This was based on
the principles of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. It included social, political and
administrative principles, provisions and articles. In the same way it included several
aspects related to education also.
In this Unit you will study the Meaning and types of constitution, Features of constitution
of India, directive principles, fundamental rights and duties and constitutional provisions
on education.
4.2 Objectives
● State the meaning of constitution.
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● Identify different features of Indian Constitution.
● Distinguish between directive principles and fundamental rights and duties.
● List out the Constitutional Provisions on Education, and
● Recognize the different types of constitutions.
4.3 Constitution – Meaning and Types

Meaning:
A Constitution means a document having a special legal sanctity, which sets out
the framework and the principal functions of the organs of the government of a state
and declares the principles governing the operation of those organs.
Types of constitutions:
According to the traditional classification, constitutions are either unitary or federal.
In unitary constitution the powers of the government are centralized in one government.
viz; the central government. The provinces are subordinate to the center. In federal
constitution, there is a division of powers between the federal and the state governments
and both are independent in their own spheres.
The Constitution of India is neither purely federal nor purely unitary but it is a
combination of both. It is a union of composite state of a novel type. It enshrines the
principle that in spite of federalism the national interest ought to be paramount.
Constitutions can be classified into:
1. Cumulative (or evolved) and Conventional (or enacted)
2. Written and Unwritten, and
3. Rigid and Flexible.
Cumulative: A Constitution, which is the product of slow and evolutionary changes in

the course of a long time, is called cumulative or evolved. Conventional - A conventional
or enacted Constitution is deliberately made by a constituent assembly or is the product
of the law made by parliament or king.
Written and Unwritten: A written Constitution is a single document in which all the
basic principles of Government, the rights of the governed are written down. There
may be cases with more than one document with different dates. Written constitution
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has to grow by usage, interpretation and amendment. An unwritten Constitution is one
in which principles of Government are not found in a single document; on the other
hand they can be discovered in the customs, conventions and usages and in the numerous
Acts passed by the legislature. Unwritten Constitution grows on the basis of custom
rather than on the written law. e.g. England’s Constitution.
Rigid and Flexible: A rigid constitution is one, which requires a special method for its
amendment. Two thirds majority in the legislature may be prescribed as one of the
essential conditions of amendment. E.g. USA, Switzerland, and Australia. A flexible
constitution is one, which can be amended without making use of any special procedure.
e.g. Britain. Indian constitution is a mixture of rigidity and flexibility.
‘Check Your Progress’- 1

a. The powers of the Govt. are ………… in Unitary constitution.
b. In ………… constitution there is a division of power between Federal and
State Government.
1. Differentiate between written and unwritten constitution.
2. Differentiate between rigid and flexible constitution.
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4.4 Features of Constitution of India
The salient features of the Indian Constitution are as follows:
1. The lengthiest constitution in the world -The Indian constitution originally
consisted of 395 articles divided into 22 parts and 9 Schedules. As of now, 444
articles, 26 parts & 12 Schedules are there. It is a Sovereign, Socialistic, Secular
and Democratic republic.
2. Parliamentary form of Government - both at the Center and the States. It gave
responsibility to the legislature. The President is the Constitutional head of the
state. The real executive power is vested in the council of Ministers whose
head is Prime Minister.
3. Unique blend of rigidity and flexibility - A written constitution is generally
said to be rigid. The Indian Constitution, though written, is sufficiently flexible.
4. Fundamental Rights - These are deemed to be distinguishing feature of a
democratic state. Fundamental Rights are not absolute rights. They are subjected
to certain restrictions.
5. Directive Principles of State Policy - These set out the aims and objectives to
be taken up by the states in the governance of the country. These rights cannot
be questioned in the court of law.
6. A Federation with strong centralizing tendency - Being a federal Constitution,
it acquires a unitary character during the time of emergency. All powers are
centralized in the Union Government and constitution acquires a unitary
character.
7. Adult Suffrage - Under the Indian Constitution every man and woman above
18 years of age has been given the right to elect representatives for the legislature.
8. An Independent Judiciary -The constitution will safeguard the fundamental rights
through independent and impartial judiciary. Supreme Court is the custodian of
the rights of citizens.
9. A Secular State - India is a secular state, which has no religion of its own as
recognized religion of the State. It treats all religions equally. Single citizenship
- Constitution provides for a single citizenship for the whole India. There is
only one, citizenship in India. i.e. the citizenship of India.
10. Fundamental Duties -The constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 has
introduced a code of ten ‘Fundamental Duties’ for citizens.
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1. Directive Principles of State policy cannot be questioned .............................
2. Indian Constitution, though written is sufficiently ……...........................…..
4.5 Directive Principles, Fundamental Rights

Duties and Directive principles:
Directive principles: The Directive Principles of State Policy contained in Part IV of
the constitution set out the aims and objectives to be taken up by the States in the
governance of the country. These are the ideals which the Union and State Governments
must keep in mind while they formulate policy or pass a law. They lay down certain
social, economic and political principles, suitable to peculiar conditions prevailing in
India.
Article 41: Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases - It
directs the State to ensure the people within the limit of its economic capacity and
development: a) employment, b) education, and c) public assistance in cases of
unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement and in other cases of unaddressed
want.
Article 45: Free and compulsory education for children - It requires the State to make
provision for free and compulsory education for all children within 10 years until they
complete the age of 14 years. The object is to eradicate illiteracy from the country.
Supreme Court has given status of fundamental right to this directive principle.
Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic interest of weaker sections - The
state shall promote with special care the education and economic interest of weaker
sections of people, and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes, and
to protect them from injustice and of all forms of exploitation.
Fundamental Rights:
Part IV the constitution contains fundamental rights, which are in accordance with the
trend of modern democratic thought, the idea being to preserve the rights, which is an
indispensable condition of a free society.
Article 12: Definition of State
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It says that unless the context otherwise requires, the ‘State’ includes the government
and the legislature of each state and all local and other authorities within the territory
of India or under the control of the Government of India.
Article 14: Right to Equality
It declares that, ‘the state shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the
equal protection of the laws within the territory of India’.
Article 15: No discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
Clause 1. The state not to discriminate against a citizen on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, sex or place of birth or any of them.
Clause 2. Prohibits citizens as well as the States from making such discrimination with
places of public entertainment, of public resort, wells, tanks, roads, etc.
Clause 3. Empowers the State to make special provisions for the protection of women
and children.
Clause 4. Enables the State to make special provisions for the protection of the interests
of the backward classes of citizens and is therefore, an exception to Articles 15 and 29
(2) of the constitution.
Article 16: Equality of opportunity in public employment.
Clause 1. Guarantees equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters of ‘employment’
or ‘appointment’ to any post under the State.
Clause 2. Says that no citizens shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex,
decent, place of birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible for or discriminated against
in respect of any employment of office under the State.
Clause 3. Nothing in this article shall prevent from making any law prescribing in
regard to a class or classes of employment of appointment to an office under the
Government of, or any local or other authority, within a State or Union territory, any
requirement as to reside within that state or union territory prior to such employment or
appointment.
Clause 4. Nothing in this article shall prevent the state from making any provision for
the reservation of appointment or posts in favor of any backward class of citizens
which, in the opinions of the state, is not adequately represented in the service under
the state.
Clause 5. Nothing in this article shall effect the operation of any law which provides
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that the incumbent of an office in connection with the affairs of any religious or
denominational institution or any member of the-governing body there of shall be a
person professing a particular religion or belonging to a particular denomination.
Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability - Abolishes “untouchability” and forbids its
practice in any form.
The enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability is to be an offence
punishable in accordance with law.
Article 19: Right to Freedom - It guarantees to the citizens of India the following six
fundamental freedoms:
a) Freedom of speech and expression.
b) Freedom of Assembly.
c) Freedom to form Associations.
d) Freedom of movement.
e) Freedom to reside and settle.
f ) Freedom of profession, occupation, trade or business.
But in the interest of the general public, in the interest of the sovereignty and integrity
of India, state can impose reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right of freedom.
Article 25: Right to Freedom of Religion:
25 (1) Guarantees to every person the freedom of conscience and the right to profess,
practice and propagate religion. This is not absolute right. This right is, subject
to public order, morality and health and to other provisions of part III of the
constitution.
(2) The state shall empowered by law -
a) to regulate or restrict any economic, financial, political or other secular activity
which may be associated with religious practice.
b) To provide for (i) social welfare and reform, and (ii) to throw open Hindu
religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus.
Article 26: Freedom to manage religious affairs:
It says that, subject to public order, morality and health, every religious demonstration
of any section of it shall have the following rights:
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(a) to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes,
(b) to manage its own affairs in matters of religion,
(c) to own and acquire movable and immovable property,
(d) to administer such property in accordance with law.
Article 27- Prohibition of Religious instruction in state aided Institution.
According to Article 28(l) no religious instruction shall be imparted in any educational
institution wholly maintained out of state funds.
(2) Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to an educational institution, which is administered
by the state but has been established under any endowment or trust which requires that
religious instruction shall be imparted in such institution.
(3) No person attending any educational institution recognized by the state or receiving
aid out of state funds shall be required to take part in any religious instructions that
may be imparted in such institution or to attend any religious worship that may be
conducted in such institution or in any premises attached there to unless such person or
if such person is a minor, his guardian has given his consent thereto.
Article 29: Cultural and Educational Rights.
Article 29(1) guarantees to any sections of the citizens residing in any part of India
having a distinct language, script or culture of its own, the right to conserve the same.
Article 29(2) no citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institutions
maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, language or any of them.
Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and manage educational institutions.
Article 30(1) guarantees to all linguistic and religious minorities the ‘right to establish’
and the ‘right to administer’ educational institutions of their own choice.
Article 30(2) prohibits the State from making discrimination in the matter of grant of
aid to any educational institution on the ground that, it is managed by a religious minority
or linguistic minority.
Fundamental Duties:
Part IV-A consists of Article-51 A was added to the constitution by the 42nd Amendment,
1976. This article for the first time specifies a code of fundamental duties for citizens.
Article 51-A says that it shall be the duty of every citizen of India.
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a. to abide by constitution and respect its ideal and institution, the National Flag
and National Anthem,
b. to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for
freedom,
c. to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India,
d. to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so,
e. to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional
diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women,
f. to value and preserve the right heritage of our composite culture,
g. to protect and impose the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers
and wild life, and to have compassion for living creature,
h. to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform,
i. to safeguard public property and to abjure violence,
j. to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity
so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievements.

1. What are the fundamental freedoms guaranteed in Indian Constitution?
2. What are the directive principles mentioned in our Constitution?
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4.6 Constitutional Provisions on Education
The Supreme Court has held that the Right to Education is now a fundamental right
under Article 21 of the Constitution.
Article 24 Prohibits employment of children below 14 years of age in factories and
hazardous employment.
Article 25 Guarantees to every religion to profess, practice and propagate any religion.
This is not absolute right. The Government may impose restrictions on the grounds of
public order, morality and health.
Article—26 States that every religious demonstration has a right to establish, maintain,
manage religious and institutions and also acquire movable and immovable property.
Article—29 Prohibits religious instructions and teachings in state aided institutions
established to impart education.
Cultural and Educational rights:
Article - 29(2) No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution
maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds of only religion,
caste, language or any of them.
Article—30 Guarantees a right of minorities to establish and manage any educational
institution of their choice. The state can’t deny grant in aid to such educational institutions
whether they are under the management of minority, based on any religion or language.
Article - 32(l) says whenever there is a violation of a fundamental right any person can
move the court for an appropriate remedy.
Article - 45 The Constitution demands the State “to provide within a period of 10
years from the commencement of the constitution, for free and compulsory education
for all children until they complete the age of 14 years”.

1. The ................... is the guardian of fundamental rights.
2. The article 45 says…………….. and ……….. education to all the children up to
the age of fourteen years.
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4.7 Let Us Sum Up
A Constitution is a document having a special legal sanctity, which sets out the
framework and the principal functions of the organ of the Government of a State and
declares the principles governing the operation of those organs. Constitutions can be
classified in to:
(1) Cumulative (or evolved) and Conventional (or enacted)
(2) Written and Unwritten and (3) Rigid and Flexible. Indian Constitution is a mixture
of rigidity and flexibility.
The lengthiest Constitution, Parliamentary form, blend of rigidity and flexibility,
Fundamental rights, Directive principles, strong centralizing tendency, Adult suffrage,
and independent judiciary, secular nature, single citizenship and Fundamental duties
are the salient features of the Indian Constitution.
Directive principles - Article 41 states Right to work, to education and to public assistance
in certain cases, Article 45 states Free and compulsory education for children, Article
46 states Promotion of educational and economic interests of weaker sections.
Fundamental Rights - Article 12 states the definition of State. Article 14 states Right to
equality.
Article 15 states No discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of
birth. Article 16 states Equality of opportunity in public employment. Article 17 states
Abolition of untouchability. Article 19 states Right to freedom. Article 25 states right
to freedom of religion. Article 26 states Freedom to manage religious affairs. Article
28 states Prohibition of religious instruction in state aided institutions.
Article 29 states Cultural and educational rights and Article 30 states right of minorities
to establish and manage educational institution.
Article 51 - (A) states the 10 fundamental duties of every citizen of India. Article 24
Prohibits employment of children below 14 years of age in factories and hazardous
employment.

1. 1. Centralized.
2. Federal.
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2. 1. Written constitution is a single document in which all the basic principles of
Govt. and the rights of the governed are written down. It has to grow by usage,
interpretation and amendment. Unwritten constitution is one in which principles
of Govt. are not found in a single document. It grows on the basis of custom
rather than the written law.
2. A Rigid constitution is one, which requires a special method for its amendment.
A Flexible constitution is one, which can be amended without making use of
any special procedure.

1. 1. Indian
2. Flexible

1. 1. a) freedom of speech and expression b) freedom of assembly c) freedom to
form associations d) freedom of movement e) freedom to reside and settle f)
freedom to acquire, hold and dispose of property and g) freedom of profession,
occupation, trade or business.
2. Article 41- Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases;
Article 45- Free and compulsory education for children and Article 46- Promotion
of educational and economic interest of weaker sections.
2. 1. - (b)
2. - (a)
3. - (d)
4. - (c)

1. 1. Supreme Court.
2. Free, compulsory.
4.9 Unit End Exercises

1. Explain the meaning and types of constitution.
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2. What are the important features of Constitution of India?
3. Explain briefly the Directive principles of the Indian Constitution.
4. What are the fundamental rights? Explain briefly.
5. What are the fundamental duties of every citizen of India?
4.10 References
1. N.C.E.R.T -The Teacher and Education in Emerging Indian Society.

2. Dr. J. N. Pandey - Constitutional Law of India.
3. B. K. Gokhale - Political Science.
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UNIT- 5 ❐ EDUCATION - PHILOSOPHICAL
FOUNDATIONS
Structure
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Objectives
5.3. Meaning of Philosophy
5.4. Relationship between Philosophy and Education
5.5. Impact of Philosophy on Education
5.5.1. Idealism
5.5.2. Naturalism
5.5.3. Pragmatism
5.5.4. Eclectic
5.6. Let Us Sum Up
5.9. References
5.1 Introduction
From the very beginning man has been continuously trying to know and understand
the mystery of the Universe around him. He is trying to know the relationship with the
physical world on one side and social world on the other. It requires keen observation,
critical study and deep thinking. It is philosophy, which has been very useful and helpful
to know the nature of man, his origin and relationship with nature, his aspirations and
the tool he uses to achieve his aims.
Life and philosophy are so closely related that it is said that if there is life, there
would be some philosophy of it also. The function of philosophy is to refine the interests
of an individual. With this, it studies the views of the people. The differences in the
views of people are quite natural. So many persons have expressed their philosophical
views.
Philosophy is wisdom, means knowledge. Knowledge is related to education.
Philosophy directs so many things in life. Likewise it directs the education also. It is
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philosophy which co-ordinates the activities of the individual, including education,
which depends on philosophy.
5.2 Objectives
● State the etymological meaning of Philosophy.
● Define Philosophy.
● Explain the relationship between Philosophy and Education.
● Justify the impact of Philosophy on Education.
● Differentiate the basic principles between Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism
and Eclectic.
● Compare and contrast between Idealistic, Naturalistic and Pragmatic ideas with
reference to aims, methods, curriculum and role of the teacher.
5.3 Meaning of Philosophy

The word Philosophy is derived from two Greek words - ‘philos’ means love and
‘sophia’ means wisdom. So the philosophy means ‘love of wisdom’ or ‘love of truth’.
Philosophy deals with the general problems of life. Traditionally, philosophy refers to
a set of opinions, customs, beliefs and ideas about the nature of reality, truth and values.
According to westerners, philosophy is a method of analysis, clarification and criticisms.
Philosophy deals with the questions of reality, knowledge and value. It is theoretical
and practical. It is related to theoretical questions like - what is life? What is value?
Where did man come from? Where does he go? and other practical questions like
‘What kind of life is worth living’?
The following sentences will help to develop the concept of philosophy.
1. Philosophy is a personal attitude towards life and the universe.
2. Philosophy is a method of reflective thinking and reasoned enquiry.
3. Philosophy is an attempt to gain a view of the whole.
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning
of words and concepts.
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5. Philosophy is a group of problems as well as theories about the solution of
these problems.
6. Philosophy is related to educational theories and provides suitable solutions to
educational problems.
7. By providing some guidelines it directs education.
8. Philosophy provides us answers and gives directions to the educational ideas,
beliefs and problems.
9. For the analysis of educational principles, philosophy is helpful and
essential.
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan says, ‘It is a logical inquiry into the nature of reality’.

Fill in the blanks:
1. Philosophy means .........
2. Philosophy is a personal attitude towards ………...
and ……..
3. Philosophy is a logical inquiry into the nature of .........
5.4 Relationship between Philosophy and Education

Philosophy and education are closely related. They are interdependent. Philosophy
gives suitable answers to educational problems. “A sound philosophy of education is
based on adequate philosophy of life”. In fact, philosophy is the groundwork or
foundation out of which come the objectives of education. Philosophy and education
walk hand in hand. In this relationship, philosophy and education are re-constructive,
they give to and take from each other in the ebb and flow of thought and action, they
are means to one another and ends, and are process and product also.
Philosophy points out the way, to be followed by education. For example, while
modifying the child’s behavior, the philosophy solves the questions like in which direction
modification should be carried out? What should be the standards and values, to strive
for? Philosophy thus deals with the ends and education with the means to achieve
those ends. Education is like laboratory in which philosophic theories and speculations
are tested and made concrete. Philosophy is wisdom education transmits that wisdom
from one generation to the other. In reality, philosophy is the theory of education.
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Philosophy formulates the method, education its process. Philosophy gives ideals, values
and principles. Education works out these ideals, values and principles.
Education is the best means for the propagation of philosophy. Ross has summed
up this point, “philosophy and education are two sides of the coin, and the former is the
contemplative, while the latter is the active side”. Education then as Adam has put it,
“is the dynamic side of philosophy”. Philosophy sets the goal of life; education provides
the means for its achievement.
All great philosophers of the world have also been great educators. The great
philosophers like Plato, Dewey, Socrates, Gandhiji etc., are also great educationists.
They reflected their philosophical views in their educational schemes.
Philosophy determines all the broad aspects of education. It is philosophy that
provides aims to education. These aims determine the curriculum, the methods of
teaching and techniques, the textbooks, the problems of school organization, concept
of school discipline and also role of the teacher. In the different schools of philosophy,
such as idealism, naturalism and pragmatism, the aims, curriculum, method, discipline
etc., are varied. Philosophy is theoretical and education is practical and thus philosophy
is closely related to education. Thus, as long as we need aims of education, philosophy
will continue influencing and determining both the matter and the method of education.

Fill in the blanks:
1. All great philosophers of the world have also been great ….....
2. Education is the ......... side of philosophy.
3. The best means for the propagation of philosophy is ……….
5.5 Impact of Philosophy on Education

a) Philosophy and Aims of Education:
The aims of education are related to the aims of life and the aims of life are creations of
the philosophy of certain time. Hence the aims of education are determined according
to the aims and philosophy of life. Education tries to achieve aims of the life as goals of
education and these aims of the life are determined by the philosophy of life prevalent
at the time. Different philosophers, based on their own thinking, considering the demands
of the society of their times have formulated different aims of life and education has
always tried to achieve those aims as different goals of education. Thus as aims of life
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change, aims of education also change accordingly. Every educational aim is an
expression of a philosophy of life. It is philosophy, which determines whether the aim
of education should be intellectual or moral, useful or liberal, individual or social.
Such things are resolved by philosophy.
b) Philosophy and Curriculum:

Philosophy is one of the three foundations of curriculum, the other two being psychology
and sociology. Philosophy determines the aims and objectives of education, so also it
determines the shape of the curriculum. Philosophy mainly influences the choice of
subjects to be included in the curriculum, It tells us why a particular subject should be
taught and what benefits accrue from it. The philosophy of a country at a particular
time determines the curriculum in which such subjects, activities and experiences are
included which are supposed to meet the emerging demands of the society at a particular
time.
c) Philosophy and Methods of Teaching:

Philosophy is closely related to the methods of teaching. Changing philosophies
change the methods of teaching. Hence, different schools of philosophy prescribe
different methods of teaching. According to Prof. Saxena, “philosophy is the way of
thinking and way of working. As such these two factors determine the nature, style and
actual operation of methods of teaching”. The naturalists want education to be child
centered and expect the teacher to use such methods, which enable him to recognize
the innate capacities of children. They support Dalton plan, Heuristic, Montessori method
etc., The children must have free atmosphere to grow. Some philosophers stand for
non-intervention by the teacher. The children should have complete freedom and a
good environment for their development to the fullest extent. The Pragmatist advocates
Project method as more practical and experimental. The idealists advocate question-
answer, discussion and lecture method, which ensure the total development of child’s
personality. Since different philosophies advocate different methods of teaching, it proves
clearly that philosophy and methods of teaching are closely related.
d) Philosophy and Role of the Teacher:

Philosophy has a great influence on the teacher both in the area of thinking and
behaving. A teacher is not a teacher alone, but he is a philosopher also. The teacher
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must have the knowledge, light and the reason for progress and for search of the truth.
All this he can have only if he has an insight into philosophy. According to Plato, “A
philosopher is one who has a taste for every sort of knowledge, one who is curious to
learn and is never satisfied”.
The teacher is expected to influence the children with his philosophy. He should
be conscious about needs of children and the society. He should work properly to meet
these needs. The teacher’s outlook, belief, ideology and conduct will have a profound
influence on the development of children. Hence, he should possess proper moral and
spiritual values.
Philosophy helps the teacher to maintain, ‘a proper balance between the formal
and the informal, the intentional and the incidental mode of education’.
5.5.1 Idealism:
Idealism is born out of Plato’s “Theory of Ideas”. According to this doctrine, the
ultimate supremacy is of ideas. Idealism recognizes the ideas, feelings and ideals more
important than mental objects, i.e. the mental or material one. According to Idealism,
mind is real and material world is unreal.
Reality is found in man’s mind rather than in his physical environment. The world
of experience is more significant than material universe. To the idealist ‘Mind and
Soul’ are more important than the ‘Matter and the Body’. Idealists consider the
development of human personality as the supreme objective of life.
Plato, Pestalozzi and Froebel introduced the Idealism in education. They advocated
its importance in education and laid more emphasis on aims and principles of education
than on other aspects.
Idealism and Aims of Education:

1. Self-realization or Exaltation of personality - It implies the realization of the
highest potentialities of the self in a social and cultural environment.
2. To ensure spiritual development-Education is to develop the child mentally,
morally and above all spiritually.
3. To cultivate Truth, Beauty and Goodness -Helps to develop spiritual values.
4. Conservation, Promotion and Transmission of cultural heritage - Education is
to acquaint the child with the cultural heritage so that he conserves, promotes
and transmits it to the rising generation.
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5. Conservation of inborn Nature into Spiritual Nature - Helps to sublimate the
inborn raw instincts of the child into spiritual qualities.
6. Preparation for holy life -Education should create suitable condition and provide
an environment, which is helpful for the development of spiritual values in a
child.
7. Education is to help man and to direct his efforts towards the attainment of
rationality in the universe and in his own person.
Idealism and Curriculum:

Idealists give more importance to thoughts, feelings, ideals and values than to the child
and his activities. They firmly hold that curriculum should be concerned with the whole
humanity and its experience to the study of humanities, culture, art, morality, history,
philosophy, literature and religion. The Sciences explain the physical environment.
Therefore, the human aspects of Sciences also must be taught. They have given
importance for physical education also. The study of Hygiene and Physiology and practice
of Physical skills, Gymnastics and Athletics must form an integral part of the school
curriculum. Today, they emphasize to teach the significant knowledge which is of
permanent value.
Idealism and Method of Teaching:

Questioning, discussion and lecturing are very important methods of teaching. Brut the
creative projects are very effective in educating the child in Idealism. The emphasis
should be on the spontaneous activity of the pupils. Their ‘creative mental activity’
should be developed. Froebel insisted play-way method. Aristotle advocated Inductive-
Deductive method. Idealists are of the opinion that, any and every method may be
employed to realize the ideals set and determined before. Idealists advocated the use of
textbooks as a source of knowledge.
Idealism and Role of the Teacher:

The place of teacher in Idealism is very high. According to the idealists, proper
manipulation of the teaching process is impossible without the teacher. An Idealist
teacher is imbibed fully with high degree of self-knowledge, self-dynamism and qualities
of spiritualism. The teacher’s life should be model to the child and he tries to shape the
individuality of the child to a life of purity, virtue and great achievements. The student
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is influenced by the teacher’s personality. He guides and directs the child with love,
affection and sympathy. He provides a conducive atmosphere and plans experiences
for the child. So, for Idealists teacher is a guide and philosopher.
5.5.2 Naturalism:
Rousseau is known to be the founder of Naturalism. Naturalism is concerned with
‘natural self’ or ‘real self’. For naturalists the material world is the real world. This,
material world is being governed by certain laws. Naturalism is also termed as
materialism. For them nature is everything and behind everything there is nature. Hence,
man should investigate the truths of nature through Science. Naturalists do not believe
in spiritual development. To them matter is important, which is the ultimate reality and
ultimate truth.
Naturalism has mainly three forms - i) Naturalism of physical sciences tries to
explain the experiences in light of natural laws, which are external in nature. ii)
Mechanicalism, another form of naturalism, regards man as a mere machine. iii)
Biological naturalism, which tries to explain man as a product of evolution and as the
highest creature who inherits the racial past consisting of natural instincts and emotions.
Aristotle, Comte, Bacon, Hobbes, Huxley, Spencer and Kilpatrick are the supporters
of naturalism.
Naturalism and Aims of Education:

1. ‘Self expression’ is the aim of education under the naturalistic school of
philosophy.
2. The mechanist considers the man as a machine, they lay down that the aim of
education is “to make the human machine as efficient as possible by attending
to construction, by elaborating it and making it capable of more and more
complicated tasks”.
3. Biological naturalism advocates that the attainment of happiness of man is the
aim of education.
4. The aim of education should be the re-direction and co-ordination of instincts
of man to achieve those goals which “have individual and social value”.
5. According to evolutionists, the aim of education should be “to equip the
individual for struggle for existence and thus to ensure his survival”.
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6. Other naturalist’s advocate that education should enable the individual to adjust
himself to the environment.
7. Some naturalists believe that, education should conserve and preserve cultural
heritage and develop it further.
8. Rousseau advocated natural development of the child according to his inborn
qualities and capacities in a free environment.
9. According to T.P. Nunn, the aim of education should be to develop a self-
developed and self-realized individuality.
Naturalism and Curriculum:
According to naturalists, curriculum should consist of subjects, which reflect the
inborn tendencies, natural interests, natural activities, individual differences and sex
problems of children so that they develop their individuality naturally and normally.
Curriculum contains games, sports, physical culture, biology, physics, nature study,
language, history, geography and other allied subjects.
The child’s activities and natural interests get priority in the curriculum. The
curriculum should facilitate the manifestation of natural power of the child. Naturalists
believe that only a little knowledge of mathematics and language is enough. The
naturalists, in general, contend that the child’s present experiences, interests and activities
should determine the choice of studies.
Naturalism and Methods of Teaching:

Direct experience with nature, things and men is the keynote of instructions
according to naturalists.. All knowledge must emerge out of actual situation and
experience. Proper method of importing knowledge is through observation and
experimentation. Naturalists stressed Learning by doing, Learning by experience and
Learning by Play as the bases of teaching.
Naturalists advocated child centered methods like activity method, Play-way
method, Project method and Heuristic method. All these methods are self-learning
methods and are very effective and purposeful. The Scout movements, School union,
School journey, Children’s club etc., are the schemes of naturalism.
Naturalism and the Role of the Teacher:

The teacher has a peculiar place and duty to perform in naturalism. Neither is he to
interfere with the activities of children, nor is he to provide any ideals. He must not
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impose himself on them. He has to provide them suitable opportunities to create
conditions, which are conducive to natural development.
For naturalists, nature is the only supreme teacher, in its close contact the child
develops normally and naturally. The place of the child is more important and central
than, the teacher. The teacher should so sympathetically and affectionately behave
towards the child, that he feels full freedom to develop himself according to his natural
qualities, interests and capacities. The teacher should set the stage and allow the child
to act freely according to his inherent capacities and the teacher is to act as an observer
and guide.
5.5.3 Pragmatism:
The term Pragmatism is derived from the same Greek word meaning action.
According to Prof. Arnaud Reid, pragmatism makes “activity, engagement, commitment
and encounter” its central theme. Pragmatists emphasized the action rather than thought.
Thought is subordinated to action. It is made an instrument to find suitable means for
action. That is why pragmatism is also called Instrumentalism. Pragmatism also locates,
identifies or traces values in the human experience. Therefore it is called humanism.
Since, pragmatism advocates the experimental methods of science, it is also called
Experimentalism, thus stressing the “practical significance of thought”.
This philosophy was originated from America. William James, John Dewey, Schiller
and Kilpatrik are the chief exponents of this philosophy. Pragmatism is human-centric
according to which, man’s own experiences are the centers of reality and truth.
Pragmatism and Aims of Education:

Pragmatism does not believe in predetermined aims of education. It emphasizes that
the aims of human life always change with changing times, places and circumstances.
1. In the words of Ross, education must create “new values and the main task of educator
is to put the educand into a position to develop values for himself”.
2. The aim of education is to direct “the impulses, interest and abilities towards the
satisfaction of the felt want of the child in his environment”.
3. Pragmatists believe that man is primarily a biological and social organism, the aim
of education should be to transmit the social background and outlook of the community
to the rising generation.
4. Pragmatism wants to cultivate a “dynamic and adaptable mind, which should be
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resourceful and enterprising in all such situations, a mind which should have power to
create values in an unknown future”.
Pragmatism and Curriculum:

Pragmatism gives us several criteria for curriculum construction.
Utility forms the first criterion. The school must provide experience that are useful to
the child, hence the curriculum should include subjects that will impart knowledge,
hygiene, physical training, history and geography, mathematics, science - domestic
science for girls and agricultural science for boys, should be included in the curriculum.
Secondly, the curriculum should be based on the child’s natural interest. At the
primary stage, the curriculum should include Reading, Writing, Counting, Art, Handwork
and Drawing.
Thirdly, the curriculum is based on the principle of the child’s occupations, activities
and experiences. Hence, the curriculum should consist of activities, which are socialized,
free and purposive.
Lastly, the principle of integration deals with the integration of subjects and
activities. So, the subjects should be closely inter-linked and correlated to form right
concepts and proper understandings in children.
Pragmatism and Methods of Teaching:

Based on some principles, pragmatists devised and formulated the methods of
teaching. The first principle of the pragmatic method is to establish a relation with the
life of the child, his desires and purposes, his interests and inclinations. The second
principle of pragmatism in educational method is “learning by doing” or “learning
through one’s experience”. According to Ryburn, experience is the truest and the best
master, whose lessons we never forget. The third principle of the pragmatic method is
integration of the learning process. The method should be such that it integrates and
correlates the different subjects and activities.
Kilpatrick, follower of John Dewey formulated a solid and practical method of
teaching, i.e. “Project method”. “A project is a whole hearted, purposeful activity,
proceeding in a social environment”. This method is active and dynamic in nature, in
which the child learns by his own activities and experiences.
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Pragmatism and Role of the Teacher:
The most important responsibility of a teacher is to guide the young children through
complexities of life. Teacher has to observe, plan and encourage the activities of the
students and provide suitable environment and experiences. He is a friend, a philosopher
and a guide. The teacher should also create such situations that all children are able to
develop social interests, attitudes and habits for the welfare of the society.
5.5.4 Eclectic Philosophy

Education is a dynamic process, which has to conform to the changing conditions
and environment throughout the ages. One cannot adhere to any one philosophy of
education strictly. We have to draw strength and inspiration from the best in all
philosophies and fuse them into a new philosophy suiting to the higher values of life.
This harmonious blend of diverse philosophies is called Eclectic Philosophy. It
means the pulling together of views and ideas from different philosophies into
comprehensive whole. In the words of Ross, “most educational systems draw their
sustenance from more than one school of philosophical thought, they are to a greater or
of lesser degree, eclectic”.
Eclectic Philosophy and Aims of Education:
1. Education for ‘individual development’ and education for ‘social efficiency’
are the aims of education.
2. Education should give a child a command of the basic process of learning.
3. Education should bring about the development of a moral character.
4. Education should develop moral character.
5. Education should promote good health.
Eclectic Philosophy and Curriculum:

In the curriculum all the philosophies support life centered education. According
to them there is one ‘subject’ for education, and that subject is ‘life’. In curriculum, the
subjects like History, Social and physical sciences, Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric are
included. They advocate a broad based, view of “total experiences”. This envisages in
the child, the development of essential skills, desirable attitudes and individual and
social virtues.
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Eclectic Philosophy and Method of Teaching:
Regarding the methods of teaching, the interest of the child is considered very
important. “Method according to the circumstances” is advocated. They have given a
place for ‘drill’ and considered the importance of freedom as a means. They have
advocated problem method and supported play way and ‘learning by doing’.
Eclectic Philosophy and Role of the Teacher:

All philosophies stress the importance of the role of the teacher in the process of
education. Teachers are to be prepared carefully for this role by means of proper courses
of instruction and practical applications.
a. Aims of education are related to the aims of ………...
b. A teacher is not a teacher alone, but he is a ……….. also………
c. Mind and ‘Soul’ are more important than the .............. and .........
d. Naturalism is concerned with ..........or ……….
e. Pragmatists emphasized on ………. rather than thought.
f. Harmonious blend of diverse philosophies is called ...
2. Match the following:
1. Idealism a) Action rather than thought
2. Naturalism b) Mind and soul is important
3. Pragmatism c) Blend of diverse philosophies
4. Eclectic d) Matter is important
3. Write any four aims of education according to Idealists.
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4. What are the three forms of Naturalism?
5. Write four criteria’s for curriculum construction of Pragmatism.
5.6 Let Us Sum-Up

● Philosophy means Love of wisdom or Love of truth.
● Philosophy refers to a set of opinions, customs, beliefs and ideas about the
nature of reality, truth and values. It is a method of analysis, classification and
criticisms.
● Philosophy and education are closely related and inter dependent.
● Philosophy provides aims, in turn determines curriculum, methods, role of the
teacher and so on. Philosophy is theoretical and education is practical.
● Idealists recognize the ideas, and feelings and ideals are more important than
material objects. Self-realization, Spiritual and Cultural developments are
important aims in idealism.
● Idealistic curriculum includes humanities, sciences and physical education.
Questioning, discussion, lecturing, creative projects are the methods in idealism.
For idealists, Teacher is a guide, friend and philosopher.
● For naturalists, nature is everything. Self-expression, individual development,
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cultural development is stressed in aims of naturalism. Curriculum consists of
subjects, which reflect natural interest and activities of child and include child-
centered methods like play way,
● Project and Heuristic method - The role of the teacher here is to act as an observer
and guide.
● Pragmatists emphasized on action. They do not believe in pre-determined aims.
The aims change from time to time. Curriculum is based on utility, child’s natural
interests, occupation, activities and experiences. Methods constitute, learning
by doing, integration and project method. Teacher has to play important role as
a guide, friend and philosopher.
● No system of education can depend on any one philosophy. The harmonious
fusion of different philosophies helps us to have a good system of
education.

1. Love of wisdom
2. Life, universe
3. Reality
1. educators
2. dynamic
3. education

1. 1.life
2. philosopher
3. matter, body
4. natural self, real self
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5. action
6. eclectic
2. 1. -b
2. -d
3. -a
4. -c
3. The aims of education according to idealists are:
i) Self-realization
ii) Spiritual development
iii) Cultural development
iv) Preparation for holy life
4. Three forms of naturalism are:
i) naturalism of physical sciences
ii) mechanicalism
iii) biological naturalism
5. The four criteria’s are:
i) utility
ii) child’s natural interests
iii) child’s occupations, activities and experiences
iv) integration

1. Explain the concept of Philosophy.
2. Explain how Philosophy and Education are related.
3. How does Philosophy affect the aims, curriculum and method in education?
4. Compare and contrast Naturalism and Idealism with reference to aims, methods,
curriculum and role of the teacher?
5. What is Pragmatism? Explain the impact of Pragmatism on education with
respect to aims, curriculum, methods and role of the teacher.
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5.9 References
1. V. R. Taneja: Educational Thought and Practice.
2. N. R. Swaroop Saxena: Foundations of Educational thought and Practice.
3. K. Bhatia and B. D. Bhatia: Theory and Practice of Education.
4. Nanjundaswamy A. S: Educational Theory and Practice.
5. Dash B. N.: Teacher and Education in the Emerging Indian Society.
6. J. Mohanty: Indian Education in the Emerging Society.
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UNIT - 6 ❐ EDUCATION - SOCIOLOGICAL
FOUNDATIONS
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Nature and Scope of Sociology of Education
6.4 Education and Society
6.5 Education and Culture
6.6 Education and Social Change
6.7 Education and Modernization
6.8 Education and Economic Development
6.9 Agencies of Education
6.10 Let Us Sum Up
6.13 References
6.1 Introduction
Importance is given to the philosophical, psychological and scientific basis of
education. During modern times due importance should also be given to the sociological
basis of education. That means, education should give importance to the needs, ideals
and aspirations of Society. Sociological basis of education lays a great emphasis on the
development of good citizens who are capable of achieving more and more progress
and development by means of education.
In this Unit, you will study nature and scope of Sociology of education, role of
Education with respect to various components like society, culture, social change,
modernization, economic development and also agencies of education.
6.2 Objectives
After studying this Unit, you will be able to -
● Explain the nature and scope of sociology of education.
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● Explain the impact of education on society.
● State the characteristics of culture.
● Define culture.
● Explain the role of education in the transmission and refinement of culture.
● Identify the factors responsible for social change.
● Explain the role of education in promoting desired social change.
● Explain the role of education in bringing modernization.
● Bring out the relationship between education and economic development.
● Identify the different agencies of education.
6.3 Nature and Scope of Sociology of Education

The French philosopher ‘August Comte’ used the word “Sociology” for the first
time. He is called the Father of Sociology. He defined sociology as “the application of
scientific method in the study of relationship between the society and the individual”.
Generally, the study of social life and society is termed as sociology.
According to Giddings, Sociology is “the origin, growth, structure and activities
of the society”. Sociology studies the multi dimensional behaviour of human beings.
Likewise education also studies, changes and modifies the human behavior. So education
and sociology are inter-knitted. Emile Durkheim made an early attempt to provide a
sociological perspective to education. To him education was a social thing.
Education is one of the dynamic elements in sociology. Karl Manhein, in his ‘Man
and Society’ states that “education can only be understood when we know for what
society and for what social position the pupils are educated”. If we want to plan a
pattern of education that can create a new and better society, proper analysis of the
social conditions under which we are living is essential. There is a close relationship
between society and education. Education is the process, which is socially directed and
it is the product of social factors and influences.
‘Sociology of Education’ is of recent origin and a new branch of study. R. C.
Angell defines Sociology of education as ‘the scientific analysis of the social process
and patterns involved in the educational system’. Education is the combination of social
acts and sociology is the analysis of human interactions. Sociology of education makes
an effort to study education in the socio-cultural context. According to Ottaway,
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Sociology of education “is the study of relation between education and society- which
is concerned with educational aims, institutions, administration and curricula in relation
to the economic, political, religious, social and cultural forces of the society in which
they function”.
Sociology of Education differs from Educational Sociology.

Educational Sociology as a discipline is designed to prepare education for their
future tasks. It is the application of general principles and findings of sociology to the
administration and process of education.
According to Brookover, “Sociology of Education is the scientific study of the
analysis of the social processes and the patterns involved in the educational system”.
The scope of the Sociology of Education is as follows -
1. Relationship of the educational system to various aspects of the society: This
includes the function of education in the future, the process of social control
and the power system, social-cultural change, social class or status system and
the educational system.
2. Human relations with the school: This includes nature of the school culture, the
pattern of social interaction, social position, social stratification and the informal
patterns of interaction in the school.
3. Impact of the school on the behavior and personality of its participants: This
includes the teacher’s social role and his personality, the impact of his personality
and the socialization of pupils in the school.
4. The school in the community: This includes the community with reference to
the school organization, analysis of the educational process, the relationship
between the school and the community and the demographic and ecological
factors of the community in relation to the school.

1. The first person who used the word ‘sociology’ for the first time was …....
2. Sociology of education is the study of relation between ………...and ….....
3. Sociology of education is the scientific analysis of social ……….. and …..
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6.4 Education and Society
‘A Society’ is a particular type of organization, where people live together in a
geographical territory with a spirit of belongingness. A society is never static, it is
dynamic always changing. It is a collection of people who have their values and needs,
likes and dislikes, hopes and aspirations. There is a feeling of belongingness, cohesion
and involvement among the members of the society. A society changes its shape, its
life-style and ethos, value system and philosophy according to actions and aspirations
of its members.
Education and Society are closely interrelated. One can’t exist without the other.
It is the society, which determines and formulates the pattern of its education according
to its needs, ideals and aspiration. Education follows and tries to realize the ideals of
society, which it serves. The changing pattern of a society brings about corresponding
changes in the educational processes and patterns.
Impact of Society on education:

a. It has been already made clear that the ideals of a society determine the ideals
and values which education is to achieve.
b. Political ideologies also influence education. Society organizes education
according to political aims and ideals, which are to be achieved through
educational processes and programs.
c. Economic Condition of a society influences greatly the educational pattern.
Societies, which are economically sound, can provide much towards education
when compared to the societies, which are economically unsound.
d. Religious ideas and beliefs of a society influence the education pattern to a
great extent. Secular and liberal societies promote liberal attitudes and respect
for all religions emphasizing moral basis for educational processes and programs.
e. Society changes with the change of social ideas, attitudes and values of people
and changes also occur in the educational policies and programs.
Impact of Education on society:

As society influences education, education also influences society in its own ways -
a. Education preserves and conserves social and cultural heritage of a society,
which is the function of a society.
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b. Education brings the development of social awareness, social feelings and social
attitude in an individual and makes the individual social-minded and service
oriented.
c. Education spreads political awakening in the people, develops civic sense of
their rights and duties for their own good and good of society.
d. Education provides various types of vocational training to children to uplift
themselves and bring about economic progress and prosperity of their society.
e. Education eliminates social evils from an individual and from society for the
good of society as well as an individual. Education is essential for social control
also.
f. Education brings about social change and social reform for the benefit of the
individual and for welfare of society.
g. Education socializes a child. It imbibes the cultural, social values and ideals of
a society.

1. Explain the meaning of Society.
2. Bring out the impact of education on society.
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6.5 Education and Culture
Meaning of culture:
The word ‘culture’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘culture’, which means
to grow, to develop, to nourish and to civilize. The culture can be defined in many
ways. In common usage, it means good manners and good taste. ‘Culture means
transmission of social heritage from one generation to another easily’.
E. B. Taylor defines culture as, “a complex whole, which includes knowledge,
beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society”. According to Sutherland and Woodward, “culture includes
anything that can be communicated from one generation to another”. To Mac Iver,
“culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of thinking, living, literature,
religion and so on”.
The words ‘acquired’ and ‘communicated’ are very significant. The word ‘acquired’
refers to the capacity for learning, which is an exclusive power of human beings. Human
beings know the techniques of communication, which is the secret of social heritage.
The very fact that school exists in society is because the culture can be acquired and
communicated and it is also cherished in schools.
The characteristics of culture are as follows -
1. Cumulative: Culture grows with passage of time, gets accumulated, retains the
desirable and discards the rest.
2. Dynamic: Culture is in constant flux. It is ever changing. It is not static, but
keeps on enriching itself, gets modified or refined and responsible for ‘cultural
change’.
3. Diffuse: Changes in the social life of one culture get diffused into another culture,
directly or indirectly.
4. Transmission: Cultural traits and patterns are transmitted from one generation
to another generation.
5. Responsive: Culture responds to the changing needs of man and gets refined.
Cultural lag
According to Ellword, culture is of two types: 1) Material Culture 2) Non-material
culture. Material culture includes man made things like Science and technology, comforts
and luxuries of life, techniques of agricultural and industrial production, etc. Non-
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material culture includes ideals, attitudes and values, beliefs, aspirations, customs,
etc.
We know that culture changes constantly. In the process of change the material
aspects of culture sometimes change more rapidly than the non-material aspects of
culture. Due to this, a gap is created between material and non-material culture. This
differential rate of change is called ‘cultural lag’. Cultural lag affects society and it
poses a number of problems of social adjustment to the people. The education should
always try to bring some sort of balance between these two cultures to avoid cultural lag.
Education for Transmission and Refinement of Culture:

The role of education in passing on the culture of society from generation to
generation has been well recognized since long. The importance of the relation between
school and community is also well established. The school was conceived of originally
to hand over the skills, self-maintenance, the customs, the traditions, etc. J. S. Mill
highlights the role of education with regard to culture. ‘Education is the culture in
which each generation purposely gives to those who are to be its successors’.
The progress of civilization in a society is closely linked with the transmission of
culture. The main task of education is to equip man so as to render him a better personality.
Education can’t achieve this goal unless it brings culture within its fold. In fact, true
education is incomplete without cultural heritage.
Preservation of culture is essentially the function of education. The goal of activities
of every society is the preservation of culture. Education is basically a process of cultural
transmission. Through education we learn ideas, ways, means, tradition, etc. and follow
them. Various media are helpful in this task. Due to this the culture of one generation
will be transferred to another generation. Man is equipped to live in society through the
transmission of culture through the educative process.
Many foreigners ruled our country. Their culture has influenced us, since then our
ways and ideas have changed. Whichever is useful to us has been followed and that
will remain for longer duration in our life. Our Indian culture also influenced the
westerners and they have followed many aspects of our culture. This kind of imitation
is natural. Because we imitate the new, desirable things in our culture is known as
refinement of culture. Culture is refining constantly. Many reformers in our country
have brought social and religious reforms and are responsible for the refinement of our
culture. There were several false beliefs and customs like caste system, untouchability,
child marriage, etc. which needed to be discouraged. Thus culture needs refinement.
Such refinements have to be brought about through education.
Education develops an individual into a cultured person. It preserves, transmits,
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refines and develops the culture of a society. So, education and culture are mutually
interdependent and complimentary to each other.

1. What are the characteristics of culture?
2. Define culture.
Fill in the blanks:

a. The differential rate of change is called ……….....
b. Culture means transmission of ……...... from one generation to another.
6.6 Education and Social Change

Meaning of Social Change:
A change in the life style of a group, a community or a society is called as social
change. It may include a wide variety of changes in dress habits, food habits, marriage
rituals, customs, traditions, folkways, mores, taboos, behaviours, techniques, etc. to
change in attitudes, beliefs and values. Social change may be defined as the process in
which it is describable a significant alteration in the structure and functioning of a
particular system. According to sociologists, social change means variation or
modification in any aspect of social process, pattern and form.
Social changes are usually complex. The course of change may be gradual or
rapid, peaceful or violent, continuous or intermittent, orderly or erratic. The magnitude
of change may be small or large. It is difficult to predict which direction or directions a
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certain change will take and what sort of changes it will lead to. Social change is a
universal phenomenon, it occurs in all societies.
Factors influencing Social change:

Physical factors: Whenever there is a change in physical environment, there occurs
important change in society. Geographical and environmental factors like climate,
topography, natural resources, means of communication, etc. influence the life, culture,
occupation, food and dress of the people in a particular environment. Natural calamities
bring radical changes in the respective societies.
Demographic factors: Change in the size and the composition of the population is a
very important factor leading to the social change. Imbalance caused by the change in
ratio of males and females in a given population can lead to a social change.
Political factors: Political factors can also be responsible for social change. The world
wars were responsible for so many changes in the world. The political parties, which
are ruling the country, also influence this aspect.
Economic factors: Karl Marx says that the character of a society depends upon the
way in which the economic problems are solved by any society. Economic change will
make prominent changes in the society. By the increase of production, the income,
status, way of life of the peoples will improve. Establishment of industries, urbanization
and trade unionism are responsible for several kinds of social change.
Scientific and technological factors: By scientific and technological progress, the
attitude of human beings changes. The inventions and discoveries have caused several
far-reaching social changes in the lives of people. These have completely changed our
style of living, modes of thinking and social relations and even morals.
Cultural factors: Due to several reasons our culture is changing. This is very important
part of social change. Influence of one culture over other culture leads to social change.
Communication between diversified cultural groups causes social change. Culture
diffusion also brings social change.
Voluntary acts of individuals: If we turn the pages of History, we come to know that
all important social and cultural changes are brought about by men of genius. Lenin in
Russia and Mahatma Gandhi in India, have had a profound influence on peoples
and society.
Ideological factors: As the word implies, “Ideas rule the world”. They bring about a
social change. Ideas like communism, Fascism, Nazism, Socialism, Gandhism and
Democracy have impact on changing the pattern of society.
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Role of education in promoting desired social changes:
Education is considered as the most powerful instrument of social change. It is
through education that the society can bring desirable changes and modernize itself.
Education has been and is being played as an agent of socialization of the younger
generations so as to reach the expectations of the society. The school must act as an
instrument of significant social change. Education is the fundamental method of social
progress and reform. Education guides the children towards new values and assists the
development of intelligence and increases the society’s potential for its own
transformation.
Many of our leaders and reformers wanted social reforms, rural reconstruction,
political freedom, social consciousness and upsurge of new functional values among
the Indian people through modern education. Society promotes industrialization,
urbanization, rural development and social mobility by various means, one of the main
ones being education.
The axe of education can cut down the thick roots of outmoded traditions,
superstitions, ignorance, backwardness, etc. which hinder the process of social change.
Education acts as a ‘social equalizer’ and ‘social leveler’ by providing vocational training,
skills and knowledge to its citizens. The outstanding function of education should be
to prepare children for active and co-operative democratic citizenship in changing world.

1. What are the factors responsible for Social change?
2. What is the meaning of Social change?
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6.7 Education and Modernization
Modernization is a complex process, which influences all aspects of human life.
Modernization is “a process, a movement from traditional and quasi-traditional order
to certain desired types of technology and the resultant changes in the social structure,
value orientations, motivations, achievement and aspirations”. It means a ‘value change’,
significant institutional modifications and improvement of standards of performance
and achievement. Modernization involves “the substitutions of old images and forms
with new ones”.
Modernization stands for discriminate selection between what is worthy and what
is unsuitable in a particular situation. It is not a mechanical imitation of some modernized
country. Industrialization, urbanization, rapid transportation and communication,
educational revolution, etc. are the steps in the progressive direction of modernization.
Role of Education in Modernization:

Education and modernization are closely linked. It is education that serves as an
efficient instrument for effective modernization. If a nation is to modernize itself, the
spread of education in rapid pace is essential. Education produces the skilled personnel
to perform differential roles in life. They would contribute to the growth of a nation
through their creative abilities and productive efforts.
Education is the key that opens the doors of modernization in various fields like
economic, industrial, technological and social fields. The Kothari Commission (1964-
66) says: The process of modernization will, therefore be directly related to the pace of
educational advance and the one sure way to modernize quickly is to spread education,
to produce educated and skilled citizens.
Education is the powerful instrument that can be used by the nation to modernize
itself at the shortest possible time. Right kind of education is pre-requisite for achieving
technological and economic progress. Education contributes to modernization by
developing proper sense of rights and duties, personal and social maturity, and skill of
work and management, with right attitudes and dedication, which are necessary for
individual and collective progress.
Education unifies the people into nations by developing communication skills
and feeling of fellowship. Education contributes to the modernization by supplying the
various personnel for running and coordinating administration with appropriate
specialization.
Education brings about healthy changes in the outlook of pupils towards individuals,
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groups and the nation as a whole, and towards things, institutions, events and processes.
Education helps in preserving, enriching and refining intellectual systems into new
forms in the material and non-material aspects of modern life. Education being an
effective instrument of change is closely connected with the modernization of education
itself. According to the changing goals, with new technology and growing knowledge,
education can’t remain static. It has to modernize its own systems continuously.

1. Define modernization.
6.8 Education and Economic Development

Economic development means the proportion of income that is devoted to physical
investment. Some economists take increase in per capita income as an indicator and
measure of economic growth. Some other economists are of the opinion that a well-
oriented labour force can increase the income of a country. John Vaizey redefines
economic development comprehensively as the total effect of development of the labour
force, the accumulation of physical capital, and in addition to the stock of knowledge
and the skill available in the community”. Education can contribute to the labour force
and stock of knowledge and skill.
Relationship between Education and Economic Development:

The relationship of education and economic development for the prosperity of
mankind was emphasized long ago. According to Adam Smith and Marshall “education
confers great indirect benefits even on the ordinary workman. It stimulates his mental
activity, it fosters in him a habit of wise inquisitiveness, it makes him more intelligent,
more ready, more trustworthy in his ordinary work, it raises the time of his life
in working hours, it is an important means towards the production of material
wealth”.
Speaking about the talent that may be acquired from education, Adam Smith
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observed that the acquisition of talents through education cost a real expense, which
formed a fixed capital and realized in the persons concerned. Further, those talents
made a part of their fortune as well as that of their society.
Among the various roles which education has got to play, its role in economic
development through human resource development is perhaps the most significant at
present. Harbison and Mysers hold the view that the educational process of human
resource development is necessary for the transformation of social and political
institutions, for which the people of modernizing countries strive.
The system of education and economic growth in a given social set up are inter
related in such a way, that one can’t exist without the other. Deterioration in education
therefore will affect economic development and slow economic development will affect
educational system and standards. According to B. G. Tilak, the relationship between
education and economic growth is “a two-way process” and has reciprocal relationship
marked by mutual contribution.
Education enlightens the masses to fight against economic and social exploitation.
It also increases productive efficiency of the individual and the group - in fact of the
whole production system. Human capital formation has both quantitative and qualitative
dimensions.

1. Define Economic development.
6.9 Agencies of Education

Society has developed a number of specialized institutions and organizations to
carry out the functions of education. The main function of these is to nourish and
develop the culture and experiences, which come through our heritage. Such institutions
are called “Agencies of education”. Agencies of education are generally divided into
three types, namely - formal, informal and non-formal.
In formal agencies, education is systematically organized and deliberately planned;
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i.e. the process of education goes in planned way. The aims, curriculum, tools and
techniques are decided before hand. Everything is in a planned way. Schools and colleges
will provide such education. If observed critically these are having limited scope and
differ from natural experiences.
In informal agencies, education is not systematically organized and well planned.
The process of education goes in unplanned way. No fixed aims, curriculum and timetable
nor any rigid rules and regulations. It provides opportunity to all. The peoples educated
by experience throughout their life. e.g. Family, religious organizations, news papers
and magazines, cinema, radio and television.
Non-formal education has its beginning where formal education ends. It is in fact,
continuing education. Non-formal education includes the education outside the school
to the peoples of different ages. This is not rigid as formal education and not non-
organizational and unplanned as informal education.
Non-formal education is a system or organization in which the nature of education
is determined in accordance with the needs and convenience of the student. It tries to
provide educational opportunities for those engaged in some profession and for those
who were, for some reason, deprived of education. It presents such practical foundations
of education that education becomes a natural part of life and helps to stimulate society
into progressing towards continuous education.
Formal Agencies of Education:

School: The school, which is a social institution, is established to provide education to
all. The term school denotes a particular place, a place where education is imparted in
a definite way. It means education is imparted in a definite place, time and methods
and by appointed teachers. To provide desirable experiences, to modify the behaviour
of the child in expected way, to make good citizen, to develop innate powers and social
consciousness, the school, which is a formal and active agency, is established.
Functions of the School: Education is a social control and an instrument of social

change. Therefore school is an agent of doing social function. The school performs the
following functions.
1. Develops physical, mental, moral and spiritual powers in the child.
2. Provides suitable vocational training.
3. Prepares the child for democracy and good citizenship.
4. Develops the right conduct.
5. Develops patriotism and national pride.
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6. Conserves and transmits culture to future generation.
7. Promotes the emotional integrity.
8. Develops international understanding.
9. Promotes constructive and creative activities.
10. Brings all round development of the child.
11. Provides education for social control and refinement.
12. Prepares for social service by creative social consciousness.
Informal Agencies of Education:

The Family: The family is the most important informal and active agency of education,
which influences children. Family is the fundamental unit of the society and it is a
small society, hence it is the base for socialization of the child. Home first introduces
the social, cultural and spiritual heritage. This helps to shape the personality of the
child. Love, cooperation, sympathy, service and sacrifice are the qualities received by
the members of the family. Moreover, “Mother is the first teacher”. So, the child is
influenced more, by mothers care and nurturing, her love and affection.
The child learns the physical skills in home from elders and family members through
imitation. Child learns the language at home. Family, which stresses its culture through
generation, helps moral, mental, religious and spiritual development.
Functions of the family: The important functions of the family are as follows -
1. Affection - Parents will provide the child greatest care and love. The parents
indirectly train him to reciprocate love to his other members of the family.
2. Economic - Child is dependent on his parents for satisfying his economic need.
They have to provide his food, clothing, education, recreation and other needs.
Family acts as a medium for transmitting vocational knowledge and technical
skill to children.
3. Educational - Home is the first institution of education and mother is the first
teacher of a child. Family educates the child in his health habit, speech pattern,
basic ideas and the manifold attitudes towards himself and associates. In fact,
the family provides the foundation on which future structure of the child’s
education is constructed.
4. Social - Family performs an important social function by training the child for
the society of which he is to become an active member. It cultivates social
relationships, which are essential conditions for a healthy social life.
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5. Moral - Family provides early training to the child in practical moral behaviour.
Child learns to be honest, truthful, respectful and disciplined in the family.
6. Religious-Family gives religious training which develops virtues like purity of
thought, humility, kindness and fellow feeling.
7. Cultural -Family passes onto the child, its own traditions and pattern of conduct
and the culture of the society.
8. Recreational - Family gives recreation to the child, which is necessary for the
development of the child’s personality.
9. Mass Media - The term ‘mass media’ is usually defined as agencies of
communication, which convey identical information to a large number of persons.
Cinema, Radio, Television, Newspaper, etc., are the mass media influencing in
one way or the other way all the members of the society.
10. Radio - Radio as a means of communication has a great recreational and
educational value. It broadcasts scientific and cultural facts, enlightens public
opinion, stimulates curiosity and interests and brings about better understanding
of events. Radio has broadened the outlook of people with regard to religion
and culture. Using radio as an instrument of classroom teaching is a welcome
step. ‘School broadcasting’ has become an essential feature in many modern
countries of the world. Programs are designed and presented by experts. Radio
programs are more comprehensively integrated towards educational, cultural
and moral end. It has certain limitations also. It can’t cater to the individual
needs. In non-formal education radio as an agency of education can be very
useful because it can reach the masses so quickly.
11. Television: This is a multi sensory media of modern world and it has made
communication rapid. It has changed the behavior and thought, entire country
has been made a school. It has been helpful for common people to see and get
the knowledge of some important things and scientific facts. The reality and
stability of television has increased its importance. By using this, new ideas
and techniques can be learnt.
Because of non-availability of time in school timetable, educational programs
can be recorded and can be used at leisure time. Television is a powerful agency
of mass communication. Next to home and school, television has a more profound
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influence on the education of the child. The future of television, judging by its
potentialities and tendencies, makes a bright promise.
Non-formal Agencies of Education:

Correspondence courses, Open University, Open School and Distance Education,
all these different names imply the same meaning. These have made education accessible
to a large number of learners who, due to various reasons could not make use of
conventional forms of institutions. Distance education means the separation of the
teacher and the student and the consequent use of a large media to enable the learning
process to take place. A large number of Universities in India provide correspondence
courses for various degrees. Open school started by the CBSE, Delhi provides education
through correspondence course.

1. Match the following:
1. Formal agency a) Distance education
2. Non-formal agency b) Family
3. Informal agency c) School

1. ……………………is a powerful agency of mass education.
2. …………………….. is the first teacher.
6.10 Let Us Sum Up

Sociology of education is the scientific study of the analysis of the social processes
and the social patterns involved in the educational system. Education and Society are
closely related. It is the society, which determines and formulates the pattern of its
education according to its needs, ideals and aspirations. Education follows and tries to
realize these. As the society changes, correspondingly education also changes.
Education also influences society by preserving social and cultural heritage, by
developing social awareness, spreads political awakening, provides vocational training
and eliminates social evils. Culture means transmission of social heritage from one
generation to another easily. Culture changes constantly. Material aspects of culture
108
change more rapidly than non-material aspects of culture causing cultural lag. Education
plays a very significant role in transmission and refinement of culture.
Social change means variation or modification in any aspect of social process,
pattern and form. Physical, demographic, political, economic, cultural, ideological,
scientific and technological factors and voluntary acts of individuals influence social
change. Education can bring desirable changes by socializing the younger generation,
it can bring social progress and reform, develop social values, cut down the outmoded
traditions and act as a social equalizer or leveler.
Education serves as an efficient instrument for effective modernization. Education
contributes to modernization by developing proper sense of rights and duties, personal
and social maturity, Skill of work and management, with right attitudes and dedication.
Economic development through human resource development is perhaps the most
significant role of education at present. The institutions and organizations, which are
established by the society in order to carry out the functions of education, are called
Agencies of education. There are three types of agencies - Formal, Informal and Non-
formal. School is a formal agency of education. Radio, Television, Press etc., are the
non-formal agencies of education.
6.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

1. 1. August Comte
2. Education, Society
3. Process, Pattern
1. A society is a particular type of organization, where people live together in a
geographical territory with a spirit of belongingness.
2. Education conserves and preserves social and cultural heritage. It develops social
awareness, feelings and attitude in an individual. It spreads political awakening
and sense of rights and duties, provides vocational training and eliminates social
evils from an individual and from society.
109
1. 1. Culture is cumulative, dynamic, diffusive, transmissive and responsive.
2. 1. Cultural lag
2. Social Heritage.
1. The factors, which influence social change are - Physical, Demographic, Political,
Economic, Scientific and technological, Cultural and Voluntary acts of
individuals.
2. A change in the life style of a group, a community or a society is called as social

change.

1. Modernization is ‘a process, a movement from traditional and quazi-traditional
order to certain desired types of technology and the resultant changes
in the social structure, value orientations, motivations, achievement and
aspirations’.

1. Economic development is the total effect of development of the labour force,
the accumulation of physical capital, and addition to the stock of knowledge
and the skill available in the community.

1. 1. Formal Agency - School
Non-formal - Distance education
Informal - Family
2. 1. Television. 2. Mother.
110
1. Discuss the nature and scope of Sociology of Education.
2. Explain how education influences society.
3. Define culture. What are the characteristics of culture?
4. Explain the factors affecting social change. What is the role of education in
promoting desired social change?
5. Explain the relationship between education and economic development?
6. What are the agencies of education? Explain the Family as an agency of
education.
6.13 References
1. V. R. Taneja: Educational Thought and Practice.
2. N. R. Swaroop Saxena: Foundations of Educational thought and Practice.
3. K. Bhatia and B. D. Bhatia: Theory and Practice of Education.
4. Nanjundaswamy A. S: Educational Theory and Practice.
5. Dash B. N.: Teacher and Education in the Emerging Indian Society.
6. J. Mohanty: Indian Education in the Emerging Society.
7. N.C.E.R.T–The Teacher and Education in Emerging Society.
111
112
3. The progressive Europeans of Australia and Africa use it and their relations
with India are increasing day by day.
4. Latin and Greek had brought resurrection in England; similarly these will do
it in India.
5. Indians themselves are in favour of studying English more than Arabic or
Sanskrit or Persian.
6. Indians might be made learned in English literature and it is the duty of the
Government to make efforts for it.
7. The students of Oriental Institutions want the financial help whereas the
students reading in English schools are ready to pay fees, etc.

1. Elucidate the merits and the demerits of the educational system introduced by
the British.
2. Write a note on the positive effects of the system of education as introduced
by the British in India
12.7 References
1. Aggarwal, J. C. (1996) Teacher and Education in a Developing Society, New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House. Pvt. Ltd.
2. Chandra, S.S. (2003) Indian Education Development, Problems, Issues and
Trends, Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
3. Keay, F. E. (1879) A History of Education in India and Pakistan, Calcutta:
Oxford University Press.
4. Mukherji, S. N. (1974) History of Education in India (Modern Period), Baroda:
Acharya Book Publications.
5. Rai, B. C. (1999) History of Indian Education, Lucknow: Prakashan Kendra.
6. Rai Garg (1977) Indian Education. Review and Preview, Ambala Cantt, The
Associated Publishers.
7. Rawat, P.L. (1981) History of Indian Education, Agra: Rain Prasad and Sons.
222
After our independence the first action of real significance taken by the
Government of India in the field of education was the appointment of a University
Commission in 1948 under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. The
Commission laid stress upon the standard of Education and pointed that secondary
education, which was the weakest link in Indian Education, was mainly responsible
for the low standard. Simultaneously it laid a stress upon the need of technical
education, along with agricultural and medical professional education.

1. European literature and science will be propagated among the Indians.
2. Funds will be employed only for encouraging English education.
3. Future allocation of funds to oriental students and teachers will be stopped.
4. No funds will be available for printing of oriental works.
5. The medium of education will be English.

The Hunter Commission left the organization of the curriculum on provincial
Governments with the suggestion that they should organize the same in their respective
areas according to the needs of the locality concerned. At the same time the
Commission also suggested that subjects useful for life should be incoroprat4d in the
curriculum. It opined that agriculture, physics, trigonometry, geography, medicine
and accountancy should be included in the curriculum as these subjects are closely
related to life.
Check Your Progress - 3

Macaulay advanced the following facts for proving English to be the most
useful language for Indians.
1. It is the language of the Rules and highly placed Indians use it.
2. It is possible that it might be the language of trade and commerce in the
Eastern Waters.
221
5. Indians themselves are in favour of studying English more than Arabic or
Sanskrit or Persian.
6. Indians might be made learned in English literature and it is the duty of the
Government to make efforts for it.
7. The students of Oriental Institutions want the financial help whereas the
students reading in English schools are ready to pay fees, etc.
Medium of Instruction: The Wood’s Despatch pointed out that due to dearth of
course books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be English. But
this should be used by those people who have proper knowledge of English and are
able to understand the European knowledge though this language.
1. What is contribution of Lord Maculay towards medium of instruction?
12.4 Let Us Sum Up

With this unit, we complete a long journey of British rule in India. In 1947, in
free India our educationists summed up both the aspects of Indian education.
Putting forward, the criticism of British Education in India, Indian Educational
Policy of today was planned and organized by a foreign agency and has been submitted
to the severest criticism. It is described as a foreign plant, not suited to Indian soil
and therefore showing an unseemly growth. It is described as an attempt to make
India lose her National Characteristics and make the people, ‘Indian by Birth’ and
‘English in taste, manners and outlook’.
220
Repudiation of Orientalist’s Ideas: Opposing the Orientalists, Lord Macaulay wanted
to discontinue the Oriental Educational Institutions. He said, “The admirers of Oriental
system of education have used another argument, which, if we admit to be valid, is
decisive against all changes”. He concluded that to assist the oriental system of
education means to put a deadlock in the way of future progress.
Medium of Instruction: Criticizing the native literature and languages, Lord Macaulay
advocated English to be made the medium of instruction in India. He said, “A single
shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and
Arabia”. He maintained that current Indian languages are mostly incomplete, inefficient
and lacking in scientific vocabulary. Hence, important books may not even be translated
in those languages. Therefore, Macaulay discarded the local languages and degraded
these literatures. He cracked many malicious jokes on Sanskrit literature, which
proved his ignorance of it.
Support to English: Lord Macaulay flourished in an age when English nation and
English language were, progressing throughout the whole world by leaps and bounds.
British had taken their own culture and literature as the best in the whole world.
They were trying to gain political and cultural supremacy throughout the world. In
support of English, Lord Macaulay said, “It stands pre-eminent even among the
languages of the West... .whoever knows had ready access to all the vast intellectual
wealth which all the wisest nations of the earth have created and hoarded in the
course of ninety generations. It may also be said that the literature now extent in that
language is of greater value than all the literature which three hundred years ago was
extent in all the languages of the world together”.
Macaulay advanced the following facts for proving English to be the most
useful language-for Indians.
1. It is the language of the Rules and highly placed Indians use it.
2. It is possible that it might be the language of trade and commerce in the
Eastern Waters.
3. The progressive Europeans of Australia and Africa use it and their relations
with India are increasing day by day.
4. Latin and Greek had brought resurrection in England; similarly these will do
it in India.
219
education through English medium for the Indians. However, it recommended for
the development of Indian literature. It suggested that the books of Western literature
and science should be translated in these languages. Also original books should be
written and the writers should be rewarded and encouraged.
Employment: About employment Wood laid down the following principles:
1. While selecting the candidates for Government services their academic
qualifications should be considered well.
2. Academically, highly qualified persons should be preferred than the others
for Government services.
The Hunter Commission left the organization of the curriculum on provincial
Governments with the suggestion that they should organize the same in their respective
areas according to the needs of the locality concerned. At the same time the
Commission also suggested that subjects useful for life should be incoroprated in the
curriculum. It opined that agriculture, physics, trigonometry, geography, medicine
and accountancy should be included in the curriculum as these subjects are closely
related to life.

1. Briefly explain Hunter’s ideas towards curriculum.
12.3.3 Medium of Instruction

Positive effects of English language- It is believed by several thinkers that the
introduction of the English language led to the opening of the doors of the West to
the East. They are also of the view that even at present after about six decades of
independence though the influence of tradition persists, the impact of the west on the
attitudes; dress habits and manners etc. of the educated class is obvious.
218
Schools and the Number of Students: Historian Mill had said that each village of
Madras had a primary school, but the number of the students per school was very
little. Sir Munroe accepted that in the population of 1,25,00,000 only 1,88,000 people
were reading. It means that out of each 67 persons only one boy was going to school.
In the districts of Bellary and Kanara the average number of students per school was
about 12. Some people used to educate their children at their homes. Generally they
did not go to schools. Sir Munroe accepts that 26,903 students were being educated
at their Homes in Madras city. This number was five times the number of the
students going to schools.
Most of the students were Hindus. Very few of the girls entered the schools. In
Bellary district the data show that out of 9,941 students, there were only 91 girls.
The general condition of the schools was unsatisfactory. Most of them were giving
ordinary education in provincial language. Twenty-three schools were teaching Sanskrit
and only one in English. There was no uniformity in the course of study. Some
schools were giving education in Persian and Marathi. Nevertheless, primary schools
were, in general, teaching ordinary arithmetic, reading of manuscripts and documents.
Students were made to learn by heart beautiful poems and read stories and also good
instructions.
Course of Study: Wood recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian,
and recommended them as subjects of study in regular institutions. Like Macaulay,
he also recognized the usefulness of Western knowledge for Indians.
Education of women: Despatch threw light on women education and praised the
persons engaged in this pious work. It suggested for its further encouragement through
Grant-in-aid and other measures. It also approved the declaration of Governor-General
that the Government should favourably assist the female education in India. It said,
“The importance of female education in India cannot be over-rated. We cannot repair
from repressing cordial sympathy with the efforts which are being made in the
direction”.
Muslim Education: About Muslim education, Wood said that Muslims are too
backward in education. He suggested that they should be encouraged to gain more
education and efforts should be made in this direction.
Vocational Education: The Despatch paid attention to the vocational education. It
suggested that schools and colleges should be set up at suitable places for vocational
education so that people may get such education.
Encouragement to the Oriental Education: The Despatch supported Western
217
Causes of Failure
Thus, Filtration Theory failed as a government policy in India due to following
reasons:
1. Expansion of Mass Education: The Government began to increase the number

of English schools. It was, however, unable to provide jobs to all the educated
Indians. Naturally many of them started new schools to get themselves employed.
This began to create more job seekers.
2. Awakening: As the number of schools increased a lot, this system only fulfilled
the need of education of the common people. Educated on Western lines some
people were of wide vision and without caring for Government services and self-
interest they started schools for educating general public. Thus, an awakening took
place. People became conscious of their real status. Later on-led by Mahatma Gandhi
they played leading roles in the national Movement and the British rulers had to
leave India.
The aim of Education: According to Wood’s Despatch (1854) the aim of education
was to raise intellectual fitness and moral character of the educands.
1. Which are changes enforced by March Resolution in Indian education?
12.3.2 Curriculums
Sir Thomas Munroe, the Governor of Madras, ordered all the Collectors of the
Province of Madras to survey the educational condition of the province and report
to him. On the basis of these references he (Sir Munroe) prepared his own report as
follows:
216
to all, or should it be given to only a selected few.
This Unit discusses about aims, curriculum and medium of instruction as practiced
in India at the time of British system.
12.2 Objectives
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
explain the aims of British System of Education.
describe curriculum as suggested by different Commissions of Education,
and
analyse the Problem of medium of instruction.
12.3 British System of Education as practised in India–A

Critical Evaluation with respect to
12.3.1 Aims
As is clear by the text of the resolution of March 7, 1835, the following changes
were enforced in Indian education by it:
Filtration theory fulfilled the aim of Lord Macaulay and the directors of the
Company. It decided the education policy of India supported by the higher authorities.
The higher education began to progress rapidly. The declaration of Lord Hardinge of
1844 gave preference to people educated in English schools for the Government
service. So, the main aim of education was securing Government job for which a
large number of Indians started studying in English schools. After getting Government
service, the educated persons were cut off from the common people. Thus, education
created a false vanity among the educated persons. They became more self-centered.
They started thinking themselves higher than an ordinary Indian. They maintained
very little touch with common people. They became Anglicized to such an extent
that even their daily routine and behaviour became westernized. Sometimes it used
to be worse than that of the European officers. The higher and rich class went on
progressing and common people went on degenerating. ‘Filtration Theory’ continued
to cast its shadow up to 1870 after which it faded from Indian soil.
215
UNIT - 12 : BRITISH SYSTEM OF EDUCATION–
AS PRACTISED IN INDIA
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 British System of Education as practised in India–A Critical Evaluation
with respect to
12.3.1 Aims
12.3.2 Structure
12.3.3 Curriculum
12.3.4 Medium of Instruction
I2.4 Let Us Sum Up
12.7 References
12. Introduction
During the period from 1813 to 1833 education was expanded. The responsibility
for expanding education fell on the Company. It was asked to spend at least one lakh
rupees per year on education. The Company had not been given any specific instruction
on this issue. Consequently, the direction of education remained uncertain during
these 30 years due to the following:
The Medium of Instruction: It could not be decided whether the medium of instruction
should be English or Indian languages. There were many developed languages in the
country such as Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali,
Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and many others. So the question arose as to which languages
should be taken up as the medium of instruction. Many groups with divergent views
on this issue came up on the surface.
System of Education: Allied to former question was another issue was how to
expand English education in the country.
Aim of Education: This was the problem to solve. Should education be made available
214
2. Compare the recommendations of Hertog Committee with Hunter’s for reforms
in education.
11.8 References
1. Aggarwal, J. C. (1996) Teacher and Education in a Developing Society, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House. Pvt. Ltd.
2. Chandra, S. S. (2003) Indian Education Development, Problems, Issues and Trends,

Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
3. Keay, F. E. (1879) A History of Education in India and Pakistan, Calcutta: Oxford

University Press.
4. Mukherji, S.N. (1974) History of Education in India (Modern Period), Baroda: Acharya
Book Publications.
5. Rai, B.C. (1999) History of Indian Education, Lucknow: Prakashan Kendra.
6. Rai. Garg (1977) Indian Education Review and Preview, Ambala Cantt, The Associated
Publishers.
7. Rawat, P.L. (1981) History of Indian Education, Agra: Ram Prasad and Sons.
213
a. Infant classes should, as far as possible, be entrusted to trained teachers; and
for this and other reasons the development of educational provision of girls
and women is of paramount importance.
b. The education of children in the primary school should be based more upon
the natural interests and activities of young children and less upon book-
learning. Concentration on narrow learning is unsound.
c. The curriculum of the rural middle school should be closely related to children’s
environment; and if English is taught to any children of “middle school” age
it should not be allowed to result in an excessive amount of linguistic grind.
d. The mother tongue should as far as possible be the medium of instruction
throughout the high school stage, but English should be a compulsory language
for all pupils at this stage. But the teaching of English should be made more
domestic.
e. More systematic attention should be paid to the teaching of Fine Arts; and
steps should be taken to secure for high schools a supply of qualified teachers
of Fine Arts.
f. The pre-service education course of teachers of primary and middle schools
should be a three year course without any gap.

7. Four types of institutions are necessary. (a) junior Technical or Industrial Institution
or Trade School with a two year course after the Senior Basic Stage; (b) Technical
or Industrial Institution or Trade School with a two year course after the Senior Basic
Stage; (c) Technical High School with a six year course after the Junior Basic Stage,
(d) Senior Technical Institution the duration of course is to be fixed in consultation
with employers; and (e) University Technological Departments, providing facilities
for research work. Part-time schools are also necessary.

1. Examine critically the main recommendation of Wood’s despatch with reference
to vocational education.
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13. Vocational Education: The Despatch paid attention to the vocational education.
It suggested that schools and colleges should be set up at suitable places for
vocational education so that people may get such education.
14. Encouragement to the Oriental Education: The Despatch supported Western
education through English medium for the Indians.
15. Employment: About employment Wood laid down the following principles:
(i) While selecting the candidates for Government services their academic
(ii) Academically, highly qualified persons should be preferred than the others
for Government services.

Defects of Higher Education
a. As the only aim for acquiring higher education is to get an employment, the
scope of education has become narrower. The persons who are not selected
for Government jobs are unable to get into other jobs as well.
b. Undue importance is attached to the examination system. Therefore, the
students aim only at passing the examination.
c. The courses are absolutely bookish. Very little attention is paid towards
intellectual development. Instead of attaining real knowledge, students try to
get through the examination by cramming the material.
d. The development of Indian languages has been stunted due to the importance
given to English.
e. Industrial and technological education is neglected. The persons who acquire
this education do so only to get Government jobs. Vocational education is not
properly attended to.

Recommendations of Wood Abbott Commission
The most important recommendations outlined in the first part are:
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of Public Instruction should be set up in all the provinces. Its highest official
should be designated as the Director of Public Instruction. He should be assisted
by Deputy Educational Director, Inspectors and Deputy Inspectors of Schools.
6. Establishment of Universities: The Despatch suggested for the setting up of
the universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and if necessary at other
places too.
7. Establishment of Regular Institutions: The Despatch emphasized establishment
of the graded schools as follows:
a. Universities
b. Colleges
c. High Schools
d. Middle Schools
e. Primary Schools
8. Extension of Public Education: As ‘Filtration Theory’ failed, Wood emphasized
useful education for the public. As the public itself was unable to get such
education, increase in the number of Primary, Middle and High Schools was
emphasized.
9. Grant in aid System: Wood’s Despatch suggested Grant-in-aid system for the
institutions which fulfilled certain qualifications. He also suggested that the
rules and regulations for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the lines practiced
in England.
10. Training of Teachers: Despatch expressed the desire of opening schools in
every provinces of India, as they were in England so that teaching work could
be conducted properly and efficiently.
11. Education of women: Despatch threw light on women education and praised
the persons engaged in this pious work. It suggested for its further encouragement
through Grant-in-aid and other measures.
12. Muslim Education: About Muslim education, Wood said that Muslims are too
backward in education. He suggested that they should be encouraged to gain
more education and efforts should be made in this direction.
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year shall be set apart and applied to the revival and improvement of literature and
the encouragement of the learned natives of India and for the introduction and
promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British
territories in India”.

1. Meaning of the word ‘Literature’ means English literature
2. Indian scholar means a scholar in Locke’s philosophy
3. Medium of instruction should be English
4. Support to English
5. Proposal for preparing code in English.
6. Repudiations of orientalist’s ideas
7. Religious concept and
8. Ways of Grant English utilization.

Wood’s Recommendations
Wood’s Despatch is a long report consisting of 100 paragraphs. In it all the important
educational points have been dealt in detail. The main recommendations of the
Dipsatch are as follows:
1. Acceptance of Educational Responsibility: For the first time the Despatch
clearly accepted the responsibility of British Government for education in India.
2. The aim of Education: According to Wood’s dispatch (1854) the aim of
education was to raise intellectual fitness and moral character of the
educands.
3. Course of Study: Wood recognized the-usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and
Persian, and recommended them as subjects of study in regular institutions.
Like Macaulay, he also recognized the usefulness of Western knowledge for
Indians.
4. Medium of Instruction: The Wood’s Despatch pointed out that due to dearth
of course books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be English.
But this should be used by those people who have proper knowledge of English
and are able to understand the European knowledge though this language.
5. Department of Public Instruction: The Despatch recommended that Department
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educational reorganization committees, and their reports have considerable local
significance. The Inter University Board also discussed many important educational
.problems during their annual meetings.
So far we have been concerned with indigenous types of education in India. But
as India came more and more in contact with European countries their way of life,
including their system of education, was bound to be influenced. Before the
introduction of education on Western lines into India instruction was confined to a
very small portion of the population. Those of the lower castes and outcastes were
practically without any literary education. Persons belonging to the landholding and
trading classes were often receiving some kind of education preparing them for their
work in life. In this unit, more emphasis was on changes brought by education
commissions.

1. The aim of these Mission schools was religious propaganda so the teaching
of Bible was essential.
2. All the schools were running regularly with asset course of study. School
hours were fixed and Sunday was a closed day.
3. The curriculum of these schools was vast. It included Vyakaran, History,
Geography, etc.
4. These Missionaries had arranged for the publication of text book. Due to
their efforts dearth of text books was removed.
5. Previously, one teacher used to teach all the classes, but these Missionaries
arranged for more teachers. On the modern lines they-started teaching through
different teachers.
6. The medium of education in these schools was local language.

1. Clause 43 of the Act stated, “It shall be lawful for the Governor-General-in-
Council to direct that out of any surplus which may remain of the rents, revenues
and profits arising from the said territorial acquisitions, after defraying the expenses
of the military, civil and commercial establishment and paying the interest of the
debt, in manner hereinafter provided, a sum of not less than one lakh rupees in each
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universities, three types of training schools have been suggested for non
graduate teachers, viz., (a) Pre-primary teachers, (b) Basic teachers and (c)
Non-graduate teachers of high schools. Refresher courses for trained teachers
have been considered necessary.
8. An efficient medical service to see that the children are made and kept
healthy.
9. Special schools for children suffering from mental and physical handicaps.
10. The creation of employment bureaus.
11. Social and recreational activities on a fairly large scale.
12. A proper educational administrative system with a strong Education Department
at the Centre. But the provinces are to remain as the main units for educational
administration except in regard to university and Higher Technical Education,
the activities of which are to be coordinated on an All-India basis. It would
also be necessary for provincial governments to resume all educational powers
from local bodies, except where these are functioning efficiently.

1. Which are the four types of institutions suggested by Sargent?
11.5 Let Us Sum Up

An attempt to solve educational problems of the vast population of this
subcontinent on the sound line of ‘basic’ education and the proper follow up through
well designed stages of secondary, university, technical and adult education is not an
easy task. Besides the reports discussed in this Unit, several other reports were
published during the period. Almost all the State Governments appointed their own
207
Schools) are to be of two types: (i) Academic High School, providing
instruction in acts and pure sciences; and (ii) Technical high schools,
specializing in applied sciences and also in industrial and commercial subjects.
Girls’ schools are to teach Domestic Science, besides the subjects meant for
boys. Mother tongue is to be used as the medium of instruction in all high
schools.
4. University education including post-graduate and research facilities for picked
students, viz., one in ten to fifteen high school leavers. The minimum length
of a university degree course is to be three years and the present intermediate
course is to be abolished the first year of the course being transferred to high
schools and the second to universities. For unifying and coordinating the
activities of different universities, the institution of an all India body on the
lines of the university Grants Committee of Great Britain is also suggested.
5. Technical, Commercial and Art Education, the amount, type and location of
each type of institutions to be determined to large extent by the requirements
of industry and commerce. Four types of institutions are necessary.
a. junior Technical or Industrial Institution or Trade School with a two
year course after the Senior Basic Stage;
b. Technical or Industrial Institution or Trade School with a two year
course after the Senior Basic Stage;
c. Technical High School with a six year course after the Junior Basic
Stage,
d. Senior Technical Institution the duration of course is to be fixed in
consultation with employers; and (e) University Technological
Departments, providing facilities for research work. Part-time schools
are also necessary.
6. Adult Education, both vocational and non-vocational for 9 crores of illiterates
(age group: 10-40).
7. Full provision for the training of teachers. The Scheme will require 2,217,733
teachers, viz., 2,000,000 non graduate teachers (33,333 for the pre primary
stage, 1,196,200 for the Junior Basic Stage, 625,560 for the Senior Basic
stage and 181,320 for the junior departments of high schools) and 181,320
graduate teachers for the senior departments of high schools. But while the
graduates are to be trained in training colleges and teaching departments of
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5. The Government should establish a vocational training college, working in
close association with an ordinary training college.

1. What are the recommendations of Abbott Wood for primary education?
Sargent Report (1944)

The need for providing India with a system of education in approximation to these
available in other civilized countries drew the serious attention of leading educationists
of the country. Sir John Sargent, the then Educational Adviser with the Government
of India, was asked by the Reconstruction Committee of the Viceroy’s Executive
Council to prepare a memorandum on Post-war Educational Development in India.
At their meetings in October, 1943, and January, 1944, the CABE accepted the
memorandum, which was published as a report entitled “Post-war Educational
Development in India”. But Dr. Sargent’s name is closely associated with it. The
report is, however, a patch-work of different reports published from time to time by
the CABE to consider the different aspects of Indian educational problems. It aimed
at attaining the educational standard of contemporary England within a minimum
period of forty years. It provides for:
1. A reasonable provision of pre-primary education for children between 3 and
6 years of ageabout 10,00,000 places in nursery schools or classes.
2. Universal, compulsory and free primary or basic education for all children
between the ages of 6 and 14, divided in the Junior Basic (6-11) and Senior
Basic (11-14) stages on the lines suggested by the Second Kher Committee.
The first type of schools is to be compulsory for all, but the second type is
meant only for those who would not proceed to the high school.
3. Secondary or high school education for six years for selected children in the
age-group of 11-17. Admission to this stage is to be made on a selective
basis, and only promising children (about 20 percent, from Junior Basic
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the natural interests and activities of young children and less upon book-
learning. Concentration on narrow learning is unsound.
3. The curriculum of the rural middle school should be closely related to
children’s’ environment; and if English is taught to any children of “middle
school” it should not be allowed to result in an excessive amount of linguistic
grind.
4. The mother tongue should as far as possible be the medium of instruction
throughout the high school stage, but English should be a compulsory language
for all pupils at this stage. But the teaching of English should be made more
domestic.
5. More systematic attention should be paid to the teaching of Fine Arts; and
steps should be takento secure for high schools a supply of qualified teachers
of Fine Arts.
6. The pre-service education course of teachers of primary and middle schools
should be a three year course without any gap.
The main recommendations of the second part are:
1. The expansion of vocational education should not greatly outstrip the
development of industry.
2. General and vocational education is not essentially different branches, but the
earlier and later phases of a continuous process. Each subject in the vocational
school has its origin in the non-vocational school.
3. Vocational education must be based on an adequate general education. The
entrance standard should not, as a rule, be below that reached at the end of
the middle school (Class VIII). Pupils from this stage can be admitted to
junior vocational schools. Pupils who have successfully completed the
higher secondary school course can be admitted to senior vocational schools.
4. The junior vocational school, receiving its pupils at the end of Class VIII and
providing a three year course, would be parallel to the higher secondary
school. The senior vocational school, receiving its pupils at the end of Class
XI and providing a two year course, would be parallel to the higher secondary
school. Part time schools should be provided for further education of young
men already in employment. A limited number of higher secondary should
have an agricultural bias.
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The committee then examined secondary and university education. They were
looked upon as designed to produce competent officials. The committee was satisfied,
no doubt, with the general condition of secondary education, but it pointed out the
large failure at the matriculation examination as mere wastage. The main causes
were:
1. laxity of promotion from class to class in earlier stages, and
2. the pursuit of higher education by too large a number of undeserving students.
Even here, the committee was not without suggestions. The remedies as
suggested were:
1. introduction of varied curricula in middle vernacular schools and the retention
of a large number of pupils in such schools;
2. the diversion of more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the end
of the middle school stage;
3. the provision of alternative courses in the high school stage, and
4. class promotion in lower classes should be given strictly.
The committee felt satisfied at the growth of university education but even
in that respect it had remarks to offer.
Wood-Abbott Report (1937)

As the CABE felt that expert advice was necessary for educational reorganization,
Government of India invited Messrs. A. Abbott, formerly Chief Inspector of Technical
Schools, Board of Education, England, and S.H. Wood, Director of Intelligence,
Board of Education, England, for making necessary suggestions. They visited the
country during the winter of 1936-37 and submitted their Report in June 1937. The
report is divided into two parts, viz., (1) General Education and Administration by
Mr. Wood, and (2) Vocational Education by Mr. Abbott.
Recommendations of Wood - Abbott Commission

The most important recommendations outlined in the first part are:
1. Infant classes should, as far as possible, be entrusted to trained teachers; and
for this and other reasons the development of educational provision of girls
and women is of paramount importance.
2. The education of children in the primary school should be based more upon
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2. Stagnation, i.e., retention of a child in a class for more than one year.
Wastage was ascribed to:
1. absence of a systematic organization of adult education, which resulted in the
increased chances of a relapse into illiteracy;
2. the difficulty of providing schools in villages with a population under
500;
3. uneven distribution of schools - large areas having few schools, while distinctly
narrow areas having too many schools plagued with almost unhealthy
competition;
4. an inadequate utilization of existing schools, which meant that in spite of
schools being in close proximity, a large number of children failed to attend
them;
5. the demand for separate boys’ and girls’ schools, or separate schools on
communal or religious basis;
6. bad teaching owing to either too much of paired or tripled class-teaching in
single-teacher or two-teacher schools, or unsatisfactory training attainment of
teachers or inadequate and inefficient inspection;
7. unattractive curricula because unrelated to actual conditions of life; and
8. unsatisfactory provision of compulsory primary education. Such is the critical
analysis of Wastage as tabulated by the Hartog Report.
The following remedies were offered for combating against wastage:
1. adoption of a policy of consolidation, i.e., the weeding out of inefficient
schools;
2. liberalization of school curricula, adjustment of school hours and holidays to
seasonal requirements, and the fixing up of the minimum duration of the
primary course to a period of four years;
3. provision of suitable training, refresher courses and salaries for teachers;
4. need for a keen vigilance over the lowest classes for reducing wastage and
stagnation;
5. strengthening of the inspectorate;
6. the village primary school should serve as a centre for rural reconstruction;
and
7. introduction of compulsion after a careful preparation of the ground.
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secondary education should be put on the right track for giving a desirable direction
to university education.
Hartog Report(1928)
In May 1928 the Simon Commission (an Indian statutory Commission for
inquiring into social, political and economic progress of India) appointed a sub-
committee with Sir Philip Hartog as the chairman to inquire into the growth of
education in British India and potentialities of progress. The committee submitted its
report in September, 1929. The report admitted that during 1917-27 there had been
a rapid growth in the bulk of education in all branches and that it had become
widespread among all the communities. There was a considerable improvement in
the quality as well. Striking signs of interest in education were also noticeable. It
became evident that the interest should be maintained through well-devised
plans.
But the committee was not satisfied with the progress of literacy made during
1882-1922. There were two main causes for such a poor progress: (1) neglect of
primary education and (2) too much attention paid to higher education in the past.
The report enumerated obstacles which hampered the progress of primary education
in this country, viz., the rural problem formed the chief difficulty, as 74.4 percent of
Indians depend on agriculture; again owing to the scantiness of roads and means of
communication a great difficulty was encountered in collecting children in schools.
Physical obstacles, low density of population, general poverty, ignorance and
conservatism, irregular attendance owing to seasonal illness, superstitious beliefs
and caste barriers, religious, communal and linguistic differences, and above all the
unsatisfactory attempt of provincial legislatures at introducing universal, compulsory
primary education — one and all of these went a long way in not helping the proper
growth of mass education in India.
The committee further observed, “Primary education is ineffective, unless it at
least produces literacy. On the average, no child who has not completed a primary
course of at least four years will become permanently literate”. But on examination
the committee found that in British India, out of every hundred boys in Class I in
1922-23 there were only 19 reading in Class IV in 1925-26. The diminution in
number was attributed to two main causes:
1. Wastage, i.e., premature withdrawal of children from any stage before the
completion of the primary course, and
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Commission. Most of the recommendations of the Commission were patterned on
his views.
The Aims of the Commission

The Commission was required to examine the condition and workings of the
Calcutta University and suggest measures for its reforms. It was authorized to study
the condition of other universities in the country. After the name of its chairman, this
Commission is also popularly known as Sadler Commission.
Functions of the Commission

In March, 1919 the Commission submitted its report to the Government. This
report was in 13 parts and it had elaborate suggestions for reforms of Calcutta
University. The suggestions, though for Calcutta University, could be equally applicable
to other universities in the country.
The Commission started its report with the examination of secondary education,
as it considered it as the basis of University education. The Commission studied the
various problems of University very carefully and gave constructive suggestions for
the reforms of both secondary and university education. The Commission examined
the organization, nature and working method of the University and gave suggestions
for their improvement.
Defects of Secondary Education

The Commission drew attention to the following defects of secondary education:
1. The secondary schools are suffering from lack of useful educational tools and
equipments.
2. Secondary education had become narrow because of being over influenced
by public examination.
3. The standard of secondary education has fallen down to a deplorable degree.
4. The secondary schools are not inspected periodically and they are not given
useful suggestions for their improvement.
5. Suitable subjects for intermediate classes are not included in the curriculum.
The Commission was of the opinion that the study of subjects to be taught
at the intermediate stage should be begun at the secondary level also.
The Commission opined that secondary education at the time neither prepared
students for university education nor did it create self-dependence in youths. So the
200
1. Compulsory primary education should be introduced in the areas where a
certain percentage was fixed by the Governor-General-in-Council.
2. After securing the sanction of the Government, the local bodies shall enforce
the rule. Local bodies shall have the right to introduce compulsion in the
whole or part of the area under their jurisdiction.
3. Local bodies were also given the right to levy cess to meet the cost of free
and compulsory primary education.
4. Expenditure on education was to be shared by the local bodies and the
provincial Governments in the ratio of 1:2.
5. Primary education should be made compulsory for the boys of the age groups
of 6 to 10. The defaulting guardians should be penalized for non-compliance
of the provisions of sending their wards to recognized primary schools.
6. The primary education shall be made compulsory for girls.
7. Guardians whose income is less than Rs. 10 should not be asked to pay any
fee for their wards.
Although Gokhale’s Bill was rejected it focused the attention of the entire
country on education. The Government reconsidered its policy on education and a
new educational policy was launched in 1913.
The Calcutta University Commission 1917-1919

Historical Background
The appointment of this Commission was proposed in 1914, but due to the
outbreak of the First World War, it could not be possible. Because of the First World
War, the proposed Chairman of the Commission, Lord Haildon had refused to head
it. The Government, too, concentrated its attention and energy over the war. However,
the Government had become keen to find out the defects in the educational system.
It felt the necessity to do something for education in order to pacify the public
opinion. So the Calcutta University Commission was appointed in 1917 under the
Chairmanship of Sir M.E. Sadler. The Commission was named after, Calcutta
University as it was principally required to look into the affairs of this University
and suggest measures for its reforms. Sir Asutosh Mukherji, Dr. Ziaddin Ahmad, Dr.
Gregory, Sir Hartog and Prof. Ramsay Muir were some of the more important members
of the Commission. Sir Austosh Mukherji was the most influential member of the
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to get education. At this time the Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaikwad of Baroda had made
primary education free and compulsory within the territories of his State in 1906.
This attempt inspired Gokhale. As a member of the Imperial Legislative Council, he
moved the following resolution on March 19, 1910.
“That this council recommends that a beginning should be made in the direction
of making elementary education free and compulsory throughout the country, and
that a mixed commission of officials and non officials be appointed at an early date
to frame definite proposal”.
Following were the important suggestions contained in this resolution:
a. Elementary education should be made free and compulsory in the area where
35 percent boys were receiving education. This provision should apply to the
age groups of 6 to 10 years.
b. The cost of primary education should be shared by the provincial Government
and the local bodies in the ratio of 2:1.
c. A Secretary should be appointed to organize, supervise and look after the
primary education.
d. There should be a separate department in the Central Government to draw up
a scheme for the expansion of primary education. In the budget statement
there should be a portion describing the progress of primary education at the
primary stage.
The Government assured Gokhale that it would seriously consider the matter
and so he withdrew his resolution. Later on, the Government accepted only last three
recommendations of Gokhale. In 1940, a Department of Education was organized in
the Central Government and the Secretary was appointed. The record of the progress
of primary education also started to be published by Government. But the Government
did not make the primary school education free and compulsory, while this was the
main plank of Gokhale’s Bill.
Gokhale’s Bill 1911

Gokhale was not discouraged. He made further attempt to draw the attention of
the people in India as well as in England towards the condition of education. He
waged a stronger fight against the Government and presented a Bill on March 16,
1911 in the Legislative Council. The object of the bill was to provide for gradual
introduction of principle of compulsion into the elementary education system of the
country. The following were main suggestions contained in the Bill:
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11, 1904. This later on became a law in 1904. It highlighted the defects of Indian
education in the following manner:
Defects of Higher Education

1. As the only aim for acquiring higher education is to get an employment, the
scope of education has become narrower. The persons who are not selected
for Government jobs are unable to get into other jobs as well.
2. Undue importance is attached to the examination system. Therefore, the
students only aim at passing the examination.
3. The courses are absolutely bookish. Very little attention is paid towards
intellectual development. Instead of attaining real knowledge, students try to
get through the examination by cramming the material.
4. The development of Indian languages has been stunted due to the importance
given to English.
5. Industrial and technological education is neglected. The persons who acquire
this education do so only to get Government jobs. Vocational education is not
properly attended to.

1. Discuss the defects of Higher education according to Indian University
Commission.
Gokhale’s Bill 1910

Gopal Krishna Gokhale was very much concerned towards primary education in
India. With the policy of the Government of India, enunciated in 1904, primary
education was gaining a good ground. However, it was not in proportion to the
growing population of India. Only 2.38 percent boys and 2.07 percent girls were able
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2. Certain facilities for teaching should be given after amending the constitution
of the universities.
3. There should be a suitable representation of the teachers and the scholars of
the affiliated colleges in the University Senate.
4. There should be a suitable arrangement for teaching in the colleges affiliated
to the universities. The rules for recognition should be strictly observed and
enforced.
5. Affiliated colleges should be strictly supervised by the universities.
6. Universities should appoint teachers to impart higher education.
7. Suitable amendments should be made in the curriculum and the examination
system of the universities.
8. Hostels should be built for the students.
9. Arrangement for scholarships should take place according to the position of
the students.
10. The standard of the Matric examination should be high, while abolishing the
Inter-Examination, the curriculum of B.A. should be three years.
11. There should be a managing committee for every college. Besides managing
the colleges concerned, it should also appoint competent teachers. It should
pay attention towards the discipline of the students and the construction of
buildings and hostels, etc.
(iii) Evaluation: The Commission did not aim at introducing any revolutionary
change in the system of university education. It sought to recognize the existing
pattern, thought its recommendations did not find favor with the Indian public. There
was no representation of any Indian in the Commission though later on Dr. Gurdas
Banerjee and Syed Hasan Bilgrami were made members. Even then Indians did not
feel happy. They were suspicious of the intentions of Curzon. They thought that
Government wanted to suppress nationalism. By recommending the abolition of
second-rate degree colleges the Commission created a wave of anger among the
Indian educationists.
Indian University Act (1904)

On the basis of Indian University Commission (1902) Lord Curzon decided to
frame the educational policy of state. An Education Act was put forward on March
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4. British Government will spend more money on education.
All the proceedings of Shimla Conference were not disclosed. It did not have any
Indian representative in it. Hence, Indians took it to be a conspiracy against them and
felt annoyed. They thought that probably the Government wanted to abolish the
national feeling through discarding Indians from education field and handing it over
to European and Christian missionaries.
Indian University Commission (1902)

In accordance with his education policy declared at Shimla Conference, Lord
Curzon appointed ‘Indian University Commission’ in 1902. The main reason for an
appointment of this Commission was that Curzon himself thought that an ideal
university should have two aspects. Firstly, it should aim at expanding and encouraging
knowledge and education. Secondly, it should build the character of the students.
From this viewpoint, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Punjab and Allahabad universities
had certain shortcomings which were responsible for lowering the standard of
education. Thus, it was necessary to enquire into the present condition of the
universities. British Government also considered Indian universities as Indian
counterparts of London University. Since London University had been reorganized
in 1898, Indian universities also needed to be amended.
(i) Terms of Reference: Following were the terms of reference of Indian University
Commission:
1. To survey future prospects and the conditions of the universities in India
established by the British Government.
2. To suggest ways and means for the organization and working of Indian
universities.
3. To lay down the procedures by which the standards of Higher Education may
go up at the earliest.
(ii) Suggestions: The Commission visited various universities. It put forward the
report containing following recommendations in regard to Higher education:
1. The Senate and Syndicate should be re-organized. The members of the Senate
and Syndicate should be reduced to 9 and 15 respectively and their term
should be of five years.
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it could not give any original suggestion or educational ideas. Its report was a revised
and enlarged version of Charles Wood’s Report of 1854.
Education in India was developed with a greater stride during the 20 years that
followed the appointment of Hunter Commission. The number of schools and colleges
increased. But the standard of education fell down due to paucity of funds. The
educational institutions did not have proper buildings, libraries and other necessary
equipments. There were no trained teachers for schools. Bookish knowledge was
overemphasized, the students were not given practical experiences useful in actual
life situations. Thus, the education given to youths was one-sided. The sole purpose
before the students was to pass the examinations with good marks. In fact, nothing
useful in practical life was taught to them. In its report the University Education
Commission of 1902 has remarked that, “the purpose of education in India is not to
receive education but to pass examination”. The Indian public was not unaware of
this defect. However, two groups of people were thinking differently about education.
One group was keen for expansion of education and the other group was perturbed
over the fall of standard of education. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was the advocate of
the first group. He insisted on expansion of education. He believed that the Indian
youths should be educated on the Western pattern as the same would do well whether
it was of poor standard or high. Thus, Gokhale emphasized quantity instead of
quality. In a way, he was very right because it was from the quantity that quality
could also come out. In view of the things as existing then this appeared to be the
right measure also because of the very few people educated in English.
Shimla Education Conference (1901)

Lord Curzon convened a conference with himself in the chair with the view to
reform Indian education. Education Directors from every province of India and the
representatives of Christian missionaries were invited in this conference. It continued
for 15 days and considered every aspect of Indian education from Primary to University.
Here, for the first time, Curzon declared his educational policy as follows:
1. British Government will continue to control every item of the education and
also direct Indian education.
2. Public institutions will be established as and when needed. They shall serve
as models for the private institutions.
3. The Central Government will have complete control over Indian education.
Their educational policy shall also be conducted and directed.
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Hunter Commission (1882)
By 1882 it was considered necessary to assess the development of education in
the country and to remove the defects which had crept into it. For this purpose Lord
Ripon appointed the Indian Education Commission on February 3, 1882 under the
Chairmanship of William Hunter, a member of the Executive Council of the Viceroy.
The Commission, popularly known as Hunter Commission after the name of its
Chairman, had twenty members, some of whom were Indians. Among these were
Syed Mohmud, Anand Mohan Basu, P. Ranganada Mudaliar, Hazi Gulam, K.T.
Talang, Maharaj Jitendra Mohan Tagore and Bhudeo Mukherji. Dr. Miller was its
member as a representative of the missionaries, B.L. Rice, the D.P.I. of Mysore, was
the Secretary of the Commission.
The Aims and Objectives of Hunter Commission

1. To assess the position of primary education and to give suggestions for its
reforms.
2. To evaluate the work of the missionaries in the field of education.
3. To find out if the Government institutions should be allowed to continue.
4. To assess the utility of the grant-in-aid system. To find out the attitude of the
Government towards the private Indian enterprises in the field of education.
To find out if they received encouragement from the Government.
5. To study the problem of primary education and to suggest measures for its
reforms. But the Commission also chose to look into the affairs relating to
secondary and higher education.
Within ten months the Commission produced a report of about 700 pages after
hard labour. This report is of historical importance. The Commission made several
sittings for the first two months in Calcutta, then for the next eight months it toured
round the whole country. The Commission elicited opinion from provincial
Governments. It formed a number of committees in various provinces to study the
problem of primary education. It obtained more than 300 suggestions from various
groups of persons. Although the Commission worked very hard for full ten months,
193
literature and science should be translated in these languages. Also original
books should be written and the writers should be rewarded and encouraged.
15. Employment: About employment Wood laid down the following principles:
a. While selecting the candidates for Government services, their academic
b. Academically, highly qualified persons should be preferred than others
for Government services. Lord Stanley was the Secretary of State for
India. This post was created when the power was transferred to the Crown
from the East India Company after the revolt of 1857. Lord Stanley was
a supporter of Wood’s Despatch. He was keen to find out to what extent
education was responsible for the outbreak of the revolt. He issued a
Despatch in which he emphasized the importance of primary education
neglected till then. He did not attach any importance to the grant-in-aid
system which, in his opinion, was responsible for the neglect of primary
education. So he urged in his Despatch that the government itself should
take the responsibility of primary education and levy local taxes to meet
a part of its expenditure. He was influenced by Wood’s ideas and also by
the educational policy then in force in Great Britain. At the time, public
school system in Great Britain was being developed with the help of local
taxes for education. Stanley desired that the same policy should be adopted
in India as well. He also emphasized the necessity of training of teachers.
Due to Stanley’s Despatch, the provincial Governments were made responsible
for primary education. By 1871, the department of education came under the direct
control of the provincial Government. During the regime of Lord Mayo the provincial
Governments were authorized to make expenditure on education themselves. Lord
Lyton increased this power further. Now the provincial Governments were empowered
to spend on education a part of the revenue they received from law courts and
irrigation departments. These developments could not make much difference to the
shape of education as the same was governed by the educational policy of the
Central Government which enjoyed this power up to 1882.

1. Mention Woods recommendations towards women’s education.
192
(i) Universities
(ii) Colleges
(iii) High Schools
(iv) Middle Schools
(v) Primary Schools
8. Extension of Public Education: As ‘Filtration Theory’ failed, Wood emphasized
useful education for the public. As the public itself was unable to get such
education, so increase in the number of Primary, Middle and High Schools was
emphasized. In order to co-ordinate education at these various levels it was
suggested to implement scholarships and other schemes.
9. Grant in aid System: Wood’s Despatch suggested Grant-in-aid system for the
institutions which fulfilled certain qualifications. He also suggested that the
rules and regulations for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the lines practiced
in England.
10. Training of Teachers: Despatch expressed the desire of opening schools in
every provinces of India, as they were in England so that teaching work may
be conducted properly and efficiently.
11. Education of women: Despatch threw light on women education and praised
the persons engaged in this pious work. It suggested for its further encouragement
through Grant-in-aid and other measures. It also approved the declaration of
Governor-General that the Government should favourably assist the female
education in India. It said, importance of female education in India cannot be
over-rated. We cannot repair from repressing cordial sympathy with the efforts
which are being made in the direction”.
12. Muslim Education: About Muslim education, Wood said that Muslims are too
backward in education. He suggested that they should be encouraged to gain
more education and efforts should be made in this direction.
13. Vocational Education: The Despatch paid attention to the vocational education.
It suggested that schools and colleges should be set up at suitable places for
vocational education so that people may get such education.
14. Encouragement to the Oriental Education: The Despatch supported Western
education through English medium for the Indians. However, it recommended
for the development of Indian literature. It suggested that the books of Western
191
The Wood’s Despatch (1854)
As Charles Wood was the Chairman of the Board of Control, so the declaration
was christened as ‘Wood’s Educational Despatch’, though it was written by John
Stuart. It decided the educational policy of the Company Government. ‘Wood’s
Educational Despatch’ has a very important place in the History of Education in
India.
Wood’s Recommendations
Wood’s Despatch is a long report consisting of 100 paragraphs. In it all the
important educational points have been dealt in detail. The main recommendations
of the Despatch are as follows:
1. Acceptance of Educational Responsibility: For the first time the Despatch
clearly accepted the responsibility of British Government for education in
India.
2. The aim of Education: According to Wood’s despatch (1854) the aim of
education was to raise intellectual fitness and moral character of the educands.
3. Course of Study: Wood recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and
Persian, and recommended them as subjects of study in regular institutions.
Like Macaulay, he also recognized the usefulness of Western knowledge for
Indians.
4. Medium of Instruction: The Wood’s Despatch pointed out that due to dearth
of course books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be
English. But this should be used by those people who have proper knowledge
of English and are able to understand the European knowledge through this
language.
5. Department of Public Instruction: The Despatch recommended that
Department of PublicInstruction should be set up in all the provinces. Its
highest official should be designated as the Director of Public Instruction. He
should be assisted by Deputy Educational Director, Inspectors and Deputy
Inspectors of Schools.
6. Establishment of Universities: The Despatch suggested for the setting up of
the universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and if necessary at other
places too.
7. Establishment of Regular Institutions: The Despatch emphasized
establishment of the graded schools as follows:
190
William Bentinck passed the following orders in resolution:
First: His Lordship-in-Council is of the opinion that the great object of the
British Government ought to be the promotion of European literature and science
among the natives of India; and that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of
education would be best employed on English education alone.
Second: But it is not the intention of his Lordship-in-Council to abolish any
college or school of native learning, while the native population shall appear to be
inclined to avail themselves of the advantages which it affords, and his Lordship-in-
Council directs that all the existing professors and students at all institutions under
the superintendence of the Committee shall continue to receive their stipends. No
stipend shall be given to any student that may hereafter enter at any of these institutions;
and that when any professor of Oriental learning shall vacate his situation, the
Committee shall report to the Government the number and state of the class in
order the Government may be able to decide upon the expediency of appointing a
successor.
Third: It has come to the knowledge of the Governor-General-in-Council that
a large sum has been expended by the Committee on the printing of oriental works;
His Lordship-in-Council directs that no portion of the funds shall hereafter be so
employed.
Fourth: His Lordship-in-Council directs that all the funds which these reforms
will leave at the disposal of the Committee be henceforth employed in imparting to
the native population a knowledge of English literature and science through the
medium of English language; and His Lordship-in-Council requests the Committee
to submit to Government with all expedition, a plan for the accomplishment of this
purpose.
Changes Enforced in Indian Education

As is clear by the text of the resolution of March 7, 1835, the following changes
were enforced in Indian education by it:
189
Ways of Grant Utilization: Macaulay made a declaration stating the ways of
expenditure of the money granted for education in India. Following points are worth
mentioning in this regard:
1. British Government’s main aim is to spread European literature and Science
among Indians and so all the money granted for education will be spent for
that purpose.
2. Oriental institutions will not be closed and their teachers and students shall
continue to receive their pay and scholarships a usual.
3. Oriental literature will not be published in future as sufficient money had
been spent on this item.
4. The money, thus saved, will be spent in the spread of English literature and
Science among Indians through English medium.
This declaration decided the policy, medium, means and aims of education in
India as adopted by the British Government. Governor-General himself was admirer
of English education. Therefore, assisted by Lord Macaulay, he got the opportunity
of enforcing his thoughts. He thought that many social evils will end with the
development of English education.

1. Write main features of Macaulay’s Minute of Indian Education:
Resolution of March 1835

Lord William Bentinck accepted the arguments advanced by Macaulay in support
of his educational policy. He observed, “I give my entire concurrence to the sentiments
expressed in this minute”. The Resolution of March 1835 was the first declaration
of the British Government in the sphere of education in India. It determined the aim,
content and the medium of Instruction in India. Promotion of Western sciences and
arts was acknowledged as the avowed object.
188
became essential for her to issue another notification. In 1833 the notification
concerning education in India was issued. Following facts were notable in the
notification:
1. The missionaries of all the countries were given the facility of preaching their
religion in India.
2. The Governor of Bengal was made superior to the Governors of other provinces
and his policies were to be followed by others.
3. Any Indian or natural citizen of the emperor territory was not to be appointed
to any service or post on the basis of caste, creed or some other consideration.
4. Educational grant was raised to Rs. 1,00,000 from Rs. 10,000.
5. In the Council of the Governor-General, a fourth member i.e. Law Member
was added.
6. In due course of time, the provision of this Charter influenced the education
in India to a very great extent. This Charter of 1833 occupies a very important
place in the history of Indian education.

1. Mention Charter Act, 1813.
Lord Macaulay came to India as a Law Member of the Council of Governor-

General on June 13, 1834 during the violent Oriental and Occidental controversy.
According to the Charter of 1833, he was appointed Law Member of the Governor-
General’s Council. He was a learned scholar of English literature and a very fluent
orator. He was appointed the chairman of the Society of Public Instructions of
Bengal by Lord William Bentick. Thus, Lord Macaulay advocated Western education
and English medium for education in India. He proposed to stop the grants of
Oriental institutions and save the unnecessary expenditure. He wanted to utilize the
money properly in opening English schools and developing the Western system of
education in India.
187
He was of the view that medium of instruction should be the Indian language
along with English as well. Special importance should be given to English in the
education of Indian people, because it was through English that they could catch up
with the latest trends in literature, science, philosophy, religion and other subjects.
English alone would revolutionize the thoughts of the Indian people for enabling
them to hold their own uniqueness ultimately. At first, English teachers should be
appointed and later they might be replaced as able Indians were available. The
British Parliament gradually accepted the suggestions given by Grant and the same
were implemented. But this process took 40 years when in 1813 a Charter was
published.
The Charter of 1813 A.D.

The Charter of 1813 was published due to efforts of Charles Grant. Wilberforce
helped Grant immensely, in getting his ideas accepted. This Charter gave a new
direction to education. Therefore, Charles Grant is regarded as the father of modem
education in India. The charter of 1813 revolutionized the enlightened opinion in
India. Now it became a responsibility of the Company to make arrangement for
education of the Indian people. The British Parliament advised the Company that it
should spend at least one lakh rupees per year on education. The Christian missionaries
were made free to spread education in the country on their own lines. The Charter
had a good impact on the Indian people. Many enlightened Indian groups opened
their own educational institutions to protect their civilization and culture. Thus, there
was expansion of education in the country before the next Charter was published
after 20 years in 1833. During these 20 years, both the modern and indigenous
system of education expanded.
In 1813 the East India Company was compelled to accept responsibility for the
education of the Indians. Charter Act of 1813 made a provision for an annual grant
of a sum of not less than one lakh rupees for the promotion of learning in India.
Clause 43 of the Act stated, “It shall be lawful for the Governor-General-in-Council
to direct that out of any surplus which may remain of the rents, revenues and profits
arising from the said territorial acquisitions, after defraying the expenses of the
military, civil and commercial establishment and paying the interest of the debt, in
manner hereinafter provided, a sum of not less than one lakh rupees in each year
shall be set apart and applied to the revival and improvement of literature and the
encouragement of the learned natives of India and for the introduction and promotion
of a knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in
India”.
The territorial boundary of East India Company was gradually expanding so it
186
In 1712, a training college for the teachers was founded and the trained teachers
were appointed in Madras for the purpose of teaching English and the Bible to Tamil
children.
‘Check Your Progress’-1

1. List out the characteristics of Missionary Schools.
11.4 Transformations Brought About by the Commissions - A

Brief Account
The English people wanted to win the sympathy and support of influential
Hindu and Muslim people. The higher class section of the Muslim population
demanded the establishment of a Madarsa for higher education. The English people
accepted this demand at once. Warren Hastings laid the foundation stone of the
Calcutta Madarsa in October, 1780. Its main purpose was to educate the higher class
Muslim gentry and to make them faithful supporters of the English government
providing good government services.
Charles Grant was an ordinary officer of the Company. He had come to India
in 1773. He played an important role in education of the period. He studied the
problems of education in India very closely. After his return to England he wrote an
essay entitled ‘Observation’. It contained a description of the conditions of the
Indian people. It pointed out the deplorable affairs in the educational field. The
description given in the ‘observation’ influenced the British Parliament and it took
upon itself the responsibility of education in India. Some people criticized Grant for
drawing a very uncharitable picture of the Indian people in his essay. Grant had
observed that “Light must be brought through education in India. Then the people
will learn to behave rightly. So far they have not been told about the right things.
So education should be given to them for understanding things in the right perspective”.
However, Grant’s real purpose was to help the Indian people.
185
(3) The French: The French established their trading company in the year 1664 in
India and opened their factories at Mahe, Yaman, Karaikal, Chandranagore and
Pondicherry. At these places, they started their schools too. They established a
secondary school at Pondicherry where French language was taught. In the primary
schools education was imparted by Indian teachers through the medium of local
languages. In every school there was a religious missionary who preached the religion.
Non-Christian children also were entitled to admission to these schools. They were,
however, encouraged to go to the schools with the find bait of food, clothes, books
and other necessary paraphernalia for educational purpose. Like their Portuguese
brethren, the French were also the followers of the Roman Catholic. Their work was
appreciable in relation to those institutions where education in religion was imparted.
After the downfall of the French, their colonies carne under the possession of the
English and consequently the system of education too underwent a change.
(4) The Danes: In the seventeenth century the Danes established their factories at
Tranquebar near Tanjore and at Serampore in Bengal. From political point of view
the Danes could not rise in importance in our country, but their religious and
educational spheres are of magnitudinous significance. It would not, however, be an
exaggeration to affirm that the Danes were the pioneers of modern educational
system in India. Later on, these Danish missionaries joined the English.
In the year 1706, the Danes sent two German missionaries named Ziegenbalg
and Plustschau to Tranquebar - a Danish settlement in South India. Plustschau and
Schwartz continued the work after the death of Ziegenbalg in the year 1719. They
were assisted in their mission by ‘Christian Mission Committee’ when they did not
receive financial help from Denmark. The Danes “substantially identified themselves
with the English colonies in South India, halting where they halted and advancing
where they advanced”. Ziegenbalg and Plustschau learnt Tamil and Portuguese on
their arrival in India and extended the field of their activities up to Tanjore, Madras,
Tinevali and Trichinopoly. They converted 50,000 people into Baptists by religious
conversion through education. But these Indian converts, it is true, were allowed to
remain within their own castes even after the change of their religion.
The Danes established several elementary schools for the Muslims. The medium
of instruction was the local language. With the assistance of Schultz, Ziegenbalg
translated the Bible into Tamil and wrote a book on Tamil grammar. Schultz translated
the Bible into Telugu. Besides, a Tamil dictionary was also compiled. They were
considerably assisted in the work of the spread of Christian doctrines by the printing
press. In the year, 1712-13 A.D. a press of Tamil and Roman scripts was established.
184
educational activities. Xavier did appreciable work in India in the field of education.
In the year 1542, he preached Christianity by traveling on foot to distant villages and
their streets. He had managed to place a number of books on Christian religion in
every village. In 1575, he founded a University, i.e., St. Anne University at Bandra
near Bombay and established a press at Cochin. Another religious missionary was
De Nobiley, who called himself a western Brahmin and dressed himself like Indian
ascetics as well as kept a Brahman cook for food. His services in the cause of
Christianity are remarkable.
The Portuguese established the first Jesuit College in 1575 at Goa in India
where three hundred students received education. By 1580, more colleges were
established at Goa and other places too. Bernier has referred to a Jesuit college at
Agra which had been founded by Emperor Akbar being influenced by the Jesuit
priests. Here children of some thirty families received education. In seventeenth
century, downfall of the Portuguese had taken place. Their educational efforts also
came to an end with it. One of the chief causes of their downfall was their policy
of intervention in religious matters which was strongly opposed by the Indians. As
a matter of fact, their keen educational efforts can be explained by their objective to
the spread of their religion. It is an incontrovertible fact that the educational efforts
of these early missionaries were of mediocre character and their contribution to
modern Indian educational system was insignificant and of no magnitude. The
consequences of their religious policy forewarned the British too. After the downfall
of the Portuguese some Indian Christians endeavored to continue educational ventures
for some time but no remarkable progress could be achieved in it.
(2) The Dutch: In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Dutch also established
their trading companies in India. At that time, their naval strength was considered
to be supreme in the world. They started their commercial concerns at Chinsura and
Hoogli in Bengal. It is, however, worthy of note that from the very beginning they
adopted in inflexible policy of non-intervention in religious affairs. They were not
under the spell of propagating their religion among the Indians. They looked simply
to their commercial interests. It is true, however, that they established some schools
for the education of the children of Company’s servants; the Indian children too were
allowed to read in these schools. They tried to convert Roman Catholicists into
Protestants to a certain extent. They preached the tents of the Protestant Church
among the Christians through educational institutions. They extended the sphere of
their activities even up to Ceylon.
183
Earlier Missionary Efforts
In the very beginning of the seventeenth century, the Western immigrants had
begun pouring into our country. Following the advent of the Portuguese in India, the
Dutch, the French, the Spaniards and the English came to our country. They established
here primarily their commercial companies and at the end of Moghul Empire, they
founded business houses in the distant ports in India. Soon their trade flourished.
Later on, these trading companies, taking advantage of the political weakness of the
country, entered into war engagements with one another in order to establish their
empires. The East India Company, established in the year 1601, also participated in
this conflict and at length succeeded in establishing her empire in India.
The object of the European traders’ settlement in India was missionary too.
They said that they “came to India in search of Christians and Spices”. Therefore,
soon after their arrival, they established their schools aiming at the education of the
children of their Anglo-Indian servants and spreading the Christian religion. In the
initial stage, they undertook only the elementary education in their hands.
The East Indian Company too, on her part, made education as a means of the
propagation of their religion in the beginning, but in course of time, she had to have
recourse to the policy of religious neutrality for certain political and administrative
reasons and followed this policy until 1813. Thus, the reality, the Company did not
put forth any appreciable endeavors in the direction of the educational progress of
the country within a hundred years of its formation.
(1) The Portuguese: It was in the year 1489 that the first Portuguese voyager named
Vasco de Gama had disembarked at Calicut. Afterwards different groups of Christian
missionaries began to preach and propagated the creed of Roman Catholicism at
Western sea coast of India. As a result of their efforts, a new system of education
was born in this part of the country. They established various schools for the sake
of propagating their religion and educating the children of the Portuguese, the Eurasians
and Indian converts. Their main centers of operation were Bombay, Goa, Daman,
Diu, Ceylon, Chittagong and Hoogli, etc.
Indeed, the Portuguese can well be regarded as the founders of modern system
of education in India. They started schools for elementary education where in education
was imparted mainly in religion, local language, Portuguese, arithmetic and crafts.
For higher education they established Jesuit colleges, where they imparted education
in Latin, Religion, Logic and Music and trained the bishops.
The most eminent of all the early missionaries to come to India was St. Xavier.
He was a follower of a schism of Jesuitism. These Jesuits were famous for their
182
naturally drew their inspiration from English models rather than from Hindu or
Muslim traditions. This unit describes all important commissions of education along
with mission schools.
11.2 Objectives
● trace the role of British Education in India
● list out the characteristics of missionary Schools
● point out the implication of Macaulay’s minutes
● explain recommendations of Hunter’s Commission of Education
● bring out the significances Gokhale’s Bill
● explain the recommendations of Hortog Committee
● review the Sargent Report on Education
11.3 Salient Features of Mission Schools

During the period 1813 to 1833, a large number of Primary schools were
started by the Missionaries and if it be minutely seen, then, it will be clear that due
to the virtues of these Missionaries, the education in India got reorganized and
modern schools were organized on the lines of the Missionary schools. Their
characteristics were as follows:
1. The aims of these Mission schools were religious propaganda and so the
teaching of Bible was essential.
2. All the schools were running regularly with asset course of study. School
hours were fixed and Sunday was a closed day.
3. The curriculum of these schools was vast. It included Vyakaran, History,
Geography, etc.
4. These Missionaries had arranged for the publication of text book. Due to
their efforts dearth of text books was removed.
5. Previously, one teacher used to teach all the classes, but these Missionaries
arranged for more teachers. On the modern lines they started teaching through
different teachers.
6. The medium of education in these schools was local language.
181
UNIT - 11 ❐ EDUCATION DURING BRITISH
PERIOD
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Salient Features of Mission Schools and earlier Missionary efforts
11.4 Transformations brought about Commissions- A Brief Account
11.5 Let Us Sum Up
11.7 Unit-end Exercises
11.8 References
11.1 Introduction
India has a rich heritage. The centers of education in ancient India attracted
scholars from every corner of the world. Taxila and Nalanda have been the best
known of such ancient Universities. But with the passage of time, these centers were
closed because of the hostile Muslim invaders. Even then, the schools of learning
continued in every part of the country, which were organized by the individual
teachers, who devoted their whole life for the cause of education.
In.1600 A.D. East India Company was established in England, when, Akbar the
Great was Indian Monarch and Mughal Empire was at its glory. For more than 150
years, this Company was occupied with its commercial establishments and
contemporary rival companies. No educational activities were undertaken for about
one hundred years. Its attention was drawn to educational matters in 1698, when in
England a Charter Act was passed, which required the company to maintain schools
in its garrisons. It had nothing to do with the education of Indians, as the provisions
of the act were meant for the children of the Company’s European servants. Thus it
was no surprise that company did not accept the responsibility of educating Indians.
By the middle of eighteenth century the company had established itself politically.
It was then that the company was called upon to encourage education among its
subjects as the earlier Hindu and Muslim rulers had done. But the court of Directors
180
2. Biswas A. and Aggarwal, S. P, Development of Education in India, Concept
Publishing Company, New Delhi (1986)
3. Murthy, S. K.,Contemporary Problems and Current Trends in Education,
Prakash Brother Educational Publishers, Ludhiana (1982)
4. Rawat, P. L, History of Indian Education, Ramaprasad and Sons, Bhopal
(1986)
179
3. Secular and religious subjects were taught in Madarsahs. Apart from religious
subjects, the other subjects taught were languages, literature, logic, philosophy,
astrology, arithmetic, history, fine arts, medicine and agriculture.

1. lecture
2. blessings
3. sanads

1. (d) All the above
2. (b) Strict paradah system was followed

1. Write a brief note on Muslim education and its common characteristics.
2. What were the two types of educational institutions and the curriculum
prescribed in these institutions?
3. Draw out the differences between Muslim education and Vedic education
with respect to the following aspects
a. Teacher- pupil relationship
b. Student discipline
c. Women education
4. Critically analyze the strengths and weaknesses prevailed in Muslim education
system.
5. If you find any Maktabs and Madarsahs in your city, visit them and write a
detailed report about the process of education going on there.
10.7 References
1. Bhatnagar, S, Education Today and Tomorrow, Loyal Book Depot. Meerut
(1983)
178
● Pupil was initiated through a formal ceremony called “Bismillah” in Maktabs.
● Curriculum included religion, literature and practical subjects.
● Discussion, analytical and inductive methods were employed for imparting
instruction with rote memory and lecture method.
● Teacher - pupil relation was good. Individual attention was given to students.
● Encouragements like rewards were given and severe corporal punishment
was given.
● Hostel facilities were provided to the students and staying in hostel was
comfortable for student.
● Women education was not encouraged.
● Spiritual education was not much in practice.
● Education was confirmed to cities and state capitals.

1. Weapon
2. Urdu
3. Religion
4. Motivation

1. (e) Initiation ceremony
(f) Primary education
(b) Teacher
(a) Higher education
(c) Prayer
2. In Vedic educational system it is ‘Upanayana’ and in Buddhist educational
system it is ‘Pabbajja’ ceremony which resembled ‘Bismillah’ ceremony.
177
so strictly prescribed in Muslim period. Compared to Vedic and Buddhist education,
students in this period enjoyed comfortable stay in these hostels with slackened
discipline.
10.3.9 Women Education

Women remained generally deprived of education owing strict pardah system.
They could not attend Maktabs or Madarsahs like male students. With a few exceptions
of learned women, there was absolutely no universal system of women education
prevalent during this period. The daughters of royal family and those of nobles were
educated privately at home. We get references of princess having proficiency in
literature, music, military art, warfare, politics and administration.

Choose the right alternative for the following statements.
1. There was state patronage for education in Muslim period. We can say this
because -
a. Rulers appointed learned men in various administrative posts.
b. There was encouragement for art and literature.
c. Mosques and schools were built.
d. All the above.
2. “Women education was neglected in Muslim period” the reason is
a. More schools were not there.
b. Strict pardah system was followed.
c. Women were considered inferior to men.
d. Women themselves were not interested.
10.4 Let Us Sum Up

● Muslim education developed during the reign of Delhi Sultans and Mughal
emperors.
● It was based on religion and verses from Quran were taught.
● It imparted secular as well as religious education.
● In Maktabs, primary education was provided and Madarsahs, higher education
was provided.
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Fill in the blanks
1. In Madarsahs ………………… method of teaching was in practice.
2. Teacher’s ………………… were considered as important to attain knowledge.
3. There was the convention of awarding ……………. or certificates at the end
of academic career.
Hints: blessings, lecture, tamghas, sanads.
10.3.7 State Patronage and Growth of Education

Learning was held in high esteem and the learned were loved and respected all
over the country. The state encouraged the learned in every possible way. Judges,
lawyers and ministers of religion were taken from these classes. Many Hindus, with
a view of reaping these benefits felt allured to receive Islamic education, and efforts
were made to attain proficiency in Persian and Arabic languages and secured high
posts in the state.
Some of the Mohammedan who invaded India did not put much effort for
advancement of Indian Education. Some of them ruined the centers of education
already existed and built mosques and schools in those places. Afterwards certain
rulers encouraged education in the country. Some rulers were great patrons of arts
and literature and kept artists, historians and poets in their courts. The Sultans of
Delhi made proper provision for the education of Mohammedan masses, there were
two Maktabs in every Muslim colony. Madarsahs were established and liberal grants
were sanctioned. Later, some of the kings withdrew state financial aid from educational
institutions. On the whole, most of Muslim rulers encouraged education in their
respective ruling period. History gives reliable evidences to educational development.
10.3.8 Hostels
For Maktab students hostel facilities were not provided except in a few places.
But there were hostels provided for students studying in Madarsahs. Big jagirs or
estates were attached to these Madarsahs and hostels for the purpose of meeting
daily expenditure, and maintenance purpose. These hostels were situated amidst the
town where all the means of comfort for the students were provided conveniently.
Here, we can see a distinction between the early Vedic and Buddhist education
system as far as comfort of student is concerned. The hard mode of living was not
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10.3.4 Methods of Teaching
In Maktabs, the method of teaching was very simple. It was an oral method and
students learnt verses of Quran by cramming and memorizing. After that they were
taught alphabets to write. In Madarsahs also lecture method was in practice. Individual
attention was paid to the abound development of students. Sometimes discussion
method, analytical and inductive methods were also adopted. Monitor system was in
practice, that is, students of higher classes were teaching to the students of lower
classes. Students were also used to learn in solitude doing self-study.
10.3.5 Teacher - Pupil Relationship

The teachers were also called as Ustads, Shaiks, or Imams. They were held in
great esteem and were highly religious minded and enjoyed a unique position in
society. Pupils would revere their teachers and serve them. Like ancient Indian
education system, teachers regarded pupils as their own sons. Teachers came into
close contact in Madarsahs where there was hostel arrangement. Service of teachers
was deemed as the sacred duty of pupils. Teacher’s blessings were considered important
to attain knowledge. Teachers of Maktabs and Madarsahs paid individual attention
to the students.
10.3.6 Student Discipline

Discipline, moral conduct and humility were regarded as the essential attributes
of students. Corporal punishment was much in practice in this period where as we
see this less in Vedic education. Modifying the behaviour through proper practice
and providing a model or setting example in front of students by the Guru was there
in Vedic period. In Buddhist period in the Monasteries students were under strict
supervision. But in the period of Muslim education, guilty student was publicly
caned, whipped or beaten with fists. We get references of some severe kind of
punishment in literature in this period. On the other hand, intelligent and able students
were properly rewarded. There was the convention of awarding sanads or certificates
and tamghas or medals to the students at the end of their academic career at some
specific stage.
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Curriculum
Two types of subjects were taught in these centers, one of the secular and the
other of the religious kind. Subjects like Persian, Arabic, grammar, prose, composition
literature, logic, philosophy, astrology, arithmetic, history, fine arts, geography, medicine
and even agriculture were taught which come under secular subjects
category.
Medium of instruction in higher education was Arabic. Usually lecture method
was followed to give instruction. The religious education included a comprehensive
and profound study of the Quran commentary, traditions of the prophet Mohammed,
Islamic law, and tenets of Sufi creed. King Akbar established separate institutions for
Hindu children, wherein Hindu philosophy and literature were taught along with
Persian.

1. Match the following
A. B.
i. Bismillah a) Higher education
ii. Maktabs b) Teacher
iii. Moulvis c) Prayer
iv. Madarsahs d) Religion
v. Namaz e) Initiation ceremony
f) Primary education
2. Name the initiation (admission) ceremonies performed in Vedic and Buddhist

education system which resembled “Bismillah” ceremony.
3. What were the subjects taught in Madarsahs?
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would engage a teacher for the education of their children at their own houses.
Besides Maktabs, there were monasteries (Khanqahs) and shrines (Dargahs) where
education was imparted to the children of Islam.
Admission Ritual
Education used to begin with the performance of the initiation ritual known as
Bismillah which was performed at the age of 4 years 4 months and 4 days. We can
very well say that it resembled the ceremony like upanayan (in Vedic period) and
Pabbaja (in Buddhist period). At the time of this ceremony the child used to wear
a new crown while Maulvi recited verses from Quran inaugurating the child’s
education.
Curriculum in Maktabs
Persian script was taught, but first only to see and read then writing and grammar.
Good writing was essential and more practice was done in that. Verses from Quran
were taught for daily prayer, some ritual prayers were taught. Stress was given on
correct pronunciation. Knowledge of moral values was taught through the medium
of related literature and poetic works also were taught. With all these the elementary
arithmetic, mode of conversation, correspondence skills, drafting of petitions etc.,
were included. Theoretical and practical knowledge was given in most of the subjects.
With Persian language, Urdu was also studied in these Maktabs.
Madarsah (Higher Education)

Madarsahs were like higher education centers. Higher Islamic education was
imparted there. Like present day higher education system, eminent scholars, famous
teachers used to deliver lectures in these centers. Teachers were appointed either by
state or by private parties. A private body or respective benefactors looked after the
administration. Land grants were given to these institutions.
Admission Procedure
Religious rituals were not conducted to permit the student in these centers. The
student who has completed education in Maktabs normally used to get direct admission
in Madarsahs. The course was of a period of ten to twelve years. Apart from the
grants, the State Government provided for lodging and boarding facilities to the
students in hostels.
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successive dynasties or the rulers changed. The main aims were as follows:
● propagation of knowledge, as Hazrat Mohammad’s message reveals
“knowledge is divine and without it salvation is not possible”.
● propagation of religion, that is the spread of Islam.
● propagation and forming of major laws of Islam and expound of social tradition.
● preparing the individual for material and worldly progress and for future life.
● strengthening the administration and special political principles through
education.
● evolve special system of morals based on Islamic doctrines.

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words given below:
(religion, motivation, weapon, administration, Urdu)
1. Education was like ………in the hands of kings to serve their own interest.
2. A new language ……….. was emerged from intermixing of Arabic and Persian
languages.
3. Propagation of ……….was one of the main aims of Muslim education.
4. With introduction of hostel system …………. devices like reward and
punishment were in practice.
10.3.3 The Two Types of Educational Institutions

Education in this Muslim period was given at two levels - primary and higher.
The primary course lasted for 10 - 12 years after which students could take up higher
education. The two types of institutions were Maktab and Madarsahs.
Maktabs (Primary Education)

In Maktabs, pupils were given the knowledge of the alphabet and religious
prayers. The child’s primary education took place in these schools. The students here
were taught writing, reading Quran, namaz or prayer, azaan, arithmetic, drafting,
conversation, letter - writing etc. The term ‘Maktab’ is derived from Arabic Kutub,
means a place where writing is taught. The teachers were called Moulvis. Maktabs
were attached to mosques. Majority of the children of a locality assembled in the
Maktab and received regular education. But some of the rich or well to do people
171
have been different with different rulers. After the Gulam, Khilji, Tughlak, Sayyad
and Lodhi dynasties, Mughal kings established many educational institutions in India.
This education had its roots in religion. The Holy Quran which was the collection
of messages of Hazrat Mohammed became the instrument of social direction for the
Muslim kings to serve their own interest. To quote a relevant example from the
history, we have understood that king Akbar aimed at organizing the nation on a new
pattern by harmonizing political, religious and social aspects of society, where as the
sole objective of Aurangzeb, on the contrary, was to spread Islamic education and
culture.
Therefore, it is a tough task to describe this Muslim education system under
common headings but an honest effort has been made to bring most popular common
features of this period. In this unit you are going to study Muslim education and its
salient features and other characteristics.
10.3.1 Common Characteristics of Muslim Education

In spite of the different educational features prevailed in the period which stretched
more than seven decades, we find some common characteristics in Muslim education.
Most important among them are listed below.
● The education of this period was profoundly influenced by Islam religion.
● Muslim education had practical and materialistic viewpoints. Apart from
religion, subjects like sculpture, agriculture, medicine, military science, painting,
construction, manufacturing of weapons and other various manual skills were
taught.
● Arabic and Persian languages were taught; even people from other religion
learnt these languages. A new language “Urdu” emerged from intermixing
of these two languages.
● State encouragement was there as rulers provided state grants to educational
institutions. Muslim rulers helped to develop the art of writing history and
literature.
● With the introduction of hostel system, motivation devices like reward and
punishment was in practice.
10.3.2 Aims of Muslim Education

The aims of Muslim education underwent modifications as the attitudes of
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Mughal dynasty in this country which ruled for fairly a longtime till the British
clutches thronged upon the Indians. Though this medieval period is filled with political
and military disturbances and upheavals, still we find that a system of education did
evolve, mainly for the propagation of Islamic religion. This is called as ‘Muslim
Education’. The Muslim rulers in India generally took a keen interest in education.
Hindu and Islamic systems of education influenced each other to a great extent.
10.2 Objectives
After studying this Unit you will be able to:
● know the beginning of Muslim education and the influence of rulers on it.
● compare the aims of Muslim education with the earlier systems of education
in India.
● name the subjects taught in Maktabs and Madrasas.
● analyze the methods of teaching.
● describe teacher-pupil relation and compare it with earlier systems of education.
● understand punishment and reward system prevailed at that time.
● recognize the role of state in promoting education.
● give reason for negligence of women education.
10.3 Muslim Education

According to Hazrat Mohammed, of all the gifts that parents can give to their
children, the best gift is liberal education. The ink in the pens of student is purer and
noble than even the blood of martyrs. When Muslim kings came to India, for them
the time was very favourable. The rulers established permanent empire in India and
they introduced a new educational system of their own. Those days, the ancient
systems of education like Vedic, later Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain were prevalent
in the country.
In the early period, the personal character of the ruler was the most important
factor affecting education. If the ruler was of a literary taste, education and learning
were encouraged and the royal court attracted poets, philosophers, scholars and
literary men. On the other hand, if the ruler was devoid of literary tastes, there was
a definite setback, in learning.
Students, at this juncture we have to understand that the aim of Muslim education
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UNIT : 10 ❐ EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Muslim Education
10.3.1 Common Characteristics of Muslim Education
10.3.2 Aims of Muslim Education
10.3.3 The Two Types of Educational Institutions
10.3.5 Teacher-Pupil Relationship
10.3.7. State Patronage and Growth of Education
10.3.8 Hostels
10.4 Let Us Sum-up
10.7 References
10.1 Introduction
Islam religion was spread rapidly in the world after the death of the prophet in
632 A. D. It is both interesting and instructive to study the rise and growth of Islam,
particularly in India. The founder of Islam was Prophet Mohammed. Prophet
Mohammed emphasized the unity of God and asked his followers to have faith in
the angels which brought messages from God. The Holy Quran was declared to be
a revealed book of Islam religion.
The beginning of the eighth century A.D. marked the event of Mohammedan
invasion in India. The history of Muslim education has been the history of a system
of government and a social system extending over 700 years. Babur founded the
168
9.7 References
Bhatnagar, S. : Education Today and Tomorrow, Loyal Book Depot. Meerut (1983)
Biswas, A. and Aggarwal, S. P : Development of Education in India, Concept Publishing

Company, New Delhi (1986)
Murthy, S. K. : Contemporary Problems and Current Trends in Education, Prakash

Brother Educational Publishers, Ludhiana (1982)
Rawat, P. L. : History of Indian Education, Ramaprasad and Sons, Bhopal (1986)
167
ii. Dhammam Sharanam Gacchami
iii. Sangham sharanam Ganchchami.
3. Upasampada is the second and final ordination in Buddhist education system.
The minimum age of the student is 22 years and sharamana was converted
into a perfect monk or Bhikshu having no relation with his family or world.
4. The two stages of Buddhist education were (i) Primary - aimed at reading,
writing and arithmetic (ii) Higher education comprised teaching in religion,
philosophy, medicine, military science and other vocational subjects.

1. argumentation
2. pali
3. upadhyayas
4. missionaries
‘Check Your Progres- 3

i. (c) important center of education
ii. (a) the center of Mahayana
iii. (e) Convener of Buddhist Council
iv. (b) the famous author

i. Write in brief the two admission procedures in Buddhist education system.
ii. With reference to the methods of teaching and teacher-pupil relationship
bring out the similarities and difference between Vedic and Buddhist system
of education.
iii. Explain the contribution made by Buddhist centers of learning in education
system of India.
166
9.4 Let Us Sum Up
Buddhist education laid the foundation stone of a high culture. It introduced
certain innovations and alterations in already prevailed system. It was very popular
and attracted people from China, Japan, Korea, Java, Burma, Sri Lanka, Tibet and
other countries. The foreign students made a very profound study of Indian religion,
literature and system of education and disseminated the seeds of Indian culture in
their own lands. The most important thing which we can notice in Buddhist education
is that there were no differences of caste and social status like what prevailed in
earlier days. All the students were provided equal opportunities of the development
of their character according to their capacity and aptitudes Secular education formed
an essential part of Buddhist education.
This system contributed in the formation of world renowned educational institution
like Nalanda, Taxila and Vikramshila where religious and secular education was
provided. This educational system was purely Indian developed and excelled under
peculiar Indian conditions. Mass education, women education was in vogue. An
important contribution of this period is the imparting of education in various practical
subjects, a tradition which has come down to the present day. It was in this period
that the method of collective teaching and the presence of numerous teachers in a
single institution was evolved. Educational institutions were formally organized and
established in this period. The system of determining a minimum age for higher
education, providing a set of rules and taking a test for admission is even today
guiding the educational structure. It is also true that the educational method of the
Buddhist period provided new standards in the sphere of morality and discipline.

1. Spread of Buddhist philosophy, principles and teachings which has to lead
the people from miseries of life to eternal happiness was the main aim of
Buddhist education.
2. The Student has to pledge oath of “three Refuges” these are -
i. Buddiham sharanam Gachchami
165
were main contributors of Buddhist education in their respective periods. Some of
the monasteries had developed into institutions of international reputation. The
educational method of the Buddhist period provided new standards in the sphere of
morality and discipline. The accounts provided by Huen Sang, Fa Hein and other
scholars throw light on the contributions of this age to education.
9.3.9. Characteristics of Buddhist Education

1. Monasteries were centers of education.
2. Aim of education was ultimate nirvana, salvation by renunciation of life.
3. Though Sanskrit was an important language, Pali and other Vernacular languages
used as medium of instruction.
4. Two rituals of admission were very important in the life of a student 1. Pabbaja
and 2. Upasampada.
5. Strict discipline was maintained by learners.
6. Education was universal in nature and open to all, irrespective of caste and
country.
7. Women education was equally popular.
8. Centers of higher learning came into existence; monasteries developed into
colleges of international repute.
9. Teacher-pupil relation was cordial.
10. Any kind of sacrifice was prohibited.
11. It gave equal importance to Technical, Vocational and Arts/crafts education.
12. Popular in various countries like china, Japan, Korea, Java, Burma, Sri Lanka
and Tibet.

1. Match the following
A B
i. Taxila a. The center of Mahayana
ii. Nalanda b. The famous author
iii. Kanishka c. Important centers of education
iv. Ashvaghosha d. Religious education
e. Convener of Buddhist council.
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Taxila: Taxila was the capital city of Gandhar and was an important center of
education. This university provided education in numerous subjects such as the
Vedas, Vedanta, Grammar, Ayurveda, military science, astrology, agriculture,
commerce, magical charms etc. Princes from different parts of India used to come
here to learn archery. Many eminent scholars of olden days were alumni of this
center. The lodging and boarding facilities were provided to the students and minimum
age of admission was sixteen years. We get other details from historical references
regarding fee structure, various other facilities provided in hostels, library facilities,
administrative procedures etc.
Nalanda: The Nalanda University was situated in the state of Bihar 40 miles away
from Patna. It was an internationally famed Buddhist center of education. Admissions
of students were done after entrance test to the students desirous of joining the
university. The university building had eight large assembly halls and 300 rooms for
study, a nine storied library comprising books from all religion. There were hostels
with all facilities. It was said that 10,000 students lived and received free education
in this institution. Villages were gifted to the university and kings also used to give
donations. Being a center of Mahayana, a branch of Buddhism Nalanda also provided
education in Hinayana, Vedic and Jain religion. The Vedas, Vedanta philosophy, the
puranas and medicine were also taught there. The method of teaching was discussion
and question answer. Nalanda continued to serve, preserve and propagate Indian
culture for over 800 years.
9.3.8 Spread of Education

Some historians are of the opinion that the percentage of literacy during king
Ashoka’s (272 to 232 B.C.) reign was higher than that achieved during the British
rule. The Gurukulas and Buddhist monasteries served as residential educational
institutes where students lived with their preceptors and learned scholars, and learned
at their feet. Great stress was laid on obedience to parents, preceptors and elders ;
proper treatment of the high and the low, the aged and the distressed; and the
development of virtues like charity, compassion and truthfulness.
King Kaniska (120 to 143 A.D.) convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir
which was attended by 500 Buddhist scholars who made a thorough examination of
theological literature from the remote antiquity and Ashvaghosha, the famous author,
was the vice-president of this learned council. Kings like Ashoka, Kanishka,
Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Harsha, Raja Bhoja, dynasties like Satavahana and Guptas
163
and intellect and produced taught women of high caliber who guided the society in
the fields of religion and philosophy. We find the examples of renowned social
reformers in this period. Women religious missionaries used to go to foreign countries
in missionaries in order to propagate the Buddhist religion. Highly educated women
undertook teaching work and were known as Upadhyaya.
Women were given education in politics, administrative techniques, criticism
(Mimanasa),Vedanta, Ayurveda and Literature of higher order. The Upanayana
ceremony which was compulsory in Vedic period disappeared in Buddhist education
system and it had its own adverse effect on women education in later period.

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words given below:
(upadhyayas, argumentation, missionaries, pali, Nalanda)
1. Discussion and ………. on different religious and philosophical subjects were
daily held in monasteries.
2. Use of vernacular language especially ……….. was used as medium of
instruction.
3. The pupils and ………. would live together in monasteries.
4. Women religious ……….the Buddhist religion……............used to go to foreign
countries in order to propagate Buddhist religion.
9.3.7 Prominent Centres of Education

During Buddhist period of education, some prominent centers of education
came into existence. All the institutions were of collective nature and they had very
good association with Buddhist Viharas and monasteries. All kinds of people had
accessibility and equal opportunity to continue education in these centers. The
educational centers were of international repute and foreigners came over to receive
the education. Among the most notable universities were Taxila, Nalanda, Vallabhi,
Vikramshila, Odantpuri, Nadia, Jagdalla and Banaras. Some of the other famous
centers were Mithila Vallabhi, Kanchi, Rala Gunda and Navadveepa.
Students, in this section we will make an attempt to learn the educational
activities organized in only two of the famous centers named Taxila and Nalanda,
which would give us clear idea of the education system prevailing in Buddhist
period.
162
Students were trained in the art of debating from the very beginning of their academic
career. The students used to go on journey at the end of their career in order to give
a realistic and practical shape to what they had learnt at the monastic schools.
Reasoning and analysis formed an important part in the method of teaching in higher
education. The method used in teaching of technical subject was both theoretical and
practical. The students in arts and crafts, spinning, weaving etc. were served a term
of apprenticeship under some expert artisans. Use of vernacular language especially
pali was used as medium of instruction. With mother tongue, Sanskrit was also an
important language of instruction.

The pupil was called Siddhiviharaka. He acquired knowledge by serving his
Upadhyaya (teacher). Like Vedic system, in the Buddhist education system the
teacher and pupil relationship was very affectionate, cordial and harmonious.
Individual attention was paid to students. It was in accordance with ancient Indian
tradition.
Teacher also had responsibilities and duties towards his pupils. Teacher used to
treat the pupil as his own child. It was the highest and most sacred duty of the
teacher to impart intellectual and spiritual education of a higher order to his disciples.
The teacher put an ideal before his pupils by the simple and pure mode of life. There
were no gurukulas under the Buddhist system of education as they had been during
the Vedic age. Pupils lived in the monasteries or Viharas either as Shramanas or full-
fledged monks. The pupils and the upadhyaya would live together in monasteries. In
educational center like Nalanda each teacher had ten students under his charge.
Buddhist Viharas were the educational centers used not only for religious learning
but also as centers for secular arts and crafts. Technical education in various arts and
crafts such as painting, sculpture and architecture etc. was also imparted in Viharas.
Teacher and pupil were united together by mutual reverence, confidence and affection.
The student was to help his teacher by doing a variety of manual work for him. The
teacher was to teach the student the rules, discipline, chastity, abstinence from pleasures
and help him in his intellectual and spiritual progress.

During the initial stage of Buddhist education, much encouragement was given
to women education, and separate monastic schools were established for this purpose.
The education provided to women helped to raise the standard of women’s character
161
2. Which were the three oaths a student was expected to pledge at the time of
Pabbajja?
3. What is upasampada?
4. What are the two stages of Buddhist Education?

Though the art of writing had considerably advanced in the Buddhist period it
had not reached the masses and it was not more in practical use. The method of the
Buddhist education was mainly oral as it was during the Vedic age. There was a kind
of direct method of teaching in use. The teacher would suggest a lesson to students
and students used to learn it by heart. Teacher used to help the learners to understand
the lessons thoroughly.
In vihars and monastic schools, Hetu-Vidhya or Inductive method was adopted
and the intellect of the pupils was trained through it. Discussions and argumentations
on different religious and philosophical subjects were daily held in the monasteries.
160
as living under a tree, eating food obtained in their begging bowls, wearing clothes
begged from others etc. The total period of education was twenty-two years, composed
of twelve years as pabbajja, and ten years as upsampada.
9.3.3 Curriculum
The Buddhist education was spiritual in essence. It was thoroughly saturated
with religion, since its chief ideal was attainment of Nirvana or Salvation. The three
pithikas - namely Suttanata, Vinaya and Dhamma - which were the religious scripture
of Buddhism formed the main core of curriculum. Subjects like literature, philosophy,
arts, commerce, agriculture and the methods of warfare were taught in the educational
centers. Other vocational subjects included in the curriculum were spinning, weaving,
printing of the cloth, tailoring, writing, accountancy, painting and sketching. For the
benefit of students, Sanskrit literature, astronomy-cum-astrology, medicine and works
of law polity and administration, Ayurveda, Surgery and Coinage arts and Crafts,
architecture were also taught to the students.
Education was categorized into two stages :
1. Primary
2. Higher education.
Primary education was aimed at reading, writing and arithmetic (3 Rs). Higher
education comprised teaching in religion, philosophy, medicine, military science and
the like. Though the Buddhist education was religious in nature and its aim was to
educate the monks belonging to the order, but at the same time we find that it had
not ignored occupational and technical aspects of life. The masses were trained in
agriculture, commerce, cottage industry and animal husbandry.
1. What was the main aim of Buddhist Education?
159
A. Pabbajja (First Ordination)
Prabrajya or Pabbajja was the first preparatory ordination for education. The
student of age eight years after the performance of the ceremony of Pabbajja would
enter the monastery as a “Shramana” (who is going to become). Before the admission
the student has to pledge oath of “Three Refuges” those are -
● Buddham Sharanam Gachchami (I take refuge with the Buddha)
● Dhammam Sharanam Gachchami (I take refuge with the Religion)
● Sangham Sharanam Gachchami (I take refuge with the Order).
Varna distinction was not there for admission though it was forbidden to slaves,
criminals, soldiers, inflected persons etc. Lord Buddha himself held the view that
just as all the rivers by merging into the Ocean become one with it, in the similar
way, different Varnas became one after being admitted to the order. The other conditions
for the student were:
1. Undergo the ceremony of ‘Pabbajja’ at the age of eight.
2. Student has to live under the guidance of his teacher after leaving his home.
3. The student was strictly forbidden to commit violence, speak untruth, take
intoxicants and eat meat.
4. Physical health was important pre-condition for admission.
5. These were strict rules in admitting students for these courses.
There were no caste restrictions for admission. The scholar had to affirm his
faith in the Buddha, his Dhamma (gospel) and Sangha (the order). Student has to
follow strictly the rules and discipline of the order, if he was guilty of any serious
breach of discipline, he could be expelled. The pupil remained in the monastery for
about twelve years, after which he takes the final ordination called ‘upasampada’.
B. Upasampada (Final Ordination)

Upasampada was the second and final ordination in Buddhist education system.
The minimum age of the student was twenty years for performing the ceremony.
Whereas in Vedic period after snataka or graduation the student was permitted to be
settled in household life. The Buddhist upasampanda converted the shramana into a
perfect Monk or Bhikshu having no relation with his family or the world. This
discipline was imposed on women students also. This ceremony was performed
before all the Monks. The ceremony ends with student monk selecting his upadhyaya
and join sangha. If the student is not ready to join sangha then he was to declare
his weaknesses. After this ritual, the male monks were called “Bikshu” and the
female monks “Bikshuni”. At this stage, monks were required to observe such rules
158
acquiring education. The doors of these institutions were thrown open to all,
irrespective of any considerations of caste or country and their outlook remained
non-sectarian. Kings like Ashoka, Kanishka, Chandragupta Vikramaditya and other
kings from the famous dynasties like Shatavahanas, Guptas played important role in
popularizing Buddhist education in their respective periods. The Buddhist monasteries
served as residential educational institutions where students lived with their teachers
and learned scholars and studied at their feet. Great stress was laid on obedience to
parents, teachers and elders and development of virtues like charity, compassion and
truthfulness.
In this chapter we will study some of the salient features of Buddhist education
in detail.
9.3.1 Aims of Buddhist Education

Buddhism held that the worldly life was full of sorrow and that the salvation
could be possible only by renouncing it. Later, to win public sympathy and support
for the spread of the gospel, they extended education to rising generation, and to the
whole community. Spread of Buddhist philosophy, principles and teachings which
has to lead the people from miseries of life to eternal happiness was the main aim
of Buddhist education. Apart from this some of the other aims were:
a. Formation of character and discipline of highest order.
b. Preserve the culture, religion and literature.
c. Provide equal opportunity for all the people irrespective of class and caste.
d. Provide secular education to masses.
e. Finding out concrete solution to various problems of life.
f. Provide education to women.
g. Inculcation of social responsibility and promotion of social happiness.
h. Preservation and transmission of essential culture.
i. Pursuit of freedom from the earthly desires.
j. Improvement of spirituality.
9.3.2 Admission to the Educational Institution

There were two ordinations for entering the order. Pabbajja, the preparatory
ordination at the age of eight and Upasampada, the final ordination at the age
of 20.
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Buddhism can be regarded essentially as a product of these circumstances. It was in
the name of Tapas (asceticism) which Lord Buddha regarded all this as futile and
purposeless and preached the path of renouncing the world to attain salvation (Nirvana).
The other ideologies being same as Vedic period Buddhism regarded as one of the
phases of multi-faceted Hinduism. But we see different type of educational system
in Buddhism.
Buddhism came into existence about 600 B.C. The main educational centers of
Buddhism were Monasteries or Viharas. The entire educational scheme was controlled
and supervised by the monks. It comprised both religious and secular types of
education. In this unit we will make an effort to learn educational system prevailed
in the Buddhist period.
9.2 Objectives
● trace the beginning of Buddhist education and the rulers who influenced it.
● list out the important aims of Buddhist Education.
● distinguish between Vedic and Buddhist education systems.
● describe the methods of teaching in Buddhist education.
● explain teacher-pupil relationship in Buddhist education, and
● know about the popularity of Buddhist Education.
9.3 Buddhist Education - Salient Features

Buddhist Education:
Buddhist system of education enriched human life considerably by providing
moral education and discipline. The Buddhist education laid a strong foundation for
our harmonious, cultural, political and economic relation with other Asian countries.
There was no fundamental difference between Vedic and Buddhist education regarding
its theory and practice. In the beginning, Buddhist education was purely monastic,
confined to those who entered the order but after some time, it was extended to the
whole community. Buddhist education centered around monasteries as Vedic education
centered around the sacrifice. Buddhist monasteries developed into corporate
educational institutions, some of them viz., Nalanda, Vallabhi and Vikramshila became
international centers of learning. People from different countries like China, Japan,
Korea, Java, Burma, Sri Lanka and Tibet were attracted and they visited India for
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UNIT - 9 ❐ EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA - II
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Buddhist Education - Salient Features
9.3.1 Aims of Buddhist Education
9.3.2 Admission to Educational Institution
9.3.3 Curriculum
9.3.7 Prominent Centers of Education
9.3.8 Spread of Education
9.3.9 Characteristics of Buddhist Education
9.4 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 References
9.1 Introduction
Dear students you have studied the educational system prevailed during the
Vedic period in the previous unit. After the Vedic period, there were little changes
in post-Vedic educational system. In this period, we come across the period of sutras
and epic period where the social system influenced the educational system. Then
there was the Brahaminical period which witnessed a marked expansion and
development in curriculum. In this period importance was given to harmonious
development of physical, mental and spiritual aspects of human life.
It is in the social, religious system that we see most of the extremities and
formalities followed in Vedic and post Vedic period. Ritualism had increased, and
people were profoundly troubled. A sense of aimlessness prevailed in society.
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1. Draw out the similarities and differences between Vedic education system
and present day formal education system.
2. List out the aims of Vedic education system and describe the teaching methods
of that period.
3. Write a brief note on the following aspects of Vedic education.
a. Student discipline
b. Teacher’s role
c. Student teacher relationship
4. Make a brief survey of whether a Vedic type of education is still continued
in some of the subjects in India presently.
5. Analyze and give your clear opinion on the following issue:
Given an opportunity to start and run your own school/institution, what are
the salient features of Vedic education you would like to include and why ?
Justify your opinion.
8.7 References
l. Altekar, A. S. : Education in ancient India (II ed.), (1982).
2. Bhatnagar S. : Education Today and Tomorrow, Meerut: Loyal Book Depot (1983).
3. Jawaharlal Nehru : The Discovery of India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi
(2001).
4. Murthy, S. K. : Contemporary Problems and Current Trends in Education (1948).
5. Rawat, P. L. : History of Indian Education, Ramaprasad and Sons, Bhopal (1986).
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● Vedic system was a kind of individualistic and domestic system of education.

1. Four Vedas are Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda
2. Education sharpens the intellect, improves the grasping power and develops
the faculty of discrimination, removes our prejudices and makes us more
reasonable.
3. The ultimate aim of Vedic education was to prepare the students for the
attainment of Mukti, that is the liberation of the soul from the worldly bondages
or self-realization.
1. Universe
2. Sanskrit
3. Three
4. Self-study
5. Gurukulas

1 -e
2 -f
3 -a
4 -b
5 -c

1. (d) - all the above a, b, c.
2. (c) - Samavartana
3. (d) - inferior
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b. Conference
c. Samavartana
d. Brahmacharya
3. In the Vedic period, it is believed that despite the physiological differences,
woman in no way intellectually ………..to man.
a. superior
b. above superior
c. equal
d. inferior
8.4 Let Us Sum Up

● India’s educational and cultural tradition is the most ancient in the world’s
history.
● Attainment of knowledge was regarded as sacred duty and first priority.
● Vedic education system was based on Vedic literature, and the four Vedas are
Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda.
● The ultimate aim of education was to attain Moksha or self-realization.
● With four Vedas, the curriculum consisted of other subjects like philosophy,
logic, drama, astronomy, geometry, architecture, law, medicine, fine-arts,
military skills etc.
● Initiation ceremony was called Upanayana and the school, the house of teacher
was called Gurukula.
● Sanskrit was the medium of instruction.
● The methods of teaching included three steps called Shravana, Manana and
Nidhidhyasana.
● The teacher or Guru was regarded as God and enjoyed the utmost respect in
the society.
● Strict discipline was there for Shishya, the student and Brahmacharya was
strictly followed. Father-and-child relation was there between teacher and
pupil.
● Examinations, degree awarding ceremony were part of educational system.
● Women were given equal opportunity to learn without any discrimination.
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kind of education. The discipline of brahmacharya was observed by girls too in
ancient times. Women had always constituted an educated, cultured and respected
limb of the society, inseparable from it. In Vedic period, women enjoyed freedom to
the highest degree. Girls were eligible to Upanayana or initiation ceremony, sacrifice
to fire, study of Vedas and even in military training. In literature we get too many
examples of women of profound learning and unquestionable high moral character.
There was no major distinction between the educational system applicable to men
and that of women. The prescribed course of study for women was Vedas.
8.3.11 Main Characteristics of Vedic Education

a. Self realization or Moksha was the main aim of education;
b. Strict discipline; both for student as well as for teacher;
c. Character formation, personality development;
d. Affectionate relationship between the teacher and the taught;
e. Individual attention;
f. Development of a sense of humility;
g. Discipline of brahmacharya or celibacy was compulsory;
h. Equal importance to both physical and mental activities;
i. Preservation of culture;
j. Cultural unity, harmony and national integration were promoted;
k. Stress was on verbatim and rote memory;
l. Education was primarily religious in nature;
m. Devotion to guru; and teacher was considered as father or God;
n. Upanayana or initiation ceremony was compulsory;
o. Gurukula system prevailed;
p. Vedic text was the basis of education.

Choose the right alternative
1. After learning, the student was made to face the tough tests participating in
a. debate and discussion
b. seminars
c. conferences
d. all the above
2. The degree awarding ceremony was called ……….
a. Gurudakshina
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deed; and worshipped him as his own father or God. From the Vedic age downwards
the teacher has been held as the spiritual and intellectual father of the student.

Match the following
A B
1 Vathsa a. Control of breath
2 Guru b. Basis of all values
3 Pranayama c. Succession of teachers
4 Dharma d. Qualification
5 Guruparampara e Child
f. God and father
8.3.9 Examination and Awarding Degrees

Evaluation system was carried out in a scientific and systematic way. The
responsibility of entire learning of students was taken by the teacher. Instant guidance
was provided by the teachers to the students committing mistakes. More than bookish
knowledge the application side of whatever learnt was given more importance.
Illustrations were provided whatever necessary for proper understanding of the learning
materials. Most of the time it was the teacher who used to follow the way of life
explained in the Vedic texts. After learning, the student was made to face the tough
tests, participating in debate, discussion, seminars, conferences etc. The examination
was an oral one. The student was required to give oral answers in a congregation of
scholars. If he satisfied them, he was given a degree or title. The consensus of the
scholars’ opinion was essential for obtaining such a title.
The degree awarding ceremony was called Samavartana. Samavartana ceremony
(returning of the student after finishing the course) was performed at the end of the
brahmacharya period to mark the termination of the education course. The students
who finished their education were honoured with the privilege in the beginning of
Samavartana. Usually after this ceremony, the student used to bid farewell to his
teacher after paying Gurudakshina (the honorarium).

The Vedic period consistently believed that despite the differences in physiology,
woman is in no way intellectually inferior to man. She possesses excellent memory,
intelligence, and other mental powers, and hence she has the capacity to obtain any
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and as such, he had to dedicate himself to a strictly regulated life. Apart from
learning, the student had to bear the responsibility of feeding both himself and his
teacher, and this was done through begging for alms. The other works students used
to do were ploughing, looming, helping in household works even bringing fuel and
guarding cattle.
The student was to hold his teacher in deep reverence and honour him like the
king, parents and God. The student was expected to do personal service to the
teacher like a son, do all sundry work in his monastery or teacher’s house. Belief was
there that no progress in knowledge was possible without service in the teacher’s
house.

In the Vedic education period, the teacher (Guru) was expected to possess moral
and spiritual qualifications. He was expected to have mastery over Vedic knowledge
and needed to be a model for the pupil to evaluate. The knowledge was transmitted
to the pupil through a succession of gurus. This came to be called guruparampara.
The sacred duty of the teacher was to lead the pupil from darkness to light.
In the Vedic system of education, teacher was the centre of the system. He was
used to be regarded as the possessor of vast knowledge and he was respected as
equal to God. Teachers gave individual attention towards their pupils. They used to
love their pupils and take care of them as if they are their own children. At the same
time through a set of “do’s” and “don’ts”, a strict discipline was imposed on the
pupils. Character formation was highly stressed. The development of discipline
included the principles like Yama (self control), Niyama (following rules), Asana
(disciplining the body), Pranayama (control of breath) which were compulsory.
The gurus were themselves of the highest mental discipline. The guru is soul
who quickens the process of self-realisation in his shishya (disciple). The task of the
guru was disciplining the mind of his disciple. He was a man of self-experience, and
self-control, with well developed heart filled with kindness for the pupils. The shishyas
had to submit themselves to their teachers, who they had chosen for themselves as
the gurus, physically and mentally during their educational careers. Patience,
resignation, supreme respect and utmost obedience to the teachers, control of mind,
spiritual thinking, self-less service and doubtless devotion were some of the qualities
of the pupils. Both had to pursue their own dharmas. Dharma was the basis of all
values. There were three fold dharmas; the individual, the social and the spiritual.
It was one of the sacred duties of the pupil to serve his teacher. Being a residential
pupil, he would look to the comforts of his guru. Frequently he would look to the
domestic affairs of the teacher. He pledged devotion to him in thought, speech and
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the child. The main duties of the teachers were teaching, making arrangements for
the boarding and lodging of the students, medical treatment, taking care of the
students.
Teacher’s ability was measured in terms of his universality and his humility. The
teacher not only treats the student as his own child, he must also impart to him true
and complete knowledge, without concealing any knowledge from him. The guru or
teacher was given highest place and utmost respect in Vedic society. The great
importance was attached to the teacher and high reverence was shown in the society.
They were themselves of the highest mental discipline. The guru was soul who
quickens the process of self-realisation in his shishya (the student). The task of the
guru was disciplining the mind of his disciple. He was a man of self-experience and
self-control with well-developed heart filled with kindness for the pupil.
The teacher made his pupils learn the Vedic text or mantras by note. Vedic
knowledge was imparted by the guru or the teacher to the pupil through regulated
and prescribed pronunciation which the pupil would commit to memory, having
listened to it alternatively. Only that knowledge which was received from the lips of
the teacher was regarded as purely Vedic. Great importance was attached to the
proper accent and pronunciation in the Vedic recitation, and these could be correctly
learnt only from the lips of a properly qualified teacher. Spiritual salvation depended
almost entirely upon his proper guidance. Teacher loved his pupils with utmost care
and love. He used to call them ‘Vathsa’ (child) and showered ‘Vathsalya’ (affection)
on them.

The pupils would lodge and board at the house of their teacher that was Gurukula,
after the Upanayan or initiation ceremony. Their mode of living was strictly guided
by the prescribed disciplinary rules. The elementary education was accessible to all
the students in general, whereas higher education was confined only to those who
proved worthy of it. The pupil was eligible to admission to the Gurukulas only on
the basis of his moral fitness and good conduct. The discipline of brahmacharya or
celibacy was compulsory. It was one of the sacred duties of the pupil to serve his
teacher. Being a residential pupil, he would look to the comforts of his Guru. Frequently
he would look to the domestic affairs of the teacher. He pledged devotion to him in
thought, speech and deed; and worshipped him as his own father or God. The
ancient Indian pupil was the true embodiment of renunciation, asceticism, humility
and chastity. He was required to follow both physical as well as spiritual disciplines,
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through chanting the same Slokas again and again and holding discussion on several
points. The third step was called Nidhidyasana (contemplating). This step included
meditation. The students were trained to sit and meditate the subject they studied.
Though this method was used to transmit knowledge, the subjects like archery,
sculpture, etc. were taught through practical demonstration. The intensive practice
given to students in such disciplines made them perfect. There were question and
answer sessions. There was encouragement for self-study i.e. swadhyaya, especially
in Vedic education.
This type of education was imparted in three types of institutions, they were,
a. Gurukulas or Ashramas: It was a domestic school run by the teacher. Admission
was at the teacher’s direction and the instruction was highly individualistic.
b. Parishads (Academics): These were also called councils where senior pupils
gathered together to quench their thirst for knowledge. It was a centre for
advanced study.
c. Sammelanas or Conferences or Assemblies: It was gathering of learned men
in the court of king where enlightened discussions were held. Many times
this was used to evaluate new recruits also. The king used to reward scholars
at the end of the discussions.

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words given below
(Sankrit, Gurukulas, Universe, Self Study, Three, Shravana)
1. The curriculum was diversified dealing with Life, Nature ……….and Spirit.
2. In the Vedic period ………was the only medium of instruction.
3. The method of teaching mainly included……….steps.
4. There was encouragement for …………called Swadhyaya.
5. The domestic school called ……….. were run by the teachers.
8.3.6 Duties of Teachers

Gurukula was the house of the teacher, wherein students used to stay and learn.
The main reason of keeping a student at the gurukula was that he availed himself
of the opportunity to mould his life and character on the pattern of idealistic life of
his teacher by living in close contact with him. The teacher serves as a model for
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3. What is the ultimate aim of Vedic Education?
8.3.4 Curriculum
Although education of this period was dominated by the study of Vedic literature,
historical study, stories of heroic lives and discourses on the Puranas also formed a
part of the syllabus. Along with education, the performance of certain rituals was
also regarded as essential. The curriculum was diversified, dealing with life, nature,
universe and spirit. In Vedic education, students used to learn the various subjects
like four Vedas, Upanishads, Astronomy, Geometry, Algebra, Prosody, Grammar,
Etymology, Philosophy, Fine Arts, Sculpture, Architecture, Philology, Medicine,
Ayurveda, Law, Veterinary Science, Military Skills, Archery, Trade and Commerce,
Sanskrit Literature, Dharma Sutras and Current Languages. Thus the curriculum was
very comprehensive including spiritual and materialistic knowledge of Gods, absolute,
logic, ethics and conduct along with sacrificial rituals.

Teachers used different methods of teaching at different times depending on the
nature of the students and that of the subjects. Students’ inherent tendency or aptitude
(abhivrudhi) was also considered. In this period, the educational process was centered
around the teacher; we can call it as teacher centered. Emphasis was placed upon
understanding and giving practical implementation to aphorisms (Sutra). Sanskrit
was the only medium of instruction. The home of the preceptor (teacher / Guru)
served as the institution where the pupil lived after the Upanayana (sacred thread)
or initiation ceremony. After Upanayana ceremony pupil emerges in the form of a
dvija i.e., the twice born. His second birth is spiritual which he owes to his preceptor.
When there were large classes, monitorial system was also adopted.
The general method of learning included imitation, recitation, memorization,
model reading, elucidation, etc. The methods of teaching mainly included three
steps. First step was called Shravana (Hearing). The students used to sit and hear
what the teacher told them. After that, the second step was Manana (deliberation)
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a. achievement of four ideals of life - dharma, artha, kama and moksha (Mukti
the ultimate)
b. training people to lead the four phases of life, namely, brahmacharya, grihastha,
vanaprastha and sanyasa ashramas or fourfold stages of life quite successfully.
c. preparing the pupils for life, training in vocations, business and trades of the
family, military skills and other craft and arts.
d. to impart Vedic knowledge to sharpen the intellect.
e. prepare the pupils to observe Vedic rituals, discharge religious duties and
social duties.
f. formation of character by the proper development of the moral feeling and
spiritual training.
g. developing personality by encouraging the sense of self-confidence, inculcating
the virtue of self-restraint and fostering the powers of discrimination and
judgement.
1. Name the four Vedas?
2. How education works as the agency of improvement?
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ordinary life in Vedic India. It consists characteristically of charms to secure the
good things of life and spells to drive off the bad. Each of the Vedas contains four
sections. Samhita (a collection of hymns, prayers, sacrificial formulas etc.,), Brahmans
(prose discussing the significance of sacrificial rites and ceremonies), Aranyakas
(forest texts), and Upanishads (concluding portions of the Vedas and the basis for the
Vedanta philosophy). Later the Upanishads have dominated Indian philosophy, religion,
and life for nearly three thousand years. At the time of Upanishads, groups of pupils
sat near the teacher to learn from him the truth by which ignorance is destroyed. The
philosophy in it laid great stress on the distinction between the ignorant, narrow,
selfish way which leads to transitory satisfaction and the way of wisdom which leads
to eternal life. The Upanishad speaks to us of the way in which the individual self
gets at the ultimate reality by an inward journey, an inner ascent. The ultimate
identity of the individual soul (atman) with the world soul (Brahman) which is
paramount.
8.3.2 Meaning of Education

Ancient Indians have used the term education in a wider as well as in a narrower
sense. In its wider sense, education is self culture and self-improvement and the
process will go on to the end of one’s life. From the Vedic age downwards the
central conception of education of the Indians has been that it is a source of
illumination, giving us a correct lead in the various spheres of life. The illumination
given to us by education shatters illusions, removes difficulties and enables us to
realize the true value of life. The insight and guidance which education gives us
effects a complete transformation. It works as an agency of improvement. It sharpens
the intellect, improves the grasping power and develops the faculty of discrimination,
removes our prejudices and makes us more reasonable. Education was regarded as
a source of illumination and power, which transforms and enables our nature by the
progressive and harmonious development of our physical, mental, intellectual and
spiritual powers and faculties.
8.3.3 Aims of Education

The ultimate aim of Vedic education was to prepare the students for the attainment
of Mukti, liberation of the soul from the worldly bondages or self realization. It was
aimed at the development of the physical, mental, social, moral and spiritual selves.
To quote important ones the aims of Vedic education were:-
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8.3 Vedic System of Education - Salient Features
8.3.1 The Four Vedas
The term ‘Veda’ is derived from the Sanskrit root Vid, Jnana, to know and
specifically sacred knowledge, thus means knowledge. Vedas are the books of wisdom.
The cream or essence of Vedas is Vedanta, the science of spirituality. The knowledge
part is Jnana Pradhana and the rest of the Vedas are Karma Pradhana, the operative,
ritualistic part. The Vedic system of education is primarily developed on the basis
of Vedic literature, which consists of four Vedas - namely Rigveda, Yajurveda,
Samaveda and Atharveda. In this part we will make short appraisal of the four
Vedas.
The Rigveda
The Rigveda is the earliest and the most illuminating work of the ancient Aryan
religion in India. According to ancient Indian tradition, the Rigveda is that great
treasure of learning which contains the knowledge and main trends of thought of that
age. It is a history of the evolution of civilization and culture of the age. In its
narrower sense, Veda refers to three collections of sacred knowledge known as
Samhitas. They were composed and transmitted orally in an archaic form of Sanskrit
called Vedic Sanskrit. It is compilation of one thousand and seventeen hymns. These
hymns are dedicated to the invocation of Gods, about various ceremonies, philosophical
hymns and those which contain description of supreme creator. The Samhita thus
mirrors the culminating point of cultural development of the life in its various
aspects.
The Yajurveda
Yajurveda, unlike the other Vedas consists of five Samhitas and these contain sacrificial
formulas for the entire spectrum of the ritual.
The Samaveda
Samaveda, which refers to melodies, is a collection of similar hymns that were put
to music to be sung during Vedic rituals.
The Atharvaveda
Atharvaveda has a large number of magic formulas. It provides us with a picture of
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beginning of Indian culture, literature and science. India’s ancient period has been
so glorious and rich that foreign scholars have praised it lavishly.
In this period, people were intellectually efficient and the progress was made in
culture and different departments of knowledge. The Aryan period is regarded as the
healthy, peaceful, mature and practical age of education as Dr. Altekar has put it,
“From the Vedic age downwards the central concept of education of the Indians has
been that it is a source of illumination, giving us a correct lead in the various spheres
of life”. The highly learned scholars recited, understood and interpreted the Vedic
texts. Education was regarded as sacred duty. The general aim of education was the
sharpening of the intellect and developing the character. Though education was
mainly religious in character, it had established harmony between materialism and
spiritualism. Human life was headed towards greater perfection. The system of
education that prevailed during Vedic times of Aryan migration is called as “Vedic
Education”.
As you know, since a long time, education has been given a very important
place in Human Resource Development. During the time of Vedas education was
imparted in a very different way than what you see at present, being done in educational
institutions. In this Unit, you are going to study the Vedic system of education, its
salient features, and its characteristics.
You have to study this unit carefully and try to answer the questions given in
‘check your progress’ to ascertain yourself as to know how much you have understood.
If you are satisfied with the answer you have given, you can continue to study further
or else, please go through the unit once again.
8.2 Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
● explain the meaning of Vedic education.
● name the four Vedas and explain their salient features.
● differentiate between the methods of teaching in Vedic Education system and
present system.
● describe teacher-pupil relationship in Vedic Education
● explain the evaluation system in Vedic Education
● recognize the system of women education during Vedic period
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UNIT - 8 ❐ EDUCATION IN ANCIENT
INDIA - I
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Vedic System of Education - Salient Features
8.3.1 The Four Vedas
8.3.2 Meaning of Education
8.3.3 Aims of Education
8.3.4 Curriculum
8.3.6 Duties of Teachers
8.3.8 Teacher Pupil Relationship
8.3.9 Examination and Awarding Degrees
8.3.11 Main Characteristics of Vedic Education
8.4 Let Us Sum-Up
8.7 References
8.1 Introduction
Ancient Indian civilization is one of the most interesting and important
civilizations of the world. India’s educational and cultural tradition is the most
ancient in the world’s history. All that India is today, is the gift of its cultural and
social heritage of the last 5000 years. If we want to understand it properly we must
study its system of education which was preserved, propagated and modified during
this period. The Vedas occupy the first place among ancient texts which provide
knowledge about ancient Indian education and society. The Vedic period was the
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1. What similarities and dissimilarities do you find in education of the ancient
and medieval periods in India?
2. ‘Indian Education has a long historical cogency of its own: Justify this.
7.7 References
1. Chandrao, S. S. et.al (2003) Indian Education Developments, Problems, Issues
and Trends. Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
2. Howell, A.P. (1872) Education in British India, Calcutta, Government Printing.
3. Keay, F. E. (1938) Indian Education in Ancient and Later Times, London:
Oxford.
4. Mukerji, S. N. (1974) History of Education in India, Baroda: Acharya Book
Depot.
5. Thomas, F.W. (1981) History and Prospects of British Education in India,
London: George Bell and Sons.
6. Veeraiah, B. (2003) Education in Emerging India, Delhi : Himalaya Publishing
House.
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Observation of Celibacy: Humbleness of the pupils was a highly regarded quality to
receive education. Pupils had to observe celibacy strictly. They were free from the
attachment to pleasures of life and severe discipline. Such disciplinary actions and
observation of celibacy and humility helped them to attain supreme knowledge and
to realize within themselves the capacity to identify with the absolute.
Upanayan Ceremony: Education would begin only after the Upanayan Ceremony. It
was a ritual performed when the pupil attained between five to eight years of age at
least, then the pupil would study under learned teachers. Whatever the educand
learnt during his apprenticeship, he would remember forever. If the educand forgot
what he was taught, it was considered as a sin. They selected rainy reason for
revision of learnt subjects, to keep the knowledge evergreen in the mind.
3. Attainment of Salvation: The foremost aim of Buddhist education was the

attainment of Nirvana or Salvation or by renouncing the world and wordly pleasures.
Knowledge acquired from education and the life of austere simplicity, could enable
one to attain Nirvana, having faith in oneself, shradha and the spirit of renunciation.
All through life, one should exhort others to keep full confidence upon their innate
powers. Their soul should inculcate a spirit of self surrender, sacrifice and renunciation
of worldly pleasures for inner enlightenment and the good of others. One would get
spiritual freedom for the growth of self realization through education. According to
Buddha, Soul and God are one and the same element. There is no distinction between
the two. Education was given to students to realize Brahma and become one with
this ultimate truth through real knowledge obtained by their preceptors in the
monasteries.
4. Propagation of Shariyat: Propagation of Shariyat was the aim of Islamic education.

Shariyat means a code of Islamic laws and rules of conduct to be followed by those
who had belief and faith on Islamic religion and its principles. In the Maktabs and
Madarsas, these rules and laws were taught to the educands by the Maulvis to
prepare them to shoulder the responsibilities of the government and the mode of
living in the society. Education was an instrument to teach those laws and principles
to pupils and also making known to the kings, officers and common people about
the essence of Shariyat.
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1. The home of the preceptor was the seat of learning. A novice lived in the
home of the preceptor after the Upanayana or initiation ceremony. The
maintenance of the wards was the prime duty of the preceptor; he was the
guide and philosopher.
2. The pupil’s moral quality was impeccable; conduct was the basis for the
admission into the preceptor’s institution. He should be free from the desires
of the world and attachment to pleasures of life.
3. The admission was opened to the pupils who followed Brahmacharya or
celibacy. It was compulsory, and even though married, the novice was given
admission to the Gurukula, but he should be cut off from having contact with
the home.
4. Pupil would pledge devotion to the Guru in thought, speech and deed; worship
him as his own father or God. He would serve his teacher, when the home
of the preceptor was the institution, does domestic affairs of his Guru. It was
the sacred duty of the novice.
5. Pupils who had run against the disciplinary rules would be debarred and
thrown out from the institution on grounds of their impudent and arrogant
conduct.
2. The most important factor of Brahmanical Education was religious. At the beginning
religious education was imparted and later secular subjects were added.
Following are the salient features:
Education for life: Brahmanic education gave importance to individual students to

imbibe courage and a sceptic view towards society. Practical knowledge was given
to students. Individual attention was paid to bring out hidden knowledge. At the
beginning it was religious one and later by realizing warfare of life, started giving
secular education which helped them to face the hurdles of life.
Universality of Education: the Upanayana ceremony was compulsory both for men
and women. Education was given in accordance with willingness and capacity of
students and all of them would receive education from the Rishis. They considered
it sacred to receive such Brahman Acharyas, because education was restricted to be
imparted only from the Brahman Acharyas or Rishis, but both sexes would receive
education.
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3. Explain briefly the important aim of Buddhist education.
4. Why is Shariyat considered as the aim of Islamic education?
7.4 Let Us Sum Up

The literature and culture of Ancient India was mostly the means of preaching
religion, but it did not altogether neglect the worldly affairs. Religion was predominant
in every sphere of life and therefore we can say that ancient India was built up in
religious field much more than in political, economic and social. In India, the
knowledge was not gained only for the sake of knowledge, but it was a means of
gaining ‘Salvation’, because it means the highest end of life called Mukti or
emancipation. The present unit discussed this aim of education in different periods.

1. The characteristics of Vedic Education are;
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to learn Persian and Arabic and sought high positions in the state. The same way
judges, lawyers and ministers were selected and given high posts in the State. The
aim of Islamic education was to achieve material prosperity.
Indian educational system was controlled during medieval period and used
education as an instrument to propagate the state religion, which was Islam. So the
philosophy of life during medieval times saw great ups and downs. Aims of ancient
Indian education changed due to the occupation of Islamic religion. Aggressive
emperors of Islamic religion were busy with proselytisation programmes in every
part of the country. So, religion entered into the field of education. Muslim education
tried to develop critical insight and reasonableness or rational mind against all blind
beliefs, conventions and activities. It had main impulse towards material prosperity,
provided materialistic subjects, sought political and administrative support to strengthen
its power over India. Thus, Islamic education achieved its goal; spread its religion
among the masses of Indian people, by displaying its richness and using it as a bait
to attract Indians to study in its educational institutions. The very structure of education
was outwardly strong but due to the changing patterns made the education sink to
its fathom. But it had its own importance, made remarkable achievements within six
hundred years, in terms of development of education, establishment of different
colleges and strengthened its quantity. This development was made by the state and
rulers. We ought not to forget the ideals of education and love towards education and
provision made by the great emperors Aurangzeb and Akbar the Great.
1. List out the characteristics of Vedic education.
2. What are the salient features of Brahmanical education?
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gives knowledge, that knowledge is nectar. Salvation is not possible without
knowledge. Mohammad Prophet himself taught people the right ways of life, the
right and wrong thoughts and deeds. Knowledge is necessary for all men and women
according to Islamic religion and the same rays reflected during medieval education.
That is why the very aim of Islamic education was to spread the light of knowledge
among the ardent followers of Islamic religion.
Development of Morality: The third aim of Medieval education was the development
of Islamic social morals which were based on Islamic doctrines, social traditions and
political principles. To achieve this aim, Islamic students were taught religious books.
At the same time, Maulvis taught children the ideals of morality to lead a pious life.
To develop moral quality among the pupils, Vedic, Brahmanic and Buddhist principles,
Islamic ideals were taught to the pupils of the medieval period.
Propagation of Shariyat: Propagation of Shariyat was the aim of Islamic education.

Shariyat means a code of Islamic laws and rules of conduct to be followed by those
who had belief and faith on Islamic religion and its principles. In the Maktabs and
Madarsas, these rules and laws were taught to the educands by the Maulvis to
prepare them to shoulder the responsibilities of the government and the mode of
living in the society. Education was an instrument to teach those laws and principles
to pupils and also making known to the kings, officers and common people about
the essence of Shariyat.
Character Building: According to the prophet Mohammed, only a man of character

could achieve progress and develop his ‘self’. To supplement good character among
the pupils of Islamic religion, Islamic education would give importance to their
character building.
Achievement of Material Well Being: Islamic education honoured people, pupils

and scholars by providing them all sorts of privileges, high posts, medals for the
meritorious students, honorable rank and grants to educational institutions to retain
interest among students. Materialistic encouragement was extensive. In the executive
departments, some of the students were appointed as commanders of the army,
judges in civil administration and Ministers - this was the ways of encouraging
students during Muslim period. Education was highly respected and adored. When
Islamic religion started giving facilities to the scholars, Hindu Scholars were attracted
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order to save their skin, they used to give military education to Muslim boys. Military
education was compulsory and occupied an important place in the curriculum. It was
believed that the art of military education given by Muslims was far superior to the
Hindus. Military education for boys of the royal families and princes included horse-
riding, handling of fling, bow and sword, the art of attacking and other military arts
were taught effectively. Muslim rulers had given an important place to military
education to make the pupils to be the effective soldiers and would take them for
defense purposes.
Aims of Muslim Education

The prominent factor of education in medieval times was its Islamic character
in many parts of India. The following were the aims of Islamic education.
Propagation of Islam: The very first aim of Islamic education was the propagation
of Islam in India. So the Maktabs and Madarsas were established in different parts
of the country. Every Mosque had a Maktab, where Muslim children were taught to
recite the Koran - the holy epic of Islam. Madarsas were the centers of higher
education, where Islamic history, rituals together with higher knowledge of the religion
was taught. The construction of mosques, Maktabs and Madarsas was considered as
the sacred duty. Education was based on religion. It wanted to make the people
religious oriented and the construction of Maktabs and Madarasas was the holy task
of every Muslim ruler.
The Muslim rulers thought that free and liberal education was a more valuable
gift to the children than any other gift given to them. The teachers had the highest
position, they were considered as sacred and pious personalities, people wanted to
be buried after their death in the premises of the Madarsas. They also thought that
scholar’s blood is holier than the blood of the martyr; such a great value was held
by Muslim scholars and religion. Due to this religious fanaticism, they destroyed
Buddhist Vihars, Monasteries and Hindu temples. There was imposition on Hindu
students to study Arabic and Persian and Islamic Epic, the Koran during their course
of study in the medieval period.
Spread of Islamic Knowledge among Muslim: Muslim theologists believed that the
inculcation of Islamic ideals and values was the real education. So they emphasized
upon education by religious Mullahs and Maulvies. According to the Islam, education
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deprived from the educational facilities. So there was no universality of educational
opportunities for all the strata of society.
Neglect of the Colloquial Language: During the Vedic and Brahmanical period of
education, Sanskrit was the main language of teaching. During Buddhist education,
Pali was the language of instruction, but during Muslim period, when they started
educational institutions, the languages of teaching were Arabic and Persian languages
unknown for the Hindus. Hindus had their own languages. The languages of the
common people were ignored by Muslim rulers. This was the hard hot shot to the
Hindus; because they could not get benefit out of educational privileges from Muslim
education. Persian Language was the administrative language.
Teachers - Taught Relationship: Due to the want of philosophical and cultural

strength, Muslim education aimed at the development of materialistic culture and the
relationship between the teachers and taught was not reciprocal. There was compulsion
behind learning. At the initial stage, teaches had an esteemed position in society and
they would stay in the mosques. Pupils would respect their teachers; they taught that
reverence to teachers would fetch knowledge. Teachers used to consider their pupils
as their own children. At the beginning, there was a close relationship between the
teachers and taught, later on, it declined enormously.
Examination: During Islamic education, examination was mainly the responsibility

of teachers. Pupil’s ability, sincerity, code of conduct etc. played an important role
for promotion to the higher standard. It was mainly relied upon teacher’s opinion and
will. The examination of the Muslim period was completely different from what we
have at present.
Women’s Education: Muslim women observed the ‘Pardah’ system. Usually they
were not allowed to get education. The primary education was given to the local
women but not at Madarsas. They would learn only reading and writing. Maktabs
were attached to the Mosques, so women used to attend the classes conducted in
Maktabs. There was not separate provision made for their education and also there
was no uniformity and so they remained backward in society.
Military Education: Muslim rulers wanted to confirm their status and seat of
sovereignty. So they had to fight with the powerful Hindu emperors and kings. In
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neighboring countries or kingdoms ever tried to attach. There was serenity and a
banal atmosphere. Such metaphysically oriented Indians had not thought of extending
the horizon of their geographical areas. Vedic, Brahmanic, Buddhist educational
system and Upanishads made them to crave on spiritual entity. This was the motive
of ancient Indian education system, but at the beginning of the eighth century, the
eyes of Muslim rulers caught hold the Indian materialistic prosperity, and invaded
the country with greedy minds and looted its richness to their own countries. Gradually,
they started to establish their own kingdoms on the Indian soil. Among such dynasties
were Khilji dynasty, Slave dynasty, Tuguluks, Sayyad dynasty, Mughal dynaty. They
established permanent empires and ruled India. Among the Muslim rulers, Bakhtihar,
Allaudin, Firoz and Aurangazeb, etc., have said to have been tried to destroy Indian
education - Vedic, Brahmanic and Buddhist systems. So, North Indian educational
standard had lost its charm and such educational institutions, temples, monasteries,
vihars, libraries, etc. suffered due to Muslim invasions.
Salient Features of Muslim Education

Muslim invaders ravaged Indian wealth and disturbed the country’s philosophical,
cultural and political serene atmosphere. They established their own Muslim
educational institutions and started spreading their religious ideals and wanted to
establish their superior status. Let us discuss the salient features of Islamic education:
Encouragement of Education: Muslim rulers established a number of primary and

higher educational institutions, along with them mosques, because each mosque had
its own Maktab and Madarsas which had library facility, where in scholars were
patronized by the State. Medals were given to brilliant students, the State would
grant scholarship generously to the bright pupils. They were provided high posts in
the state after the completion of their education. In this way, education received state
patronage and developed enormously.
Lack of Universality of Education: Like the Vedic, Brahmanic and Buddhist

educational systems, Muslim education also had religious essence. In the Maktabs
and Madarsas, religious education was imparted. The languages of preaching were
Arabic and Persian, so the Hindus were deprived of educational privileges of Muslim
education. There was also the predominant role of social stratification. The pupils of
higher and middle classes could get education but pupils of lower classes were
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3. The discipline of celibacy was compulsory. When the pupil was admitted in
the Monastery, he would have to follow Brahmacharya. Married pupils were
not given admission into the Sangh. There were two grades of education
practiced - primary and higher education.
4. Siddhiviharika’s consecrated duty was to serve his Upadhyaya. Being the
inhabitants of monastery, they would look after the comforts of their preceptors
and keep the institution clean but they could maintain distance while
following their preceptor and while begging alms. There was cordial
relationship among the preceptor and Siddhiviharikas.
5. If any of the sharmanas failed to respect their Upadhyaya, he was expelled
from the monastery and whose conduct was against the orders, he was debarred
from education.
During the Buddhist period, much encouragement was given to their education,
for women educands, separate monastic schools were established. It was evident that
Sanghamitra, sister of Ashoka the Great, propagated Buddhism in Ceylon, now Sri
Lanka. Subha, Sumedha and Anupama were the renowned women monks who
practiced life-long celibacy. Learned women monks had taught in the monastery.
They had become permanent Upadhyayas. Some of the women disciples were talented
students. Vijayanka has been regarded as the second to Kalidasa by the poetic talent.
They studied criticism, Upanishads, herbal medicines and spiritual literature which
were meant for higher study. Though education was limited for women, higher
learning was limited to the elite born womenfolk. Labourers, craftsmen, ordinary
traders, peasants and such other common people were not provided education. Girls
got married at an early age and they were deprived of educational opportunities.
During Buddhist period of education, the so called educated folk sought social
services like serving orphans, the sick, etc., gained political knowledge, they were
judges, philosophers, propagators of Buddhism. Some of the women monks had
become poetesses and writers to supplement this purpose of Buddhist education. Dr.
R. K. Mukerji said, “The Buddhist convent opened out to women, opportunities for
education and culture and varied spheres of social services in which they made
themselves the equal of men supplementing their work in the spread of their faith”.
7.3.4 Education in the Medieval Period

Indian cultural, religious, philosophical ideals and material prosperity reached
its summit up to the 8th century. No invasions and troubles from any part of the
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sacred love among human beings and protection of animals and avoid useless rigid
penances were the causes for its origin and spread.
Development of Purity of Character: The third aim of Buddhist education was to

develop purity of character. Character development is a very important aim of
education. So it was emphasized in the practice of brahmacharya through simple
living and high thinking, wearing simple dress. Music, dance, use of scents etc.,
were prohibited. When the education restricted pleasures of life, they could develop
purity of heart, there was no place for hatred, greediness, jealousy etc. In order to
attain purity of character, one must possess proper vision, decision, speech, action,
livelihood, industry, pure mentality should be reared and developed according to
philosophical point of view. Herbert and Gandhi stressed on the purity of character.
Development of the quality of self-sacrifice: This was one of the aims of Buddhist
education by training the senses to check the mind from the stimulation and attraction
of the external world, the world of pleasures. By acquiring spiritual knowledge, one
could discard means of materialistic happiness and get eternal bliss. They would
accept required quantity of alms and stay away from homely atmosphere by following
celibacy as the mode of their studentship in the monasteries. They accepted the truth
that ideas are more important than objects. Ideas are the ultimate reality, whereas
objects are temporary in essence. By keeping these ideals, Buddhist education tried
to impose the quality of sacrifice and imbibe spiritual ideals among sharmanas.
Salient Features of Buddhist Education

Like Vedic and post-vedic periods, even during Buddhist period, the system of
education comprised of the same features. There were not many differences between
the Hindu and Buddhist ideals, modes and aims, but places of study were monasteries
and the method of teaching was the same. Let us see some of its salient features.
1. The monastery was the educational institution, where the Sharmana lived
after the Pabbajja and Upasampada, the first and final ordination. The preceptor
shouldered the responsibility of the Sharmanas and considered them as his
children.
2. The pupil was eligible to seek admission on the ground of moral conduct,
including consent of his parents. Patients with communicable and infectious
diseases, government servants, soldiers and slaves were not given admission.
Pupils with lower order of conduct were not allowed to seek admission.
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and practical religion to follow, which came into existence as a reaction against
Brahmanical education. So, the Buddhistic education came into existence.
Aims of Buddhist Education

Buddhist education has its own aims and Buddha himself understood the life
which was fraught with sorrow and pain with a view to remove the affliction of life.
Attainment of Salvation: The foremost aim of Buddhist education was the attainment
of Nirvana or Salvation by renouncing the world and worldly pleasures. Knowledge
acquired from education and the life of austere simplicity, could enable one to attain
Nirvana, having faith in oneself, shradha and the spirit of renunciation. All through
life, one should exhort others to keep full confidence upon their innate powers. Their
soul should inculcate a spirit of self-surrender, sacrifice and renunciation of worldly
pleasures for inner enlightenment and the good of others. One would get spiritual
freedom for the growth of self realization through education. According to Buddha,
Soul and God are one and the same elements. There is no distinction between the
two. Education was given to students to realize Brahma and become one with
this ultimate truth through real knowledge obtained by their preceptors in the
monasteries.
Propagation of Buddhism: Buddhist education was basically religious in character

and to educate the monks belonging to the order and also to those persons who
showed sympathy towards others religions. As we know, Buddhism is the refined
form of Hinduism, but it has nuance between the principles of its own and the Vedic.
But we should not forget the ideals of Buddhism. Its innate aim was to propagate
and spread good social values. At the initial stage, the purpose of Buddhism was
ignored, but later on, its simple, practicable principles, ideals, non-violence, no caste
difference had the proper place in education and attracted common people. Its aim
was to check the inordinate immolation of animals which was rampant in the name
of the performance of Yagna and lower stratification of people who were kept away
from the Gurukulas as they were down trodden. By having this ray of hope to put
an end to these cruel deeds, Buddhism came into existence with the attire of Hindu
principles. With the absence of religious rigidity, simplicity and multifaceted principles
it tried to forbade the practice of mortification of flesh in the name of penances. By
its simple principles, Buddhism wanted to spread its easily practicable principles and
attracted all types of people and castes under its shelter. We must not ignore the
ideals and principles which are easy to follow and bring sympathy, non-violence,
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practical knowledge pertaining to day-to-day situations, to face future life with greater
courage and determination.
The Brahmanic system of education was ideal and well-planned. Its aims were
prosperous, and its salient features give rich information about the origin of education,
particularly from Brahmanic period. Upanayan ritual was essential to enter into the
home of the Guru to attain knowledge of the Supreme by direct contact with the
preceptor, there was a provision for closeness in all respects to understand each
other. To trace out the area of weakness of the pupils and to gain knowledge from
the preceptor, pupils would possess meekness, assiduity, spiritual eagerness to acquire
Supreme as well as secular knowledge. There was stratification in the society and
education was imparted according to the caste system. It was the period of more
religious and less secular approach to education, within this, they found it necessary
that character building, growth of personality, self-respect, self-reliance, self-control
and self-study were encouraged. Overall, the object of Brahmanical education was
all-round development of life of the educands to face the hurdles in their practical
life.
7.3.3 Education during the Buddhist Period

As we have learnt in the previous sub-section, education during the Vedic and
Brahmanical periods, religion had occupied the esteemed place, besides caste system,
Yagna, chanting of mantras, etc., But to its rigidity in traits, education of the masses
was highly prohibited; ie., Sudras, being the lowest class in caste stratification were
neglected from the provision of getting education under Brahmanic Acharyas. The
aims of education of the Brahmanic period were formation of moral character,
development of personality, formation of social aptitude, knowledge and citizenship,
preservation of national culture and material prosperity. Due to the religious elements,
yagna, animal sacrifices, severe austerity was pertaining to Vedic knowledge. It did
not aim at providing individual freedom during the course of study. In spite of that,
each of the pupils had shown interest to accomplish useful knowledge. Brahmanical
education was one of the integral parts of national life. Students would spend more
than twelve years in Gurukula under the preceptor’s guidance; by chanting mantras
by note method. Penances and tortures in the name of education were also given.
Common people no longer tolerated humiliation from such educational institutions.
It was a sort of bloodshed to please the Supreme, performing yagnas, cruelty to the
core. Subjects of teaching were not so easy to understand to the common people,
they were required to concentrate on religion, but avoid putting themselves in a
vicious circle of various philosophical ideals and, teachings. They wanted a simple
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of his disciples, as his own sons and educate them with all kindness. When the
educands would spend their time with the teachers, they could clarify their spiritual
doubts with an ardent manner. Acharya undertook the responsibility of providing
shelter, food and knowledge of the scriptures. There was a reciprocal relationship
between the Acharya and the disciples.
Transformation of Soul: It was believed that an individual’s tranquility and

inquisitiveness of mind is the product of heredity only, but later on environment is
added to that. But both of these stimulate the development of personality. Jean, a
great psychologist opined that the environment is the most important factor for the
development of personality rather than heredity. Atharveda has given proper facilities
for upbringing and education and there is nothing whatsoever the child cannot
accomplish. Whatever may be the caste of the pupil, heredity and habit asserted his
claim in the formation of individuality. Even though provision for the education of
pupils was made on the basis of caste system, the goal was to transmit the soul from
the base to supreme position by providing spiritual education to all classes of children
and to help them to realize the existence of an innate soul.
Educating Individually: During Brahmanic education, instead of collective education,

individual attention was paid, which helped the teachers to know the capacity of
each pupil in the mode of learning, to establish a better rapport with each other. The
individual treatment and attention was considered as a better mode of teaching. It
was unlike Vedic system of education. So, education was made most useful for
future better life. Individual attention was better than collective or group attention
and innate tendencies could be understood in a better way.
Vast Course of Study: Apart from all the four Vedas, pupils were expected to study
other secular subjects which would help to lead better conditions of life. Secular
subjects for the study were Arithmetic, Astrology, Demonology, History, Agriculture,
Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy, Physiology and Grammar. By comprising the
knowledge of all these subjects reaping the cream of subjects, they could improve
their domain of mind with worldly knowledge. So their course of study was not
confined only to Vedas as in the Vedic period.
Theoretical Education: Unlike Vedic education, Brahmanical education gave

importance to practical knowledge; it was not only religion based, but also considered
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Education for life: Brahmanic education gave importance to individual students to
imbibe courage and a skeptic view towards society. Practical knowledge was given
to students. Individual attention was paid to bring out hidden knowledge. At the
beginning it was religious one and later by realizing warfare of life, started giving
secular education which helped them to face the hurdles of life.
Universality of Education: The Upanayana ceremony was compulsory both for men
and women. Education was given in accordance with willingness and capacity of
students and all of them would receive education from the Rishis. They considered
it sacred to receive such Brahman Acharyas, because education was restricted to be
imparted only from the Brahman Acharyas or Rishis, but both sexes would receive
education.
Observation of Celibacy: Humbleness of the pupils was a highly regarded quality to

receive education. Pupils had to absorb celibacy strictly. They were free from the
attachment to pleasures of life and were severely disciplined. Such disciplinary actions
and observation of celibacy and humility helped them to attain supreme knowledge
and to realize within themselves the capacity to identify with the absolute.
Upanayan Ceremony: Education would begin only after the Upanayan Ceremony.
It was a ritual performed when the pupil attained between five to eight years of age
at least, then the pupil would study under learned teachers. Whatever the educand
learnt during his apprenticeship, he would remember forever. If the educand forgot
what he was taught, it was considered as a sin. They selected rainy reason for
revision of learnt subjects, to keep the knowledge evergreen in the mind.
Education was Psychological: Education was given to the educands on the basis of
their interest, aptitude and mental set up. Teachers would observe their educands
closely and trace out their inner capacities and weakness, and then only they would
start imparting education. Therefore, there was no corporal punishment - it was
considered as a crime. The Buddha, Manu, Vishnu, Apastamba and Yajnavalky were
the great teachers who strictly opposed corporal punishment and also rejected
humiliating words of the teachers during course of study.
The educand lived in direct contact with the Acharya: As in Vedic education,
pupils were learning and staying with their Acharyas in Gurukulas (the home of the
Acharya), where the whole responsibility was shouldered by the Acharya to take care
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A man who would do Yagna without these qualities would be considered as futile,
and without essence. Thus, the formation of moral character is one of the important
aims to realize one’s status in the society. Thus Herbert said, “The one and the whole
work of education may be summed up in the concept of morality”.
Development of Personality: Personality is viewed so seriously, and the attainment

of supreme knowledge, adjustment in the hermitage with comrades, compassion,
austerity, discipline, these include humanitarian virtues and also noble sentiments.
The development of personality was the second important task of education, which
goes to devotion and pursuit of the highest ideals namely truth, beauty and goodness,
ultimately resulting in self-realization. Personality development includes physical,
moral, mental, emotional and social development. Overall, it comprises development
of the complete man. If any of these aspects remains underdeveloped, an individual
will not be equipped and may go astray in some areas of his life.
Development of Knowledge of Sociability and Citizenship: By nature, man is a

social animal, he cannot lead solitary life in the society. Life is an adjustment,
cooperation, brotherhood, fraternity and fellow-feeling. So the third aim of Brahmanic
education emphasized equally on the individuality, sociability of the educands as
they are the integral part of society. This would develop among the students, the
social consciousness and sense of service of the individual. Man must protect and
make his life easy by enjoying his rights and duties. In turn he must see his reflection
in the hearts of others also. He must not try to curb the happy life of other citizens,
and follow the ‘live and let live policy’.
Preservation of National Culture: Indian culture is rich in its essence. Globally,

Indian culture is appreciated and adored because of its auspicious quality and its
many-sides sharpness to synthesize human life. Nation’s pride crumbles when its
culture is ignored and neglected. All wealth and pride of many kings and kingdoms
stood on the foundation of culture, so they lived in optimum prosperity and rich life.
A nation requires its own culture and by keeping this in view, Brahmanic education
gave its pupils knowledge about the culture of the nation, ways of protecting and
sustaining it.
Salient Features of Brahmanical Education

The most important factor of Brahmanical Education was religious. At the
beginning religious education was imparted and later secular subjects were added.
Following are the salient features:
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They brought the humanity from the darkness of ignorance to the light of knowledge
throughout the world. Indian education system is the oldest in the world. It had
peculiarities, which were not found anywhere else in the world.
7.3.2 Brahmanical Education

The past and the present give us a glimpse of knowledge of the past which is
mirrored in the present. Education during the Vedic and post-vedic period was
predominantly spiritual, the same was during the Brahminic period. Students would
get the benefit of spiritual knowledge. ‘Samhita’ and ‘Brahman’ are the two divisions
of the Vedas. The first division contains collection of Mantras and the latter describes
the details of sacrifices.
The Brahman treatise has three sections, they are Brahmanas, Aranyakas and
Upanishads. The first section deals with spiritual aspects of sacrifices, Aranyakas
deals with lonely forest life prayer and amidst meditation, the last section, Upanishads
deals with Vedic literature and these sections are for common use.
Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharveda were followed by Brahmans in
Vedic Samhitas. Kaushiki and Aittareya are the two Brahmans of Rigveda. Among
these two, Aitttreya is the important one. Samaveda possesses a number of Brahmans,
Tashandh is one of them and Brahman is the good in the highest degree. It is also
known as Panchavinsh. Atharveda is the work of Brahman done during the Brahmanic
period after the post-vedic-period. It is Brahmanic literature. Thus the Brahmanic
educational system evolved from Atharveda and also combined the essentials of
Vedic and post-vedic systems of education, i.e., there is not much difference between
Vedic and Brahman educational patterns. Let us have a glance at the historical
development of Brahmanical education.
Formation of Moral Character: During Vedic and Brahmanic education, character

was considered as the Kohinoor in the crown of human heart. It is considered as the
topmost validity of the human soul. Without moral characters, man would become
sub-human. They considered moral character the essence of God’s clarion. It was not
only protection and development of Indian culture during the post-vedic period, but
also alms giving, charity and study of the three other Vedas that would culminate
into amoral character. The human soul is not only confined to acquire Vedic knowledge
but pertaining to the spiritual knowledge should eradicate affliction from the mode
of life. Reverence to the Guru, love towards his own parents, men and animals are
the basis for acquisition of moral character which is purity of mind, heart and deed.
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1. upakrama, a formal ceremony performed preceding the study of Veda,
2. abhyasa, recitation of the texts,
3. apurvata, a ready grasp of the meaning,
4. phala, a comprehension of the outcome,
5. arthavada, the reading cf elucidatory books, and
6. upapatti, attainment of final conclusion.
Describing the condition of education in ancient India, P. N. Prabhu has said,
Education in ancient India was free from any external control like that of the State
or Government or any party politics. It was the one of the king’s duties to see that
the learned pundits pursued their studies and their duty of imparting knowledge
without interference from any source whatever. So also education did not suffer
from any communal interest or prejudices in India”. There were three agencies of
education.
1. Gurukula: This, as the name indicates, was the family of the teacher and his
residence where the students used to stay during the period of study. Gradually,
the gurukulas were extended to include a number of buildings. However, the
institution was built up around the family of the teacher. The primary duty
of the student was to serve the teacher and his family. The students were like
sons of the teacher and the whole institution lived like a family.
2. Parishad: These were bigger educational institutions where several teachers
used to teach different subjects. This may be compared to a college.
3. Sammelan: Sammelan literally means getting together for a particular purpose.
In this type of educational institutions scholars gathered at one place for
discussions and competitions generally on the invitation of the king.
Discipline
The Vedic system of education very much emphasized the importance of discipline
in the attainment of knowledge. This, however, was self-discipline. In fact, it was
self-control which was realized by observance of rules of the Brahmacharya ashrama.
The parishads or the local academies were initiated by the king. Therefore, the
scholars and the aspirants of knowledge gathered at the parishads with it the perfect
academic order. There was hardly any need for insisting upon rules and regulations
as these were laid down by scriptures. No one questioned the scripture’s command
concerning discipline. Therefore, discipline was self-imposed as a part of self-culture.
Vedic Rishis spread the knowledge not only in India but in the whole world.
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admission to the Gurukula, but he should be cut off from having contact with
the home.
4. Pupil would pledge devotion to the Guru in thought, speech and deed; worship
him as his own father or God. He would serve his teacher, when the home
of the preceptor was the institution does domestic affairs of his Guru. It was
the sacred duty of the novice.
5. Pupils who had run against the disciplinary rules would be debarred and
thrown out from the institution on grounds of their impudent and arrogant
conduct.
Ideals of Education
1. Liberation: The aim of ancient Indian education was initially laid down by the
Vedas. According to Vedic world view, the world is pervaded by divinity and
the aim of every living being is to achieve liberation. Thus, according to the
Vedas the aim of education is liberation. According to a famous statement,
“That is knowledge which gives liberation”. Therefore, A. S. Altekar has rightly
pointed out, “The knowledge is a third eye of man which gives him insight into
all affairs and teaches him how to act. In the spiritual sphere it leads to our
salvation, in the mundane sphere it leads to all-round progress and prosperity.
The illumination given to us by education shatters illusions, removes difficulties
and enables us to realize the true values of life”.
2. Control of Mind: The cause of liberation and bondage, according to Vedic
thinkers, is the mind or chitta. Therefore, liberation is possible only through
the control of the mind. This was known as the technique of chittavratti nirodh.
The Indian philosophers developed a whole technique for the control of the
mind. Equanimity of the mind leads to self-realization. This self-realization is
neither of the individual nor of the social self but Brahman which is the
essence of the individual and the society. The Vedic axiology does not distinguish
between the social and the individual values since according to it both are part
of fundamental universal values.
Agencies of Education
According to ancient Indian philosophy knowledge may be gained by three
steps, Shravana or hearing, Manana or Meditation and Nididhyasan or realization.
Shravana or hearing was further categorized into six types:
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The Aims of Vedic Education
Religious preaching was the main errand of ancient Indian education, but it did
not totally neglect worldly knowledge, the materialistic knowledge. The religious
sphere was predominant that helped the society to develop morally than materialistic
development, political, economic and social. Dr. R. K. Mukherji said ‘Since the birth
of the oldest Vedic poetry, we find Indian literature for a period of more than a
thousand years bearing an exclusively religious impression, it would propagate the
principles of religion unconsciously. This was the essence of literature during the
Vedic period. Knowledge for the sake of knowledge was not the slogan. The knowledge
should help to attain salvation. All other countries adore India’s rich heritage and its
complacent, opulent educational, i.e., philosophical ideas, which would help to realize
oneself. Education was based on religious essence but modeled to suit materialistic
life.
Realization of True knowledge: The main aim of Vedic education was realization
of true knowledge. Knowledge is true power, perception of objects through their real
existence, and the achievement of absolute or Brahma was the end of education
during the Vedic period. Education enabled human beings to realize the God through
the taintless soul. Soul is the master of man, and leading worldly life, man has
become slave to his desires. The Vedas would make him to realize his activities
which require sensitive knowledge, a power by which everything is being done in
the universe. This is not possible for a man with sensuous cravings. The entire gamut
destroys mind, heart and mouth in the absence of true knowledge of the Brahman
or realizing oneself with God.
Main Characteristics of Vedic Education

1. The home of the preceptor was the seat of learning. A novice lived in the
home of the preceptor after the Upanayana or initiation ceremony. The
maintenance of the wards was the prime duty of the preceptor; he was the
guide and philosopher.
2. The pupil’s moral quality was unimpeachable; conduct was the basis for the
admission into the preceptor’s institution. He should be free from the desires
of the world and attachment to pleasures of life.
3. The admission was opened to the pupils who followed Brahmacharya or
celibacy. It was compulsory and even though married, the novice was given
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viz., the development of individuality is not something new to India. The Bhagvadgita
stressed long ago that a person should be given such training as would enable him
to be a social being and to bring credit to his community. In this unit let us study
about historical legacy of education in India.
7.2 Objectives
● trace the historical development of Indian Education System
● identify the salient features of Indian Education,
● explain the Vedic education
● analyse the Brahmanical education
● describe the Islamic education in India
7.3 A Long Historical Legacy

7.3.1 Education in the Vedic Period
The pivotal sources for Vedic education were Vedas which comprise the
knowledge of rituals, god, soul, universe, life and earth, incarnation, mysticism and
sophism, etc. There were the scholars and thinkers who improved the attitude
characterized by the above mentioned themes. Further, in the later Vedic age, this
type of speculative thought had changed and strengthened further. As we know from
our prosperous history, the sages, anchorites, rishis of the Vedic period brooded
amidst nature, away from the dwelling places of masses. Their sophisticated
experiences were acquired from the scriptures like the Brahmans and Aranyakas.
Later emerged the Upanishads. These were the granaries of the ancient rich culture
and civilization. The Vedanta, a pivotal system in philosophical thought, had reached
the highest point of development of knowledge of Vedas. This Vedic knowledge has
been dealt through the pages of the Upanishads. The subject matter of Upanishads
is the philosophical and metaphysical knowledge which has been analyzed and
discussed thoroughly in them. So, the post-vedic education and civilization comprised
sources of rich knowledge from the Brahamans, Aranyakas and Upanishads. The
origin and development, the propagation of the post-vedic education got immense
exposure by various institutions like Sakhas, Charanas, Parishads, Kulas and Gotras.
This education system was based on ordeal and these institutions improved traditional
Vedic literature.
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UNIT 7 ❐ EDUCATION IN INDIA–HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE : AN INTRODUCTION
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 A Long Historical Legacy
7.3.1 Education in the Vedic Period
7.3.2 Brahmanical Education
7.3.3 Education during the Buddhist Period
7.3.4 Education in the Medieval Period
7.4 Let Us Sum Up
7.7 References
7.1 Introduction
India is a country famous not for its ancient culture alone. It also presents to
mankind the history of several races, differing in culture and religion entering the
country from time to time and striving for political and cultural supremacy. Foreigners
often fail to appreciate the vast magnitude of this country. It has been aptly termed
a subcontinent.
India also claims, and has the right to take pride in an ancient and age-old
educational system. Dr. F. W. Thomas, one of the most distinguished indologists,
writes that it is exotic in India. “There is no country where the love of learning has
so early an origin or has exercised so lasting and powerful an influence. From the
simple poets of the Vedic age to the Bengali philosopher of the present day, there
has been an uninterrupted succession of teachers and scholars”. The ideal of Hindu
education was culture and not literacy. The main idea was to bring to the humblest
man the highest products of human mind and heart. The system looked to the
development of the ‘self’ and to enable an individual to lead the highest possible life
in the circumstances in which he was placed. Even the modern aim of education,
119
118
BLOCK 02 : EDUCATION IN INDIA—
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
INTRODUCTION
India is an ancient country with a glorious, cultural and civilization and a

history of four thousand long years. When most of the modem European countries
were grouping in darkness of knowledge, India was shining at the top of ancient
civilizations like Egypt, Mesopotamia and Babylon with its high level of Vedic
knowledge and thinking. Naturally, education in India has a long history of its own.
A student of education should know the historical development of Indian education.
This block helps you to understand the history of Indian education.
This block consists of six units. In Unit-7 provides a birds-eye view of the
historical development of education in India. Unit-8 introduces you to educational
system that existed in India with reference to the Vedic education. Buddhist system
of education is described in Unit-9 and Unit-10 throws light on the Muslim system
of education which developed during the medieval period.
With British coming to India, initially as traders and later establishing themselves
as the rulers, a new chapter in the history of education in India was added. The next
two units of this block deal with British education in India. Unit - 11 describes the
British education system is India and Unit -12 analyses the system that was practiced.
117

Vice Chancellor
Mysore 570 006
Karnataka
Dean - Academic
Mysore 570 006
Chairperson - DOSR in Education Course Writer
Karnataka State Open University Units – 7, 11 & 12
Mysore 570 006
Mysore 570 006
Dr. Shobha S. Nilavar Course Writer
Senior Lecturer Units – 8, 9 & 10
Karnataka University College of Education
Dharwad 580 001

Mysore 570 006
Mysore 570 006.
116
Block
2
EDUCATION IN INDIA—
Unit - 7
EDUCATION IN INDIA-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE : AN INTRODUCTION 119
Unit - 8
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA – I 141
Unit - 9
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA – II 155
Unit - 10
EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA 168
Unit - 11
EDUCATION DURING BRITISH PERIOD 180
Unit - 12
BRITISH SYSTEM OF EDUCATION–AS PRACTICED IN INDIA 214
115
114
EDUCATION IN INDIA
BLOCK 02
EDUCATION IN INDIA—
113
EDUCATION IN INDIA
BLOCK 03
EDUCATION COMMISSIONS
AND THEIR IMPACT
223
224
Block
3
EDUCATION COMMISSIONS AND THEIR IMPACT
Unit - 13
SARGENT REPORT (1944) 229
Unit - 14
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1948) 238
Uni - 15
SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1952-53) 253
Unit - 16
INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION (1964-66) 268
Unit - 17
NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION (1986) 283
Unit - 18
NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK (2001-02) 293
225
Vice Chancellor
Mysore 570 006
Karnataka

Dean - Academic
Mysore 570 006

Mysore 570 006

Mysore 570 006
R. Sharanamma Course Writer
Lecturer – DOSR in Education
Mysore 570 006
Mysore 570 006
Mysore 570 006.
226
BLOCK 3 : EDUCATION COMMISSIONS
AND THEIR IMPACT
INTRODUCTION
For a long time education was equated with transmission of knowledge. Acquisition
of knowledge had been by far, the most prominent objective of education. But of late,
there has been a rethinking regarding the function of education. Education is no longer
confined to the cognitive aspects of human personality. The attempt is to develop the
total personality and develop capabilities of the individual.
A major task before the country immediately after independence was to re-orient
the System of Education so as to adjust it to the changing needs and aspirations of the
people. In fact, the significant role of education in national development and progress
was highlighted even during the freedom struggle when Mahatma Gandhi formulated
the scheme of Basic Education seeking to harmonize intellectual work and manual
work. Consequently, the post-independence period was marked by a review of education
made by several commissions and committees. In this Block, you are going to study
about the Sargent Report (1944), the University Education Commission Report (1948),
the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53), Indian Education Commission (1964-
66), the National Policy of Education (1986) and the National Curriculum Frame Work
(2000-01). We examine the recommendations of these Reports, their implementation
and also their impact on Indian Education in the later period.
In Unit -13 you are going to learn about the Sargent Report, its major
recommendations and its impact on Indian Education. The University Education
Commission was the first Education Commission appointed (1948) after independence.
You are going to learn about its recommendations and its impact in Unit- 14. Unit 15
explains the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53), its major recommendations
and Impact. Unit 16 explains the Indian Education Commission (1964-66) which was
appointed to examine the entire system of education, its major recommendations and
its impact. In 1986 Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, passed the New
Education Policy for the country. In Unit -17 you will study about this Policy. The last
Unit of this Block Unit-18 explains the National Curriculum Frame-work (2000-2001.)
227
228
UNIT - 13 ❐ SARGENT REPORT ( 1944)
Structure
13.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
13.3 Major Recommendations, Impact
13.4 Let Us Sum Up
13.5 Answers to “Check Your Progress”
13.7 References
13.1 Introduction
The process of education is not only continuous but also dynamic. Like every
activity in life even education should have its aims. Aims give direction to the activity
and make it meaningful and purposeful. Since education grew and developed according
to the needs and conditions of society, the aims of education also changed from one
society to another. In accordance with the changing nature of education, its objectives
also change from time to time. Without the definite aims of education, the curriculum,
methods of teaching, school organization, teaching-learning materials, and media cannot
be determined. Without appropriate and meaningful aim, educational process becomes
inoperative. Since about 5 decades, the role of aims and objectives in making the school
programme meaningful has been recognised. From time immemorial, aims have been
set for education of children. But, did they really give direction to educational system?
is the vital question.
Because of the publication of reports of the various committees and commissions
on education, the British government had begun to understand the seriousness of the
situation in the area of education. Ultimately, in the mid forties, it rightly realised that
it could no longer be indifferent to education of the Indian people. As the British became
hopeful of its victory in the Second World War, it directed its attention to do something
for the Indian people in the field of education. So it advised Sir John Sargent, the
Educational Advisor to the Government of India, to prepare a scheme of education for
Indians. Sir John Sargent submitted his scheme to the Central Advisory Board of
Education (CABE) in 1944. In this Report all the stages of education from primary to
university have been considered and measures have been suggested for reforming each
229
stage. The CABE accepted this Report and recommended its implementation throughout
the country. This scheme is known as the Sargent report. This report consists of twelve
chapters.
In this Unit, you will be provided with information about the Sargent commission
and its recommendations. Sargent commission and its implementation in the field of
education till India became independent.
13.2 Objectives
After going through this Unit you will be able to:
¾ give the details of Sargent Commission
¾ examine the suggestions of Sargent Commission
¾ explain the recommendations of Sargent Commission
¾ evaluate the implementation of recommendations of Sargent Commissions
13.3 Major Recommendations and Impact

In the background of its victories in the Second World War of 1939-44, the British
Government brought in many reformations in education in England. It also wanted to
bring some reformations in the education system in India. Hence the British Government
in India appointed an Education Commission under the chairman ship of Sargent. The
main purpose of this commission was to design an education system suited to the post-
war reconstruction of the country. Although Indians attained independence resulting
the end of British rule in India, within a short time after the publication of Sargent
Report which had many implications for restricting education system in Independent
India. Some of its recommendations were accepted by the subsequent commissions.
Hence Sargent commission has a lot of historical importance in the history of education
in Independent India.
1. Compulsory and free education should be provided to all the boys and girls
within the range of 6 to 14 years of age. Their education should be subdivided
into two education groups - junior basic and senior basic. The junior for children
between 6 and 10 years of age and senior between 11 to 14 years of age.
2. Pre-primary basic schools should be opened for children between 3 to 6 years
of age. In these schools good manners and social knowledge should be
taught.
230
3. For bright children between 11 and 17 years of age high schools should be
opened with 6 years curriculum which should be sub-divided in to two parts-
literary high school and vocational high school. In the literary group curriculum,
languages, mother tongue, English, history, geography, civics, mathematics,
science, economics, agriculture and music etc. should be included. In the
vocational high school group vocational and commercial subjects and applied
sciences should be taught. Wood work, metal work, engineering subjects, short
hand, type-writing and commerce etc, are included in this group. The Sargent
report has suggested that in these two types of high schools mother tongue
should be the medium of instruction and English should be compulsorily taught
as a second language. Fifty percent of the students of these schools should be
given free education and for encouraging bright children, scholarships should
be introduced. For the girls the Report recommended the teaching of home
science in place of general science.
4. The report has suggested abolition of intermediate classes. In this connection
the Report recommended that the eleventh class should be added to the high
school and the twelfth to the degree course.
5. For restricting admission to universities, the report has suggested that only 1
percent of the high school passed student out of 15 students should be selected
for university education on the basis of their interests and aptitudes. The report
recommended the establishment of a university Grants commission for bringing
in uniformity in university education in the country. The report also suggested
for improving the economic condition of teachers and for creating a cordial
atmosphere between teachers and students.
6. The report advised for opening Part-time and full time schools for teaching
technical and professional subjects. By these schools four types of workers
may be produced, high class, low class, skilled artisans and ordinary craftsman.
(i) High class - for this high school passed students should be admitted
to the technological department of a university.
(ii) Low class- under this category students who have passed vocational
high school will be trained for foremanship and chargemanship
(iii) Skilled Artisans- Students who have passed the senior high school
will be admitted in this type of training for acquiring skilled
craftsmanship.
(iv) Ordinary craftsmanship-students after passing the class VIII will be
231
admitted for this training in ordinary craftsmanship. After acquiring
reasonable proficiency they will be absorbed in the group of skilled
artisans.
7. The report recommended general and vocational education for adults. The audio-
visual aids should be adequately used for educating them in to practical affairs
of life.
8. The Report has emphasized the necessity of able, well-trained teachers as it
considered that the success of the scheme would depend upon them. It was
accepted in principle that for every 30 students in Pre-basic and Junior basic
school there should be at least one trained teacher. Similarly in the senior basic
school there should be at least one trained teacher for 20 students. The Report
also observed that trained teachers should be given handsome salaries in order
that able persons might be attracted towards teaching profession.
9. The Sargent Report has paid particular attention to the health of students for
this recommended periodical medical checkup and giving information about
health principles from time to time. Free medical treatment for ill student has
also been suggested.
10. The Report recommended separate special schools for the dull and handicapped
children.
11. The Report has emphasized the necessity of establishing employment exchanges
for providing suitable employment to students coming out after completing
their studies.
12. The Report has also stressed the necessity for organizing healthy recreation
facilities to students.
13. The Report has recommended the appointment of some education specialists
in order that education in the country might be well organised and its standard
might be quite high. For this purpose it has also been advised that education
departments should be opened both at the centre and in the various provinces.
The educational responsibilities of the centre and the provinces have been
separately defined. The responsibility for university education has been entrusted
to center and education below this stage given to the provinces in their respective
areas.
These are the recommendations of Sargent Report.
232
With a view to reconstruct the education system to suit the modern days, Sargent
commission was formed. Sir John Sargent, the then educational advisor was asked by
the reconstruction committee of the Vice-Roy’s executive council to go through different
aspects of education and report. The report was submitted in 1944. It studied the
educational situation prevailing at that time from nursery to University education.
Some of the major suggestions of Sargent commission are given below.
Children between the ages of three to six should be provided with pre-primary
education. Children between the ages of six to fourteen should be provided with free
and compulsory education. High School education should be provided to only deserving
ones after entrance examination. Vocational education was recommended. Diversified
curriculum to suit the need should be strictly carried out. Degree course should be
improved. Adult education should be provided. Compulsory physical education and
medical education should be done from time to time. Special schools should be
established for physically and mentally handicapped children. Employment bureau
should be established. Provision for recreation for the students should be done from
time to time. Well-organized education departments should be established both at the
central and at every province and all the educational programmes other than university
and technical education should be supervised by the provinces.
In 1946 most of the suggestions made by the Sargent commission were implemented,
teachers’ salaries were increased, all the recommendations with respect to university
education were accepted, educational bureau, university Grants commission were started
and technical and technical institution were started in Delhi.
An Evaluation of the Sargent Report

The Sargent Report has been the outcome of the experience of the British government
that India was behind in education than other advanced countries of the world. The
government had realised this long before the Second World War started. So when Victory
in the Second World War was in sight. The government asked Sir John Sargent, its
educational advisor to suggest measures for reforms of education in India.
Merits of Sargent report

The Report took within its purview all the aspects of education: pre-primary, primary,
high school and university education. All types of education - general, technical,
vocational and professional have been given attention by way of giving useful suggestions
for their improvement. Thus the Report placed before the country a comprehensive
scheme of education for the first time. The Report has been, conscious of all sided
233
development of a student and it has suggested to give education in such a manner as to
make one self-dependent. Thus the Report foresaw the importance of employment
problem in the country and thought that education could be instrumental in solving it.
The Report has considered good health of students as important so it has given useful
suggestions in this regard. The Report considered the problem of adult education and
gave helpful suggestions for the same. The recommendations of the Report with regard
to handsome salary to be paid to teacher may be regarded as praiseworthy.
Demerits of the Sargent Report

In spite of some merits, the Sargent Report suffers from some demerits which may
be mentioned as below.
1. The Sargent Report has foreseen that within forty years of the implementation
of its recommendation India would reach the stage of educational development
which UK had at the time. But it was not thought how much still further UK
would go within these forty years. Evidently, the Report had thought to keep
India 45 years behind UK in the field of education.
2. The Report sub-divided its recommendation in to five parts and prescribed seven
years for the implementation of each part. Evidently, it was not helpful to the
country to give 35 years for implementing a scheme of education.
3. In spite of the poor economic condition of India, the Report has put forward a
very expensive scheme of education. Billions of rupees were estimated for the
implementation of the scheme and 75 percent of this expenditure had to be
borne by the public which was evidently impossible.
4. Sargent report has ignored the importance of women education. It has also not
considered the problems of religious education in religious country like India.
5. The Report has not envisaged university education as the privilege for all. It
wanted to restrict it only to a special class of people.
The Implementation of the Recommendations

The government of India accepted the recommendations of the Report in principle
and has tried to implement some of them in the following manner.
1. In 1945 an Education Department was established at the centre.
2. During 1947-48 forty crores of rupees were given to the provincial governments
for implementing certain aspects of the scheme in their respective areas.
234
3. The provincial governments were advised to make five year plans for education.
In 1946 these plans were made in some provinces.
4. It was decided that the scheme should be implemented within 16 years instead
of 40.
5. The aim of providing compulsory and free education to children between 6 to
11 years of age was accepted. Efforts were made for adult education and also
for improving the economic condition of teachers.
6. The committee of polytechnic school and the All India Technical Education
Committee were established in Delhi.
7. Educational Bureau and university Grants commission were established at the
center.

1. List the recommendations made by Sargent Commission with respect to High
School Education.
2. List the suggestions of Sargent Commission that were implemented.
13.4 Let Us Sum Up

The British government in India has been aware of the defects in the educational
system of the country before the second world was started. So when it becomes sure of
235
its victory it advised its educational advisor, Sir John Sargent to prepare a memorandum
on the educational reforms in India. Sir John Sargent submitted his report in 1944 after
studying the various aspects of education-pre-primary, primary, secondary, university,
technical and vocational education.
Because of financial stringency the recommendations of this Report could not be
implemented in full. More over, after the achievement of independence the national
government wanted to manage its educational affairs in new manner and it rightly
sensed the various inadequacies of the Report. However, the Report is of great historical
importance, as through it the British government took up the totality of education within
its purview of reforms. To the credit of this Report, it must be admitted that the all-
round development of the child has been its major goal. Vocational education was also
considered important. The Report also gave useful suggestions for adult education. It
emphasized the necessity of improving the economic condition of teachers. In spite of
all these good points the implementation of its recommendations involved huge
expenditure for which the country was not prepared. Moreover, it placed a scheme to
be implemented within 40 years. Hence the Report has remained only of a historical
interest.
With a view to reconstruct the educational system to suit the modern days, Sargent
commission was formed. Sir John Sargent the then educational advisor. Some major
suggestions are -
● Children between the age of three to six should be provided with pre primary
education
● Children between the ages of six to fourteen should be provided with free and
compulsory education.
● High school education should be provided to only, deserving ones after entrance
examination
● Vocational education was recommended.
● Degree Course should be of three years duration.
● Adult education should be improved. In 1946 most of the suggestions made by
the Sargent commission we implemented.

1. Diversified curriculum was recommended for High School Children. They should
be selected after entrance test; education should be made free, were the major
suggestions of Sargent commission towards high school education.
236
2. Teachers’ salaries were increased as per the suggestion. All the recommendations
made with respect to university education were accepted. Educational Bureau
and university Grants commission were started and technical poly technical
institutions were started in Delhi.
13.6 Unit - End Exercises

1. Describe the tradition of education commissions in India with special reference
to Sargent Commission Report.
2. List out the recommendations of Sargent Commission
13.7 Reference
1. Rawat P. L. : History of Indian Education
2. Taneja V. R. : Educational Thought and Practice
3. Altekar A. S. : Education in Ancient India
4. Mukherji S. N. : History of Education in India
5. Nayak and Syed. J. P. : Students History of Education in India
Nurullah
237
UNIT - 14 ❐ UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
COMMISSION (1948)
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.4 Let Us Sum Up
14.7 References
14.1 Introduction
For a long time, education was equated with transmission of knowledge. Acquisition
of knowledge had been by far the most prominent objective of education. But of late,
there has been a rethinking regarding the function of education. Education is no longer
confined to the cognitive aspects of human personality. The attempts are to develop the
total personality and raise the capabilities of the individual.
A major task before the country immediately after Independence was to re-orient
the system of education so as to adjust it to the changing needs and aspirations of the
was highlighted even during the freedom struggle when Mahatma Gandhi formulated
the scheme of Basic Education seeking to harmonize intellectual and manual work.
Consequently, the post - independence period was marked by review of education made
by several commissions and committees.
The most notable among them are:
(i) The University Education Commission (1948-49) was appointed to report
on Indian University Education and suggest improvements and extensions
to suit present and future requirements of the country
(ii) The Secondary Education Commission (1952) set up to examine the
prevailing system of secondary education in the country and suggest measures
for its reorganization and improvement, and
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(iii) The Education Commission (1964-66) appointed by a resolution and on the
general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages
and in all aspects.
The University Education Commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, famous teacher and Philosopher, through a resolution of the
Central Ministry of Education on November 4, 1948. In all, there were ten members in
the commission. The commission was required to study the problem of university
education in the country and to suggest measures for its reforms keeping in view the
needs and aspirations of the people. The then Minister of Education, Abdul Kalam
Azad inaugurated this Commission on December 6, 1948, and gave it the necessary
directions. The members of the Commission showed great interest in their work. They
visited various universities in the country and studied their varying problems deeply.
The commission interviewed a number of university teachers and students for
understanding their problems. The commission prepared a questionnaire and sent it to
interested persons for obtaining their suggestions for reforms of university education.
About 600 persons returned this questionnaire with their suggestions. The commission
submitted its report within a year.
In this unit you will be provided with the information about University Education
Commission and their recommendations in the field of education.
14.2 Objectives
¾ Give the details of the university education commission
¾ Explain the recommendation of the university education commission.
¾ Analyse the recommendations of the university education commission.

With the attainment of freedom in 1947 India as a nation achieved a new status.
As stated earlier, there were new aims, new hopes and new aspirations. There were
new problems also. These new aims and hopes, many people felt, could be realized
through the instrument of education. Again it was education which was considered to
be the chief weapon in finding and solving new problems. The University Education
commission (1949) explained the whole situation. It stated “We are today faced with
great problems national and social, the acquisition of economic Independence, the
increase of general prosperity, the attainment of an effective democracy over riding the
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distinctions of caste and creed, rich and poor and a rise in the level of culture. For the
quick and effective realizations of these aims education is a powerful weapon. It is
organized efficiently and in the public interest. As we claim to be civilized people we
must regard the higher education of rising generation as one of our chief concerns.”
University Education Commission (1948)

The Commission has laid down certain aims of university education in the country
keeping in view-the past tradition, the present conditions and future prospects of the
country. In this context, the commission took in to consideration the personal interests
of students and also of the nation. While defining the aims, the commission has been
also conscious of the international obligations. We are giving below the aims of university
education as laid down by the commission:
(i) The aim of university education should be to produce able citizens who can
take up national responsibilities successfully in various fields. The university
has to produce able administrators and suitable workers in various
occupations and industries. The university has to provide leadership in various
walks of life in the best interest of the nation.
(ii) It is a duty of a university to preserve and develop the culture and civilization
of the land. It is on the basis of one’s culture that one may acquire self-
confidence, self-respect and self-dependence. These virtues on the part of
citizens will make the nation really very strong.
(iii) The university should generate new ideas and discard those which are likely
to prevent the growth of the nation. For progress it is necessary to rise above
superstitions. The university has to help the students to imbibe good aspects
of their culture and to accept new values for all round development.
(iv) The university should provide opportunities to acquire all kinds of
knowledge.
(v) The university has to educate the mind and soul of the student in order that
he may grow in wisdom.
(vi) It is the responsibility of the university to create a consciousness in students
for protecting the directive principles as to be laid down in the constitution.
The university has to make the foundation of democracy strong and it has to
develop the spirit in students for ensuring equality, fraternity and social
justice to all, while maintaining the integrity of the nation.
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(vii) The university has to make new discoveries and inventions and it has to
develop new original ideas in order to make the society strong.
(viii) The university has to instill moral values in students while making them
well disciplined.
(ix) The university has to develop the spirit of universal brotherhood and
internationalism in students.
The first and the foremost development in the university education was the
appointment of commission in 1948 under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishan.
The commission prepared a comprehensive report in two parts - the first part is divided
in to 18 chapters and covers 747 pages. The second part of the Report contains figures,
statistics and evidences.
Teaching Standards
The commission has attached great importance to high teaching standards. So the
commission has urged that the standards of teaching and examination should be so
raised that our students may be equal to their counter-parts anywhere in the world. The
commission has expressed regret that the prevailing standard of university is deplorable
because of the fall of standard of intermediate education. Consequently, able students
are not coming for university education. Therefore, the standard of university education
has also fallen down. The commission has given the following suggestions for improving
university standards:
1. Only the intermediate passed students should be admitted to universities
2. In every state, a good number of intermediate colleges should be opened. If
intermediate classes are attached to universities at some places, they should be
shifted on separate premises.
3. Intermediate class students should be given opportunities for obtaining vocational
education.
4. A degree college affiliated to a university should not have more than 1500
students in it. Similarly, a teaching university should not have more than 3000
students.
5. A degree college should have at least 180 working days in a year.
6. The teachers should prepare their Lecture more carefully and they should take
special interest in tutorial work.
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7. No book should be regarded as a text book and in no course text books should
be prescribed.
8. Too many private students should not be permitted to sit at a university
examination. A minimum percentage of attendance at lectures should be fixed
for students. Students falling below this percentage of attendance should not be
allowed to sit at the examination concerned.
9. For tutorial work, suitable teachers should be appointed.
10. Provision should be made for good libraries and well-equipped science
laboratories.
Teachers’ qualifications and emoluments

The commission has recognized the importance of good teachers for the sake of
high standard of education. Hence, it has recommended for the appointment of suitable
teachers for universities. For this, the commission has recommended enhancement of
scales of pay for the teachers.
Post graduate Teaching and Research

The commission has given the following suggestions in this regard:
1. A close relationship should be maintained between teachers and research
scholars. Admission to post-graduate classes should be governed by an all
India examination.
2. Ph.d scholars should be chosen on all-India basis. The duration of research for
Ph.d should be at least two years. The Ph.d research scholars should also have
knowledge of allied subjects.
3. Ph.d scholars producing good research work should be given opportunities for
further studies. Such research scholars should be given fellowships and their
selection should be made on all-India basis.
4. The Education Ministry should grant stipends to those D.Litt and D.Sc degree
holders who have evinced capacities of high order of research. No partiality
should be made in the selection of such degree-holders.
5. D.Litt and D.Sc degrees should be awarded only on original works.
6. Universities should be given adequate financial assistance.
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The Curriculum
The commission has given the following recommendations for reorganizing the
university curriculum:
1. Knowledge should be considered as one whole. The courses of studies are only
means of composite knowledge and they should not be considered as an end.
Hence while drawing up the courses of study the connection and link between
the varying aspects must not be missed. In other words, knowledge should be
cultivated in its entirety. There should be a connecting bend between the general,
intellectual and vocational education.
2. The courses of studies for universities and intermediate colleges should be
reorganized on the above principles. Only then the defects of the existing system
of education may be removed.
3. The relation between the general and specialized education should be defined
in the contest of its relevance to individual, social and professional benefit to
the student.
Professional Education
Vocational education, teachers’ training, engineering, technology and medical
education may be included under professional education. The commission has given
suggestions for improving these types of education. Some of the more important
suggestions are being given below. Education in trade and commerce the commission
has suggested that commerce students should be given practical instructions in
institutions of trade and commerce for three or four years. Their education should not
be only bookish.
Teacher’s Training
1. Greater attention should be paid on practical experience and less on theoretical.
Accordingly, the curriculum should be reorganized in a more useful manner.
2. Teachers of training colleges should have enough teaching experience in schools.
3. Higher degree in education should be given to those students who have already
taught for a number of years.
4. Teachers of training colleges should do original researches in the field of
education.
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Education of Women: The commission his given the following suggestions for
improving the quality of women education.
1. Education of women may be similar to that of men is certain aspects, but it
should be different also in some others in view of their different nature and
duties of life.
2. Greater facilities should be given for promoting women education.
3. Able and experienced teachers should be available to guide women in the
selection of their nature of education.
4. Women should be well informed about their rights and duties pertaining to the
society and nation.
5. It is necessary for women to receive education in domestic science.
6. In institutions where co-education is prevalent, special facilities should be
provided for women.
Religious Education - The commission has made the following suggestions in this
regard.
1. Instruction in each institution should be begun with self meditation.
2. Biographies of great religious leaders of various religions should be taught to
the first year students of the graduate classes. In these, leaders like Swamy
Dayanand, Shankaracharya, Buddha, Jesus Christ and Prophet Mohammad etc
may be included.
3. Essential of all religions should be taught to the second year students of the
graduate course.
4. The third year students should be taught the essentials of philosophies and
problems of religions.
Education in Medicine
The commission gave the following suggestions for the improvement of medical
education.
1. Researches should be made in the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine
and they should be developed.
2. Greater importance should be attached to preventive methods and nursing.
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3. Not more than 190 students should be admitted to a medical college within a
year and not more than ten patients should be kept under a student
4. Institutions for post-graduate medical education should be equipped with tools,
medicines and experienced teachers.
5. Special training should be given to students for treating patients in rural areas.
Engineering and Technology Education

The commission gave the following suggestions about this:
1. Institutions imparting education in engineering and technology should be
nationalized. They should not be allowed to be a property of some person.
2. More colleges of engineering and technology should be opened in the country.
3. The curriculum of these institutions should be diversified according to the needs
of the country.
4. Provision should be made for higher researches in these institutions.
5. Greater importance should be attached to the acquisition of practical skill and
knowledge in these institutions.
6. Provision should be made in these institutions for special researches of a high
order in the field of technology.
7. These institutions should be free to manage their own affairs. They should not
be controlled by the ministry and bureaucracy.
8. At present, separate universities are established to give education in the field
medicine and engineering. They are Rajiv Gandhi medical university and
Visweswaraiah Technical University.
Medium of Instruction in University

India is a land of languages. The various states stand for their own regional
languages. The commission studied the difficulties involved in this sphere and has
given the following suggestions for solution of the language problem:
1. Excepting Sanskrit, any other Indian language should replace English as the
medium of instruction at the earliest. Sanskrit cannot be made the medium as it
involves many practical difficulties.
2. The students of universities and higher secondary schools should be taught the
national language along with English and a regional language.
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3. Regional languages should be the medium of university education. Certain
subjects at the university stage should be taught through the medium of national
language.
4. The national language and the regional language should be developed.
5. A committee of scholars of all the regional language should be formed for
reconstructing technical terms in sciences. This committee should be given the
responsibility of writing standard text books. These text books should be
translated in to various languages under the supervision of this committee.
6. The state governments should provide facilities for teaching national language
in universities, degree colleges and higher secondary schools.
7. Teaching of English should be continued in high schools and universities in
order that the students are acquainted with achievements in other countries.
Students’ welfare and Character formation

The commission has given the following suggestions in this respect:
1. Admission to degree colleges and universities should be on merit.
2. Scholarships should be given on merits only to the poor and deserving students.
3. The students should be given the necessary health facilities.
4. Sports, games and gymnasiums should be organized in various schools.
5. Two years compulsory physical training should be introduced for students. The
students taking training in NCC and handicapped ones may be exempted from
this.
6. Provision of physical training should be made under the N.C.C. programme for
educational institutions.
7. Good hostels should be constructed.
8. Students unions should be made free of politics. They should be engaged in
activities directed towards their physical, educational and character growth.
9. Students should be given opportunities to participate in the administration of
schools, colleges and universities.
10. A students department should be opened in each university and degree college.
11. An Advisory committee should be opened in each educational institution for
protecting the interests of students.
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University Examination System
The commission made a deep study of the problems pertaining to examinations
and opined that examination system could not be abolished. But it has given a number
of suggestions for its reforms. Some of the more important suggestions have been as
below:
1. The government of India should appoint a committee of experts and educationists
for suggesting reforms in the existing examination system.
2. An examination board of three members should be constituted in each university
to do the following things:
a. To suggest reforms in the curriculum
b. To guide teachers of degree colleges and universities for constructing
objective tests.
c. The examination board will assess the qualitative utility of various
colleges and accordingly will suggest measures for their qualitative
improvements.
d. To prepare a questionnaire for psychological test of those students of
higher secondary schools who are aspirants for university education.
The commission gave the following suggestions for removing the defects of
the existing examination system and advised that these suggestions should be accepted
until a new system of examination is not evolved.
1. For any government service, a university degree should not be considered as
essential.
2. One third of the maximum marks should be allotted to sessional works.
3. For the three years degree course a number of examinations should be held
from time to time. Only one examination for obtaining a degree is not enough.
4. Only such teachers should be appointed as examiners who have atleast five
years teaching experience.
5. The examination standard should be raised. This standard should be the same
for all universities. At least 70 percent for first division, 55 percent for second
division and 40 percent for third division should be fixed.
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Administration
The commission has remarked that the university administration is full of defects
and the same must be removed for introducing any reform. It has given the following
suggestions for reforming the university administration:
1. The university education should be brought under the concurrent list of the
states.
2. The central government should have only limited powers on universities. It
may have a say only in the determination of administrative policy, giving grants
and facilities and guidance for national education.
3. The university grants commission should be organized for its help. Number of
committees should be appointed. This commission should be made responsible
for assigning grants to various universities in the country.
4. A degree college should be recognized only if it fulfills all the conditions.
5. A good managing committee should be considered necessary for a degree college.
6. Each university should teach so the idea of an affiliating university should be
rejected.
7. All government degree colleges should be merged into various universities of
the area concerned.
8. The following should be accepted as necessary for each university:
(1) Visitor (2) Chancellor (3) Vice-Chancellor (4) Syndicate (5) Faculty (6)
Academic Council (7) Senate (8) Board of studies (9) Selection committee (10)
Finance Committee.
The president of India should be the visitor and the governor of a state should be
the chancellor of all universities in his state. The Vice Chancellor should be a whole
time officer and he should be paid a handsome salary corresponding to the dignity of
his high office.
Finance
The commission has remarked that most of the universities in the country are
suffering from financial stringency, so they cannot implement any useful scheme.
Therefore, each university should be given adequate financial assistance. The commission
has given the following suggestions in this respect:
1. The state government should shoulder the entire cost of university education.
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2. Recurring and non-recurring grants should be given even to non government
colleges. Definite rules should be framed for giving recurring grants. Only those
colleges should be given grants which follow these rules.
3. Income-tax concessions should be given to those persons and firms which give
donations to educational institutions.
4. In addition to recurring and non-recurring grants. Other financial assistance
should also be given to universities for implementing certain schemes.
Universities in Rural Areas

Most of the universities in India are established in urban areas. So they cater to the
needs of only urban people. So, the commission has remarked that 80 percent of the
Indian population falling in rural area is being deprived of the benefits of university
education. Moreover, the university education is not patterned on the needs and
aspirations of the rural people. Therefore, the commission has recommended that from
now on, new universities should be established in rural areas in order to meet the
requirements of the rural people.
Eighty percent of the Indian people are residing in villages. The commission has
rightly recommended that new universities should be established in rural areas for
meeting the requirements of the village people. Since India is a religious country, the
commission has recognized the necessity of introduction of some kind of religious and
moral education in universities in order to control the violent waves of materials of the
present day civilization.
After explaining the scope of university education in the context of modern political
and social conditions, the commission emphasized that our education must be Indian,
i.e built on the foundations of our country’s history and spirit. The University Education
Commission wanted Indian higher education to be built on the foundations of Indian
history and philosophy and so recommended the right balance between the material
life and the spiritual life in its content.
● It emphasized the need for quality teachers and new methods such as tutorial
system. It made recommendations in respect of examination reforms.
● It advocated the mother tongue as medium of instruction
● It emphasized the need for moral and religious education.
● It expressed concerns over the deteriorating standards and recommended raising
of the college age, implying an eleven-year schooling followed by a three-year
degree course. It pleaded for better admission procedures and recruitment of
teachers based on merit.
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1. Identify any three salient recommendations of University Education Commission
14.4 Let Us Sum Up

The university commission was appointed in 1948 under the chairmanship of
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. The Commission studied the problems of university education
and submitted its report in 1949. The commission gave important recommendations
with regard to aims of university education, educational standard, teacher’s training,
research, women education, religious, vocational, medical and law education, medium
of instruction, curriculum, examination system, students problems, university
administration and finance and rural universities.
9 Aims of university Education: Research for discovering new knowledge for the
welfare of the countrymen. To utilise this knowledge for vocational, scientific
and industrial development.
9 Standard of Education: It should be such as to produce great thinkers and skilful
workers. To raise the intellectual level of students.
9 Teachers: To be away from politics and groupism. Their character should be
worthy of emulation. This ability should be undoubted. They should get
handsome salaries.
9 Post-graduate Education: Encouragement to advanced research. To produce
learned persons, scientists and technologists.
9 Curriculum: To give complete knowledge to students.
9 Vocational Education: The aim should be to enable students to stand on their
own legs after having received education. Education in agriculture has been
emphasized.
9 Women Education: The commission has urged to give full freedom to women
in education.
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9 Religious Education: In place of religious conservatism, the commission has-
spiritualism. It has advocated equality for all religions in the country.
9 Medium of Instruction: Indian languages should be made the medium of
instruction in place of English. The national language should be the medium of
instruction at the higher stage and for lower stages regional languages may be
accepted as the medium.
9 Students: The University should protect the interests of students and should
develop the - physical, intellectual and spiritual capacities of students.
9 Examination- It should be reformed.
9 Administration: The central and state governments should give financial grants,
but they must not interfere with university affairs. The commission recommended
that a visitor, a chancellor, a Vice- Chancellor along with them other officers
should be appointed for each university.
9 Financial Assistance: Universities should be given maximum financial assistance
in the form of grants.
9 Rural universities: The commission recommended for the opening of rural
universities for meeting the requirements of the people in rural areas.

1. It expressed concern over the deteriorating standards and recommended raising
of the college age, employing an eleven-year schooling followed by a three-
year degree course
2. It pleaded for better admission procedures and recruitment of teachers based on
merit.
3. It advocated the mother tongue as medium of instruction.
14.6 Unit- End Exercises

1. Describe the tradition of education commissions in India with special reference
to University Education Commission.
2. List out the recommendation of University Education Commission.
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14.7 References
1. Government of India, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, Report of the University
Education Commission (1948 - 49)
2. Rawat. P. L : History of Indian Education
3. Taneja. V. R. : Educational Thought and Practice
4. AltekarA. S. : Education in Ancient India
5. Mukherji. S. N. : History of Education in India
6. Syed Nurulla Nayak : A Students History of Education in India
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UNIT - 15 ❐ SECONDARY EDUCATION
COMMISSION (1952-53)
Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Objectives
15.4 Let Us Sum Up
15.7 References
15.1 Introduction
India attained Independence from the British rule in 1947. With the attainment of
Independence, a new era in the history of education started. This gave the people an
opportunity to shape their educational policy according to the needs and aspirations of
the nation. The inherited system from the British system of education was rather of a
general and theoretical nature. Such a system had to be completely reconstructed and
given a practical bias. The provision of universal free and compulsory education for all
children of school going age and social education for all illiterate adults was the most
urgent need. It was also necessary to reorganize secondary and higher education and
make adequate provision for the expansion and advancement of scientific and technical
education.
Very little development could be achieved between 1947-51. During this period,
India had to reckon with great difficulties. The most trying problem was that of the
refugees from Pakistan and their rehabilitation. Besides, there were other problems
such as framing of the constitution, reorganization of administrative services, liquidation
of princely states. However, states had their own schemes based on the Sargent scheme
for educational expansion.
The most important problems in the field of education after India attained
Independence were, expansion of facilities for free and compulsory education of all
children up to age 14, reforming secondary and university education, encouragement
of women’s education etc. In order to fulfill these objectives, government, central and
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state adopted the policy of planned development and drew up five year plans.
The term secondary education has different meanings in different countries.
Conventionally three levels of education are commonly recognized, namely (a) primary
(b) secondary and (c) tertiary, occasionally they are also referred to as first level, second
level and third level in a number of developed countries, A number of countries divide
secondary education in to Junior or senior. In most countries secondary education is
the second level of formal schooling, falling between the primary- elementary level
and the specialized higher study offered by colleges and university.
The central advisory board of education at its 141st meeting held in January 1948
recommended the appointment of a commission to examine the prevailing system of
secondary education in the country and suggest measures for its reorganization and
improvement. The Board at its 181st meeting held in 1951 reiterated its former decision
and pressed for early implementation of its recommendations.
There were other considerations also before the government of India for setting up
a commission. There had been no comprehensive examination of the problems pertaining
to secondary education, while the problems of elementary and university education
had been surveyed and steps taken to improve. Further, it was the secondary school
that supplied teachers to the primary schools and students to the universities. An
inefficient system of secondary education was bound to affect adversely the quality of
education, at all stages. It was felt that one of the major defects of the prevailing system
of secondary education was its unilinear and predominantly academic character. The
need for the reorganization of secondary education with diversified courses had become
more urgent as a result of acceptance by the government of Basic Education as the
pattern of education at the elementary stage.
In view of these considerations, the government of India set up the Secondary
Education Commission by Resolution dated 23 Sept,1952. In this Unit you are to learn
about details of secondary Education Commission and its recommendations.
15.2 Objectives
¾ Give the details of Secondary Education Commission.
¾ Explain the recommendations of Secondary Education Commission.
¾ State the objectives of Secondary Education Commission.
¾ Explain the impact of Secondary Education Commission.
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After giving its attention to reorganize University Education after independence,
the Government of India focussed its attention to Secondary Education, which was
considered as an important state of education. Hence, the Government appointed-a
Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr. Laxmana Swamy Modaliar, a west known
educationist of that time to review the then existing system of Secondary Education
and to recommend reforms to reorganize the system.
First, let us study about the aims of secondary education as envisaged by this
commission. The Secondary Education Commission formulated four aims of education
for India keeping in view the needs of democratic India as envisaged in the constitution.
1. Development of Democratic Citizenship:

The Secondary Education Commission visualized the secondary education as the
end of all formal education for the majority of the citizens and as such thought that it
must assume the responsibility of providing that type of education that would enable
the students to develop qualities which are of great importance for them to bear worthily
the responsibilities of a democratic citizen. A democratic citizen is required to develop
many qualities-intellectual, social and moral.
2. Improvement of Vocational Efficiency:

The second important aim of our educational system would be to increase the
productive or technical and vocational efficiency of our students. This includes (a)
creating a new attitude that implies an appreciation of the dignity of all work, however,
slowly. (b) making the students realize that self-fulfillment and national prosperity are
only possible through work in which everyone must participate and a conviction that
whenever educated men take any piece of work in hand they will try to complete it as
efficiently and artistically as their powers permit. (c) making attempts by all the teachers
to ensure that such an attitude on the part of the students finds expression in every
activity of the school and (d) promotion of technical skill and efficiency at all stages of
education so as to provide trained and efficient personnel to work out schemes of
industrial and technological advancement.
Provision for diversified courses at the secondary stage should be made, so that, a
larger number of students may take up agricultural, technical, commercial or other
practical courses which will train their varied aptitudes and enable them either to take
up vocational pursuits at the end of the secondary course or to join technical institutions
for further training.
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3. Development of Personality:
This includes (a) Releasing the sources of creative energy in the students so that
they may be able to appreciate their cultural heritage (b) cultivating rich interests which
they can pursue in their leisure and contribute, in later life, to the development of this
heritage (c) Giving place of honour in the curriculum to subjects like art, craft, music,
dance and the development of hobbies.
4. Development of the Qualities for Leadership:

This is important for the successful functioning of our democracy. Education must
train our students for discharging their duties efficiently; they must be trained in the act
of leading and following others. Our secondary education must train persons who will
be able to assume the responsibility of leadership in the social, political, industrial or
cultural fields in their own small groups of community or locality. Leadership calls for
a higher standard of education, a deeper and clearer understanding of social issues and
greater technical efficiency.
Major Recommendations of the Commission

1. New Organizational Pattern
1. Under the new organizational structure, education should commence after a
four or five years period of Primary or Junior Basic Education and should include
(a) the Middle or Senior Basic or Junior Secondary stage of three years, and (b)
the Higher Secondary Stage of four years.
2. The present intermediate stage should be replaced by the Higher Secondary
Stage which should be of four years duration one year of the present Intermediate
being included in it. As a consequence, the first degree course in the university
should be of three years duration.
3. Multipurpose schools should be established wherever possible to provide varied
courses of interest to students with diverse aims, aptitudes and abilities.
4. All states should provide special facilities, for agricultural education in rural
schools.
2. Technical Education
1. Technical schools should be started in large numbers either separately or as a
part of multipurpose school.
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2. A number of residential schools should be established, more particularly in
certain rural areas.
3. A large number of schools should be established to meet the needs of handicapped
children.
3. Co-Education
1. While no distinction need be made between education imparted to boys and
girls, special facilities for the study of home science should be made available
in all girls’ schools and co-education schools.
2. Efforts should be made by state Governments to open separate schools for girls
wherever there is demand for them.
4. Study of Languages:
1. The mother-tongue or the regional language should generally be the medium of
instruction throughout the secondary school stage, subject to the provision that
for linguistic minorities special facilities should be made available.
2. During the middle school stage, every child should be introduced at the end of
junior Basic stage, subject to the principle that no two languages should be
introduced in the same year. At the High and Higher secondary stage, at least
two languages should be studied, one of which being the mother-tongue or the
regional language.
5. Curriculum:
1. At the middle-school stage, the curriculum should include (i) Languages (ii)
Social studies (iii) General Science (iv) Mathematics (v) Art and Music (vi)
Craft and (vii) Physical Education.
2. At the High School or Higher Secondary stage, diversified courses of instruction
should be provided for the pupils. Diversified courses of study should include
the following groups (1) Humanities (ii) Science (iii) Technical subjects (iv)
Commercial subjects (v) Agriculture Subjects (vi) Fine Arts, and (vii) Home
Science. As and when necessary, additional diversified courses may be added.
3. A certain number of core subjects should be common to all students, whatever
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the diversified courses of study that they may take; these should consist of (i)
Language (ii) General Science, (iii) Social Studies and (iv) Craft.
4. The diversified curriculums should begin in the second year of the High school
or higher secondary school stage.
6. Textbooks.
1. With a view to improving the quality of books prescribed, a high power textbooks
committee should be constituted.
2. The textbooks committee should lay down clear criteria for the type of paper,
illustration, printing and format of the books.
3. A single textbook should not be prescribed for every subject of study, but a
reasonable number of books which satisfy the standards laid down should be
recommended leaving the choice to the schools concerned. In the case of
languages, however, definite text books should be prescribed for each class to
ensure proper gradation.
4. No book prescribed as a textbook or as a book for general study should contain
any passage or statement which might offend the religious or social
susceptibilities of any section of the community or might indoctrinate the minds
of the young students with particular political or religious ideologies.
5. Frequent changes in textbooks and books prescribed for study should be
discouraged.
7. Dynamic Methods of Teaching:

1. The methods of teaching in schools should aim not merely at imparting of
knowledge in an efficient manner, but also at inculcating desirable values and
proper attitudes and habits of work in the students.
2. The emphasis in teaching should shift from verbalism and memorization to
learning through purposeful, concrete and realistic situation and, for this purpose,
the principles of ‘Activity method’ and ‘Project method’ should be assimilated
in school practice.
3. In the teaching of all subjects special stress should be placed on clear thinking
and expression both in speech and writing.
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4. A well thought-out attempt should be made to adopt methods of instruction to
the needs of individual students as much as possible so that dull, average and
bright students may all have a chance to progress at their own pace.
5. Students should be given adequate opportunity to work in groups and to carry
out group projects so as to develop in then the qualities necessary for group life
and co operative work.
6. Every secondary school should have a well-equipped library, class libraries and
subject libraries should also beautified.
8. Discipline:
1. The education of character should be envisaged as the responsibility of all
teachers.
2. In order to promote discipline, personal contact between the teacher and the
pupils should be strengthened, Self- government in the form of house system
with prefects or monitors and student councils, whose responsibility will be to
draw up a code of conduct and enforce its observance, should be introduced in
all schools.
9. Religious and Moral Instruction:

Religious instruction may be given in schools only on a voluntary basis outside
the regular school hours, such instruction being confined to the children of the particular
faith concerned and given with the consent of the parents and managements
10. Extra - Curricular Activities:

Extra- curricular activities should form an integral part of education imparted in
the school and all teachers should devote a definite time to such activities.
11. Guidance and Counseling in Secondary Schools:

Educational guidance should receive much greater attention on the part of the
educational authorities. The services of trained guidance officers and career masters
should be gradually made available to all schools.
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12. Health Education:
A properly organized school medical service should be built up in all states, and a
thorough medical examination of all pupils and necessary follow up treatment wherever
necessary should be carried out in all schools.
13. Physical Education:

a. All teachers below the age of 40 should actively participate in many of the
physical activities of students and thus make them a lively part of the school
programme
b. Full records of physical activities of the students must be maintained.
14. A new Approach to Examination and evaluation:

The number of examination should be reduced and the element of subjectivity in the
essay-type tests should be minimized by introducing objective tests. In the final
assessment of the pupils, due credit should be given to the internal tests and the school
records of the pupils. The system of symbolic rather than numerical marking should be
adopted. There should be only one public examination at the completion of the secondary
school course.
15. Improvement of the Teaching Personnel:

1. The normal period of probation for a trained teacher should be one year.
2. The teachers possessing the qualifications and performing the same type of
work should be treated on par in the matter of grades of salary irrespective of
the type of institution in which they are working.
3. The system of triple benefit scheme, pension cum provident fund-cum-insurance
should be introduced in all states.
4. Arbitration Boards of committees should be established to look into the appeals
and grievances of teachers.
5. The age of retirement in the case of physically fit and competent teachers may
be extended to 60 with the approval of the Director of Education.
6. The children of teachers should be given free education throughout the school
stage.
7. Through a system of co-operative house building societies, teachers should be
provided with quarters so as to enable them to live near the school.
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8. The practice of private tuitions by teachers should be abolished.
16. Teacher Training:

1. There should be only two types of institutions for teacher training:
(i) For those who have taken the school leaving certificate or Higher
secondary school leaving certificate, for them the period of training
should be two years; and
(ii) For graduates for whom the training may, for the present, be of one
academic year, but extended as a long-term programme to two
academic years.
2. During the period of training, all the student teachers should be given suitable
stipend by the state.
3. All training colleges should provide adequate residential facilities.
17. Organization and Administration:

(1) There should be a Board of secondary Education consisting of not more than 25
members with the /director of Education as its chairman to deal with all matters of
education at the secondary stage and to lay down general policies. A sub-committee of
the Board should deal with the conduct of examinations.
(2) State Advisory Boards should be constituted in each state to advise the Department
of Education on all matters pertaining to education.
18. Inspection of Schools:

(1) The true role of an Inspector should be to study the problems of school and view
them comprehensively in the context of educational objectives, to formulate suggestion
for improvement and help the teachers to carry out his advice and recommendations.
(2) In addition to direct recruitment, Inspectors should also be drawn from (i) teachers
of ten years experience (ii) headmasters of High schools, and (iii) duly qualified staff
of training colleges who may be allowed to work as such for a period of three to five
years.
19. Management of Schools:

1. The Management Boards of all schools should be registered and should consist
of a limited number of persons with the Headmaster as an ex-officio member.
2. No member of the managing Board should directly or indirectly interfere with
the internal administration of the school.
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20. School building and Equipment:
1. The open spaces available in cities must be conserved to be utilized as play
ground by groups of schools.
2. Normally in designing buildings for schools, care should be taken to see that an
area of not less than 10 sq. ft is provided per student in the classroom.
3. The optimum number of boys to be admitted to any class should be 30 and the
maximum should not in any case exceed 40, the optimum number in the whole
school should be 500 while the maximum should not exceed 750.
21. Hours of Working and Vacation:

1. As a rule, the total number of working days in a school should not be less than
two hundred, the working hours per week should be at least thirty five periods
about forty five minutes each; the schools should work regularly for six days in
the week one of the days being a half day when the teachers and students might
meet informally and work together on various extra-curricular and social projects.
2. Normally during the year, there should be a summer vacation of two months
and two breaks of ten to fifteen days at suitable periods during the year.
22. Finance:
1. A cess called the Industrial Education Cess be levied, the amount collected to
be utilised for furtherance of technical and vocational education at the secondary
stage.
2. The center should assume certain amount of direct responsibility for the
contemplated reorganization of secondary education and give financial aid for
the purpose.

1. Mention any five recommendations of Secondary Education Commission
Impact of Secondary Education Commission

Now let us discuss about the impact of Secondary Education Commission.
The Secondary Education Commission observed as regards financial aid to
secondary Education “It has been pointed out that the recommendations of the previous
commissions have not been given effect too largely because the necessary financial
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resources could not be made available either by the state or by the center”. It is an
irony of fate that the recommendations of this commission also meet the same fate.
The Secondary Education Commission did not give sufficient thought to the financial
aspect of the various reforms.
The Secondary Education Commission did not suggest any short-term and long-
term plans for the implementation of its recommendations.
The Commission did not state in clear and unambiguous language what the total
duration of the school course would be. This created a lot of confusion.
The financial implications of upgrading a large number of high schools into higher
secondary pattern in every state were not worked out.
The Commission suggested that the minimum qualification required for teaching
in the last two years of the higher secondary school were an M.A degree or a first class
B.A degree with a degree in teaching. An adequate number of qualified post-graduate
teachers were not available.
The introduction of core-subjects like crafts and general science in the curriculum
of the higher secondary school created further difficulties regarding staff requirements.
The serious difficulties in the process of implementing the recommendations of
establishing multipurpose schools could not be foreseen with the result that out of
22,581 higher secondary schools in 1963-64, there were only 2000 multipurpose schools.
Subsequently their number began to dwindle. Thus we find that our schools remain as
bookish and stereotype as at the time of the recommendations of the Secondary Education
Commission. One may aptly put this question, what has been the impact of the Secondary
Education Commission? The answer is quite obvious. The multipurpose schools
benefited neither the school leavers not the seekers of higher education.
A close scrutiny of the implementation of the recommendations of the commission
reveals that the quantitative expansion of secondary education has not been
simultaneously accompanied by qualitative improvement.
The commission did not give a clear-cut path of vocationalised education adequately.
In no way our education has facilitated the task of finding suitable manpower for various
sectors of development of industries and other services.
The commission did not suggest methods of coordination between growth of
economy, manpower needs, employment opportunities and the output of secondary
schools.
The selection of high schools for conversion into higher secondary schools was to
be governed by strict and carefully defined conditions. The commission’s report stated
that only those schools would develop in to efficient higher secondary institutions which
satisfied definite criteria prescribed regarding accommodation, equipment, qualification
of staff, salaries and grades and adequate finances, and that such conditions had to be
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fulfilled scrupulously before the schools were recognized as higher secondary schools.
The establishment of higher secondary schools in certain areas unfortunately became a
matter of prestige for the people concerned. Social and political pressures were sometimes
used for getting the necessary recognition for their institutions. This resulted in the
upgrading of a number of schools which did not satisfy the minimum criteria regarding
accommodation, equipment, qualifications of staff etc.

1. Mention any three impacts of Secondary Education Commission.
15.4 Let Us Sum-Up

With the attainment of independence, political situation underwent a complete
revolution. Education also needed a fresh outlook. This was appropriately voiced by
Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, the then Education minister in his presidential address to
the central Advisory Board of Education in 1948, “the scales in which the educational
problems were weighed by this Board up till now have grown out of date. The dimensions
of the national problems of the day cannot be judged by the same measurements. The
new aspiration of new India will require fresh outlook and new measures to tackle its
problems.”
In this Unit we have explained about major recommendations of secondary
Education commission.
1. Under the new organizational structure, education should commence after a
four or five years period of primary Junior Basic education and the middle or
senior Basic or Junior secondary stage of three years, and the higher secondary
stage of four years
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2. Technical schools should be started in large numbers either separately or as
part of multi-purpose school.
3. Public schools should continue to exist for the present and the pattern of education
given in them should be brought in to reasonable conformity with the general
pattern of national education.
4. While no distinction need be made between education imparted to boys and
girls, special facilities for the study of home science should be made available
in all girls’ schools and coeducation schools.
5. The mother tongue or the regional language should generally be the medium of
instruction throughout the secondary school stage, subject to the provision that
for linguistic minorities special facilities should be made available.
6. At the middle school stage, the curriculum should include languages,
social studies, general science, mathematics, art and music, craft and physical
education.
7. The methods of teaching in schools should aim not merely at imparting
8. The number of examinations should be reduced and the element of subjectivity
in the essay-type tests should be minimized by introducing objective tests. In
the final assessment of the pupils due credit should be given to the internal tests
and the school records of the pupils. The system of symbolic rather than numerical
marking should be adopted. There should be only one public examination at
the completion of the secondary school course. Improvement of the teaching
personnel-salary, pension-cum-provident fund cum-insurance, should be
introduced in all states.
9. The secondary Education commission observed as regards financial aid to
secondary Education, “It has been pointed out that the recommendations” of
the previous commissions have not been given effect to largely because the
necessary financial resources could not be made available either by the state or
by the center. “It is an irony of fact that the recommendations of this commission
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also met the same fate. The Secondary Education Commission did not give
sufficient thought to the financial aspect of the various reforms.
10. The commission suggested that the minimum qualification required for teaching
in the last two years of the higher secondary school were an M.A degree or a
first class B.A degree with a degree in teaching. An adequate number of qualified
post- graduate teachers were not available.

Check Your Progress -1
1. Inspection of schools-the true role of an Inspector should be to study the problems
of school and view them comprehensively in the context of educational
objectives, to formulate suggestion for improvement and help the teachers to
carry out his advice and recommendations.
2. The methods of teaching in schools should aim not merely at imparting
3. A number of residential schools should be established to meet the needs of
handicapped children.
4. With a view to improving the quality of textbooks prescribed, a high power
textbooks committee should be constituted

1. The Financial implications of the upgrading of a large number of high schools
in to higher secondary pattern in every state were not worked out.
2. The secondary Education Commission did not suggest short-term and long-
term plans for the implementation of its recommendations.
3. The commission did not give a clear-cut path of vocationalised education
adequately. In no way our education has facilitated the task of finding suitable
manpower for various sectors of development of industries and other services.
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1. Bring out the importance of the Secondary Education Commission in the context
of the overall efforts to reorganize education in the country.
2. Analyze and assess the impact of the recommendations of the Secondary
Education Commission on high school education in India.
15.7 References
1. Government of India, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, Report of the Secondary
Education Commission (1952)
2. Aggrawal J. C. - Development and Planning of Modern Education, Vikas
Publishers, New Delhi.
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UNIT - 16 ❐ INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION
(1964 - 1966)
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives
16.4 Let Us Sum up
16.7 References
16.1 Introduction
India got freedom in 1947 and after this it hoped that the traditional system of
education would undergo a great change. But, in spite of a number of committees and
commissions on education, satisfactory progress could not be achieved. Very naturally,
a comprehensive policy was needed. Hence, the commission was appointed. Secondly,
in the post-Independent period, a good deal of expansion had taken place in the
field of education, but all this was at the expenses of quality. This needed a detailed
study.
Thirdly, the commission was appointed to bring home to the people that they should
also have a share in the reconstruction of the country through education. The government,
of course, is shouldering the main responsibility. Moreover, there was an explosion of
knowledge, particularly in science and technology. The appointment of a commission
was consequently felt to meet this challenge.
Fourthly, in the past, several commissions and committees had examined sectors
and specific aspects of education. The new commission was to survey the entire field
of educational development as the various parts of the educational system strongly
interact with and influence one another. Education needed to be considered as a whole
and not in fragments.
Fifthly, the system of education could not be strengthened without eliciting the
co-operation of teachers.. The teacher community had hither to been altogether neglected.
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All these years, the teachers had been subjected to great economic hardships. A positive
approach to the problems of the teacher was, therefore, badly needed.
Education commission 1964-66, popularly known as Kothari Commission under
the name of its chairman Prof. D. S. Kothari was appointed by a Government Resolution
in July 1964 to advise the Government of India on the national pattern of education and
on the general principles and policies for development of education at all stages and in
all aspects. The commission began its work on October 2, 1964 and submitted its
report on June 26, 1966. Sri J. P. Naik was the member - secretary of the commission.
The publication of the report is an epoch-making event in the history of Education in
India. The report is entitled, Education and National Development.
In this unit, we discuss in detail about Indian Education Commission, and its
recommendations, Impact of Indian Education Commission.
16.2 Objectives
¾ Give the details of Indian Education Commission.
¾ Explain the recommendations of Indian Education Commission.
¾ Explain the Impact of Indian Education Commission.

Education and National Development
The opening sentence of the report is “The destiny of India is being shaped in her
class rooms. This, we believe, is no more rhetoric”. This clearly reflects the important
role of education in national development.
Three facets of educational revolution

Internal transformation, so as to relate it to the life, needs aspirations of the nation.
Qualitative improvement so that the standards achieved are adequate, keep continually
rising and at least, in a few sectors become internationally comparable and Expansion
of education facilities broadly on the basis of manpower needs and with an accent on
equalization educational opportunities.
Educational Programme
This is a four-fold Educational programme.
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1. Work experience as an integral part of general education, vocationalisation of
education at the secondary level, improvement of professional education and
research, promoting national consciousness.
2. Introducing a common school system, making social and national service
compulsory; developing all modern Indian languages.
3. Making science education an integral part of all school education and developing
scientific research.
4. Inculcation of high values - social, moral and spiritual at all stages of education.
Programmes for improving the quality of education

The quality of education is crucial for national development and the nation must
be prepared to pay for the quality. According to the commission’s recommendations,
the major programmes for qualitative improvement include raising the economic, social
and professional status of teachers and improving the quality and scope of teacher
Education and in - service programmes, radical reform especially in science and
mathematics, vigorous improvement in the method of teaching and evaluation and
providing quality text books and other teaching material, search for introduction of a
nation - wide programme of school and college improvement where each institute
finds congenial condition to strive continually to achieve the best results of which it is
capable, the establishment of ‘quality’ schools to act as pace - setters in their districts
and the creation of 5 or 6 ‘major’ universities, revitalizing the system of supervision
and reorganizing the state departments and the reorganization of the educational structure
on the 10 + 2 + 3 pattern.
Expansion Programme
The commission hoped that 5 percent of the 3-5 and 50 percent of the 5-6 age
groups would find places in nursery schools or classes by 1986. It recommended five
years of good education for all children by 1975-76 and seven years of such education
by 1985-86 and placed the highest priority for free and compulsory education up to the
age of 14. The problems and policies of expansion at the secondary stage would differ
from those in primary education because on the one hand it would not be financially
possible for several years to come to have universal secondary education and on the
other hand it would be essential to enlist half the enrolment at the higher secondary
stage in vocational education.
It is an important recommendation that the expansion of higher secondary and
collegiate education should be related to manpower needs and must be selective. The
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programmes of equalization of educational opportunities visualized by the commission
included the reduction of the regional imbalances to the minimum, increased provision
of free education and scholarships, paying special attention to the education of girls,
placing adequate emphasis on the spread of education among backward classes including
the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. It was also recommended that nationwide
campaign should be launched for complete liquidation of illiteracy within 20 years.
Education and national objectives

The most important and urgent reform needed in education is to transform it, to
endeavor to relate it to the life, needs and aspirations of the people and thereby make it
a powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural transformation necessary for
the realization of the national goals. These national goals were then spelt out as follows.
Education should be developed so as to:
i. increase productivity
ii. achieve social and national integration
iii. strengthen democracy
iv. accelerate the process of modernization
v. cultivate social, moral and spiritual values.
The commission went on to analyze these five goals together with the means for
their achievement. It examined thoroughly every aspect of education in India and
suggested ways and means to improve them so as to make education a instrument of
national development.
Education for Higher Productivity

The commission noted and emphasized that India has been one of the poorest
countries in the world. The per capita income is one of the lowest, a large percentage
lives below the poverty line. The general standard of living is also very low. The “Gross
National Product” is far from satisfactory. The welfare and progress of the nation would
depend on its generation of wealth. This, in turn, would depend on its productive output,
first goods and then services. Industrial production is limited and low, even food
production is far below the need.. India has natural resources in plenty and also manpower
in the form of the second largest population in the world. But this manpower has to be
developed and well utilized lo be effective in production in different agricultural and
industrial sectors / areas. This is an important function of the educational system.
Boosting the productive efficiency of the people should therefore be an important aim
of education. Production in any area in modern times is based on science and technology
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and they are advancing at a rapid rate. So proper science education should be essential
at the secondary stage for a large percentage of students. People have to be trained to
accept productive jobs at different levels in different fields as they are enlarged and
modernized and this would also reduce unemployment. Education has also to help in
developing positive attitudes to productivity and work especially, manual labour. Work
experience has to be provided to all from the early stage, then vocational training for
those who are suitable for it and possibly need it. Higher education should provide for
professional education of an appropriate number in different fields with needed
specialization. The former should provide the workforce and the latter, effective
leadership.
Education for Social and National Integration

Another major problem for India is the lack of proper unity and integration among
its people. This affects its very survival as a nation. Ours is a pluralistic society. This is
a land of many religions and castes, sects and sub-castes. For historical reasons there
have been rivalries, and even hatred among them. There are also many distinctive
cultures and ethnic groups and languages. Traditions and practices vary; variety and
richness are plus points. But the society as a whole lacks cohesion, many groups and
individuals are narrow minded. There are many divisive forces based on religion, caste,
ethics, grouping, language, political ideology or interests and so, on. Though by and
large, our society has shown considerable tolerance of other religions, cultures, languages,
ideologies views etc; parochialism, chauvinism, fundamentalism etc, have raised their
ugly heads now and then. Intolerance and rivalries based on languages, culture, caste,
religion etc., can often be seen in varying degrees of strength. They are fairly wide
spread; certain vested interests take advantage of these, and torment them. Caste conflicts
and religious clashes too occur. At times, disturbing peace and harmony in a social
individual’s lives. Casteism and communalism express themselves in many unhealthy
ways. Considerations of common aspirations, goal, welfare and progress should have
the upper hand and social cohesion and National unity have to be achieved. In other
words, social and emotional integration of the people have to be cultivated. A strong
patriotic fervour has to be built up, as also international understanding and cooperation.
We should feel proud of being Indians and also value a proud place for India among the
nations of the world. We must have optimism about our feature and that of the whole.
All these can be achieved only through proper education of all the people through the
development and practice of healthy interests, understanding, appreciations, attitudes
and values. Mass Media and other agencies exert influence and can contribute to help
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in achieving these in children and youth, with their impressionable and pliable minds.
So education must be geared to this purpose or aimed at among others.
The Kothari commission has particularly suggested the following (among many other
things that education should do):
1. Introducing a common school system (where children would, go to a
neighborhood school and all schools would have reasonably good quality and
standards)
2. Making social, national service an integral part of education at all stages.
3. Developing all modern Indian languages and strengthening Hindi as an effective
link language of the future.
4. Adopting mother tongue as medium of instruction (especially at the school
stage).
5. Promoting national consciousness (including and understanding) and
appreciation of our cultural heritage, pride in being an Indian, and readiness to
strive for the nations progress-community development.
6. Promotion of international understanding.
7. Cultivation of values of democracy, Secularism, Social justice etc.
Education for Modernisation

We are living in a rapidly changing and progressing world. India is relatively very
backward except in terms of certain philosophical and cultural traditions. Modern
societies are progressive in out took and ready to change for the sake of better comforts
and standards of living. They are eager to break away from the clutches of superstitions,
dogmas, meaningless rituals and nonproductive traditions, and adopt right practices
more satisfying beliefs and ways of life. They tend to be more rational, flexible and
productive. Much of the development and progress that accounts today’s life is based
on science and technology. They have to be understood and their benefits transferred
rapidly to the extent possible. A scientific temper (or attitude) is also a must for more
efficient systems. Methods have to be adopted for productive work and services in
areas, and even hobbies, recreations and home management. All these involve knowledge
(information) and understanding, rational thinking, adequate skills, appropriate attitudes
and outlook etc, and even change in one’s value systems. Further, all have to adapt to
changes that come about in future.
Modernization touches all aspects of life, productive work in agriculture, industries,
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and other areas, trade and commerce, transport and communication, education, health
and welfare services, work services and comfort, home, hobbies and recreations, social
structure concerns, relationships and norms, family system, standards and styles of
life, food, clothing and housing, art literature and other forms and activities of culture.
It involves changes in outlook, values, attitudes, appreciations and tastes, interests etc,
apart from relevant cognitions and skills. Education has to contribute to this
modernization and cater to its demands, it has to prepare people; children, youth and
adults to absorb the effects of modernization in different areas and aspects, adjust to
them, and contribute to them in a healthy way. Mass media would supplement this
effort (It should be noted that by modernization we do not mean “Westernization”. The
influence of advanced developed countries and democracy science based cultures cannot
be avoided. Selective influence of a healthy nature is necessary and welcome too. But
not blind aping or purposeless imitation of western beliefs and ways.
Another important aspect of modernization and progress is “Knowledge explosion”,
knowledge has been growing at a fast pace. Even considerable revisions of old
understanding and beliefs are taking place. We have to catch up with it and be as up to
date as possible (not to speak of contributing to knowledge generation). Educational
system is again the main agency to serve the society and the nation in this respect
(though mass media would contribute continuously). Thus, education has to be geared
to the major aim of helping people to absorb, adjust to, cope up with, and possibly
contribute to the all embracing modernization in the emerging Indian society.
Education for Values

The above emphasis on modernization does not in any way imply and de-emphasise
our value system. Clear erosion of values has been taking on traditional -values, not a
break or withdrawal from them. In fact, there has been a noticeable degeneration taking
place, we speak of a ‘Crisis of values’, A powerful and comprehensive generation of
our culture as a whole, and values in particular, is necessary.
The old values of truth, goodness and beauty (Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram) are
considered absolute and eternal - applicable to all places and times, though the criteria
may vary within limits. Ahimsa, dharma, prema, tyaga and many other ideals and values
of Indian conception are still valid and valuable. Satyagraha and Sarvathrik Sangraha
have value content. But we see the selfishness has increasingly displaced selflessness
and ahimsa, Satyagraha often misused. Sympathy, empathy and compassion (Karuna)
are often missing. To such old values we have to add relatively modern values of
democracy, secularism, socialism, social justice etc. enshrined and guaranteed in our
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constitution. Rationality and scientific temper are increasingly important in modern
times. The values of co-operation and healthy competition, diligence and discipline,
doing one’s best in any given situation, achieving and aspiring as high as a possible,
compromising with others needs and contributing to social good, being confident and
optimistic, being pleasant and nice, being polite and humble and scores of other qualities
like these have to be cultivated. All these are necessary for successful, happy and useful
life. They can be developed through advice, persuasion, modeling and example, peer
suggestion, experiencing and problem solving leading to discovery and acceptance,
and other ways. Comprehensive and deliberate value education covering social, moral,
personal and even spiritual values should be aimed at. It has to become a major and
powerful dimension of education, it can be achieved through a variety of ways, direct
and indirect.
Education for Cultural Renaissance

The comprehensive modernization and deep value education emphasized on the
two sub sections above would together make for a cultural renaissance - a total and
powerful transformation or even revolution. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan stressed that education
should develop cultured personalities with a broad outlook and restricted manners.
(We often see people with the opposite combination, narrow mindedness and
uncontrolled behaviors). Culture is not just an activity of thought and humaneness. It
covers all aspects of life pointed out under modernization, and reflects the kinds of
values indicated above, social behavior and norms, especially grace and virtues, aspects
of personal life style, approaches to work and leisure. Striving for production and
contribution, constructive and creative work, purposeful presentations and selective
consumption, enjoyable expressions and appreciation are all parts of it. Literature, visual
arts and performing arts form significant components and dimensions, with accent on
aesthetics, spiritual practices, development and evaluation too raise man to the highest
levels. In all these, we have to achieve a comprehensive and purposeful transformation,
also considerable refinement and enrichment. Selective synthesis and meaningful
interrogations should be attempted. Education should not merely transmit the existing
culture but help to preserve it, transform through good selection, culmination and
modification, purify and refine it and enrich it through renaissance to check and correct
the degeneration or decaying that has been taking place. So, education (as also mass
media) should be geared to this purpose in a substantial way, again through a variety of
contents and methods -direct and indirect
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Education for Effective Citizenship in Emerging India
Independent India has consciously opted for democracy, secularism, socialism
and stands for social justice too. Democracy is not only government of the people, by
the people and of the people, it is a way of life. Democratic values, ideals and practices
have relevance and applicability in all spheres of life. Secularism emphasizes equal
freedom and respect for all religious faiths. Nobody is to be discriminated against
because of religion or caste. The essence of socialism is eradication of social and
economic disparities, and promotion of reasonable equity in benefits, rights and
privileges. All these and social justice up hold the principle of equality especially,
equity in opportunities for education, employment, income, other benefits and rights.
The relatively backward classes and groups (those which are educationally, socially,
economically backward) need special facilities, more opportunities and encouragement
like incentives, also compensation and corrective measures.
All must adopt outlook and attitudes favorable to such provisions. Further, all
citizens should be aware of their rights and privileges, that they might get the best out
of them. They must be equally conscious of their duties and obligations as a citizen.
(Both fundamental rights and duties are now defined in the constitution; there should
be more in actuality) A citizen should also achieve the capability for economic self-
support and contribution to the family and the society as a whole. One should be a
worthy member of the family, community, and nation. A good citizen must develop
and follow proper civic sense in all matters. Education can contribute quite a lot in
realizing all these; it should be geared to the proper citizenship development, in all.
In fact, the Kothari commission saw and emphasized education as the most basic
comprehensive and productive enterprise in human resource development for the nation.
It can be achieved only if all the above aims are accepted and pursued with vigor in a
balanced way.

1. List the National Goals according to the Kothari Commission
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Major recommendations
Stress on Science Education: Science education must become an integral part of school
education and ultimately some study of science should become a part of all courses in
the humanities and social science at the university stage. We lay great emphasis on
making science an important element in the school curriculum. A minimum of one
laboratory cum-lecture room should be provided in every higher primary school.
Educational Structure proposed by the Kothari Commission

1. The New educational Structure will consist of:
a. One to three years of pre-school education
b. A primary stage of 7 to 8 years divided into a lower primary stage of 4
or 5 years and a higher primary stage of 3 or 2 years.
c. A lower secondary stage of 3 or 2years.
d. A higher secondary stage of two years of general education or one to
three years of vocational education.
e. A higher education stage having a course of three years or more for the
first degree and followed by a course for the second or research degree
of varying durations.
2. Age of admission to class I ordinary not to be less than 6.
3. First public examination to come at the end of first ten years of schooling.
4. The system of streaming in school of general education to be made beyond
class X.
5. Two types of secondary schools, high schools providing a ten year course and
higher secondary schools providing a course of 11 or 12 years.
6. New higher secondary course beginning in class XI, to be instituted and classes
XI and XII to provide specialized studies in different subjects. Existing higher
secondary schools with integrated courses in classes IX, X, XI and running
satisfactorily to continue until class XII is added.
7. Transfer of the pre - university course from the universities and affiliated colleges
to secondary schools by 1975-76 and the duration of the course to be lengthened
to two years by 1985-86, U.G.C. being responsible for affecting the transfer of
all pre-university or intermediate work from university and affiliated colleges
to schools.
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8. Starting of Higher Secondary Class or Classes in Selected Schools by State
Education Departments as self- contained units and assisted with adequate
recurring grants.
9. Reconstituting Boards of Secondary Education to accept the responsibility for
the higher Secondary Stage also.
10. Vocationalisation at the secondary stage at two points at the end of class VII
(VIII) and at the end of Class X and provision to be made for the introduction
of different types of vocational courses at the lower and higher secondary stages,
the duration of these courses to vary from one to three years which would prepare
young persons for employment.
11. Ten years of schooling of general education:
The first ten years of schooling should cover a primary stage of seven or eight
years and a lower secondary stage of three or two years providing a course of
general education without any specialization.
12. Specialization in classes XI and XII:
Classes XI and XII (and during the transitional period class XI only) should
provide for specialized studies in different subjects at the higher secondary
stage.
13. Two years duration of higher secondary stage:
The Higher Secondary Stage should be extended to cover a period of two years
and to be located exclusively in schools.
14. Holidays to be minimized:
There is no need to close an educational institution on a religious holiday. Nor
is it necessary for instance to close it on birthdays or death anniversaries of
great Indians, the time could be better utilized in working hard for national
development.
15. Maximum utilization of school facilities:
The libraries, laboratories, workshops, craft sheds etc, should be open all round
the year and should be utilized for at least eight hours a day.
16. Free text books at the primary stage:
At the primary stage a programme of providing free textbooks should be given
very high priority and introduced immediately.
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17. Adequate number of scholarships.
The top 10 percent of the students in educational institutions should be given
small grants annually for the purchase of books which need not necessarily be
textbooks.
18. Residential facilities in schools:
One good Secondary School with adequate residential facilities should be
developed in a block and about 10 percent of urban schools should also be
similarly covered.
19. Learning while earning:
Facilities for students to earn and pay a part of the expenses should be developed
on as large a scale as possible as supplement to the programme of scholarships.
20. Education of the backward classes:
The education of the backward classes in general and of the tribal people in
particular is a major programme of equalization and of social and national
integration. No expenditure is too great for the purpose.
21. Two Sets of Curricula:
The State Boards of School Education should prepare two sets of curricula -
advanced and ordinary.
22. Three or four textbooks for each subject:
No useful purpose is served by having only one textbook in a subject for a
given class. It should be an important objective of policy to have at least three
or four books in each subject for each class and leave it open to the teacher to
choose the book best suited to the school. This is necessary even if there were
to be common syllabus for all the schools.
23. Moral and religious education:
Conscious and organized attempts be made for imparting education in social,
moral and spiritual values with the help wherever possible of the ethical teaching
of great religions.
24. Co-Curricular activities:
Every School should organize a variety of such programmes that every child in
it may be able to take up something suited to his tastes and interests.
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25. Evaluation:
Evaluation is a continuous process, forms an integral part of the total system of
education and is intimately related to educational objectives. It exercises a great
influence on the pupils, study habits and the teachers methods of instruction
and thus helps not only to measure educational achievement but also to improve
it.
26. Establishment of School Complexes:
The School Complex should be established. Each higher primary school should
be integrally related to ten lower primary schools that exist in its neighborhood
so that they form one complex of educational facilities. The headmaster of the
higher primary school should provide an extension service to the lower primary
schools in his charge and it will be his responsibility to see that they function
properly. The second tier would be a committee under the chairmanship of the
headmaster of the secondary school (all headmasters of the higher and lower
primary schools in the area being members) which will plan the work and give
guidance to all the schools in the area.
Impact of Indian Education Commission

Educational Commission’s report is an achievement, a mine of information and
wisdom. The report is a synoptic survey of school preparation, a 7-8 year Primary
stage, a lower secondary stage of 2-3 years, higher secondary of two years, and higher
education beginning with a three - year course, with no doubt be considered more
scientific than the present system, but unless the proposals are uniformly applied, the
existing confusion and imbalance as between states cannot be removed.

a. Mention any four important recommendations of Indian Education Commission
(1964 -66)
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16.4 Let Us Sum Up
With the attainment of independence, a new era in the history of education was started
soon after the independence. Very little development was seen in the field of school
education between 1947-51. The overall literacy rate was very low. This rate for girls
was even lower and also wide disparities in the rate of literacy between states and
regions were also seen. Article 45 directs that free, compulsory and universal education
should be provided by the state to all children of age group 6-14 with in a period of ten
years. Based on this Article, many other Articles have guaranteed provisions for
education. Education ranks high as founded on the values of freedom, social justice
and equal opportunity. Accordingly, it has been assigned a pivotal role in the development
process through the plan periods. Rapid expansion of educational facilities from one
plan to another has been a characteristic feature of educational planning in India.
According to Indian Education Commission (1996) Education should be developed so
as to:
● increase productivity
● achieve social and national integration
● strengthen democracy
● accelerate the process of modernization and
● cultivate social, moral and spiritual values. The comprehensive modernization

and deep value education was emphasized. These factors together make for a
cultural renaissance. Education is also a means to prepare a good and effective
citizen of India.
Major recommendations are:
● Stress on science education
● Maximum utilization of school facilities
● Free text books at the primary stage
● Adequate number of scholarships
● Residential facilities in schools
● Learning while earning
● Education of the backward classes
● Moral and religious education
● Co-curricular activities
● Evaluation
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a. increase productivity
b. achieve social and national integration
c. strengthen democracy
d. accelerate the process of modernization
e. cultivate social, moral and spiritual values

1. Ten years of schooling of general education. The first ten years of schooling
should cover a primary stage of seven or eight years and, a lower secondary
stage of three or two years providing a course of general education without any
specialization.
2. Maximum utilization of school facilities - the libraries, laboratories, workshops,
craft sheds etc, should be open all round the year and should be utilized for at
least eight hours a day.
3. Free textbooks at the primary stage. At the primary stage, a programme of
providing free text books should be given very high priority and should be
introduced immediately.
4. The education of the backward classes in general and of the tribal people in
particular is a major programme of equalization and of social and National
integration. No expenditure is too great for the purpose.

1. In what ways are the recommendations of the Indian Education Commission
(1964-66) different from those of its two previous commissions?
2. Explain the recommendations of Indian Education Commission.
16.7 References
1. Government of India, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, Report of the Indian
Education Commission (1964-66)
2. Mukherji S. N. : History of Education in India
3. Aggrawal J. C.: Development and Planning of Modern Education
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UNIT-17 ❐ NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION
(1986)
Structure
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Objectives
17.3 Major recommendations, Impact
17.4 Let Us Sum Up
17.7 References
17.1 Introduction
A major task before the country immediately after independence was to re-orient
the system of education so as to adjust it to the changing needs and aspirations of the
was highlighted even during the freedom struggle. Mahatma Gandhi formulated the
scheme of basic education seeking to harmonize intellectual and manual work.
Consequently, the post independent period was marked by reviews of education, made
by several commissions and committees.
a. The University Education Commission (1948-49) was appointed to report on
Indian University Education and suggest improvement and extension to suit
present and future requirements of the country.
b. The Secondary Education commission (1952-53) was set up to examine the
prevailing system of Secondary education in the country and suggest measures
for its re-organization and improvement and
c. The Education Commission of 1964-66 was appointed by a resolution and on
the general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages
and in all aspects. Besides these, the Government of India appointed different
committees from time to time to study a particular problem concerning the
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nation or the state. The National and Emotional Integration Committee, the Sri
Prakasha Committee On Moral Education, the Hansa Mehta Committee on
Women Education, the Adisheshaiah Committee on Vocationalization, Acharya
Ramamurti Committee and Janardhana Reddy Committee Review Committee
to the NPE 1986 etc. All these Commissions and Committees endeavored to
develop National System of Education.
Since the adoption of the 1968 Policy on Education, there had been considerable
expansion in Educational facilities all over the country at all levels. However, the general
formulation incorporated in the 1968 policy did not get translated in to detailed study
of implementation. As a result, problems of access, quality, quantity, utility and financial
outlay accumulated over the years, assumed such massive proportions that they had to
be tackled with the utmost urgency. Accordingly, Sri Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime
Minister of India announced in January 1985, that a New Education Policy would be
formulated in the country. A status paper ‘Challenges of Education, A Policy perspective’
was issued by the Ministry of Education, Government of India in which a comprehensive
appraisal of the existing system of education was made. There was a countrywide debate
on educational reforms in the country. Finally, the New National Policy on Education
was approved by the Parliament in May 1986. Subsequently a ‘Programme of Action’
was chalked out for the implementation of the Policy. In this Unit, we discuss in detail
about the National Policy of Education, recommendations of National Policy of
Education.
17.2 Objectives
¾ Explain the details about New Education Policy
¾ List out significant recommendations of New Education Policy 1986
¾ Evaluate the need and importance, and characteristics of a National system of
Education.

Need and characteristics of National System of Education
When the challenges of Education was written in 1983, and the National Policy
on Education formulated in 1986, the main concern the Government had was to evolve
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a frame work which would enable the country to move towards a perspective of education.
Obviously the basic concern mentioned were:
1. Provision of education of a minimum quality for all children.
2. Removal of illiteracy.
3. Struggle against Petty parochial passions
4. Social transformation towards equality, and
5. Orientation of education to work and employment.
In the introduction, the New Education Policy rightly says, “There are moments in
history when a new direction has to be given to an age old process”. Apart from the
above, The NPE (1986) emphasizes the following among other things, partly as ends
and partly as means for realizing national goals and aspirations.
a. Education is a significant nation - building exercise, it is a major and worthwhile
investment in human resource development, with huge return for the welfare
and progress of the nation.
b. Education must be for all-people of all sections at different stages from early
childhood, through later childhood, adolescence and youth to adult hood. It
should make a “learning society” ready “to be” and “ to become”(better and
higher persons). Multiple channels and systems must he provided for this.
c. Equality of educational opportunity must be sought and reasonably attained.
Equality in access (for joining the school system), equality in learning facilities
and equality in achievement must be achieved. Disparities must be reduced and
difficulties removed. Optimum levels should be sought for all and minimum
levels must be ensured for all.
d. Education must help harmonious development and the cultivation of individually
of all for their individual benefits as well as social benefits.
e. All must have a basic core of general education and certain core elements,
which make them proud and true Indians.
f. Experiences in socially useful productive work should be provided to all at the
elementary stage and vocational training at different levels thereafter, higher
academic specialization and professional education may be given at the
University stage.
Most of the Policy Statements relate to the “means” rather than the ‘aims’, providing
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optimum/ minimum facilities, ensuring access and promoting achievement, redesigning
system and curricula to make them adequate and meaningful, improving teaching learning
and evaluation, raising quality and standards in all respects, at all stages in all sections,
and making the system work purposefully, efficiently and productively (the most simple
but notable statement is teachers must teach and students must learn with commitment
and discipline).
The National Policy and education, which was evolved after a nationwide debate
during 1986, was a continuation and improvement of the previous policy of education
of 1968 and 1978. It was later felt that the NPE - 1986 was to be reviewed. Accordingly,
Acharya Ramamurthy Commission -1992 was appointed mainly to review the NPE -
1986 and its implementation to make recommendations regarding the revisions of the
policy and to recommend action necessary for implementation of the revised policy
with in a framework.
Major recommendations:
The National Policy of Education, 1986 has envisaged the following main
recommendations of the National System of Education:
Based on Constitutional Principles: The National System of Education derives
its inspiration from the ideals and values of democracy, secularism and socialism.
Access to Education: The National System of Education implies that up to a given
level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or Sex, has access to education
of a comparable quality. To achieve this, the Government will initiate appropriately
funded programmes. Effective measures will be taken in the direction of the Common
School system recommended in the 1968 policy.
Common Educational Structure: The National system of Education envisages a
common educational structure. The 10+2+3 structure has now been accepted in all
parts of the country. Regarding the further break-up of the first 10 years efforts will be
made to move towards an elementary system comprising 5 years of Primary education
and 3 years of Upper Primary, followed by 2 years of High school.
National Curricular Framework with a Common Core: The National system of
Education will be based on a national curricular frame work which contains a common
core along with other components that are flexible. The common core will include the
history of India’s freedom movement, the constitutional obligations and other content
essential to nurture national identity. These elements cut across subject areas and will
be designed to promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage, equalitarianism,
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democracy and secularism, equality of the sexes, protection of the environment, removal
of social barriers, observance of the small family norm and inculcation of the scientific
temper. All educational programmes will be carried on in strict conformity with secular
values.
Education for International understanding: India has always worked for peace
and understanding between nations, treating the whole world as one family. True to
this hoary tradition, education has to strengthen this worldview and motivate the younger
generations for international co-operation and peaceful co-existence. This aspect cannot
be neglected.
Equality of Opportunity of Education: To promote equality, it will be necessary
to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in access, but also in the conditions for
success. Besides, awareness of the inherent equality of all will be created through the
core curriculum. The purpose is to remove prejudices and complexes transmitted through
the social environment and the accident of birth.
Minimum Levels of Learning: Minimum levels of learning will be laid down for
each stage of education. Steps will also be taken to foster among students an
understanding of the diverse cultural and social system of the people living in different
parts of the country.
Promotion of Languages: Besides the promotion of the link language, programmes,
will also be launched to increase substantially the translation of books from one language
to another and to publish multi-lingual dictionaries and glossaries. The young will
be encouraged to undertake the rediscovery of India, each in his own image and
perception.
Universal character of Higher Education: In higher education in general, and
technical education in particular, steps will be taken to facilitate inter-regional mobility
by providing equal access to every Indian of requisite merit, regardless of his origins.
The Universal character of Universities and other institutions of higher education are
to be underscored.
Pooling of Resources: In the areas of research, development and education mainly
in science and technology, special measures will be taken to establish network
arrangement between different institutions in the country to pool their resources and
participate in projects of national importance.
Priorities of Educational Reforms: The Nation as a whole will assume the
responsibility of providing resource support for implementing programmes of educational
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transformation, reducing disparities, Universalisation of elementary education, adult
literacy, scientific and technological research etc.
Open and Distance Learning: Life-long education is a cherished goal of the
educational process. This presupposes that universal literacy opportunities provided to
youth, housewives, agricultural and industrial workers and professionals to continue
the education of their choice at the pace suited to them. The future thrust will be in the
direction of open and distance learning.
Strengthening of National Institutions: It is proposed to strengthen national
institutions like the University Grants Commission, NCERT, NIEPA, All India Council
of Technical Education, Indian Council of Educational Research, the Indian Medical
Council etc.
Meaningful Partnership: The centre and states will make their partnership in the
field of education meaningful.
Merits of the NPE

The policy document was discussed in the parliament and a programme of action
was approved for the implementation of the New Policy.
National System of Education: The NPE proposed a national system of education
to provide access to education of a comparable quality to all students, to have a common
educational structure with national curricular framework containing a common core.
Operation Black Board (OBB): The NPE has very rightly laid stress on the
qualitative improvement of elementary education.
Navodaya Schools: Setting up of Navodaya Vidyalayas is a great landmark in the
history of education in India.
Vocational Targets: The policy has fixed somewhat realistic targets of covering
10 percent of higher secondary students by 1990 and 25 percent by 1995 in Vocational
courses.
Delinking Degrees from Jobs: Beginning is to be made in delinking degrees from
jobs in selected areas.
Performance and Accountability: Stress has been laid on performance and
accountability at all levels.
Decentralisation of the Management of Education: The policy calls for evolving
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a strategy of decentralisation and the creation of a spirit of autonomy for education
institutions.
Indian Education Service: It is envisaged that the constitution of the Indian
Education Service is likely to bring about a national perspective in education.
National Testing Service (NTS): This is likely to be helpful in determining
suitability of candidates for specified jobs and to pave the way for the emergence of
norms of comparable competence across the nation.
Raising Resources: The policy has suggested appropriate methods of financing
education. These are (i) Beneficiary communities to maintain school buildings and
supplies of some consumables (ii) Raising fees at the higher levels of education (iii)
Levying a cess or charge on users of research and development agencies and (iv) effecting
savings by the efficient use of facilities.
Limitations of the New Policy

Neighborhood school concept ignored: The neighborhood school concept
advocated by the Kothari Commission for eliminating the segregation that now takes
place between the schools for the poor and the under-privileged classes and those for
the rich and the privileged, has been completely ignored.
Silent on the existence of Public schools: The NPE has evaded the issue of the
‘Commercialization’ of education by most of the public schools in the country.
No check on the working of Management of Public Schools: The policy does
not propose any checks to prevent the management of the public schools from exploiting
the staff working there.
Multiplication of Institutions: Setting up state Advisory Boards of Education,
District institutes of Education and training and district Boards of Education is not
likely to serve any useful purpose.
Too much expectation from Community Help: There is very little hope of obtaining
community funds for educational purposes as there-has developed a strong tendency
or the part of the rich members of the community to contribute to political parties due
to obvious reasons.
No Reference to Basic System of Education: There is no reference to the Basic
System of Education at the school stage.
Working Hours in Schools: For making the optimum use of human resources,
increased working hours in educational institutions should have been recommended.
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Financial Aspects not worked out: It is very unfortunate that financial implications
have not been worked out. Targets in different areas have not been fixed. Any workable
document must be backed by financial resources otherwise it will remain a ‘paper’
document. There is no point in trying to apply on cubic inch of butter to a square mile
of bread. We have to be ruthlessly realistic about our economic and budgetary constraints.
Only time will give the correct answer whether the NPE is a harbinger of educational
reforms and a landmark or a fad, fallacy or fraud.

1. What were the main objectives of National Policy of Education?
2. Mention the salient recommendations of New Education Policy
17.4 Let Us Sum Up

Every country develops its system of education to express and promote its unique
socio-cultural identity and also to meet the challenges of times. Through a well planned
and well implemented system of education, it is possible to reach all our people with
the benefits of our economic and technical/scientific developments. This motivated
the need of formulating a National Policy on Education.
The first effort of framing a National Policy on Education in the post independent
India was in 1968. NPE - 1968 aimed to promote national progress, sense of common
citizenship and culture, and to strengthen National integration. It laid stress on the
need for a radical reconstruction of the education system and to improve its quality at
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all stages. It gave greater attention to science and technology, the cultivation of moral
values and a closer relation between education and the life of the people.
The National Policy of Education aims of adjustment, vocational and professional
training, development of individuality, national goals related to objectives of boosting
productivity, capacity and efficiency, social and national integration, adjusting to the
demands of modernization etc. Maintaining the quality of education, eradication of
illiteracy, social transformation towards equality and orientation of education to work
and employment are the characteristics of a national system of education.
Some major recommendations of NPE

● The National system of education envisages a common education structure.
The 10+2+3 Structure has now been accepted in all parts of the country.
● Minimum levels of learning will be laid down for each stage of education.
● Promotion of languages besides the promotion of the link language, programmes
will also be launched to increase substantially the translation of books from
one language to another.
● In higher education in general, and technical education in particular, steps will
be taken to facilitate inter-regional mobility by providing equal access to every
Indian of requisite merit, regardless of his origins.
● Life-long education is a cherished goal of the educational process. This
presupposes universal literacy. Opportunities will be provided to youth,
housewives, agricultural and industrial workers and professionals to continue
the education of their choice at the pace suited to them.

a. Decentralization of educational management at all levels.
b. Establishment of participate educational order.
c. Inculcation of values indispensable for development of enlightened human
society and
d. Improvement of work attitude.
2. See Section 17.3 (Major recommendations)
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1. Critically examine the principles and measures contained in the statement on
the National Policy on Education
2. Examine the recommendations of the National Policy of Education.
17.7 References
1. Government of India, National Policy on Education -1986
2. Aggarwal J.C : Development and Planning of modern Education

3. Saini S. K. : Development of Education in India
4. NCERT Publications : Emerging Problems of India
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UNIT - 18 ❐ NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAME
WORK (2000-01)
Structure
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Objectives
18.4 Let Us Sum Up
18.5 Answers to’ Check Your Progress’
18.7 References
18.1 Introduction
The modern concept of education aims at bringing about desirable changes in the
pupils behaviours. Keeping the needs of the student, the goals of the nation, the
aspirations of the society, the development of the individual personality and other such
factors, a suitable educational course has to be designed, structured and provided to the
students, through which he/ she can develop the much desired patterns of behaviour.
This initiates the process of framing and planning of a good curriculum.
Against the background of the striking curricular developments that are taking
place abroad, the school curriculum in India will be found to be very narrowly conceived
and largely out-of-date. Education is a three-fold process of imparting knowledge,
developing skills and inculcating proper interests, attitudes and values. Our schools
(and also our colleges) are mostly concerned with the first part of the process the
imparting of knowledge- and carry out even this in an unsatisfactory way. The curriculum
places a premium on bookish knowledge and rote learning makes inadequate provision
for practical activities and experience, and is dominated by examinations, external and
internal. Moreover, as the development of useful skills and the inculcation of the right
kind of interests, attitudes and values are not given sufficient emphasis, the curriculum
becomes not only out of step with modem knowledge, but also out of tune with the life
of the people. There is thus an urgent need to raise, upgrade and improve the school
curriculum.
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In relation to some of the fundamental issues, many aspects gain importance in
achieving the aim, and objectives of curriculum. Therefore these aspects relating to
curriculum should be discussed in detail. In fact, planners, administrators, teachers,
students, parents should decide about the education to be provided i.e, the curriculum,
when the aspects like general education, subject area, curriculum, school subjects,
language, core curriculum etc, National Curriculum, State Curriculum and School
Curriculum should also be discussed.
In this Unit you will learn about National Curriculum Frame Work and its major
recommendations, Impact of National Curriculum Frame Work.
18.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
¾ Explain the details about National Curriculum Frame Work (2000 - 2001)
¾ List out significant recommendations by National Curriculum Frame Work (2000
- 2001)

The National Education Commission 1966 has made it very clear that there is a
need today to transform education so as to relate it to the life needs and aspirations of
people and to make it an instrument of social change. For this purpose, the school
curriculum should be related to essential requirements of our pluralistic society has
been very well stated in the National School education curriculum downed (1990). The
purpose of the school curriculum is to initiate new social and educational changes, to
improve efficiency and excellence in learning to universalize education for all, to instill
the spirit of nationalism along with essential social and ethical values.
Meaning of National Curriculum

A curriculum plan, containing all the educational subjects with unified curriculum
to be implemented throughout the whole country is called national curriculum. National
Curriculum deals with every content, subject to be studied, objectives, experiences,
arrangement, divisions of subject etc.
To achieve the national objectives, to have uniform pattern of instruction in all the
states, to facilitate learning by the all students formally, a nation designs a curriculum
through law and is called national curriculum. National curriculum suggests the
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curriculum to be followed by the whole country. National curriculum tries to bring
more or less uniformity in different parts of the whole country. In other words, educational
system in different parts of the whole country is not exactly same. Need of the area,
cultural differences, challenge, history, traditions, specialties of different parts of the
country has a place in the curriculum. The aim of the National Curriculum is to respond
to National objectives, National unity and integrity.
You might have observed in sociology of education that education is a subsystem
of the larger society. There have been several attempts to evolve a national policy of
Education in the post independence period in our country. The first systematic attempt
in designing and developing national system of education was made during 1964-66
when the Government of India accepted the recommendation of Education Commission
of 1964-66 under the chairmanship of Prof D. S. Kothari. The commission pointed out
the need for linking education with national development. Never before education was
given such a while of national honour and never before was it conceived as a point of
nation’s progress and prosperities as revealed in the report. The quality of education,
according to the commission was council for national development. The commission
suggested a common core curriculum for ten years schooling.
In our country, the centralized common curriculum was in vogue even before Indian
independence movement. The British system of Education also suggested a centralized
model of curriculum. The British who ruled India for over two centuries actually imposed
a national curriculum on schools and colleges with the idea that Indians are the inhabitants
of villages, illiterate and less cultured.
As you are aware of the fact that the centralized model of curriculum is inherent in
the national system of education in our country, the centralized model of curriculum
meaning has been derived from our faith in the constitution of India. Several Articles
of Indian constitution including the Article (66) regarding coordination and determination
or standards in constitution for higher educators or research and scientific and technical
institutions, give the legal responsibility to the central Government to maintain the
national character of education, to establish national scholastic standards and to maintain
the standard of Indian education at par with international standards.
The concept of National Curriculum is not peculiar to India. For every country in
the world the school curriculum like, the nation’s constitutions reflects the ethos of
that country as its chief concern. Time and again it has pointed out by our national
leaders that national ideas and characters should be reflected in the content and system
of education. India is a vast country with a number of states with variety in cultural,
social and economic back ground of people. The National curriculum is only a frame
work to provide more and more opportunities for all the states or provinces to incorporate
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the relevant components aimed at developing integration and unity among the people
of that nation.
Importance of National Curriculum

The idea of national curriculum stems from the fact that education is a powerful
instrument for rational development and reconstruction. If the rate of national
development is to be improved, there is need for a well structured imaginations and
effective education policy and strong commitment to improve and expand education.
Education cannot be considered in isolation. It should become a powerful tool to bring
about planned social and economic changes. The concept of national system of education
implies that, education should reflect and transform the society and become a major
force in national development.
The idea of National Curriculum was made clear systematically by the national
education commission 1964-66. It emphasized that there is a direct link between
education, national development and prosperity and stated that this can be vitalized
only when the national system of education is properly organized, both quantitatively
and qualitatively.
Development of National Curriculum - an overview

Several attempts were made to evolve a national system of education and national
curriculum in the post independence period of our country. Even before independence
the first attempt in curriculum reforms and reconstruction was made in 1947 when
mahatma Gandhiji propounded the idea of Basic education and Dr. Zakir Hussian
committee further elaborates the scheme of Basic education. In fact, after the achievement
of independence Basic education was accepted as a national system of education at
primary school stage. Immediately after independence the government of India appointed
and accepted the recommendation of university education commission. The commission
recommended suitable charges in the curriculum at university level. Another major
development in the evolution of national curriculum in our country has been the setting
up of secondary education commission of 1952-53. It recommended a diversified
curriculum at higher secondary stage with a sole purpose of providing technical
education.
For the first time in the educational history of our country, the government of
India decided to review the entire system of education and revamping the system of
education at all levels. It therefore appointed the National Education commission 1964-
66. The Commission made a detailed survey of curriculum followed in the country.
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The commission observed that the curriculum in vogue was outdated, inadequate and
not property designed to meet the changing demands of the society. The commission
also noticed a wide spread dissatisfaction with curriculum due to tremendous explosion
of knowledge in recent years. The commission therefore recommended that there was
an urgent need to raise, upgrade and improve school curriculum. A broad uniform
pattern of national curriculum was evolved and accepted. The pattern was popularly
known as 10+2+3 curriculum. The curriculum for 10 year schooling was designed,
accepted and implemented.
National Curriculum - An Outline

Let us now try to analyze the basic feature of national curriculum. Based on the
recommendations of national Education Commission and National policy on Education
the following characteristics on of National Curriculum were evolved.
● Emphasis on the attainment of the personal and social goals and preparation of
values enshrined in the Indian constitution.
● The development of human resources necessary for the realization of the goals
on national development.
● Emphasizing learner centered approach in curriculum preparation and translation.
● Broad based general education to all learners at the primary and secondary
level.
● Giving explicit freedom in terms of selection of content and learning experiences
in order to realize the objectives of teaching and learning.
Our National System of Education will be based on a National Curricular Frame
Work which contains a common core along with other components that are components.
The National policy on Education 1986 has given an important place to core curriculum
in the national system. The NPE has visualized the concept of the core programme.
The common core will include the history of India’s freedom movement, the
constitutional obligations and other contents essential to national identity. These elements
according to the policy will cut across subject areas and will be designed to promote
values such as India’s common cultural heritage, equalitarianism, Democracy and
secularism, equality of sexes, protection of the environment removal of social barriers,
observance of the small family norms and inculcation of the scientific temper. All
educational programmes will be carried on in strict conformity with secular values.
In the course of further development, there had been considerable expansion in
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educational facilities all over the country at all levels. The national policy did not get
translated in to detailed study of implementation. As a result problems of access, quality
and utility accumulated over the years, assumed such massive proportion that they
must be tackled with almost urgency.
Accordingly the New Education Policy 1986 was approved by the parliament; the
NEP has envisaged the following features of curriculum.
● core components
● minimum levels of learning
● Language and mathematics
● Environmental studies
● Work experience and Art Education
● Health and physical Education
You should be aware of the fact that under our Indian system of education the
government at center through its agencies like the NCERT, CBSE and UGC appoints a
number of committees and commissions from time to time, lays down educational
objects and curricula for schools and universities in the country. The state through its
agencies like DSERT, SERT and universities prepares the syllabi on the lines designed
by the center. The curriculum planning at the state level is invariably determined by
policies of the central government. The centralized pattern of curriculum has been in
vogue in our country in the post independence period.
School education in recent times has emerged as an important segment of the total
educational system expected to contribute significantly to the individual as well as the
national development processes. In order to do that effectively, it needs to be continuously
reviewed and updated. In fact curriculum development which is at the root of this
renewal process, has to be seen as a permanent search for qualitative improvement of
education in response to various changes in the society. A meaningful curriculum shall
have to be responsive to the socio-cultural context of the country.
The Socio-Cultural Context

Characterized as one of the longest surviving continuum of cultures, India is a
multi-cultural and multi lingual Society with a perennial undercurrent of essential unity.
Its Social base seems to be consisting of rock of all the ages jumbled together by a
series of seismic shocks. Thus the heterogeneity in Social structures is a distinctive
feature of the Indian Society.
It is, widely accepted that education, adequate inequality and scale, is the most
powerful instrument for achieving goals of action and establishing social cohesion.
Some of the important national goals are secularism, democracy, equality, liberty,
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fraternity, justice, national integration and patriotism. It should also develop in the
child a respect for human rights as well as duties. The weaker sections including
scheduled / scheduled tribes, women, children with impairments and minorities can no
longer remain underprivileged. Education must contribute to the enormous task of
their enlistment and empowerment.
School Educations Scenario

School education in post-independent India has passed through different phases.
Soon after independence, the secondary Education Commission (1951-53) was set up
by the Government of India and it gave, several recommendations for improving the
quality of school education. In 1964-66, the Education Commission was set up, which
brought out a more comprehensive document on education covering all stages and
aspects of education as a whole. This was a major land mark in the history of the
modern education system in India. Several recommendations of this Commission formed
the basis for the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1968. The acceptance of a common
school structure, 10+2 and a common scheme of studies as part of general education
for 10 years of School throughout the country were important steps towards improvement
in the school system. The NPE, 1968 envisaged a radical transformation of the education
system to relate it more closely to the lives of the people, provide expanded educational
opportunities, initiate a sustained intensive effort to raise the quality of education at all
stages, emphasize the development of Science and Technology and Cultivate moral
and Social values. Then, the National Policy on Education, 1986, modified in 1992,
stressed the need for evolving a national system of education based on a common
educational structure (10+2+3), a national curriculum frame work and the minimum
and the maximum levels of learning for each state of education. For the first time,
adulated strategy of implementation accompanied by assignment of specific
responsibilities and financial and organizational support was brought out in the form
of programme of Action, 1992. But, quite evidently efforts have fallen far short of
these goals set in these documents. Though the country’s achievements in a number of
areas have been substantial in quantitative terms, these are not enough to provide a real
breakthrough, in spite of the constitutional provision for free and compulsory education
up to the age of 14, target of universalizing elementary education has not yet been
achieved. The major challenges to India’s goal of universal elementary education still
remain the same expanding access, arresting dropouts, raising learning achievements
to an acceptable level of quality, and reducing gaps in educational outcomes across
states and among groups. The nation has not yet reached the all important threshold of
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educational attainment where benefits are optimal and the high economic growth rates
are sustained.
Curricular Concerns
Curriculum development essentially is a ceaseless process of searching for
qualitative improvement in education in response to the changes taking place in the
society. As such, it is not a static but a dynamic phenomenon. A meaningful school
curriculum has to be responsive to the society, reflecting the needs and aspirations of
its learners. Even in the new millennium, some of the country’s important societal
concerns have emerged in response to the fast changes in the social scenario of the
country as well as the world. The curriculum has to lead to a kind of education that
would fight against inequity and respond to the social, cultural, emotional, and economic
needs of the learners. This would not be possible just with the element of mediocrity
and ordinariness in the entire educational endeavor. Nothing short of excellence in
every aspect of education is the first imperative for meeting the multifarious challenges
of today and tomorrow. In other words, the curriculum must stand on the three pillars
of relevance, equity and excellence.
Education for a cohesive society

Equality of opportunity means ensuring that every individual receives suitable
education at a pace and through methods suited to her/his being children of the
disadvantaged, and socially discriminated and also suffering from specific challenges.
Provision for equal opportunity to all not only in access, but also in the conditions for
success is a precondition for the promotion of equality. The curriculum, it maybe
reiterated, must create an awareness of the inherent equality of all, the view to remove
prejudices and complexes transmitted through the social environment and the factor of
birth.
● Education for girls
● Education of learners with special Needs
● Education of learners from disadvantaged groups
● Education of the gifted and talented
● Strengthening National identity and Preserving Cultural Heritage
The national spirit and the sense of national identity assumed great importance
during the long saga of India’s freedom struggle. As such, the study of this freedom
struggle at all stages of school education shall continue to be significant. However,
conscious efforts shall have to be made to acquaint the students with the events related
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to freedom struggle and the sacrifices made by the people in different parts of the
country from the north to the south, from the west to the East, as well s the regions like
the North-East and the far flung islands.
Integrating Indigenous Knowledge and India’s Contribution to Mankind India’s
indigenous knowledge system must be sustained through active support to the societies
and groups that are traditional repositories of this knowledge, be they villagers or tribes;
their ways of life, their languages, their social organization and the environment in
which they live. There is a need for the innovative ways of preventing the attrition of
such knowledge, which usually vanishes with the people, and it is here that education
ought to play a very significant role. Equally important is that we need an in depth
analysis of the parallelism of insights between the indigenous knowledge systems, on
the one hand, and certain areas of modern science and thought concerned with the
basics of life, on the other. Indigenousness, obviously, is not opposed to being receptive
to new ideas from different peoples, cultures and cultural contexts.
Responding to the Impact of Globalization

Responding to the phenomenon of globalization would lead to the discovery of a
new scope for old disciplines such as history, geography, and foreign languages, and
introduction of curricular concerns such as education towards active citizenship and
human rights, environmental issues and the promotion of consensus on a common core
of universal values.
Meeting the challenge of Information and Communication Technology

The revolution in new technology ushers in a fundamental challenge, converting
the information society in to a knowledge society. Information and communication
Technology (ICT) can be summarized as the convergence of telecommunications,
television and computers. The new technology has a tremendous potential to
revolutionize education and transform school dramatically. It is hoped that the monopoly
of formal education and the formal school will diminish with a lot of educational exposure
and experiences gained outside these Institutions. The teachers will become facilitators
and libraries will be put to more and more use. The ICT is bound to influence and
transform the existing educational provisions, changing the existing curricula, bringing
in a new generation of learning materials and encouraging the net working of
schools.
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Linking Education with Life-Skills
Education, by and large, suffers basically from the gap between its content and the
living experience of the students. Education ideally must prepare students to face the
challenges of life. For this, it needs to be intimately linked with the different life skills,
the abilities for adaptive and positive behaviors that enable individuals to deal effectively
with the demands and challenges of everyday life, by developing in them generic skills
related to a wide variety of areas such as health and social needs. It is through these
skills that students can fight the challenges of drug addiction, violence, teenage
pregnancy, AIDS and many other health related problems. The skills would also make
students aware of issues such as consumer rights questioning the quality of goods and
services available to them, writing to the manufactures, and civic authorities about the
quality of goods and services that they expect. Besides, legal literacy and understanding
of civic and administrative procedures would also be made available to the students to
make their life simple, hassle free and safe.
An important characteristic of life skills is that they are temporal and spatial in
nature. Hence, they are required to be contextual. There are certain core life skills, such
as problem solving, critical thinking, communication, self awareness, coping with stress,
decision-making, creative thinking and generative thinking, interpersonal relationships
and empathy. These are of enormous importance for successful living.
Education for value Development

The school curriculum 1988 was designed to enable the learner to acquire knowledge
to develop concepts and inculcate values Commensurate with the social cultural,
economic and environmental realities at the national and international levels. The social
values aimed at were friendliness, cooperativeness, compassion, self discipline, courage,
love for social justice etc. Truth, righteous conduct, peace, love and non-violence are
the core universal values that can become the foundation of building the value based
education programme as per the recommendations of the S. B. Chavan Committee
Report submitted to the Indian Parliament in February 1999. These five universal values
represent the five domains. Emotional, psychological and spiritual values are correlated
with the five major objectives of education, namely knowledge, skill, balance, vision
and identity.
Order of the day (January 2000) it observes that it is from early childhood that
children should be introduced to the discovery of “otherness” and to the values of
tolerance, respect, and confidence in the “other” that will bring about a change of
behavior and attitudes towards others. The introduction of specific teaching of
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intercultural and interreligious dialogue, through the adequate pedagogical tools, is
conceived as a means to foster reciprocal knowledge of shared value contained in the
message issued by religion and spiritual traditions, which can be considered as a common
spiritual and cultural heritage.
Universalisation of Elementary Education

Parental education and community improvement toward achieving the goals of
UEE would be a matter of concern for curriculum makers, planners and administrators
and for all those concerned with the quality of education at the elementary stage. Since
the involvement of the Panchayat Raj Institutions in elementary education has been
ensured through a constitutional amendment, it would be desirable to get it streamlined
and properly operationalised.
Alternative and Open Schooling

In the open school, there is no upper age bar for learners. A substantial number of
students are in the age group of 15-35 based on these, open schooling and alternative
schooling for the age group of 6-14 and 15-35 have to be launched in a big way so that
the significantly large number of learners who are outside the school not able to get
educational opportunities. The scheme of studies and the academic standards in cognitive
areas under alternative and open schooling should be, as far as possible, of a level
comparable to that for the students of the formal system. However, the’ institutional
materials and transactional strategies under the two systems have to be different.
Relating Education to world of work

The vocational or pre-vocational curriculum can lend itself to the possibility of
organizing concrete opportunities for students to collaborate with the community at
large. Tailor-made programmes to fit the dominant vocations of the area may be planned
for this purpose. Many skills can be taught through services which benefit the community
as a whole, bringing the school close to its environs and helping the students become
aware of their commitments to the school and the community. Cooperative activities
can promote friendships, communal harmony and empathy for others.
Reducing the Curriculum load

The issue of curriculum load has its roots in many related issues. It cannot be
wished away merely by downsizing the volume of the textbooks but has to be handled
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in its totality. One way to partly resolve the issue would be to take out the obsolete and
redundant content without affecting the overall continuity of the concepts.
The Child as a Constructor of Knowledge

Children grow up in their own social worlds. As such, education, whether imparted
in the formal institutional settings or otherwise, includes to a great extent social activity
to transmit a social selection of knowledge. The social construction of knowledge has
been an important principle in the socio- cultural theory. The acquisition of knowledge
through active involvement with content, and not imitation or memorization of the
material, is at the root of the construction of knowledge.
Interface between Cognition, Emotion and Action

Education must facilitate learners’ personal growth and psychologically equip them
to cope with the rapid changes taking place in all the spheres of life. Thus, the focus of
education is moving away from providing mere cognitive skill to fostering inter personal
and intra personal development.
Emotional literacy programmes directly alter the level of success, self-esteem and
well-being of a person. They help reverse a tide of educational decline and then strengthen
schools. Nurturing Emotional Intelligence, therefore, becomes a prime concern for
schools and curriculum makers.
Culture Specific Pedagogies

The pluralistic nature of Indian society needs to be reflected in the pedagogical
approaches since there is no one universal ways in which learners learn. There is a
strong need for looking in to the specific cultural context in which a learner is placed,
though all learners process information in roughly similar ways, the content of processing
varies considerably from the tribal society to the high socio-economic stratum of the
urban area pedagogy. Therefore, pedagogies should be culture specific. Instead of
choosing one uniform, mechanistic way of teaching-learning, cultural practices such
as storytelling, dramatics puppetry, folk play, community in curriculum development
is desirable.
Development of Aesthetic Sensibilities

Aesthetic education refers to developing learners’ ability to have such experiences
and must therefore be the concern of curriculum.
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Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
Comprehensive evaluation takes a holistic view of learners’ progress covering
scholastic and co-scholastic aspects. The assessment of personality attributes including
attitudes, habits and values of the learners has to be carefully recorded and they have to
be helped to develop qualities necessary for becoming good and contributing citizens.
Such assessments will also be recorded periodically and the cumulative record cards
prepared.
Empowering Teachers for Curriculum Development

Leaving teachers out of the design and development of curricular change is most
likely to result in little, if any, real change in the scenario. Teacher involvement in
curriculum development is desirable particularly because it can be a motivating factor
for teachers in their profession, giving them a sense of ‘ownership’ of the curriculum
they have to transact.
Implementation of National Curriculum

National Level policies and implementation of policies in education is always
guided by Indian constitution. The centralized model of curriculum making has legal
justification. Several Articles of Indian constitution including the Article 66 regarding
coordination and determination of standards in Institutions for higher education or
research and scientific and technical institutions give the legal responsibility to the
central government to maintain the national character or education to establish national
standards and to maintain the standard of Indian education at par with international
standards. This national model of curriculum has several advantages and disadvantages.
The chief advantage is that it paves the way for maintaining national character and
established standards. The major disadvantage being that it impairs education in several
respects. It gives no scope for flexibility and variety; fails to tap the local talents and
local resources for the development of progressive curricula.
One can observe in the study of history of modern Indian education, have the
center, after accepting the recommendations of commission and committees on Education
implements them. The government of India considered the recommendations of the
Education commission and adopted a National Policy on Education in 1968 which
identified National goals of Education. The policy resolution stated that the educational
system must produce young men and women of character and ability committed to
National service and development. The 10 year pattern of general education followed
by two or three years of post secondary or higher secondary education was adopted.
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The National policy on Education 1986 is formulated on the fundamental principle
that ‘education’ is a unique investment on the present and the future. This implies that
education is for all and it must promote the goals of secularism, socialism and democracy
enshrined in our constitution and education develops manpower for different levels of
economy. Accordingly, curriculum is to be formulated. The government of India accepted
the recommendation and implemented the policy on education with emphasis on common
curricula, minimum levels of learning, value education, development of languages,
media and educational technology, work experience, environmental and
science education, sports and physical education, child center, pre-primary and primary
education.
Organization of Curriculum at Secondary Stages

At the secondary level, the characteristic developments that have taken place during
the upper primary stage get strengthened. Thinking with abstract concepts, establishing
social identity and giving importance to the peer groups increase all this considerably.
Therefore, at this crucial stage, it is also necessary to promote social interactions among
children. For effective learning and for intellectual development, learners have to
cooperate with their friends, share their experiences, discus their discoveries and argue
out their differences of opinion.
Characteristics other than the intellectual ones also provide important guidelines
for designing curriculum which could be geared to the all round development of the
learners as individuals, and their development also in the context of the national goals
and the socio-cultural priorities. Learners Physical, social and emotional characteristics,
attitudes and interests that emerge in them during childhood, early adolescence and
mid-adolescence, should be carefully taken into consideration while determining the
objectives, content and strategies of curriculum and its transaction at the pre-primary,
primary, upper primary and secondary stages
Scheme of Studies
Secondary Stage (2 years)
a) Three Languages -The mother tongue / the regional language, modern Indian
language and English
b) Mathematics
c) Science and Technology
d) Social Sciences
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e) Work Education
f) Art Education (fine Arts : Visual and performing)
g) Heath and physical Education (Including games and sports, Yoga, NCC and
Scouting and guiding)
Curricular Areas at different Stages

The nature of various stages of education and the learners profile has their bearing
on the planning of objectives, learning activities and strategies under each curriculum
area. The curriculum areas and their stagewise treatment for this purpose are proposed
as follows:
At the Secondary stage (classes IX and X), in the first language, full mastery over
the applied form of language and good acquaintance with literary language would be
aimed at. Learners have to achieve maturity in oral and written expression. In response
to what they read or listen, to understanding and appreciating the depth and diversities
of human mind through the literary texts in prose and poetry must be censured among
the students.
English, Hindi and other modern Indian languages are studied as second language
at this stage. Mathematics learning should be imparted through activities from the very
beginning of school education. Evaluation should lay stress on testing the understanding
and application of concepts rather than testing the rote memory of the concepts. This is
the stage after which majority of the learners will enter the world of work. Scientific
attitudes and skills developed at this stage would become foundation for further growth.
They need to be exposed to the nature and the structure of science and the support it
provides to the technological developments.
The students may develop the ability to use their knowledge, understanding and
skills by undertaking wide range of studies at various scales-local, regional, national.
By now, they may develop the ability to describe interaction with natural and human
processes and recognize patterns. They may also be able to look for sources of information
and analyse problems and issues rationally and scientifically.
The complexity of the activities needs to be increased keeping the nature of essential
activities, by and large, the same. Pre-Vocational courses which get a prominent place
at this stage, will facilitate choice of the vocational courses at the higher secondary
stage and help them acquire the knowledge and skills required for entry in to the world
of work.
The secondary stage is apt for refining aesthetic sensibilities and social values
through projects on conservation of natural and cultural heritage by providing
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opportunities for study of Indian culture working with artists / artistes in the community,
organizing festivals and celebrations of the community at large, display of physical
environment and surrounding landscape and the like. Art education at this stage should
comprise, study of visual and aural resources and their exploration, projects leading to
creative expression and exhibition of the works in visual and aural forms; inter-group,
inter-school art activities, study trips and interaction with artists in the community.
In classes IX and X, health education should enable the students to learn, in
comparatively great detail, about personal health, impact of environmental pollution
on health, food and nutrition, control and prevention of diseases, first aid, home nursing,
and safety measures.

1. What are the characteristics of the National Curriculum?
2. What are the features of the Curriculum envisaged by the NPE 1986
State Level
You may be well aware of the fact that even though education has been in the
concurrent list in the constitution since 1976, it remains primarily a state responsibility
and activity. Free and compulsory education is expected to be provided by the states
for all children up to 14 years of age. In most states, education is free at the school
level. The state Education department is the principal agency to implement and deal
with education matters.
The educational function of the state in our country is determined by the cultural
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and developmental requirements of the people. Our country is known for variety and
unity in diversity. The states are inhabited by various cultural groups and communities.
As a result of this, the need and problem of a particular state and even of a particular
group within the state are different from those of another group.
Therefore, within the larger frame work of National curricula the state adopts the
model in way suitable to the requirements of the state. The state will take all measures
to orient the teachers and functionaries of the state Department of Education on various
issues pertaining to curriculum, administration and training.
Secondary level
The secondary level curriculum has incorporated all the elements of core curriculum
suggested by the NPE 1986. It has been revised recently in order to incorporate ideas
developed by the National school curriculum (2000) published by NCERT, the apex
body of school education in our country. The core curriculum consists of the study of
languages, compulsory regional language, English, one language (from the group
suggested) as third language. Social studies, general science and general mathematics
form the cognate subjects. In addition to the cognate subjects, the secondary curriculum
includes physical education, work experience (SUPW), art education, value education,
components of population education and computer education. The state government
has introduced, ‘mahiti sindhu’ programme to train students in the art of using computers
for instructional purposes. The computer assisted curriculum and teaching and learning
using multimedia has attracted students and teachers in several secondary schools. The
first two classes in the secondary schools 8 and 9 standard are included under the
semester system. The course has been restricted in order to provide for semesterisation
of curriculum and evaluation.
An Assessment of National Curriculum

Every educational policy designed after independence has been discussed till now.
It is not an easy task to design an educational policy without any flaws and agreeable to
all in a multicultural and multilingual country like India. Educational policies and
National Curriculum designed by the government normally evokes heated debates. In
a democratic country like India this is inevitable and in fact it is a healthy response. We
are going to assess the national curriculum frame work with this in view.
The present National Curriculum has a few new subjects and expectations. It tries
to respond to the country’s present and future needs, challenges and problems. It has
made an attempt to prepare the children to understand the country, its heritage, social
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and cultural aspects. It has suggested measures to add much needed inputs, to the
curriculum like providing quality education to women/girls, weaker section, deprived
groups and gifted.
The Curriculum includes inputs which are required to face the challenges of
globalization. Development of values, study of different languages, and awareness of
cultural heritage is given importance. Teaching of science and technology are included
thereby, enhancing the quality of education. This curriculum has made an attempt to
link employment and education. It has given importance to the constructive and detailed
study of the topics included.
The Curriculum has provided inputs for considering education as a lifelong process.
This Curriculum has stressed patriotism, emotional integration, and international global
brotherhood. It makes an individual humane and education is linked to life. By giving
importance to Sanskrit education, value education, vocational education, art education,
it has widened the horizon of curriculum. It has suggested reduction in curriculum.
Realizing importance of language education, it has provided opportunity for different
languages, different cultural aspects. Indigenous knowledge and development of values
are accorded importance. It has also provided opportunity to teach Hindi as the official
language, Sanskrit for knowledge, as it is country’s cultural language.
Though it had all good points, it was subjected to severe criticism. ‘Value education
curriculum is influenced by only one religion’ - was the major criticism. There was an
opposition for the teaching of Sanskrit and Yoga in university. Some criticize the
curriculum because though it aims to reduce content load, in reality it is over- loaded,
as new subjects have been added. Another criticism is that there is not enough provision
for catering to state level, regional level, cultural differences needs and challenges.
Somehow or other, Hindi and English language learning is more compulsory and children
are forced to learn them say the votaries of regional languages.
18.4 Let Us Sum Up

The curriculum that gives guidelines related to a National pattern of education is
called ‘National Curriculum’. This includes subjects that are to be studied, teaching
methods etc. that are related to the content.
A National Curriculum is essential to have a uniform educational system in a
nation, and to provide general education to all. Before independence, since 1940,
nationalists like Arabindo, Gandhiji, etc have emphasized the need for a national
curriculum. There is a need for reviewing national curriculum once in 10 years. In this
way, curriculum development is a continuous activity that covers the national objectives
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in to educational experiences. After independence, in the year 1968, 1975 and 1988
National curriculum was framed. Recently in 2000 a national curriculum has been
formulated.
This National Curriculum has several aspects. It has emphasized providing education
for creating a healthy society, given importance to indigenous education, development
of India, universalisation of primary education and harmonizing interest, feelings and
action. This Curriculum frame work gives the details of aspects to be emphasized and
implementation of curriculum such as, 2 years of secondary education, 2 years of higher
secondary education.
Implementing the curriculum is an important function. For this, the teachers, parents,
community and programme coordinators, are oriented to the subject and text books, on
the basis of the curriculum teaching learning activities are designed. Further, in the
central and state schools new curriculum is implemented.

1. The following are the characteristics of the National Curriculum
● emphasis on the attainment of the personal and social goals and preparation of
values enshrined in the Indian constitution.
● The development of human resources necessary for the realization of the goals
of national development.
● Emphasizing learner centered approaches in curriculum preparation and
transaction
● Broad based general education to all learners at the primary and secondary
level.
● Giving explicit freedom in terms of selection of content and learning English in
order to realize the objectives of teaching and learning.
2. The NEP has envisaged the following features of curriculum.
● Core components
● Minimum levels of learning
● Language and mathematics
● Environmental studies
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● Work experience and Art Education
● Health and physical Education

1. Write a critical essay on the National Curriculum.
2. Examine the School Curriculum in West Bengal.
3. Highlight the salient features of Secondary Education Curriculum.
18.7 References
National Curriculum Frame Work : NCERT, New Delhi
New Education Policy : 1986, Government of India Publication, New Delhi
New Education Policy : 1986, (A Prgramme of Action), Government of India Publication,
New Delhi
Mohammed Sarif Khan : School Curriculum, Ashish Publish House, New Delhi-1995.
Kaira K. M. and Sing. R. R. : Curriculum Construction for Youth Development, Sterling
Publishers, New Delhi-1987
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EDUCATION IN INDIA
BLOCK 04
EDUCATION AND VALUES
313
314
Block
4
EDUCATION AND VALUES
Unit - 19
VALUES: AN INTRODUCTION 319
Unit - 20
SOURCES OF VALUES 327
Unit - 21
TRADITIONAL VALUES 334
Unit - 22
CONTEMPORARY VALUES 356
Unit - 23
VALUE EROSION 374
Unit - 24
INCULCATION OF VALUES 384
315
Vice Chancellor
Mysore 570 006
Karnataka

Dean - Academic
Mysore 570 006

Mysore 570 006

Mysore 570 006
Dr. H. S. Raghavendra Rao Course Writer

Lecturer
RIMSE
Mysore 570 006

Mysore 570 006
Mysore 570 006.
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BLOCK 4 : EDUCATION AND VALUES
INTRODUCTION
‘Those who goeth with the sword, shall perisheth along with the sword’ said
Jesus Christ. Such acts of historic destruction invite, as Swami Vivekananda called it,
‘the vengeance of history.’ Many such incidents have occurred in a number of places in
the world. A shocked world realized that even the most religious education with a
fundamentalist bias can be world-destroying. Was there anything wrong with this
education? It had all the earnestness of a sincere seeker without the breadth of universal
love and respect for people of other religions. Does not such education lead one to
atavism, a regression into old animal world, red in tooth and claw?
Human values are those higher human qualities, which help human beings to
transcend the limitations of our biological existence. They make us rise above the
normal pulls of selfishness, lust, greed, anger, sense of enjoyment, fear and frustration,
which are common in a purely biological life thriving on a sensate, individualistic and
consumerist culture. The seers of Vedic age experienced that man is basically divine,
and the goal of human life is to attain this divinity through a value based life. And
higher values are born when intellect is illumined. The intelligence of a Buddha or a
Christ- is a product of intellect illumined by spiritual culture. That is why the most
popular prayer of Vedic civilization was the Gayatri Mantra which concludes: let our
intellect be illumined.
Since 1999, Government of India has taken bold steps through many organizations
to frame syllabus for value education. Even then, our secular education policy resists
or finds it difficult to put many of these ideas into practice at the national level. We
need a totally new orientation to our education policy in order to have regular education
for values in our curriculum itself.
In this Block you are going to study the meaning and importance of value education
in schools. A glimpse of Western and Indian values, different sources of values, traditional
317
value system of India and the contemporary values such as, democratic, socialistic,
secular values and the meaning of freedom and discipline, responsibility, and human
rights as values are also described. The Units also discuss about the value erosion and
the need and importance of inculcation of values and approaches to value education-in
schools.
This Block is not only important from the point of view of the curriculum prescribed
for your study but also the reading of this Block helps you to see what is lost in the
present day education and as a classroom teacher how best you can contribute to make
good of the loss.
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UNIT - 19 ❐ VALUES - AN INTRODUCTION
Structure
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Objectives
19.3 Meaning and Importance
19.4 Classification Values - Indian, Western
19.5 Let Us Sum Up
19.8 References
19.1 Introduction
You must be aware of the fact that education must foster values, which are
fundamental, and shape the child into a model of excellence. It must teach the child to
develop competence values and develop survival skills interrelating with one’s fellow-
beings, with warm humane feelings, transcending the narrow limits of chauvinism,
caste and communalism.
The problem of promoting value-oriented education is a complex one. Schools
alone cannot promote values effectively among students unless there are vigorous and
concentrated efforts by the parents, the society, media monitors and religious and cultural
agencies. The teacher must project himself as loving and honest and organise the school
activities in an intelligent manner so as to promote value orientation effectively. In this
scenario this Unit tries to analyse the meaning and importance of value education and
also classifies the Indian and the Western values as an introduction to values.
19.2 Objectives
After the study of this unit, you will be able to:
¾ Explain the meaning of ‘Values’.
¾ Explain the meaning and importance of Value Education.
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¾ Classify Indian and Western Values.
¾ Prepare a list of Indian and Western Values
19.3 Meaning and Importance

When you happen to meet a stranger you will try to know what sort of humane
being is he and how will he behave, etc. Therefore Values permeate the whole of humane
existence and are a major factor in determining what sort of human beings they are and
how one will behave. The word ‘Value’ is derived from the Latin root, ‘Valerie’ meaning
to be strong and vigorous. ‘To be of value’ is to have a certain worth or worthiness.
Values in their early stages appear as needs, emotions and interests varying in
specificity, intensity and depth. For example, when a boy needs to leave his parents and
go to a boarding home to pursue education, it is tough for him. But as the boy grows
and knows the world around him and the realities of life, his needs, emotions and
interests acquire certain definiteness, intensity and stability in the affective life (emotions,
feelings) of the individual. Thus the value formation takes place.
A widely accepted definition considers values to be conceptions of the desirable,
influencing selective behaviour. Thus you must know that all values contain some
cognitive elements and they have a selective or directional quality. They serve as criteria
for selection in action. In their most explicit form they become the criteria for judgement,
preference and choice. In their implicit form they constitute grounds of decisions in
behaviour.
A value as Klackhohn defines is a conception of the desirable, ‘and not something
that is merely desired.’ Baqer Mehdi states, ‘We are too familiar with the distinction
between what is desired and what is desirable.’ Charles Morris talks of ‘the preferential
behaviour in values which in other words means a choice between the good and bad:’
Cattell defines values thus: ‘By values we mean the social, moral and other standards
which the individual would like others and himself to follow.’
Kuppaswarny B states that “A value is a conception characteristic of a group to
satisfy needs. Values constitute the base of action and can be tested in terms of behaviour.’
Hiriyanna states, “one of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it has
consistently given the foremost place to values.” The Sanskrit word that stands for
value is ‘ista’ the object of desire, since man seeks his desires consciously the Indian
philosophers term ‘value’ as purushartha or human value, meaning thereby, ends
consciously pursued by human beings.
Summarizing the above views we may state, “A value is a principle, a standard or
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quality that is considered worthwhile or desirable. It is a consciously preferred choice
of the concept of desirable behaviour, satisfying the needs of interests, having an element
of stability and is validated by social approval. Such behaviour is standardized as norms
and constitutes standards by which choices are evaluated.”
The importance of value-education has been recognized long ago. Efforts are ahead
to include moral and religious instruction in the school programme. At present the
subject of value education is becoming increasingly prominent in educational discussions
at all levels. There seems to be growing body of opinion in favour of devoting more
time and effort in the schools to help pupils to achieve greater understanding and
awareness of values.
I am sure that you are going to understand the importance of value education
when you go through the views of some eminent Indians regarding the teaching of
values to the younger generation. Some of such views are given here.
● Gandhiji, the father of the nation, wanted that education should be for the hand,
head and heart. Education for the heart was the spiritual training for him.
According to him the aim of education is self-realization; the sum bosun (the
highest good) of life and education.
● Dr. Rabindranath Tagore also upheld the importance of value education.
According to him, “the greatest use of education is not merely to collect facts,
but to know man and to make oneself known to man.” He says, “But for us to
maintain self-respect which we owe to ourselves and to our creator, we must
make the purpose of man, the fullest growth and freedom of soul.”
● Sri Aurobindo believed that our education should provide the opportunity for
teaching of higher values.
● Swami Dayananda emphasized the role and responsibility of parents in the
scheme of value education. According to him, it is the duty of the parents to
give instruction in values to their children, which draws injunction from the
tradition of ancient Indian education.
Swami Vivekananda says, “Education is the manifestation of perfection already
in man.” Therefore, he continues, “the ideal is that we must have the whole education
of the country, spiritual and secular in our hands and it must be on national lines,
through national methods as far as practicable.” He asserted: “There should be an
institution to train teachers who must go about preaching religion and giving secular
education to our people.”
Now, I hope you have understood the importance of value education. Let us
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prepare a list of importance of value education on the basis of the sayings of the great
personalities we have mentioned above:
1. Self-realization.
2. Self-respect.
3. Develop Spirituality.
4. Safeguard the traditions.
5. Provide secular education (equal reverence to all religions).
6. Develop values like integrity, humility, magnanimity etc.,
If you think that you can add some more points you can do so.
I think you will agree with me if I say that it is time for all of us to introspect and
question ourselves whether we have lost our vision concerning the true end of education.
Education is basically a matter of relationship between teachers and pupils. It is a
moral business. It is about moulding and guiding of character and personality.
‘Check Your Progress’ I

Answer the following questions in about two or three sentences each.
1. In what form did the values appear in early stages?
2. What is the widely accepted definition of values?
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3. What are values in their explicit and implicit form?
4. Write a list of ideas indicating the importance of value education.
19.4 Classification - Indian, Western Values

Through the study of Section 19.3 you have understood that a value is a relationship
between a person and an environmental situation, which evokes an appreciative response
in the individual. Moral values are inseparably related to values in general.
A value consists of a set of metaphysical beliefs about man and life, beliefs about
the summum bonum or the highest good and rules about what one ought to do (and not
to do) and how. A value accordingly could be looked upon as a sub-system of a more
general socio-philosophical and cultural tradition. The formal aspect of morality gets
its substantive character when it operates in a specific socio-cultural context. It would
be worthwhile; therefore, to look into a how a value has been viewed by Indian thinkers
in a comparative perspective with the West.
Indian View of Values

You may be well aware of the fact that values are derived from socio-philosophic
tradition with roots deep in the past. It must also be noted that philosophy in India is
not free itself completely from the hold of religion. Philosophy to the ancient Indians
was not just a means of satisfying intellectual doubt (Samasya), but more, a practical
endeavour that showed one the right way to attain spiritual liberation (Moksha), the
highest goal of life. Although there are four supreme ends of life (Purusharatha)
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economic well-being (Artha), physical well-being (Kama), righteous action (Dharma)
and spiritual freedom (Moksha) - the secular values of Artha and Kama rank inferior in
status in the Indian hierarchy of values, to the spiritual values of Dharma and Moksha.
Even among the later, Moksha is far higher than Dharma. In fact, it is the highest end
of human life, it being freedom from the very notions of right and wrong and good and
bad.
The Western Concept of Values

In the West, on the other hand, the traditional position claiming the inseparability
of religion and values has almost been replaced by the view that knowledge in values is
autonomous in the sense that it does not necessarily a rational act and concept of a
person with values as a rationally autonomous individual. It is not doing good or act
right but acting so for the right reasons that constitutes the essence of morality. To say
that an act is ‘right’ or that some course ‘ought’ to be followed is, to convey that the
judgement is backed by reasons.

1. What does value consists of?
2. What are the four supreme ends of life?
3. Who is a rationally autonomous individual?
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19.5 Let Us Sum Up
● The word value is derived from the Latin root ‘valerie’ meaning to be strong
and vigorous. ‘To be of value’ is to have a certain virtue:
● Values in their early stages appear as needs, emotions and interests varying in
specificity, intensity and depth.
● A widely accepted definition considers values to be conceptions of the desirable,
influencing selective behaviour.
● All values contain some cognitive elements and they have a selective or
directional quality. They serve as criteria for selection in action.
● The importance of value education has been recognized long ago. Efforts are
ahead to include moral and religious instruction in the school programme.
● Many great people have given their opinion about the teaching of moral education
in schools. All of them have expressed the importance of that education in their
own way.

1. Values in their early stages appear as needs, emotions and interests varying in
specificity, intensity and depth.
2. Widely accepted definition considers values to be conceptions of the desirable,
influencing selective behaviours.
3. In their most explicit form they become the criteria for judgement, preference
and choice. In their implicit form they constitute grounds of decisions in
behaviour.
4. Cattell defines values thus: “By values we mean the social, artistic, moral and
other standards which the individual would like others and himself to follow.”
5. They are:
1. Self-realization.
2. Self-respect.
3. Develop Spirituality.
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4. Safeguard the traditions.
5. Provide secular education.

1. Value consists of a set of metaphysical belief about man and life, about the highest
good and rules about what one ought to do and how.
2. The supreme ends of life are called Purusharthas. They are Dharma, Artha, Kama
and Moksha.
3. A person who does not necessarily depend upon religion and simply act in the
right way rationally may be called as rationally autonomous individual.
19.7 Unit-End Exercise

1. Define ‘Value’. What is the importance of Value Education in schools?
2. What are the views expressed by great thinkers about value education? Explain.
3. What are the Indian and Western views on values? Briefly explain.
19.8 References
1. B. Ratnakumari, Education and Value Orientation, Publisher: P. Purnayya,
Hyderabad, 1998.
2. Murthy. S. K: Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, Prakash
Brothers, Ludhiana, 1985.
3. Shanthinath Gupta: The Indian Concept of Values, Manohar, New Delhi 1978.
4. Value Education, RIMSE, Yadavagiri, Mysore - 20
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UNIT - 20 ❐ SOURCES OF VALUES
Structure
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Objectives
20.3 Religion as a Source of Values
20.4 Philosophy as a Source of Values
20.5 Literature as a Source of Values
20.6 Let Us Sum Up
20.9 References
20.1 Introduction
In this Unit you are going to learn some of the important sources of values. You
know that we have a number of chances of hearing good advises of elders regarding as
how we have to behave in our daily life, what type of books we have to study and how
should we treat the people who visit us and so on. These are all the ways of imparting
values to the young ones by the elders. At the same time we get a lot of information
about the way in which we have to behave while we study books on different subjects.
In this Unit you are going to study how Religion, Philosophy, and Literature which will
provide us information about values; that is the way in which one has to live in the
society.
Religion is philosophy in practice. What you are going to study in philosophy is to
be practiced. That becomes ones religion. The religion, thus teaches ‘the way of life’.
Philosophy gives you an idea about the problem of reality, of knowledge and of value:
Literature, as you know, is the main source of values. In literature, modern as well as
ancient, you find values embedded in one or the other form.
Thus, in this Unit you will get some information about the sources of values.
20.2 Objectives
After the study of this Unit you will be able to,
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¾ Identify the sources of values.
¾ Analyze the religion as a source of values..
¾ Prepare a list of various sastras as sources of values.
¾ List various areas of Philosophy as source of values.
20.3 Religion as a Source of Values

First of all let us know something about religion. Religion is philosophy in practice.
Religion is the art of living, through right action, how to live our daily life in harmony
within ourselves and with others, and to lead a life of peace and happiness.
Religion is much misunderstood. Religion is not merely a philosophical study but
it is a way of life. Religion is for every man, not only for those who retire to the Himalayas
or who live in temples and churches, not only for the aged and the infirm. In India
religion teaches ‘the way of life’. The old Rishis not only expounded their philosophies
but lived philosophy. They were revealers of life, not merely interpreters. Philosophy
and Indian culture are essentially religious.
Religion teaches how to live our daily life in a practical manner. Gita of the Hindus
is an inspiring example and is of universal application. Gita teaches a Hindu to be a
better Hindu. It is a handbook of practical religion and teaches how religion can be a
potent factor in man’s life.
Man may ask ‘Why should I take to religion’? Life as we understand it, is the
same in plant, animal and man. Plant has no mind, in the animal there is mind and the
animal acts by the mind alone, i.e., by instinct-impulse. Man is distinguished from the
animal by the development of intellect, intelligence, and acts by reasoning using
judgement and discretion. It is the essential privilege of his greater evaluation. Sometimes
man may act by the mind (impulse) alone, and he acts like an animal. To live obediently
to the lower instincts of the mind is the privilege of an animal, not the glory of man. Let
us work with-our physical passions and emotional impulses with a wakeful intellect
policing our lust, greed, pride, arrogance and other lower urges. Let us work in love,
charity, with deep sympathy and all tenderness. Work then becomes worship of God.
I hope, now, you have understood very well what religion is and how values find
their source in religion. Can you prepare a list of some values? Yes, you can. It will be
like this:
1. Love
Charity
Sympathy etc.
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‘Check your Progress’ - I
1. What is Religion?
2. What does Religion teach?
3. How is man different from other living beings?
20.4 Philosophy as a Source of Values

As you have already understood, the word ‘philosophy’ comes from the Greek
word philosophia, which is made up of words phileo (love) and sophia (wisdom). Thus
the literal meaning of philosophy is ‘love of wisdom’. Thus the word ‘philosophy’
refers to a certain way of thinking. Philosophy attempts to answer questions like ‘What
is life’? ‘What is sorrow’? ‘Why do we suffer’? ‘What is goodness’? ‘Who is a man’?
etc. These questions have been raised since the dawn of history, and the attempts to
arrive at their answers, at various times, during different ages, in various countries,
have given in philosophies.
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The areas of inquiry in all philosophies, generally, are: The Problem of Reality, of
Knowledge and of Value.
Let us know the areas of inquiring in philosophy regarding the problem of value.
They are: What are the important values that are to be desired in life? Are these values
rooted in reality? How can we realize them in our experience? etc. The branch of
philosophy which deals with these questions is called Axiology.
20.5 Literature as a Source of Values

Some ancient philosophical literature and some modern literature provide a number
of values required for every human being. First of all let us examine the ancient
philosophical literature. You are going to study in the next Unit the spheres of human
achievement called Purusharthas or ends of life - Dharma, artha, kama and Moksha to
which a fifth one may be added, namely, that of quest after the absolute reality (Brahman).
These five values divide ancient philosophical literature in India into five categories.
Each is directed to the study of that specific value which constitutes its motivational
force. Such a study is commonly known in India as science or systematic study (sastra).
The five -fold division of philosophical literature of ancient India is the main source of
values maybe stated thus:
Brahmasastras are the scientific study of the nature of absolute reality. The Absolute
(Brahman) is the subject matter of this branch of knowledge (Brahmavidya). The
Absolute which is the highest and ultimate reality presents itself as the expression of
the supreme value of life. Its motive-force is expressed in the first of the famous
sutras.
Mokshasastras are the systematic study of the highest spiritual state of liberation
(Moksha). The philosophical systems which undertake this study, take their start from
the problem of the self (Atman) and investigate into the nature of self and the means of
the highest attainment of spiritual freedom (Mokshasadhana). If the highest state of
self (Moksha) is regarded as identical with the Absolute, Mokshasastra is the same as
Brahmasastra.
There is another type of literature in Sanskrit called Dharmasastras which are
originally concerned with the nature and exposition of moral values (Dharma) in the
form of virtue, duty, moral standard, social norm and law. The entire sphere of moral
values becomes the central theme of these moral treatises (Dharmasastras).
Kamsastra is a area type of literature which concentrates on the pursuit of one of
the important values of life, pleasure (Kama). It is mainly concerned with sex and
other pursuits of the sensual and hedonistic culture. This aspect of human life is subjected
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to scientific study with a view to the attainment of the fullest and healthiest satisfaction,
which is acknowledged as one of the values.
Arthasastras concern themselves with material gain and maintenance of life. Artha
is an expression for politico-economic values, which constitute the thematic import of
such a type of literature. Kautilya’s Arthasatra is a systematic account of political
economy (artha) and social organization.
Thus every category of literature undertakes to study the nature and importance of
one specific value of life, in a thorough and systematic manner. The other literary
works, which are the storehouse of values, are, our great epics The Ramayana and
The Mahabharata, and Panchatantra, Arabian Nights and many such books. Examples
from many English and other language books may also be mentioned here. ‘Hamlet’, a
famous play written by William Shakespeare conveys a number of values which are
useful to youth. An advice given by Palonius to his son Learties, a student in the
University is worth mentioning here. Thus literature has been a very important source
of values.

1. The areas of inquiry in all philosophies, generally, are: …………..and
………………
2. The branch of philosophy which deals with the questions like: What are the
important values that are to be desired in life? Etc is called ……………..
3. Brahmasastras are the scientific study of the nature of ……………….
4. Arthasastras concern themselves with………….and …………………..
5. The store house of values are …………………..and ………..
20.6 Let Us Sum Up

● Values have a number of sources. Here we have discussed the sources such as
Religion, Philosophy and Literature.
● Religion is philosophy in practice. Religion is the art of living, through right
action, how to live our daily life in harmony within ourselves and with others,
and to lead a life of peace and happiness.
● Religion is much misunderstood. Religion is not merely a philosophical study
but it is a way of life.
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● In India religion teaches ‘the way of life’. The old Rishis not only expounded
their philosophies but also lived philosophy.
● The areas of inquiry in all philosophies, generally, are: The Problem of Reality,
of Knowledge and of Value.
● Some ancient philosophical literature and some modem literature provide a
number of values required for every human being
● The five values divide ancient philosophical literature in India into five categories.
Each is directed to the study of that specific value which constitutes its
motivational force. Brahmasastras are the scientific study of the nature of
absolute reality.
● Mokshasastras are the systematic study of the highest spiritual state of liberation
(Moksha). There is another type of literature in Sanskrit called
● Dharmasastras which are originally concerned with the nature and exposition
of moral values (Dharma) in the form of virtue, duty, moral standard, social
norm and law.
● Kamsastras are a type of literature which concentrate on the pursuit of one of
the important values.of life, pleasure (Kama).
● Arthasastras concern themselves with material gain and maintenance of life.
● Thus every category of literature undertakes to study the nature and importance
of one specific value of life, in a thorough and systematic manner.
● The other literary works, which are the storehouse of values, are, our great
epics The Ramayana and The Mahabharata, and Panchatantra, Arabian Nights
and many such books. Thus the literature has been a very important source of
values.
20.7 ‘Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’

1. Religion is the art of living, through right action, how to live our daily life in
harmony within ourselves and with others, and to lead a life of peace and
happiness.
2. Religion teaches how to live our daily life in a practical manner
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3. Man is distinguished from the animal by the development of intellect,
intelligence, and acts by reasoning using judgement, discretion.

1. The problem of reality of knowledge and of value.
2. Axiology.
3. Absolute reality.
4. Material gain and maintenance.
5. The Ramayana and The Mahabharata.

1. Explain the religion as a source of Value.
2. What is Philosophy? How does it provide for values?
3. What are the important Literature which are treated as the source of values in
life?
20.9 References
1. Kamala Bhatia and Baldev Bhatia: The Philosophical and Sociological
Foundations of Education, Doaba House, Delhi -1977.
2. Shanthinath Gupta: The Indian Concept of Values, Manohara-1978.
3. Nagaraja Rao. P: The Four Values in Indian Philosophy and Culture, Prasaranga,
University of Mysore, Mysore -1970.
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UNIT - 21 ❐ TRADITIONAL VALUES
Structure
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Objectives
21.3 Traditional Values of India
21.3.1 Purushartha
21.3.2 Satyam Shivam Sundaram
21.3.3 Ahimsa, Prema and Karuna
21.3.4 Tyaga and Lokasangraha
21.4 Let Us Sum Up
21.5 Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’
21.7 References
21.1 Introduction
In this unit you are going to study Purusharthas, the four ends of life. I hope you
remember what you have studied in Unit 19, Section 19.4. There you come across the
mention of Purusharthas. But in this unit you are going to get the details of Purusharthas.
I know that you are well aware of the fact that in our life we desire to possess
number of things. We try hard to fulfill such desires. Do you think that all such desires
are good and necessary? I know that you are quite intelligent to discriminate between
the good and the bad. Therefore you understand very well the intricacies of our desires
and so on.
21.2 Objectives
After the study of this Unit you will be able to;
¾ Explain the meaning of purusharthas.
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¾ List out the four supreme ends of life.
¾ Explain the meaning of Dharma, artha, kama and moksha.
21.3 Traditional Values of India

Indian thinkers commonly speak of two functions of knowledge - one which is
theoretical, viz., revealing the existence of objects, and the other which is practical,
viz., affording help in the attainment of some purpose in life. The results of these two
functions of knowledge are respectively what we mean by ‘fact’ and ‘value’. A thirsty
traveler, who happens to come upon a sheet of fresh water, discovers a fact; and, when
later he quenches his thirst he realises the value. These functions are regarded as closely
connected with each other, since the knowledge of a fact usually leads to the pursuit of
some value. The number of facts that may be known, it is clear, are innumerable; and
the values that maybe realised through their knowledge are equally so. It is with the
later that we are concerned here. The Sanskrit word used for ‘value’ means ‘the object
of desire’, and the term may therefore be generally defined as ‘that which is desired’.
The opposite of value or ‘disvalue’ maybe taken as ‘that which is shunned or avoided’.
For the sake of brevity, we shall speak only of values; but what is said of them will,
with appropriate changes, apply to disvalues also.
One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that, as a consequence
of the pragmatic view it takes of knowledge, it has, throughout its history, given the
foremost place to values. Indeed, they form its central theme; and questions like those
of ‘being’ and of ‘knowing’ comes in only as a matter of concern it may on this account,
be described as essentially a philosophy of values.
Check Your Progress’- 1

1. Answer the following questions in about three or four sentences each.
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2. What are the two functions of knowledge?
3. What is ‘value’?
4. What is ‘Philosophy of values’?
21.3.1 Purusharthas
You know that man is always active. Do you know the reasons for this kind of
activeness? W. Norman Brown calls ‘Purusharthas’ as the four motivations of human
activity. Then what is Purushartha? It is the four-fold human aspirations. The average
Hindu believes that all his activities should be purposive and when he undertakes the
performance of any of them he resolves to achieve them fully well.
The four-fold human aspirations are “Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha”. We
shall try to understand the moral value of each one of these human aspirations.
Dharma as Moral Value

The concept of Dharma seems to be quite central to the Indian concept of values.
It has a comprehensive character in as much as it implies a variety of meaning and
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refers to many states, which are valuational, but its moral nature is consistently
acknowledged. Its intimate concern with human conduct and moral life makes it focal
in its position with regard to other values of life. This exactly is the theme of the
treatises on law (Dharmasastra). Though the use of the word ‘Dharma’ was fully in
vogue in the vedic times, it became the central concept of Hinduism only much later.
The word Dharma is etymologically derived from the root ‘dhr’ which means that
which ‘holds’, ‘integrates’ or ‘regulates’ or ‘maintains’ a thing. “Next to the category
of reality that of Dharma is the most important concept in Indian thought” says S.
Radhakrishnan, India’s former President and best-known modern philosopher.
Among the fundamental aspirations of men Dharma takes the place of pride. It is
the supreme Hindu moral ideal. The other values artha and kama (wealth and passions)
are instrumental, hedonic values. They are not ends in themselves, and should not be
so pursued. If they are erected into ends, they turn out to be disvalues and not the
desirable aspirations of man (purusharthas). Kama and artha are what man shares in
common with animals. The Hitopadesa observes: “food, sleep, fear and copulation are
common to men and animals, what distinguishes man is the additional possession of
the sense of values (Dharma). Bereft of the value-sense man is on par with animals”. It
is the moral sense that raises man from his rude ancestry to human heRitage. Dharma
is the chief regulative value. To put in one sentence the values of artha and kama are to
be regulated by Dharma to help us to attain Moksha and live in peace on earth.
The term Dharma is rendered as duty, injunctions regarding moral and ritual actions,
customs, the law of ones being etc. In the history of Indian philosophic thought, we
find a remarkable exposition and connection of three great concepts, Rita, Satya and
Dharma. Dharma is based on truth and it abjures the use of violence or coercive action
of any form. It is non-violence. Rita is thinking the truth and Satya is speaking the truth
and Dharma its translation in action. “While Rita denotes the mental perception of
truth and Satya denotes its exact expression in mind, Dharma is the observance of the
same in the conduct of life”. Satya is truth in words and Dharma is truth in deed.
Dharma is known by one who is not merely intelligent, “he must be a friend of all and
who is devoted to the welfare of all in thought, word and deeds”. Dharma is the form
of supreme happiness and welfare. There is nothing higher than Dharma. Hence a
weak man seeks and desires (successfully) to control a strongman through Dharma, as
the king does by the arm of law. That Dharma is truth.
The concept of Dharma is commended on different grounds. The first and the
foremost meaning of Dharma is, that it sustains, nourishes, and holds up the social
order. Society crumbles and falls into pieces when there is a transgression of Dharma.
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Dharma holds the equilibrium among the deeds of man. It assumes our survival, which
is the foundation for all ethical activities. Further, Dharma is commended on pragmatic
grounds. “Dharma destroys him that violates it and protects him that adheres to it”,
says Manu. The basic principle of Dharma is set forth by Bhisma in Santiparva in its
positive as well as in the negative aspects. What you desire for yourself you must
desire for others. What you do not like others to do for you; you should not do to
others. The concept of Dharma gives us guidelines for all activities.

1. What are the four motivations of human activity?
2. What makes Dharma focal in its position?
3. What does S. Radhakrishnan say about Dharma?
4. Write the observations of Hitopadesha.
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5. How do you say that Dharma is the chief regulative value?
6. What is Rita, Satya and Dharma?
7. What is Plato’s ideal of justice?
8. What is the basic principle of Dharma according to Bhisma?
Artha
Man, to fulfill his desires, has to earn and gather material aid, i.e., wealth. All such
material aid is called Artha. Thus the term artha comprises the whole range of tangible
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objects that can be possessed, enjoyed, shared or lost and which we daily require for
our upkeep.
Artha is absolutely necessary for man’s life. It is the source and sustenance of all
our virtues, not to speak of the mere gratification of desires, without wealth virtues
become impracticable. Poverty is never glorified as a virtue. The commonsense poet
Bhartruhari sings the praise of the functions of wealth in ten verses. He points out the
need for it if men are to live with dignity. It is wealth that enables us to live independently
without appealing to others for assistance. We are asked to adventure forth on the high
seas to secure fortune. If a man cannot support himself and his family on the material
plane, how can he work for Moksha, which is very difficult? Even those who talk of
Sanyasa, i.e., renunciation, must acquire some thing to give up, otherwise they can
only renounce nothing; such a Sanyasa is a mockery of the concept. Hindu ethical
thinkers have insisted on the necessity of a man’s earning his livelihood by the sweat of
his brow while he is fit, strong and young. To achieve anything substantial in human
life one must be free from poverty and misery and must enjoy a certain economic
competence. One must seek as far as possible to be self-sufficient.
The importance of wealth and its positive role as a contributory force in the
development of man is affirmed by Indian thinkers. Money is an indispensable means
for the formation and growth of society, for the promotion and cultivation of commerce,
industry and scientific research and discovery. For the .destruction of evil forces money
is necessary. The Hindu sages were not unaware of the potentialities of money. They
were only anxious that it should be used with self-control and a perfect knowledge of
its functions.
Spirituality does not impose a ban on money, but seeks to acquire it for right use.
To neglect it would be to strengthen the enemy, who would use the money for the
increase of evil. We should not treasure up all our wealth, but must use it for social
purposes. One has to be entirely selfless, scrupulous and exact and careful in the use of
money. Purity in matters of money is a great virtue (artha suddhi). Even the persons
who want to take Sanyasa should make adequate provisions for his family and dependents
according to Kautilya. He has stated this in his Artha Sastra.
You must know that the Hindu outlook did not stand for an acquisitive society nor
for an affluent society without any State control. It stood for a Dharmic Society. It
allowed men to gain as much wealth as possible without contravening the principles of
Dharma. Manu rejects the views, “that Dharma alone or that Dharma and wealth alone
or that wealth and enjoyment are the most important values”. He holds that all the three
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harmoniously cultivated jointly constitute the threefold end of human life. This represents
the most essential current of Hindu social philosophy and ethics.

1. What is Artha?
2. What does the term Artha comprise of?
3. What are the functions of wealth according to Bhartruhari?
4. What is the positive role of wealth?
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5. What does Kautilya say about acquiring wealth?
6. What is Artha Suddhi?
Kama
Another fundamental aspiration or value envisaged by Hindu Ethics is Kama. It is
wrong to translate it as the desire for sex only. It is the desire of all things in general.
The desire for liberation is excluded from this term, as that desire is accorded the status
of separate supreme value, Moksha. Kama is the cluster of desires a man cherishes.
Psychologically speaking a man is nothing more than the complex of his thoughts and
the longings of his heart. The longings of the heart are described as Kama. For the
gratification of our desires, we need the wherewithal which Artha supplies.
As you know, all the desires of the heart cannot be acceptable ones. They need to
be regulated and co-ordinated into a perfect integral whole. No one desire is to be
elevated into an end and pursued exclusively. The desires of the heart are not all of
equal ethical value. There is the need to keep some of them in check, and there are
others to be carefully enjoyed and not recklessly indulged in. Hence, the necessity for
self-control. All duties have self-control for their end.
Self-control is nothing more than the object oriented life. It is liberation from the
lifeless dull, mechanical impulsion of our desires. It is the assertion of the freedom of
man to stand above the swarm of emotions, sway of impulses, pressure of the opinion
of others, and temptations of sense-life governed merely by considerations of the pleasure
of the moment and ignoring the concept of an enduring happiness.
“Self-control can save men from sinking back to the level of animals. It rescues
them from mean motives, humiliating weakness, jealous attitudes, and cusedness”. No
virtue is possible without it. Self control implies physical and moral courage, which
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entail the necessity and gives strength to withstand the loss of physical pleasure and
the gift of men and popularity. The Upanishads in the East and Plato in the West have
taught the need for self-control in vivid symbolism. The power of withstanding the
sway of pleasant feelings and sensations can save us from physical disaster and economic
ruin. Self-control alone gives us a governable mind and steadfast wisdom. Without it,
our will becomes irresolute and infirm in purpose. The Gita persistently preaches it
and describes it as atma samyama yoga. An undistracted mind with a singleness of
purpose is the chief requirement of man.
Kama or desire by itself is not wrong, but has to be hedged in by the behest of
Dharma. Our desires are gales and they carry us away if we abandon effort. They do
not get subdued automatically. It is folly to hope that somehow we can overcome
temptations and lusts if we do nothing about them. The only way in which evil grows
in this world is by our refusing to do anything to eradicate it. Self-control does not
come all at once. It involves a good deal of pain to cut ourselves off from pleasant
sense activities. The eternal problem confronting man is the choice between the pleasant
and the good, between inclination and duty in Kant’s (a philosopher) language or between
life eternal and death, in the words of Christ.
The one law that should govern the indulgence of desires is that such indulgence
should not contravene the good of society and Dharma (righteousness). Lord Krishna
in the Gita states that He is “that desire which is not opposed to Dharma”.

Fill-up the blanks with suitable words.
1. The fundamental value envisaged by Hindu Ethics is………..….
2. For the gratification of our desires, we need wherewithal which……….. supplies.
3. The desires of the heart are not all of equal………..…value.
4. Self-control can save men from sinking back to the level of………..…….
5. Self-control implies……….and……………….courage.
6. Kama or desire by itself is not wrong, but has to be hedged in by the behest
of……………………
7. …………in the Gita states that He is “that desire which is not opposed to......
Moksha
Moksha which ordinarily means liberation, is regarded in Indian philosophical
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tradition as the final destiny of man and as such, it has been accorded the highest
importance in the scheme of values. Moksha is derived from a verbal root ‘muc’ which
means to give up, to get rid of, to leave or to be free from. It means liberation,
emancipation, and freedom. Mukti has the same connotation.
The supreme spiritual ideal for all the schools of Indian philosophy is Moksha. It
is described as the parama purushartha. All the other values are oriented to it. Dharma,
signifies within its simple confines all the wisdom and experience of centuries of Hindu
wisdom. It is not only regulates all instrumental values in their operation here and now,
but also orients them to Moksha. Moksha is the most distinguishing He supreme character
of Indian philosophy. The concept of Moksha is a complete freedom.
The Gita holds the view that there is no greater gain for man after attaining
Moksha” In the search for Moksha, men in the past have given up their all, e.g., their
belongings, attachment to wife and children and pride of scholarship leaving all they
have sought Moksha as mendicants. The great poet Kalidasa, in the concluding verse
of his famous drama Shakuntala, sends his prayer to the Lord to make him attain Moksha
and overcome rebirth. He writes, “May the king exert himself for the good of his subjects,
may literature great in its scriptures be honoured, may the self-existent God Siva united
with Sakti, put an end also to my rebirth”. The elder Bhisma gives a learned discourse
on Moksha Dharma. The Moksha ideal has all along hovered and haunted the
imagination, activities and the minds of the Hindus.
The nature of Moksha is in essence a type of primary experience that is integral. It
is not like reverie, dream or hallucination. It is not a drug induced experience. It is a
total experience where one feels a complete sense of life’s fruition and suffers from no
privation whatever. There is no diminution or return to the world of samsara from that
bliss. It is a state of unexcitable bliss. It is described in Upanisads as “the nature of
truth that gives life repose, it fills the mind with joy and spreads full peace”. Moksha is
an imperative of sensible undertaking of man for peace.
Moksha is not realized in a vacuum, but in the midst of our life here and now. It
may not be a social product, but is achieved by right living here and now by an individual.
The training insisted on for realising Moksha give up a prominent and necessary place
for morality and Dharma. Ethical excellence is the fundamental pre requisite of all
spiritual life. God can never be realised by by-passing the good life. The Upanisad
declares ‘not he who has not desisted from evil ways, not he who is not tranquil, not he
who has not a concentrated man, not even he whose mind is not composed can realise
the self through knowledge’. The author of Gita categorically states ‘thoughtless men
whose souls are undisciplined do not find God even though they strive’.
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Krishna adds, “He who has full faith and zeal and who has subdued his senses
obtaining divine experience, and once when he obtains it he soon gets peace”. The
negative side of it is also stated: “The ignorant and the one who has no faith and who
always doubts, goes to ruin. There is neither salvation, nor happiness for the man here
who always doubts.” The concept of Moksha is the fulfillment of the adherence to all
the other three values in the manner required.

1. What is Parama Purushartha?
2. What is the view of Gita regarding Moksha?
3. What is the prayer of Kalidasa?
4. How is Moksha described in Upanishad?
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5. What does the concept of Moksha convey?
21.3.2 Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram

It is interesting to note in India there are only very few who are genuinely skeptic
about the existence of values in life and Indian thinkers from the vedic period onwards,
could find an abiding and enduring place for higher values in the very heart of the
ultimate reality. The essentially value ridden character of the reality is quite evident
from the upanishadic definition of Brahman (Atman) as Sat, Chit, Ananda. The same
reality is called from the subjective side as synonyms. The Absolute of the upanishads
manifests itself on the subjects as well as the objects. The Absolute is as certain as the
Atman and also as finite as the Brahman. The Absolute pure existence, pure knowledge
and pure bliss - as in one. It is Satyam (Truth) Shivam (goodness) and Sundaram (beauty
or bliss). By knowing this trinity of values, the Unseen becomes Seen, the Unknown
becomes known. The Unthought-of becomes the thought of.
You can make out why this trinity of values is treated as eternal or permanent
values in Indian Upanishadic thought. The nature and interrelatedness and
interdependence among these -three values is beautifully described in Upanishads
(Chandogya Upanishad). Vedantic scriptures state that Brahman manifests itself in the
empirical world as ‘asti, bhati, and priyam’- they may be said to correspond to Beauty,
Truth, and Goodness.
What we are trying to understand is simply this; Values themselves have no meaning.
It is the reality behind the values that gives the power and meaning. According to one
opinion values must be rooted in reality. This trinity of values are not only eternal in
nature but also instrumental. They are usually practiced in life as virtues.
One can understand the trinity of values when the concept of Atman is clarified.
Atman is the spiritual essence of the person. And in the case of the whole cosmos or
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universe it is called ‘Paramatman’. Both are the same in essence. Paramatman is all
pervasive and beyond time and space. Paramatman is often characterized for
understanding him intellectually as Sat (eternally self existent), Chit (all knowing
consciousness), Ananda (Bliss or joy). This Paramatman, the supreme all -powerful
spirits designated as God.
The practice of these values is oriented towards the ultimate end of life. The
knowledge of truth presupposes the practice of goodness and that the practice of goodness
pre-supposes knowledge of truth. This should be combined with aesthetic value of
Sundaram or blissful joy or beauty. The attainment of all these three values leads to self
realization of man.

Fill in the Blanks
1. Concept of Absolute is ……………..........................................................……
……………..........................................................……............................................
2. It is the……....................................................................................…………….
……………………………...…….that gives power and meaning to values.
3. Atman is ………...........................................................................……………..
……………..........................................................……............................................
21.3.2 Ahimsa, Prema and Karuna
Ahimsa is treat as a basic principle of virtues in Indian Philosophical traditions
like Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. According to Patanjali Yoga Sutra; Ahimsa is
the sprit of non -injury to all creature irrespective any limitation of case, place and time
and it is the highest of all virtues.
The value of Ahimsa- usually called non -violence is an attitude of never injuring
any living creatures. Ahimsa is one of the duties prescribed as common for all groups
of people in the society in the ancient Indian system of Varnashrama Dharma.
Ahimsa as a value has universal appeal. In the course of evolution of human culture,
this value has gathered very important connotation. Non - violence as a way of life is
gathering momentum in this conflict ridden, hate torn and aggressive world where a
cry for human values is becoming almost irresistible. We are witnessing a continuous
process of de-humanisation contributing for value deterioration in all walks of life.
Institutions of all types are supported by the organised violence of groups backed by
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money and political power. The need for Ahimsa or non- violence has been felt by not
only leaders but also people in general.
The need for Ahimsa comes naturally to human beings. Since each human being
values his own life, he wants to be free from injury to his own life, and property. Non
- violence, according to Mahatma Gandhi, is the law of human beings even as the
violence is that of the beast. The human relationships in society are determined by
considerations of social security, projective endeavour, and living for each other. The
maximisation of happiness in the relationships is achieved by totally eschewing violence
and hatred and solving problems in natural love and trust.
Ahimsa as a means to attain the goal of intellectual value like truth was advocated
by Mahatma Gandhi. To him, Ahimsa and truth are so intertwined that it is practically
impossible to disentangle and separate them. Gandhiji followed ‘Satyagraha’ method
to fight against injustice, based on the principles of non-violence.
More than anything else, Ahimsa is a moral or ethical value. It is a way of life, the
moral law is the only abiding principle that binds mankind together and it is the
appropriate means for promotion of human values. Non -violence therefore should
become a positive force in all the working institutions of the entire society. Education
should become a means to elevate the growing members to a sense of appreciation of
these values to achieve the goals of ethical and spiritual development.
Prema
Prema or love is not only a value but a great spiritual force that moves the heart of
person in the process of achieving peace and harmony. It is a path in the realisation of
the highest spiritual truth. It is a law that rules the cosmic law. Prema has the power of
making the whole universe as one’s own home. Our life’s aspirations urges and thinking
are related to this value of true love. It is therefore highly necessary for every human
being to identify the underlying law of truth and love in all creations so as to find
harmony, grace and bliss. Every act of true love brings happiness. Love and affection
are the basic needs of children. Teachers and parents have to recognize these needs as
a fundamental requirement to the growth and development. Education has a function
to perform, to strengthen the bond of love between parents and the child in the family
and teacher-pupil relation relationship in the school. Love is the method of education
of pupils with all types of challenges.
You should know that different dimensions of love are plenty. One can understand
the expression of love in physical, intellectual and spiritual dimensions. All the scriptures
of the religions of the world have emphasized love both as an instrumental and eternal
value. Swami Vivekananda says that “it is love that gives you the supernatural power,
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love again, that leads to emancipation. Love is simply an expression of this infinite
unity. It is beyond time and space, it is absolute”.
Education in human values aims at enabling children to recognize the truth in
their heart which is the force of love. Love enables children to get rid of prejudices and
achieve equality and equanimity. Love is the absence of selfishness and greed. Love of
fellow being is the foundation of citizenship and democracy.
Karuna:
Karuna is showing sympathy towards those who and in distress or who are in
grief. In involves emotional identification which such persons and sharing the feeling
of grief with them. It is known as compassion in English. Compassion, as a virtue is
very much emphasized in Budhism. It is one of the corner stones of Buddhism. Bhagwan
Buddha very much emphasized Karuna or compassion to such as extent that he was
considered as the embodiment of Karuna. This value is also emphasized in Hindusim
and Jainism. Prema and Karuna always go together.
The ultimate aim of education in human values is to make children and youths to
grow in love or Prema.

Fill in the blanks
1. Ahimsa according to Patanjali is……………..
2. Ahimsa is also called as ……………..
3. Ahimsa has come ……………..to man
4. According Mahatama Gandhi.........................................
5. Prema is a ……………..
6. Every act of love brings ……………..
7. Love is the method of ……………..
8. Karuna is showing …………….. to grieving persons.
21.3.4 Tyaga and Lokasangraha

The quest of man in Indian philosophical traditions is for a spiritual ideal. This
requires a profound wisdom and charity of thought with a purity of mind. Ethical values
for the essential purity of the spirit have been emphasized and the life in this world and
society has been taken as a means. The two ethical and spiritual values which are
instrumental in the attainment of spiritual perfection of the individual and the welfare
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of the people of the society, are ‘tyaga’ or renunciation and “Lokasangraha’ or social
or global welfare. These values form the basis of spiritual wisdom according to The
Bhagavadgita. Commenting on the significance of these two values in individual and
national development Swami Vivekananda remarked that the, national ideals of India
are renunciation and service. Intensify her in those channels and the rest will take care
of itself.
Renunciation is the very basis upon which ethic stands. It is considered to be the
greatest ideal to be reached by vedantist, a speaker of truth. The great saints of India
were those who had this world through renunciation and hence our country is known
as land of ‘tyagis’. Renunciation of the desires and passions is the only way to get rid
of miseries of life. If one wants to be truly spiritual, renunciation of this type is inevitable.
Renunciation is not there, self and the passions overrule the person, leading him to
unnecessary troubles.
You may ask a serious question here. Does renunciation or tyaga demand that we
all become ‘ascetics’ or ‘Sanyasis’? Renunciation is of the mind. One need not opt for
ascetic life. But if one becomes unattached and passionless, and does his karma or duty
according to highest ethical ideal, it is as good as greatest tyaga or renunciation. To be
in the world and not to be of it is the true test of renunciation, remarked Swami
Vivekananda. Renunciation makes a person fearless, service minded and duty bound.
These virtues can be cultivated through liberal education or spiritual education practices.
Like renunciation or tyaga, Lokasangraha is a value considered essential for a
karmayogi in The Bhagavadgita. Actions devoid of desire and spiritual knowledge are
necessary to carry on activities of the mortal world or universal welfare. The most
important direction given by the blessed lord Sri Krishna to Arjuna in support of the
doctrine of Karma yoga is that;
“Lokasangraham evapi sampasyan arhasi” (Bh. G.3.20) “Even having regard to
public benefit you must perform these actions”
Public benefit does not mean ‘making societies of man’ or making a farce of
performing Action like other people, though one has the right to abandon Action in
order that ignorant people should not give up action. Lokasangraha refers to ‘binding
men together’ and protecting, maintaining and regulating them in such a way that they
might acquire that strength which results from mutual co-operation. The word ‘Loka’
in ‘Loka sangraha’ is used in more than one sense. It does not indicate mankind. only.
It is said that the Blessed lord Sri Krishna also defines that the Bhuloka, Satyaloka,
Pitruloka, Devaloka and several other Lokas or words, which have been created by
him, should also be properly maintained and go on in the proper way.
Lokasangraha as a value according to The Bhagavadgita, means giving to other
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people a living example of how one can perform without desires, all the various activities
which are allotted to one according to the principles of Varnashrama Dharma. The
implications of this value to education are many. We should cultivate the value of work
culture among children and youth based on the principle of universal welfare, doing
work not only for one’s own sake but also keeping in mind the welfare of other people
in the society.

Fill in the Blanks
1. The nature of ideals of India according to Swami Vivekananda are:
2. India is known as a country of ……………..
3. A person can practice renunciation by ……………..
4. Lokasangraha concept is derived from the scripture ……………..
5. Lokasangraha means ……………..
6. Two implications of Lokasangraha value to education are ……………..
21.4 Let Us Sum-Up

1. Moksha means liberation. As such it has been accorded the highest importance
in the scheme of Values.
2. Moksha is derived from a verbal root ‘mac’ which means to give up, to get rid
of, to leave or to be free from.
3. Moksha means liberation, emancipation, and freedom. Mukti has the same
connotation.
4. Moksha is described as Parama Purushartha.
5. The Gita holds the view ‘that there is no greater gain for man after attaining
Moksha.
6. Moksha is a total experience where one feels a complete sense of life’s fruition
and suffers from no privation whatever.
7. Moksha is not realised in a vacuum, but in the midst of our life here and now. It
may not be a social product, but is achieved by right living here and now by an
individual.
8. The training insisted on for realising Moksha give up a prominent and necessary
place for morality and Dharma.
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9. The concept of Moksha is the fulfillment of the adherence to all the other three
values in the manner required.
10. Satyam Shivam Sundaram represent the value trinity very much emphasized in
Indian value system.
11. Satyam is the ultimate reality which is Shivam or conspicuous and also Sundaram
or beautiful.
12. Ahimsa is non-violence, Prema is love and Karuna is compassion. They are
also emphasized in Indian Value system.
13. Tyaga or sacrifice and Lokasamhara welfare for all are also considered as
important values in Indian tradition.

1. Indian thinkers commonly speak of two functions of knowledge -one which is
theoretical, viz., revealing the existence of objects, and the other which is
practical, viz., affording help in the attainment of some purpose in life.
2. The Sanskrit word used for ‘value’ means ‘the object of desire’, and the term
may therefore be generally defined as ‘that which is desired’.
3. Questions like those of ‘being’ and of ‘knowing’ come in only as a matter of
concern it is described as philosophy of values.
1. W. Norman Brown calls ‘Purusharthas’ as the four motivations of human
activity.
2. Its intimate concern with human conduct and moral life makes it focal in its
position with regard together values of life.
3. “Next to the category of reality that of Dharma is the most important concept in
Indian thought” says S. Radhakrishnan, India’s former president and best known
modern philosopher.
4. The Hitopadesa observes: “food, sleep, fear and copulation are common to
men and animals, what distinguishes man is the additional possession of the
sense of values (Dharma). Bereft of the value-sense man is on par with animals”.
It is the moral sense that raises man from his rude ancestry to human heritage.
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5. Dharma is the chief regulative value. To put in one sentence the values of artha
and kama are to be regulated by Dharma to help us to attain Moksha and live in
peace on earth.
6. Rita is thinking the truth and Satya is speaking the truth and Dharma its
translation in action.
7. The concept of Dharma comes very near to Plato’s comprehensive ideal of
justice: “It is the test and measuring rod for us in the evaluation and assessment
of the qualities of civilization”.
8. The basic principle of Dharma is set forth by Bhisma in Santiparva in its positive
as well as in the negative aspects. What you desire for yourself you must desire
for others. What you do not like others to do for you; you should not do to
others. The concept of Dharma gives us guidelines for all activities.

1. Man, to fulfill his desires, has to earn and gather material aid, i.e., wealth. All
such material aid is called Artha.
2. The term artha comprises the whole range of tangible objects that can be
possessed, enjoyed, shared or lost and which we daily require for our upkeep.
3. Bhartruhari sings the praise of the functions of wealth in ten verses. He points
out the need for it if men are to live with dignity.
4. Money is an indispensable means for the formation and growth of society, for
the promotion and cultivation of commerce, industry and scientific research
and discovery.
5. Even the persons who want to take Sanyasa should make adequate provisions
for his family and dependents according to Kautilya. He has stated this in his
Artha Sastra.
6. Purity in matters of money is a great virtue. Possession of this virtue is called
Artha Sudhi.

1. Kama.
2. Artha.
3. Ethical
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4. Animals.
5. Physical and moral.
6. Dharma.
7. Lord Krishna Dharma.
1. The supreme spiritual ideal for all the schools of Indian philosophy is Moksha.
It is described as the parama purushartha.
2. The Gita holds the view ‘that there is no greater gain for man after attaining
Moksha” In the search for Moksha, men in the past have given up their all, e.g.,
their belongings, attachment to wife and children and pride of scholarship leaving
all they have sought Moksha as mendicants.
3. The great poet Kalidasa, in the concluding verse of his famous drama Shakuntala,
sends his prayer to the Lord to make him attain Moksha and overcome rebirth.
4. It is a state of unexcitable bliss. It is described in Upanisads as “the nature of
truth that gives life repose, it fills the mind with joy and spreads full peace”.
5. The concept of Moksha is the fulfillment of the adherence to all the other three
values in the manner required.
1. Pure existences, pure knowledge and pure bliss.
2. Reality
3. Spiritual essence in man.
1. Non - injury to all creatures irrespective of any limitation of caste, place and
time.
2. Non- violence
3. Naturally
4. Ahimsa and Truth are one and the same. It is practical and cannot separate
them.
5. Spiritual force
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6. Happiness
7. Education
8. Sympathy

1. Tyaga and Seva
2. Tyagis
3. Unattached and passionless.
4. Bhagavadgeetha
5. Binding men together, wishing welfare or all
6. Cultivates the value of work culture and keeping the welfare of all in mind.

1. Write an essay about the Traditional value system of India and put out their
relevance to the social life.
2. “It is only through reestablishing the traditional values of India; it is possible to
overcome the present value crisis in the present context” Justify this statement.
3. Quoting examples from literary works in India show how literature can be a
source of values.
4. Make a comparative study of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism works reference
to value system.
21.7 References
1. Shanthinath Gupta: The Indian Concept of Values, Manohara -1978.
2. Nagaraja Rao. P: The Four Values in Indian Philosophy and Culture, Prasaranga,
University of Mysore, Mysore-1970.
Foundations of Education, Doaba House, Delhi -1977.
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UNIT - 22 ❐ CONTEMPORARY VALUES
Structure
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Objectives
22.3 Contemporary Values
22.3.1 Democracy
22.3.2 Socialism
22.3.3 Secularism
22.3.4 Freedom/Discipline
22.3.5 Responsibility
22.3.6 Human Rights
22.4 Let Us Sum Up
22.7 References
21.1 Introduction
In the previous Units you have studied about the traditional values and their
importance in education and national development. At the same time, I am sure, you
are well aware of the fact that there have been a lot of changes in our socio-economic
life due to scientific advancement. In the light of the above stated changes it is necessary
for us to understand some of the contemporary values.
In this Unit you are going to study some of the values, which have become important
at the present context of human life. You know that we value democracy and democratic
system of government and democratic education, etc. You are going to understand how
such a state of affairs will help every individual to develop his personality with full
freedom. He will be able to think and express himself without any hesitation. You will
understand that democracy is ‘a way of life, and not a mere political arrangement.’
Also in this Unit you are going to study about the socialistic values. By that you
will be able to realize that education is not something as mere schooling, nor it is the
teaching and learning of certain body of subject matter and it is much more than these.
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This is because, you are going to understand, that social life consists of many things
other than education such as games, music, excursions, camping, etc.
By secular values about which you are going to study you will understand the
meaning of secular education. The secular education attempts to inculcate universal
religious truths that hold good for all religions without being prejudicial to any religion
in any way. You must know that since the attainment of independence, our nation has
accepted secularism in public life as a national policy.
In education, how far freedom and discipline play their roles in inculcating values
to students have been dealt with in this Unit. The students are expected to know that
the freedom is opposed to slavery in all its forms. It is also over coming fear, ignorance,
etc. They have to understand that freedom is the relaxation of undue restraint, and the
controlled enjoyment of natural rights. It is also necessary that one should understand
that no big creation is possible without discipline and that discipline is a controlled
life.
In this Unit you are going to study the importance of responsibility and human
rights also regarding the inculcation of values in schools. As you know that the
responsibility and accountability are so close and important values that they cannot be
separated. One depends upon the other they are complementary too. A responsible
person always minds his goal. He is bent upon doing his duty to the best of his ability
within the given time frame. I am sure that you have already understood that we as
human beings require certain rights to live like human beings. Thus human rights have
become contemporary values. Thus it is necessary to understand the concept of human
values at present. Here in this Unit you will find sufficient information about them
also.
22.2 Objectives
After the study of this Unit you will be able to:
¾ Identify the contemporary values in the Indian contest
¾ Conceptualize the values such as democratic, socialistic, secular; freedom and
discipline, responsibility and human rights.
22.3 Contemporary Values

The values which have become important at present owing to the demands of the
time may be called as contemporary values. Here let us study some of the important
contemporary values.
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22.3.1 Democratic Values
You know very well that democracy has been generally understood in its political
sense. According to Aristotle, democracy is government by many, while Abraham
Lincoln gave us his well-known definition ‘Democracy is the rule of the people, by the
people and for the people.’ The ruling power, in a democracy, according to this definition,
in any country, does not rest with a particular set of people or privileged group, but
belongs to every one of the members of the community, and to all citizens in the country.
In such a democracy, every human individual will be given the freedom to develop,
to the fullest extent possible with all the potentialities - freedom to think, to express, to
discuss and to work and act. Freedom to create, to change and freedom to co-operate.
Besides freedom, every individual in a true democracy will have an equal chance of
living a full life, and of exercising his power in social, economic and political spheres.
But democracy in education is comparatively recent idea and the re-interpretation
as well as understanding of educational principles and practices from the point of view
of democracy is our task here. The Radhakrishnan Committee Report describes
democracy as ‘a way of life, and not a mere political arrangement.’ The values the
Constitution of India wants to secure to its citizens through democracy are justice,
liberty, equality and fraternity.
The aims of democratic education therefore, may be stated thus,
1. The development of interests to enrich the pupils to improve their conduct.
2. The development of sound habits of thinking.
The development of the social outlook includes social interests and attitudes,
concern for one’s fellow beings, sense of obligation to the group, social understanding
and the recognition as well as ability to solve social problems. Thus the values inculcated
through democracy in education are:
1. Self-realization - the inquiring mind, speech, reading, writing, number, sight
and hearing, health knowledge, health objectives, public health, recreation,
intellectual interests, aesthetic interest, character.
2. Human Relationship - respect for humanity, friendship, cooperation, courtesy,
appreciation of the home, conservation of the home, home making, democracy
in the home.
3. Economic Efficiency -such as work, occupational information, occupational
choice, occupational efficiency, occupational adjustment, etc.
4. Civic Responsibility - such as social justice, social activity, social understanding,
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critical judgement, tolerance, conservation, world citizenship, law observance,
political citizenship.
22.3.2 Socialistic Values

I think you agree with me if I say that education is not the same thing as mere
schooling, nor it is the teaching and learning of certain body of subject matter. It is
much more than these. Is it not so? It is equivalent to the development of character and
personality by means of the social life of educational institutions. Social life consists
of games, participation in drama, music, visual arts, religious observances, debates,
discussions, excursions and camping.
Education, according to sociologists, is a social process which may eliminate defects
in a society and created values such as desirable institutions and group activities. Thus
the socialization through education helps the individual to develop a good number of
values which are useful to develop his personality in the society. This aim is achieved
since socialization of education makes his life better, both as an individual and as a
member of society. It further helps rum to acquire knowledge which will help him to
think, and acquire certain skills, interests and attitudes. He becomes a person socially
acceptable, technically efficient, personally well adjusted and socially responsible.
Education should help in transmitting values such as folkways, mores and other
values in social organization. In India, the assimilation of tradition in language, respectful
behaviour to elders and teachers, customs in relation to eating, sleeping, daily bath and
others are considered important.

1. What is Democracy according to Aristotle?
2. How is freedom used in democracy?
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3. What is Democracy in Education?
4. State any two of the aims of democratic education?
5. What are the values inculcated through democracy in education?
6. What does the social life in schools consist of?
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7. What is education according to sociologists?
8. What do students acquire through the socialization?
9. How did Radhakrishnan Committee describe Democracy?
10. What are the values our constitution wants to secure to the citizens?
22.3.3 Secularism
I am sure that you are quite familiar with the word ‘Secular’. This word has been
in use now-a-days in every walk of life. The chief characteristic of modern nations is
adopting of secular outlook in public life. Hence public education will be away from
any kind of religious indoctrination. Such a kind of education is called as secular
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education. But you should not mistake it for irreligious or anti-religion. Public educational
institutions will be neutral in the matter of religious preaching; it promotes equal
reverence for all faiths and religions.
Then, you must be thinking, what does secular education mean? At best, secular
education attempts to inculcate universal religious truths that hold good for all religions
without being prejudicial to any religion in any way. Since the attainment of
independence, out nation has accepted secularism in public life as a national policy. I
am sure you know that this ideal became a dire necessity because of many historical
factors, especially because of the multi-religious nature of our country.
You also know that religion plays a predominant role in the lives of the individuals.
They respect very much their religious beliefs and faiths, and pursue earnestly the
rituals and rites prescribed by their religions in their scriptures and enunciated by their
religious leaders. At the same time, communities of different religions have to live in
peaceful co-existence, respecting mutually each other’s faiths and beliefs. At present
secularism in public life is universally accepted and adopted enhancing the respect for
all faiths.
22.3.4 Freedom / Discipline

Read these sayings of great people about freedom:
“Liberty of thought and action is the only condition of life, of growth and well being,
where it does not exist, the man, the race, the nation must go down. Caste or no caste,
creed or no creed, any man or class or caste, or nation, or institution, which bars the
power of free thought and action of an individual, even so long as that power does not
injure others - is devilish and must go.” - Swami Vivekananda.
“He only has freedom who ideally loves freedom himself and is glad to extend it to
others. He who cares to have slaves must chain himself to them. He who builds walls
to create exclusion for others builds walls across his own freedom. He who distrusts
freedom in others loses his moral right to it. Sooner or later he is lured into the meshes
of physical and moral servility.” - Rabindranatha Tagore.
I hope you have understood the value of freedom. As you know, freedom is opposed
to slavery in all its forms, namely enslavement to rituals, customs, habits and wants;
subjugation to fear and ignorance; subordination to rigid set patterns of thought,
submission to bondage and captivity, that makes man subservient to man.
Freedom is the relaxation of undue restraint, and the controlled enjoyment of natural
rights. Freedom is exercised when man can follow the dictates of his conscience, voice
his opinions fearlessly and stand up for his convictions regardless of opposition. Freedom
flourishes in an atmosphere of liberty, frankness and openness, enabling man to make
his choices purposefully and freely.
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Now, I am sure you know about the qualities a person requires for achieving freedom.
Freedom can only be achieved through knowledge and mastery of self, combined with
right reason. In the absence of freedom, it is not possible for any one to develop his
individuality. Because slavery shackles the mind, robbing man of his God given right
to grow to maturity in freedom. Slavery imprisons the spirit with fear and darkness
suppressing spontaneity, love and joy.
Therefore, freedom generates power giving man the opportunity to blossom with
right reason, in an environment freed from harmful restraints. Freedom is the basis on
which the moral and spiritual edifice is built and it is indispensable for the education
and maturity to think and act properly.
Discipline
You must know that no big creation is possible without discipline. Sri Aurobindo
says, that it is “ to act according to a standard of truth or a rule or law of action or in
obedience to a superior authority or to the highest principle discovered by the reason or
intelligent will”. Thus discipline is controlled life. It is physical, vital and the mental
sources are guided by spirituality. It is against unbridled indulgence in fancies, impulses
and desires. It is obedience of the inner sense. Partly it is also obedience of
authority.
Discipline may be of three kinds. Individual discipline, group discipline and
discipline towards the divine. These distinctions have been made on the basis of the
authority functioning imposition of discipline. The individual self imposes individual
discipline. The group or the majority or the leader in it imposes group discipline.
Discipline towards the divine means rigorous practice of the dictates of the Divine.
Means to Maintain Discipline

It is an accepted truth that no teaching is possible without discipline. The ability to
maintain discipline is an art that must be acquired before a teacher can hope to attain
any type of success in teaching process.
Routine
The distribution and collection of books and materials, opening of windows, the drawing
of margins, the order of assembly and dismissing - all matters such as these should be
done according to fixed routine, without a word from teacher. The most orderly classroom
is one in which fewest orders are given.
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Personality of the Teacher
The bearing and address of the teacher play a very important part: he should not be
irRitable or unnatural, slack or indifferent. The teacher must have self-control and
must appear confident; ‘forget your personality and learn your job’ should be the motto
of the teacher.
Activity
It is a good rule to punctuate all the lessons with short period of activity. Children can,
for example, write notes, draw sketches, and perform experiments, less talking and
more quite activity - this is perhaps the most helpful advice for any teacher who finds
it difficult to keep order.
Self Government
Young children as we see cannot be expected to govern themselves without any help
from the teacher, but they can be given little individual responsibilities in matters
pertaining to school equipment and material.
The best way to impose discipline, according to Sri Aurobindo is the image and the
example of the teacher. Generally speaking, the discipline should start at an early age.
The most important measure is the example of the teacher. There can be no definite
rules for the guidance of the students in the process of discipline. As order is the prelude
to liberty similarly discipline is a precondition for realization of freedom.
‘Check your Progress’ - 2

1. What are the chief characteristics of modem nations?
2. What does secular education attempts to do?
364
3. Why secularism in public life is necessary?
22.3.5 Responsibility
“The plea of ignorance will never take away our responsibility” - Ruskin
Responsibility and Accountability like the Gemini twins are values that cannot be
separated: one leans heavily on the other, one complements the other. Responsibility
connotes the ‘liability’ to be called to account when in charge or control of an undertaking.
It volunteers acceptance of a commitment only on the conviction that the task is within
its competence. It studies the assignments for its difficulties and matches them with its
own resources. It accepts a charge with all its difficulties and problems and takes the
blame or credit for its success or failure.
A responsible person (I hope you know who is a responsible person. A person
who is ready to bear the responsibility) always focuses his eyes towards his goal. He is
bent upon doing his duty to the best of his ability within the given time frame. He is
meticulous about the fulfillment of his tasks. He knows that his careful attention towards
his duty certainly contributes for success. He works untiringly. He honours his
commitment and strives hard with selfless dedication. He knows that he is in full control
of the task undertaken and liable to be called to account for failure.
A person without responsibility, i.e., an irresponsible person spends time in making
glib promises to discharge his undertakings. But in practice he fails to keep up his own
words. Such a person is always irregular, unpunctual and untrustworthy. He is always
ready to make promises. He fails in taking decisions and works erratically. He is careless,
unreliable and inefficient; he is not concerned about his lack of achievement. He does
not have the sense of involvement. He endangers the lives of people by his failure to
discharge his duty promptly. An irresponsible person disrupts team-work, leaving his
partners in the game to carry the burden of the lion’s share of the load.
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Now you are in a position to understand the value of Responsibility. A responsible
person takes up the challenges to explore his potentials for his varied talents, individually
or collectively. He will be able to recognize and acknowledge his gifts with their
limitations and strives to develop them to the maximum extent. He will not restrict his
work to routine limits and remain always a mediocre. He aspires to achieve new heights
of innovation and creativity. He throws himself open to criticism and suggestions.
Always seeks guidance from the experienced to improve his performance. He will
plunge into action to serve others and grow into maturity for responsibility begets
greater responsibility. Thus you know, Responsibility is a free moral agent and is
accountable for its acts of commission and omission with all their moral implications
because one cannot escape from responsibility by pleading ignorance.

1. What is Responsibility?
2. Who is a responsible-person?
3. What does an irresponsible person do?
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4. Write any two of the ways a responsible person chooses to do his work.
22.3.6 Human Rights

As you have already understood, we as human beings require certain rights to live
like human beings. They live and grow up here. Members of a society depend upon one
another. All activities of men and women, big or small, revolve round this societal
system. As a matter of fact, all human beings are members of the same species. They
are equal in so far as their rights and dignity are concerned. They are motivated with
reason and conscience. The concept of Human Rights has emerged out of mankind’s
reasoning and conscience.
You must know that human right is nothing but the right to life, liberty and security
of person. This means that everyone has the right to live and to live in freedom and
safety: The societies are governed by political systems, which exercise control over the
actions of its members, institutions and organizations, both formal and informal. As
you know, the chosen members of society constitute a Government. Government
functions according to the laws passed by the society. A law is a general rule of external
human action enforced by an authority/government and human rights are no exception
to it.
Here what you have to understand is the values such as equality and dignity. The
above said rights are there to secure to all human beings not only the right to live but
right to live with more dignity. A student aware of his rights recognizes the rights of
others. They help prevent denial of human rights and various forms of exploitation of
the weak and poor sections of the society.

1. Why do we require certain rights?
367
2. How did the concept of Human Rights emerge?
3. What is the meaning of Human Rights?
4. What is a Law?
5. What are the values you notice in Human Rights?
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22.4 Let Us Sum Up
Some the values have become important at the present context of human life.
● The ruling power, in a democracy, in any country belongs to every one of the
members of the community, and to all citizens in the country.
● In such a democracy, every human individual will be given the freedom to
develop, to the fullest extent possible.
● Besides freedom, every individual in a true democracy will have an equal chance
of living a full life, and of exercising his powers in social, economic and political
spheres.
● Democracy in education is comparatively a recent idea.
● Democratic education aims at the development of interests to enrich the pupils
to improve their conduct, sound habits of thinking, social outlook, social interests
and attitudes.
● The values inculcated through democracy in education are, self-realization,
human relationship, economic efficiency and civic responsibility.
● Education is development of character and personality by means of the social
life.
● Social life in educational institutions consists of games, participation in drama,
music, visual arts, debate and so on.
● Education, according to sociologists, is a social process, which may eliminate
defects in a society and may create values such as desirable institutions and
group activities.
● Education should help in transmitting values such as folkways, mores and other
values in social organization.
● The chief characteristic of modern nations is adopting of secular outlook in the
public life.
● Hence public education will be away from any kind of religious indoctrination.
Such a kind of education is called as secular education.
● Secular education attempts to inculcate universal religions. Truths that
hold good for all religions without being prejudicial to any religion in any
way.
369
● Communities of different religions have to live in peaceful co-existence,
respecting mutually each other’s faiths and beliefs.
● Freedom is the relaxation of undue restraint, and the controlled enjoyment of
natural rights.
● Freedom flourishes in an atmosphere of liberty, frankness, and openness, enabling
man to make his choice purposefully and freely.
● Freedom can only be achieved through knowledge and mastery of self, combined
with right reason.
● Freedom generates-power giving man the opportunity to blossom with right
reason, in an environment freed from harmful restraints.
● Responsibility and accountability like the Gemini twins are values that cannot
be separated: one leans heavily on the other, one complements the other.
● Responsibility connotes the ‘liability’ to be called to account when in charge or
control of an undertaking.
● A responsible person always focuses his eyes towards his goal. He will plunge
into action to serve others and grow into maturity for responsibility begets greater
responsibility.
● We as human beings require certain rights to live like human beings.
● The concept of Human Rights has emerged out of mankind’s reasoning and
conscience.
● Human Right is nothing but the right to life, liberty, and security of person.
● Human beings differ among themselves, but the concept of human rights implies
that all human beings are equal and have to be treated alike irrespective of their
religion, caste, creed, colour, sex, race, place of birth and so on.
● If you want to understand human rights as a contemporary value, you require
understanding the concept of human rights. All men and women are equal
partners in a society.
● They are equal in so far as their rights and dignity are concerned. They are
motivated with reason and conscience. The concept of Human Rights has
emerged out of mankind’s reasoning and conscience.
● Human beings differ among themselves, but the concept of human rights implies
that all human beings are equal and have to be treated alike irrespective of their
religion, caste, creed, colour, sex, race, place of birth and so on.
370
1. According to Aristotle, democracy is government by many.
2. Freedom is used to think, to express, to discuss and to work, act, to create, to
change and to co-operate.
3. The aims of democratic education may be stated thus,
The development of interests to enrich the pupils to improve their conduct. The
development of sound habits of thinking. The development of the social outlook.
4. The Radhakrishnan Committee Report describes democracy as ‘a way of life,
and not a mere political arrangement.’
5. The values the Constitution of India wants to secure to its citizens through
democracy are: justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. The aims of democratic
education (any two) are,
a) The development of interests to enrich the pupils to improve their conduct.
b) The development of sound habits of thinking.
6. The values inculcated are, Self-realization, Human Relationship, Economic
Efficiency and Civic Responsibility.
7. Social life consists of games, participation in drama, music, visual arts, religious
observances, debate, discussions, excursions and camping.
8. Education, according to sociologists, is a social process which may eliminate
defects in a society and may creates values such as desirable institutions and
group activities.
9. It further helps them to acquire knowledge which will help them to think, and
acquire certain skills, interests and attitudes. They become socially acceptable,
technically efficient, personally well adjusted and socially responsible.
‘Check your Progress’ -2

1. The chief characteristic of modern nations is adopting of secular outlook in the
public life.
2. Secular education attempts to inculcate universal religious truths that hold good
for all religions without being prejudicial to any religion in any way.
3. This ideal became a dire necessity because of many historical factors, especially
because of the multi-religious nature of our country.
371
1. Responsibility connotes the ‘liability’ to be called to account when in charge or
control of an undertaking.
2. A responsible person always focuses his eyes towards his goal.
3. An irresponsible person disrupts team-work, leaving his partners in the game
to carry the burden of the lion’s share of the load.
4. He will be able to recognize and acknowledge his gifts with their limitations
and strives to develop them to the maximum extent. He will not restrict his
work to routine limits and remain always a mediocre.

1. We as human beings require certain inalienable rights to live like human beings.
2. The concept of Human Rights has emerged out of mankind’s reasoning and
conscience.
3. Human right is nothing but the right to life, liberty and security of a person.
4. A law is a general rule of external human action enforced by an authority/
government and human rights are no exception to it.
5. We notice the values such as equality and dignity of man as man.

1. What is ‘Democratic Education’? What are the aims of Democratic Education?
2. What is Education according to Sociologists? What are the social values
transmitted through education?
3. What is the meaning of Secular Education? What is secularism in public life?
4. What is Freedom in Education? How can it be achieved?
5. What is Discipline? What are the ways of maintaining discipline in education?
6. ‘What is Responsibility? Explain the difference between a responsible person
and an irresponsible person.
7. Explain Human Rights.
372
22.7 References
1. Ranjit Sharma. G: The Mother’s Philosophy of Education, Atlantic Publishers
and Distributors, New Delhi - 1992.
2. Setranjiwalla. Z. K: Values in Education, S. Chand and Co.,(Pr) Ltd., Ram
Nagar, New Delhi - 973.
Foundations of Education, Doaba House, Delhi - 1977.
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UNIT - 23 ❐ VALUE EROSION
Structure
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Objectives
23.3 Value Crisis in
23.3.1 Social Life
23.3.2 Economic Life
23.3.3 Political Life
23.4 Let Us Sum Up
23.6 Unit-End Exercises.
23.7 References.
23.1 Introduction
You are quite aware of the fact that there has been a cry everywhere that there has
been serious erosion in values at present. It means the young and old, without any
difference, have stopped giving importance to values in almost all the walks of life.
Everyone is interested in his own gains and profits. Money has become the most important
object. To gain the money power people are ready to take any step, whether it is generally
acceptable or not.
Anyway there is some consolation when we find that there are people here and
there who still consider values as important and they seldom go astray. When we look
at all these things we feel that there is need for inculcating values. But before we try to
know the ways and means of inculcating values to overcome the present day deficiency,
we shall try to know the root cause for the erosion which has taken place. Knowing the
causes for erosion will help us to inculcate values among children who are the future
responsible citizens.
23.2 Objectives
After the study of this Unit you will be in a position to,
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¾ Explain the meaning of Value Erosion.
¾ Analyze the problem of Value Erosion in social, economic and political life of
people in India.
23.3 Value Crisis

As you know the value education is increasingly being discussed in many forum
these days. It is heartening to see that value education has caught the imagination of
people. Erosion of values and the need to stem their further decline, inculcation of
values at the school and college levels - these are not being merely discussed, but
people concerned appeared to be seriously having to do something about them. The
Central Government has started a separate cell for Education in Human Values (EHV)
and has identified the NCERT as the national resource centre for Value Education.
There is great degeneration with respect to values of people in general. There is
also devaluation of values in various aspects of life relating to social, economic, political,
etc. No conscious efforts are ma by the educational authorities to bring about value
orientation to the educational system as such. Values are only being referred incidentally
in courses contained in the textbooks and in the discourses e.g., the teachers casually
during their teaching activities. This is not sufficient enough to inspire the population
to imbibe in themselves all the desirable moral and social values. Carefully planned
and consciously prepared programs should be organized in order to achieve the desired
goals.
As education is becoming more materialistic the old value traditions of spiritualism
are slowly vanishing. The old and great Indian tradition full of moral, religious and
spiritual values is not to be seen and the education is being given with only bread and
butter aim. Therefore everyone is after material benefits.
The degeneration in the present day life, the demoralization of public and private
life, the utter disregard for the sublime values, etc., are all traceable to the fact that the
moral, religious and spiritual education is being deliberately neglected to the cruel
mortification of one-and-all by our educational system. The secular philosophy of
education of the nation is being erroneously considered as irreligious or anti-religion.
Hence the public educational institutions are remaining aloof without assuming the
responsibility for imparting the religious and moral instruction.
The age-old traditional golden values of ethics and spiritualism have received a
death-blow from the modem scientific and technological advancement. Restructuring
of modern values has not been accomplished to replace them. Hence the value-crisis
375
has taken place in modern times. One of the chief current trends in Indian education
pertains to the mode of reviving value education in schools and colleges. It will help
our people to duly conform to the remodeled educational, social, moral and spiritual
values. So that our land may regain the spiritual and material supremacy that reigned it
once. The effects of value crisis is witnessed at present thus,
The democratic ideology that has been accepted by our State is yet to be actualized
in the form of social and economic democracy so as to realize the democratic values
guaranteed by the constitution of India. A new impersonal social order, that is developing
fast, has been unduly ignoring the ancient ideational values and concepts without
attempting to replace them with suitable ones.
The individual is becoming a prey to the contradictory values and ideologies and
is being converted, as a consequence, as an extreme radical, a reactionary, a skeptic or
a cynic. The present Indian education system is reflecting more or less borrowed
ideologies and philosophies; and the national values are really neglected. The teacher-
educators and teachers are not being clearly oriented as the national values and ideas
and ideologies that they have to inculcate to the students. Hence they are not able to
play their due role as value-educators.
Our curriculum is also reflecting the same confusion with regard to values.
Human values are not properly prioritized by the present form of curriculum. It should
be reflecting the values that are truly Indian. For ages view of life has been spiritualistic
and valuation confusion. But today the spiritual values of India are only adored by one
and all and are simply adorning the worthy scriptures and books, but the common man
not at all practices them. In the minds of many there has also been growing disbelief
because in the past we have lost earth in pursuit of heaven and suffered subjugation for
over ten centuries. They are only being practiced now by a few. Most of the common
men are not aware of those great spiritual values for which our country stood but perform
some of the rituals blindly and often without any faith in them.
Value conflict has risen in our country consequent to impingement of western
values. People began to think that the old Indian values are outmoded and outdated, as
they did not help them in acquiring material benefits. Hence they are slowly unlearnt
and no new values that are ‘worthwhile’ are learnt. Consequently value crisis has arisen
in all walks of life - moral, social, religious, spiritual, educational, aesthetic and practical
ways and devaluation of value took place. For the present day generation, the only well
known value of success in the life is, success-at-any-cost-and-by-any-means. Worship
of money and loved materialism have aggravated this crisis.
376
‘Check your progress’ - 1
1. What is value Crisis?
2. What are the EHV and NCERT?
3. Why is everyone after material benefits?
4. How is secular philosophy understood at present?
5. Why are teachers not able to work as value-educators?
377
23.3.1 Value Crisis in Social Life
Social malaise, prevalent in the country, is also responsible for value crisis. Social
malaise is described in terms of social discomfort, social disorganization, and disorder
in the social and cultural system. It involves clashes between mutually conflicting
interests, ideals and values.
We can see around us in our country social malaise in these forms:
● the difficulties people experience in the bureaucratic system in our country;
● the wrong things that are taking place in political scene of the country;
● the growing economic disparities;
● the falling standards of morality;
● the deterioration of nationalism;
● the social tension;
● the communal prejudices;
● the religious conflicts; and
● the caste rivalries.
The impact of social malaise on values is very great. Its impact on the educational
system is obvious which gives rise to the difficulties given below:
● planning of education;
● reconstruction of uniform curricula;
● text-book preparation;
● equalization of educational opportunities;
● removal of regional disparities in educational development, etc.
23.3.2 Economic Life

Economic life mainly comprises of earning the livelihood. As we all know human
wants are innumerable. There is no end for human wants. Therefore it is quite natural
that man wants things one after the other. First he wants at least basic necessities when
he has nothing. After that he wants other things. Then he turns to acquiring more and
more of what he possesses already. At this point he can do so only by exploiting others.
378
Due to his greed others have to forgo even their basic needs. While doing so the greedy
persons do not give any importance for others interests. Thus the value crisis in economic
life arises. This crisis has gone to such a level at present, that it has become very
difficult even for the governments to control them. Every day in the newspaper you
must be seeing scams going on around us in every walks of life. This is due to making
of money disregarding the value factors. Thus economic life devoid of morality has
become a curse. No one can live in peace and satisfaction in a world of limitless greed
and covetousness.
23.3.3 Political Life

The value crisis is predominant in the field of politics. The desire to grab power
and retain it for as many days as possible is the greatest desire of everyone in politics.
The majority of the freedom fighters, who sacrificed everything for the sake of nation
during the, freedom struggle, have been pushed back into background. New persons,
who have no spirit of patriotism, are corning to top positions in almost all political
parties. Every political party, due to its greed for power, has split into a number of
parties, with the result that there are numerous political parties both at the national
level and state level. Thus lack of value system has been the reason for all these changes
towards degradation.
Corruption, favouritism, nepotism and many other evils in political circles have
been a sort of blockade for due justice to the hard and honest workers has resulted in
frustration. People are lured by offering money and materials at the time of elections
by the political parties and politicians. This is widespread in the areas where there
backward, poor and illiterate persons live. Thus the power mongers get the power by
one way or the other utilizing the ignorance of the people. The development of moral
qualities among the young ones at present may help to put an end to all these practices
in the political field at least to a certain extent in the coming days. The young ones at
home may prevent the parents and other elders from being trapped by the evil people.
Only idealism of the young can build a strong nation of virtuous citizens.

1. What are the things, which are responsible for value crisis in social life?
379
2. Mention the causes for loss of values in economic life of people.
3. What are the reasons for loss of values in political life of people?
23.4 Let Us Sum Up

As you know the value education is increasingly being discussed in many forums
these days. It is heartening to see that value education has caught the imagination of
people. Erosion of values and the need to stem their further decline, inculcation of
values at the school and college levels - these are not being merely discussed, but
people concerned appeared to be seriously trying to do something about them.
There is great degeneration with respect to values of people in general. There is
also devaluation of values in various aspects of life relating to social, economic, political,
etc. Values are only being referred incidentally in courses contained in the textbooks
and in the discourses given by the teachers casually during their teaching activities.
This is not sufficient enough to inspire the students’ population to imbibe in themselves
all the desirable moral and social values. Carefully planned and consciously prepared
programs should be organized in order to achieve the desired goals.
As education is becoming more materialistic the old value traditions of spiritualism
are slowly vanishing. The old and great Indian tradition with full of moral, religious
and spiritual values is not to be seen and the education is being given with only bread
and butter aim. Therefore everyone is after material benefits.
380
The secular philosophy of education of the nation is being erroneously considered
as irreligious or anti-religion. Hence the public educational institutions are remaining
aloof without assuming the responsibility for imparting the religious and moral
instruction. The age-old traditional golden values of ethics and spiritualism have received
a death-blow from the modern scientific and technological advancement. Restructuring
of modern values has not been accomplished to replace them. Hence serious value-
crisis has occurred is modern times.
The democratic ideology that has been accepted by our State is yet to be actualized
in the form of social and economic democracy so as to realize the democratic values
guaranteed by the constitution of India. A new impersonal social order, that is developing
fast, has been unduly ignoring the ancient ideational values and concepts without
attempting to replace them with suitable ones. The individual is becoming a prey to the
contradictory values and ideologies and is being converted, as a consequence, as an
extreme radical, a reactionary, a skeptic or a cynic. Radicalism is sometimes is creating
young people who have been victimized by people who want to spread terrorism.
The present Indian education system is reflecting more or less borrowed ideologies
and philosophies; and the national values are really neglected. Most of the common
men are not aware of those great spiritual values for which our country stood but perform
some of the rituals blindly and often without any faith in them. Value conflict has risen
in or county consequent on the impinge of western values. People began to think that
the old Indian values are outmoded and outdated, as they did not help them in acquiring
material benefits. Hence they are slowly unlearnt and no new values that are worthwhile
are learnt.
Social malaise, prevalent in the country, is also responsible for value crisis. Social
malaise is described in terms of social discomfort, social disorganization, and disorder
in the social and cultural system. It involves clashes between mutually conflicting
interests, ideals and values.
Economic life mainly comprises earning the livelihood. As we all know human
wants are innumerable. There is no end for human wants. Therefore it is quite natural
that man wants things one after the other. First he wants at least basic necessities when
he has nothing. After that he wants other things. Then he turns for acquiring more and
more of what he possesses already. At this point he can do so only by exploiting others.
Due to his greed others have to forgo even their basic needs. While doing so the greedy
persons do not give any importance for others interests. Thus the value crisis in economic
life arises.
The value crisis is predominant in the field of politics. The desire to grab power
and retain it for as many days as possible is the greatest desire of everyone in politics.
381
The majority of the freedom fighters, who sacrificed everything for the sake of nation
during the freedom struggle, have been pushed back into background. New persons,
who have no spirit of patriotism, are coming to top positions in almost all political
parties.

1. Values are necessary to lead a good life. But at present there is erosion of values
in every walks of life. This is to be tackled. Value education is to be imparted.
This is the crisis we are facing at present.
2. Education for Human Values and National Council for Educational Research
and Training.
3. As the education is becoming more materialistic the old value traditions of
spiritualism are slowly vanishing. The old and great Indian tradition with full
of moral, religious and spiritual values is not to be seen and the education is
being given with only bread and butter aim. Therefore everyone is after material
benefits.
4. The secular philosophy of education of the nation is being erroneously considered
as irreligious or anti-religion. Hence the public educational institutions are
remaining aloof without assuming the responsibility for imparting the religious
and moral instruction.
5. The teacher-educators and teachers are not being clearly oriented with regard
to the national values and ideas and ideologies that they have to inculcate to the
students. Hence they are not able to play their due role as value-educators.

1. Social malaise prevalent in the country is also responsible for value crisis. Social
malaise is described in terms of social discomfort, social disorganization, and
disorder in the social and cultural system. It involves clashes between mutually
conflicting interests, ideals and values.
2. Acquiring more and more of what one possesses already is the main reason. At
this point one can do so only by exploiting others. Due to one’s greed others
have to forgo even their basic needs. While doing so the greedy persons do not
382
give any importance for others interests. Thus the value crisis in economic life
arises. But remember what Gandhiji said “This earth has enough for each man’s
need, not greed”
3. Every political party, due to its greed for power, has split into a number of
parties, with the result that there are numerous political parties both at the national
level and states’ level. Thus lack of value system has been the reason for all
these changes towards degradation.

1. What is ‘Value Crisis’? What are the reasons for such a crisis? Explain.
2. Explain the Value Crisis in the following fields with reference to Indian society
a) Social Life
b) Economic Life
c) Political Life
23.7 References
1. Rohidekar and others (Ed.): Education in Human Values Handbook for
Teachers -II, Sri Satya Sai Education Trust, Prashanthi Nilayam (A.P) 1982.
2. Murthy S.K: Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, Prakash
Brothers, Ludhiana.
3. Swami Jitatmananda: Value Education, Sri Ramakrishna Ashrama, Rajkot: 2002.
4. Ratna Kumari B: Education and Value Orientation, Swati Publications,
Hyderabad, 1998.
383
UNIT 24 ❐ INCULCATION OF VALUES
Structure
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Objectives
24.3 Need and Importance of Inculcating Values
24.4 Approaches to Value Education
24.5 Let Us Sum up
24.8 References
24.1 Introduction
The development of science and technology requires a dynamic educational policy.
It is so, not only because the development of skill is so important, but also, it is necessary
to evolve a value system that would be intrinsic and to lay a strong foundation. The
source document ‘Challenge of Education’ which sought to generate public opinion on
the National Policy of Education (1986) is a forthright version of the total scenario. It
clearly reflects the Government’s desire to accept its shortcomings and evolve a
meaningful practical policy for the future. It has rightly recognised the need to stress
on ‘Value Education’, as the prime base to build a strong fabric, so that the future
generation rise above narrow chauvinistic feelings and set up standards of excellence
in all walks of life. It is only such a strong foundation, which will help to build an
edifice that would stand the tests of time and grow into the 20th century.
At present we find all around us a steady deterioration of values not only in the
field of education, but also in all spheres of activity, more particularly in the political
and administrative structures. This is not merely a denigration of the youth. The fact is
that today our policy makers have begun to realize it. The fact and forthright views
projected through mass media clearly point out that presently there is an awareness of
the problem, recognition of the need to develop standards of excellence, a devotion to
work and National Consciousness, which transcend narrow regional and communal
feelings.
Humanist psychologists like Maslow (1969), Fromm (1956) and others emphasis
384
the need for a general value orientation which is essential for the planning of a good
future for mankind. A value system must first of all recognize the intrinsic worth of
every individual, the need for his survival and the need for social progress.
In this Unit you are going to study the need and importance and the approaches to
value education.
24.2 Objectives
After the study of this Unit you will be able to:
¾ Justify the need and importance of Value Education.
¾ Explain the various approaches to Value Education.
24.3 Need and Importance of Value Education

You have just now gone through the Introduction. In doing so, you have understood
the need and importance of value education to some extent. Anyway here you are
going to understand the need and importance of value education in greater detail. First
of all let us consider the viewpoints of some thinkers:
Baqer Mehdi states that, “The major purpose of education is to shape the personality
of the child in such a way that he becomes a better learner, a better person, a better
worker, not only in terms of knowledge, understandings and skills but also in terms of
values and motives which give meaning and significance to all his behaviour”.
According to John Dewey, “The aim of education is growth or development, both
intellectual and moral. Ethical and Psychological principles can aid the school in the
greatest of all constructions - the building of a free and powerful character. Only
knowledge of the order and connection of the stages in psychological development can
ensure this. Education is the work of supplying the connections which will ensure the
psychological functions to mature in the freest and fullest manner”.
According to Huxley, education should be humanized to redeem our society from
the evil effects of widespread corruption, selfishness, exploitation, authoritarianism
and nepotism. This calls for infusion of human values in their operations. The core of
the human value system consists of truth, goodness, beauty, honesty, sincerity, hard
work, gratitude, forgiveness and tranquility, besides the ethical system leading to virtues
which should be acquired and cannot be taught. Humanization of education lays stress
on the all-round development of the personality of students.
In the society where people live together it becomes necessary to one and all to
385
conform to certain rules and regulations. This will promote for mutual help and co-
operation. These are the moral principles and there must be some foundation for the
children to understand and go according to it. Therefore the inculcation of moral qualities
such as adjustment, co-operation, etc., becomes necessary.
Since a human being is a social animal, the values which promote the basic human
interests of healthy, vigorous, joyful life, and which help intellectual and aesthetic
pursuits should be given importance. Thus the inculcation of these values finds an-
important place in the school curriculum. Truth, which means the precise correspondence
between what exists as fact and its perception, understanding and expression, is the
highest value for a human being as no one can live either on the negation of truth or on
distortion of truth.
The above opinions reveal the importance and need of value education to be
imparted to students through the value education in schools.

1. Mention any two needs of Value Education in schools at present.
2. What is the importance of value education in schools?
24.4 Approaches to Value Education

In schools all the curricular and co-curricular activities for students should be,
well planned and appropriately geared to achieve the desired goals. The approaches to
386
value education involve the formal, informal and non-formal methods of
teaching.
The values such as, secular, moral, and social, are implicit in any good educational
programme. For moral and religious values, there must be separate curriculum and
syllabus. For other minor issues there may not be any separate curriculum to avoid
over-loading of school subjects or cognitive load of the curriculum. Hence, they are to
be built-in into the curriculum relating to the language and non-language subjects.
Direct and Indirect Method of Teaching Values

a. Direct Method of teaching is possible when there is a separate subject for teaching
values. Then there will be a separate teaching period for values in the timetable
of the school for each class. But the direct method of teaching values has its
own defects. Sometimes, it may result in reaction formation or contra-suggestions
being formed, which will be defeating the purpose of moral instruction.
b. Indirect Method of imparting moral education is fruitful many a time. Students
will learn the related values as concomitant learning. The desired values have
to be inferred as a result of stories, story-poems or anecdotes that are taught.
Curricular, Co-curricular and Extra-curricular Approaches to Teaching of Values

These are some of the approaches to teach values.
a. Curricular Approach is possible if there is a separate syllabus prepared and
introduced for value education. There will be a definite number of periods allotted
for teaching value education just like the allotment is done in case of other
academic subjects. Thus the subject- value education - will have its own identity.
This approach may involve incorporating the contents either in the language
subjects or non-language subjects. This is an integrated approach, wherein the
subject will not have individual identity.
b. The co-curricular Approach involves activities that can be well exploited for
the development of secular, moral and social values. Debates and essay-writing
competitions, story-telling and writing story-poems, etc., can be associated with
the teaching of values. Dramas, songs, dances, etc., can also be associated with
value education.
c. The Extra-curricular Approach involves activities like organization of Social
Service, common celebration of different religious festivals in the schools, mutual
greetings on different religious celebrations, organization of visits to temples,
387
mosques, churches, gurudwaras, etc., will be helpful for developing some of
these values.
d. Formal, Informal and Non-formal methods are also useful methods of inculcating
values. As you all know, the formal method is classroom teaching directly with
the help of text books or supplementary reading materials. Students learn different
values incidentally by their own experience, by living in the school community
or through the school programs is informal method. Utilizing leisure hours in
the school for reading books on values, or through the organised discourses by
experts in the subject, or through radio or TV lessons, or any other mass media
is non-formal method of teaching values.

1. What are Direct and Indirect methods?
2. What is formal method of teaching value education?
3. What is informal method of teaching value education?
388
4. What is non-formal method of teaching values?
24.5 Let Us Sum Up

● The core of the human value system consists of truth, goodness, beauty, honesty,
sincerity, hard work, gratitude, forgiveness and tranquility, besides the ethical
system leading to virtues which should be acquired and cannot be taught.
Humanization of education lays stress on the all-round development of the
personality of students.
● In the society where people live together it becomes necessary to one and all to
conform to certain rules and regulations of the society. This will help for mutual
help and co-operation. These are the moral principles and there must be some
foundation for the children to understand and go according to it. Therefore the
inculcation of moral qualities such as adjustment, co-operation, etc becomes
necessary.
● Since a human being is a social animal, the values which promote the basic
human interests healthy, vigorous, joyful life, and which help intellectual and
aesthetic pursuits should be given importance. Thus the inculcation of these
values finds an important place in the school curriculum.
● The approaches to value education involve the formal, informal and non-formal
methods of teaching. Direct Method of teaching is possible when there is a
separate subject for teaching values.
● Indirect Method of imparting moral education is fruitful many a time. Students
will learn the related values as concomitant learning. It is also possible through
the formal, non-formal and informal methods.
389
1. There must be some foundation for the moral principles and children have to
understand and go according to it. Therefore the inculcation of moral qualities
such as adjustment, co-operation, etc., becomes necessary.
2. Since a human being is a social animal, the values which promote the basic
human interests of healthy, vigorous, joyful life, and which help intellectual
and aesthetic pursuits should be given importance. Thus, the inculcation of
these values finds an important place in the school curriculum.

1. Direct Method of teaching is possible when there is a separate subject for teaching
values. Indirect Method of imparting moral education is fruitful many a time.
Students will learn the related values as concomitant learning.
2. The formal method is classroom teaching directly with the help of textbooks or
supplementary reading materials.
3. Students learn different values incidentally, by their own experience, by living
in the school community or through the school programmes is informal
method.
4. Utilizing leisure hours in the school for reading books on values, or through the
organized discourses by experts in the subject, or through radio, or T.V
lessons, or any other mass media is a non-formal method of teaching
values.
24.7 Unit End Exercise

1. Explain the need and importance of inculcation of values in schools.
2. What are the approaches of Value Education in schools?
3. Explain the Direct and Indirect methods of value education.
4. What are the formal, informal and non-formal methods of teaching moral
values?
390
24.8 References
1. Rohidekar and others (Ed.): Education in Human Values Handbook for
Teachers-II , Sri Satya Sai Education Trust, Prashanthi Nilayam (A.P)1982.
2. Murthy S. K: Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, Prakash
Brothers, Ludhiana.
3. Swami Jitatmananda: Value Education, Sri Ramakrishna Ashrama, Rajkot: 2002.
4. Ratna Kumari B : Education and Value Orientation, Swati Publications,
Hyderabad, 1998.
391
392
EDUCATION IN INDIA
BLOCK 05
INDIAN EDUCATIONAL RESPONSES
TO SOCIAL NEEDS
393
394
Block
5
INDIAN EDUCATIONAL RESPONSES TO SOCIAL NEEDS
Unit - 25
UNIVERSALIZATION OF EDUCATION 399
Unit - 26
EDUCATION OF THE DISADVANTAGED GROUPS 428
Unit - 27
EDUCATION FOR NATIONAL ANDEMOTIONAL INTEGRATION 459
Unit - 28
EDUCATION FOR INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING 475
Unit - 29
VOCATIONALISATION OF EDUCATION 499
Unit - 30
DISTANCE EDUCATION 520
395
Vice Chancellor
Mysore 570 006
Karnataka
Dean - Academic
Mysore 570 006
Mysore 570 006

Mysore 570 006
Dr. H. N. Vishwnath Course Writer

Lecturer in Education
Sharada Vilas Teachers College
Mysore 570 004

Mysore 570 006
Mysore 570 006.
396
BLOCK 05 : INDIAN EDUCATIONAL RESPONSES
TO SOCIAL NEEDS
INTRODUCTION
When India obtained independence on 15th August 1947, it had to face many
challenges in political, social and economic fields. Unification of hundreds of princely
states into one integrated Nation, drafting a constitution was the main political problems.
In the social and educational fronts also there were many problems India had to face.
Restructuring Indian Education System to suit the needs and aspiration of an independent
country, removal of illiteracy, providing educational opportunities to the needy sections
of society were the chief problems in the educational sector. Uplifting the downtrodden
sections of the society, reducing prejudices of language, region or castes, removal of
superstitions, exploitation, preventions of atrocities towards neglected sections of society,
developing a feeling of one nation were the problems in the social sector which had to
be tackled. These problems reflected the needs of the Indian society at the time of
independence. The Indian Educational System had to respond positively to these social
needs. This Block explains how the Indian Education System responded to these social
needs. It explains the efforts made by the country to solve these problems.
This Block consists of six Units. In Unit - 25 you will study the efforts made by
the Government - Central and states to universalize primary education to educate millions
of illiterate Indians. In Unit-26 the efforts made to educate especially the scheduled
Castes /Tribes, Women and Disabled Children are explained. Developing a feeling of
one nation, a feeling of belongingness is very essential in building a nation. This is
even more essential in a society which is a mixture of several languages, religions,
subcultures and ways of life. This feeling is known as National and Emotional Integration.
In Unit-27 you will study the role of education in developing National and Emotional
Integration. In the modern world no country can exist in isolation. There is a need to
understand other nations of the world. Unit-28 explains education as a means to develop
international understanding.
397
The remaining two Units relate to two modes of education which are important in
the changed context of modern India. In Unit-29 you will study about the need of
providing Vocational Education Unit-30 explains the nature and importance of Distance
Education, which has proved to be a boon to millions of people in India who are desirous
of continuing their education.
398
UNIT-25 ❐ UNIVERSALISATION OF EDUCATION
Structure
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Objectives
25.3 Concept of Universalisation of Education
25.4 Aims and Importance of Universalisation of Education
25.5 Problems in the Universalisation of Education
25.6 Strategies, Measures and Approaches of Universalisation of Education
25.7 Let Us Sum Up
25.10 References
25.1 Introduction
In 1945, when freedom seemed round the corner, Mahatma Gandhi in his letter to
Nehru pleaded for the villages to be the focal point of free India’s political structure,
economic and developmental policies. But Nehru wrote back to describe the Indian
villages as “intellectually and culturally backward from where no progress could be
made.” What Nehru felt in 1945 is still relevant today. This is not that we have failed in
policy making but we have failed in process of carrying out the policies to the people.
It is a fact that developmental policies do not reach the villagers who constitute nearly
60 % of the total population of our country. Even if certain policies reach the people
they are not able to understand the policies and take full advantage of such policies.
The basic reason for this failure is that most people have not received elementary
education and are thus illiterate.
India is a developing country and education is an important factor for the
development of any nation, since it is directly related to the quality of life. Hence, it is
very important for the government to provide education for all. In this regard Government,
both at Central and State levels have put in regular efforts and have taken up various
schemes to enable every individual of the country to access education and contribute
399
for the development of nation with national values such as secularism, equality &
equity, social justice, democracy etc.
In 1950, the Indian Constitution provided that all states should provide free and
compulsory education to the children of every section of the society upto the age of 14
years within 10 years of time. The then national literacy rate was only 16 %.
India being a democratic country, equal opportunities have been given to all citizens,
irrespective of gender, economic conditions, caste, region, religion, creed etc.
Consequently, education has been considered as the ‘birth right’ of every child. In this
regard education has been universalized i.e.; ‘Universalisation of Education has become
a means to attain 100% functional literacy and national development. Many problems
were associated with making of universalisation of education and successfully they
have been tackled through scientifically designed functional measures and strategies.
In this context, these issues would raise the following questions:
1. What is Universalisation of Education?
2. What are the problems involved in Universalisation of education?
3. What are the measures taken by the State and Centre regarding Universalisation
of Education?
4. What are the causes for not achieving universalisation of education even after
55 years of independence?
The contents of this unit would reflect the issues related to the aforesaid questions.
25.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
¾ Define Universalisation of Education.
¾ Explain the importance of Universalisation of Education and state the aims of
Universalisation of Education
¾ List out the strategies and measures taken up by Centre and State Governments
regarding Universalisation of Education
¾ List the causes for not achieving Universalisation of Education
¾ Explain the various schemes/programmes of government towards
Universalisation of Education.
¾ Explain the problems involved in the Universalisation of Education.
25.3 Concept of Universalisation of Education

Article 45 of the Indian Constitution states: “The State shall endeavor to provide
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free and compulsory education for all children till the age of fourteen years.” In other
words, we are committed to universal, free and compulsory elementary education.
Universalisation of elementary education (UEE) in India means making education
available to all children in the age-group of 6 to 14 and in classes I to VIII.
The concept universalisation signifies that education is for all and not for a selected
few. This also means that education is the birth right of every child. The concept ‘free’
signifies that no fees will be collected from children for receiving elementary education
in educational institutions run by the state or receiving grants out of the state funds.
The concept ‘compulsory’ signifies that all children attaining the age of 6 are to be
enrolled in Class I and should continue until they complete class VIII at the age of 14
years.
Universalisation of elementary education passes through three stages:
1. Universal Provision
2. Universal Enrolment and
3. Universal Retention
i. Universal Provision: This means that an elementary school should be provided in
each area within a walking distance (1 km.) of the child’s home, so that all children in
the age group 6 to 14 are provided with school facilities.
ii. Universal Enrolment: This means every child attaining the age of 6 must be enrolled
in Class I of an elementary school. This also means compulsory enrolment of all children
attaining the age of 6 in an elementary school. Here, it may be mentioned that the gross
enrolment is very often taken amiss as universal enrolment.
iii. Universal Retention: This means that every child enrolled in Class I must continue
in the school till he completes class VIII. Children should be properly understood and
guided so that they do not leave school before they complete Class VIII course.
Besides the stages stated above, there are two other stages of universalisation.
They are:
1. Universalisation of Participation
Education, like most human decisions, is a problem of priorities in every community.
In assessing their various responsibilities, not enough schools and administrations, and
school boards-have recognized the vital importance of community in taking active part
in the programme of universalisation of education. In order to materialize this, decisions
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should be decentralized, in order to utilize community participation in the programme
of Universalisation of Elementary Education.
2. Universalisation of Achievement
Universalisation of enrolment alone cannot help in success of universalisation of
elementary education. To make this programme a success it is important to assess the
achievement of the students. This can be possible only by the programme of continuous
and comprehensive evaluation. If we can introduce this evaluation programme both in
formal and non-formal settings, our objectives of education for all can achieve its success.
Universalisation of elementary education denotes two processes namely:
1. Access 2. Success
Access: This means universal provision of elementary schools and universal enrolment
of children in the age-group of 6 to 14. All children in the age-group of 6 to 14 should
have access to elementary schools. There should not be any discrimination on grounds
of sex, religion, caste, place, or socio economic status.
Success: By simply providing access to elementary schools we cannot claim that we
have universalized elementary education. Along with access to schools we should make
adequate provisions in schools, so that children can experience success in elementary
education. Adequate number of trained teachers, qualitative learning and teaching
materials, aids and equipments, classrooms, etc. should be provided in each and every
school to facilitate successful completion of elementary education. Success is to be
determined in terms of attainment of Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) which means
most of the students would acquire most of the competencies.
25.4 Importance of Universalisation of Education

Elementary education is a fundamental right of every citizen. In a historic judgement
in July, 1992 which was modified in 1993, the Supreme Court of India declared: “The
citizens of the country have a fundamental right to education. Every child / citizen of
this country has a right to free education until he completes the age of 14 years. “
Since Article 45 and other provisions in the constitution could not compel the
government and the society to have universal elementary education even after 55 years
of independence, the judgements of the Supreme Court assume utmost significance.
The judgements also assume importance, as we have also not been sincere to UN /
UNESCO / International Labour Organisation (ILO) declarations on the human rights
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and the rights of the children, which India rectified.
UEE is important for the following reasons:
a. Eradication of poverty,
b. Fostering economic progress,
c. Managing the growth of population and
d. Creating a clean and healthy environment.
There cannot be effective empowerment of our people without universal
elementary education. J. P. Naik, an eminent educationist of our country has very aptly
observed, “The progress of primary education is an index of the general, social and
economic development of the country as a whole”. Primary education plays an important
role in laying the proper foundation of a child’s cultural, emotional, intellectual, moral,
physical, social and spiritual developments. Countries which have made proper provision
for primary education are far ahead than those with inadequate provision of primary
education.

1. The Constitutional Provision, which provides for ‘Free and Compulsory Primary
Education to all’
a) Article 29 b) Article 46 c) Article 45 d) Article 16
2. Universalisation of Education means making education available to,
a) All
b) Children of age group 6 - 14
c) Disadvantaged group
d) Illiterates
3. Strategy of providing elementary school within a distance of 1 km is for,
a) Universal enrolment b) Universal provision
c) Universal retention d) Universal participation
4. Success in UEE is to be determined through the attainment of children in-terms of
a) examination results b) grades c) MLL d) All these
5. The index of general, social and economic development of a nation is the,
a) Per-capita income of its citizens b) Progress of the primary education
c) Gap between the rich and poor d) Access to higher education
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6. Universalisation of Education is significant, because it helps in,
a) Eradication of poverty b) Fostering economic progress
c) National development d) Creating good and healthy environment
B. Answer the following briefly:

1. Enlist the five stages of UEE.
2. What do you mean by: 1. Universalisation of Provision
2. Universalisation of Enrolment
3. Universalisation of Retention
3. Define ‘Access’ and ‘Success’ with respect to UEE
4. Mention any four reasons why Universalisation of education is important in Indian
context.
25.5 Problems in the Universalisation of Education

Article 45 of the Indian Constitution directed states to endeavor to provide free
and compulsory education to all children upto the age of 14 years by 1960. But this
could not be materialized due to scarcity of financial and human resources and other
factors. As a result, the target date had to be extended upto 1970, then to 1976 and later
to 1990. The NPE (1986) further extended the target date to 1995. The modified policy
1992 has further revised the target date. It states, “It shall be ensured that free and
compulsory education of satisfactory quality is provided to all children upto 14 years
of age before we enter the 21st century.” A National Mission has been launched for the
achievement of this goal.
Inspite of the provision made in the constitution and the efforts made by the
government, we have not yet been able to universalize elementary education. Free and
compulsory elementary education has remained on paper and pen only. What are the
problems or issues which are responsible for our failure to universalize elementary
education? The problems which caused failure are of various types such as:
a. Social Problems
b. Economic Problems.
c. Educational Problems.
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d. Geographical Problems.
e. Administrative Problems.
Social Problems:
1. Apathy of parents.
2. Conservative attitude of parents towards co-education.
3. Over population.
4. Early marriage of girls.
Economic Problems:
1. Poverty of parents.
Educational Problems:
a. Low enrolment of SC, ST and other backward sections of the society.
b. Low enrolment of girls.
c. Low enrolment of disabled children.
d. High rate of stagnation.
e. High rate of wastage.
f. Defective curriculum.
g. Uninspiring methods of teaching
h. Lack of competent teachers.
Geographical Problems:
(i) Inaccessible areas
(ii) Small and scattered habitations particularly in tribal and hilly areas.
Administrative Problems:
(1) Inequality of educational opportunities.
(ii) Frequent transfer of teachers.
(iii) Lack of women teachers.
(iv) Lack of effective supervision.
(v) Failure to enforce compulsory education.
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(vi) Lack of suitable reading and writing materials.
(vii) Lack of suitable admission policy.
(viii) Inadequate and unattractive school buildings.
(ix) Lack of teaching-learning aids.
(x) Existence of large number of incomplete primary schools.
(xi) Lack of non-formal and adult education facilities.
Two severe causes of universalisation of education, not being achieved are:
Wastage and Stagnation. It may be added that these twin problems of Wastage and
Stagnation prevail at almost all levels of Indian education. At this moment we are
concerned with this problem at primary level.
Wastage: If a child leaves the primary school before the completion of his primary
education course, we are talking in terms of wastage. Wastage is also defined as
“premature withdrawal of children from school at any stage before the completion of
primary course”. Wastage may be due to:
(a) Ill health of the pupils,
(b) Lack of proper clothing,
(c) Extreme poverty, i.e., in general or because of death of father,
(d) Non-availability of reading and writing materials;
(e) The school hours do not suit the parents,
(f) School is far from home,
(g) Parents engage their children in domestic affairs,
(h) Penalizing pupils to maintain discipline in the class,
(i) Lack of parental interest in the education of their children, parents are illiterate
or do not know the importance of education,
(j) Stagnation of pupils,
(k) Caste and communal sentiments of parents.
Stagnation: If a child takes more than the required time in a class to clear it, it is
a case of stagnation. Stagnation is synonymous with failure. Some causes of stagnation
are:
(a) General physical weakness of the pupils.
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(b) Ear defect and eye defect of the pupils.
(c) Lack of power of memory of pupils.
(d) Physical deformity.
(e) Juvenile delinquency.
(f) Single teacher handling large number of pupils.
(g) Curriculum is heavy.
(h) Lack of parental co-operation.
Problems in detail and a few solutions:
1. Problem of Finance; There is no denying the fact that universalisation of education
should be achieved at the earliest as it has far reaching effect on the productive
capacity. It, therefore, should not be allowed to suffer from lack of funds. Cost on
primary education may be cut down by:
1. Introducing double shift system wherever possible.
2. Harnessing community resources in men, material and monetary terms.
3. Evolving a system of voluntary service in the form of teaching by young people
who have completed secondary school or college.
2. Problem of Priority: Primary education should be developed on priority basis

with more percentage of budgets allocated to this sector. From 50% of the total
educational budget spent on primary education during the First plan, it came
down to 31.9% in the Fifth plan. However in the Sixth Plan, 45% of the educational
budget is earmarked for primary education.
3. Problem of Population Explosion: The problem of population explosion has

upset the whole planning including education. Family planning must be adopted
as a way of life.
4. Problem of restructuring education: The single point entry system must be

replaced by multiple entry system under which it will be open for older children
of 9, 11 or 14 years to join primary schools in separate classes organized for their
needs. Facilities for part-time education even at primary stage should be introduced.
It should also be made possible for older children to join the prescribed courses
at any time and also complete them in much shorter period.
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5. Problem of Poverty: A vast majority of children in the age group 6 - 11 do not
attend schools as poverty compels the children to work at home. The girls are
more useful at home and hence a very large proportion of them are engaged in
domestic work. Facilities such as free supply of books and stationery, uniforms
and school meals can be helpful in retaining children in schools. It may be essential
to provide part-time education to the children of poor families to receive education
at their convenient time.
6. Apathy of Illiterate parents: Illiterate parents do not fully realize the importance
of education for their children. They are indifferent and show apathy to education.
The prevalence of illiteracy is one of the factors that stood in the way of
universalisation of primary education. A massive programme for removing adult
illiteracy has been taken up.
7. Problem of Unattractive Schools: Our primary school programmes are dull and
boring with the result that schools do not have any attraction or holding power.
The methods of teaching are traditional and uninspiring. Necessary equipment in
the form of audio-visual material is lacking. The courses of study are unrelated
to the lives of the students. Work experience and physical education should form
an integral part of education. Education should be suited to the environment and
lives of children so that they do not regard it as a waste of time. Audio-visual
aids should be made available in schools. Methods of teaching should arouse the
curiosity and interest of children.
8. Problem of Girls’ Education: Although girls’ education has made much headway
since independence, yet there is still a wide gap between the education of boys
and girls. Adequate attention should be given to education of girls at all stages.
Special scheme should be prepared for this purpose and the funds required for
them should be provided on a priority basis.
9. Problem of States with Low Enrolment: Special attention to universal enrolment
has to be paid in these states. Provision for part-time education should be made
and more schools should be setup at suitable places.
10. Problem of Education of Backward Classes. The backward classes include the
SC, the ST, De-notified Communities and a few nomadic and semi-nomadic
groups. The SC/ST constitutes 15% and 7% of the total population of the country.
Special efforts should be made to enroll girls, children of SC/ST and children of
other weaker section like landless agricultural labourers.
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11. Problems of small Habitations: The number of small habitations with a population
of less than 200 is nearly four lakhs and a half. The population of these habitations
is nearly 15 % of total rural population. To tackle the problem of small habitations,
two solutions have been suggested. One is to set up peripatetic teacher schools,
based on the Australian half-time school, in which the teacher works in two
schools which works in a place for six months a year.
12. Problem of the Education of the Handicapped: The education of the handicapped
needs to be expanded. However, it will be limited by two considerations;
availability of special teacher and financial resources. The education commission
recommended that a reasonable target would be to provide, by 1986, education
for 15% of blind, deaf and orthopedically handicapped children and to about 5%
of the mentally challenged ones.
13. Problems of Enforcing Compulsory Primary Education Act: Although the
compulsory primary education act has been passed, yet it has not been properly
enforced. The attendance authorities, i.e., the teachers must be made to work
vigorously for the enforcement of the Act. They should enlist the cooperation of
elected representatives or influential people in the area for the enrolment of
children. Parents who willfully do not send their children to school be fined as
provided in the Act.

(A) Choose the appropriate answer
1. The extended target years for achieving UEE are,
a) 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2005
b) 1947, 1957, 1967, 1977, 1987, 1997
c) 1956, 1966, 1976, 1990, 1995, 1999
d) 1960, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1995, 2000
(B) Match the Following

(A) 1. Social problem a) Group rivalries of local bodies
2. Economic problem b) Low enrollment of SC/ST & others.
3. Political problems c) Inaccessible areas.
4. Educational problems d) Apathy of parents
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5. Geographical problems e) Frequent transfer of teachers
6. Administrative problems f) Poverty of parents.
(C) Answer the following briefly:

1. Enlist the educational and administrative problems which caused failure of
UEE.
2. Define the following:
1. Wastage 2. Stagnation
2. Mention the causes and remedial measures for:
1. Wastage 2. Stagnation
25.6 Strategies and Measures Towards Universalisation of

Education
(a) Strategies for UEE:
1. Giving top priority to primary education of an acceptable quality.
2. Ensuring the efficient and effective use of existing infrastructure and schools.
3. Expansion of non-formal system for out-of-school children.
4. Mobilization of community, involvement of parents, NGO and voluntary agencies
for the cause of elementary education.
5. Decentralization of educational planning for elementary education - block
planning and district planning in place of state planning to ensure universal
success and universal participation.
6. Introduction of MLL to ensure universal achievement.
7. Accountability of primary schools and teachers to the community for success/
failure of elementary education.
Strategies for the Disadvantaged Groups :

1. Equalisation of educational opportunities for SC and ST children at all stages
and all levels of education, in all areas and in all four dimensions - rural male,
rural female, urban male and urban female.
2. Provision of incentives to attend school regularly till they reach the age of 14.
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Strategies for Girls:
a. Removal of gender disparity between boys’ and girls’ participation in elementary
education.
b. Special attention to girl child, particularly in the rural areas.
c. Changing the attitude of parents towards girls’ education.
d. Education to be considered as women’s empowerment.
e. Appointment of women teachers.
Strategies for the Disabled:

a. Education of mildly and moderately disabled children in general schools. (ii)
Education of severely handicapped children in special schools.
b. Minimizing the rate of drop-outs.
c. Adjustment and adoption of the curriculum to the special needs of disabled
children.
d. Reorienting teachers’ training programme to develop their competencies to teach
disabled children along with non-disabled children in general schools.
Strategies for Adult Literacy:

a. Massive campaign for total literacy.
b. Organization of literacy programme for adults in the age group of 15 to 35
c. Post literacy and continuing education programme for those adults who have
received primary education earlier.
d. Involvement of voluntary agencies and NGO along with government
organizations in the literacy programme.
e. Emphasis on women’s literacy.
Strategies for Quality Education:

a. Reorienting the curriculum to the needs, problems and aspirations of the
community.
b. Organising training programmes for teachers to make teaching-learning
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qualitative, to improve their competence in the context of MLL and to make
the best use of available resources and existing infrastructure facilities.
c. Orienting teachers about multi-grade teaching.
d. Emphasis on learning in place of teaching.
Attempts made from 1950 - 1992:

Three factors relating to universal provision of school facility were responsible for our
failure to universalize elementary education. These are:
a. In some cases schools existed without building.
b. In some cases schools existed without any teacher or with a single teacher.
c. In some cases schools existed without any enrolment or with very poor enrolment.
In the light of this, the following attempts were made during this period.
Universal provision of School Facilities: Several attempts were made for

universalisation of elementary education during the period 1950 - 1992. One such attempt
was quantitative expansion of elementary education by increasing the number of primary
schools. For example, the number of primary schools increased from 2,10,000 in 1950-
51 to 5,58392 by 1990-91. Similarly the number of middle schools increased from
14,000 in 1950 - 51 to 1,46,636 by 1990-91.
(ii) Universal Enrolment: Along with universal provision of school facilities, attempts
were made to enroll all children in the age-group of 6 - 14. Such attempts include:
i) Enrolment drive.
ii) Public awareness programme through mass media like radio, television,
newspaper posters and pamphlets.
Inspite of such attempts, UEE failed because of the following factors:

i) Low enrolment of girls.
ii) Low enrolment of children belonging to SC, ST and other backward
communities.
iii) Low enrolment of disabled children.
iv) Low enrolment of children belonging to linguistic and religious minority group.
v) High rate of wastage.
vi) High rate of stagnation.
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(iii) Universal Retention: Attempts were made to ensure universal retention. This means,
all children in the age-group of 6-14 will continue in the school until they complete
elementary education. This also means children will not drop-out from the school before
completing class VIII. For the purpose of universal retention, the following measures
were taken by the government:
a. Adoption of ‘No Detention Policy’.
b. Free supply of uniforms to girls and other children of backward communities.
c. Attendance scholarship for girls and SC/ST children.
d. Provision of mid day meals.
In spite of these measures UEE failed because of:

a. High rate of Stagnation.
b. High rate of wastage.
(iv) Universal Achievement: Attempts were made to reduce the rate of stagnation and
to ensure universal achievement. This means all children in the age group of 6- 14 will
achieve success in relation to MLL. Universal achievement necessitates two conditions:
a. Equal opportunity to learn.
b. Qualitative improvement of elementary education.
In the past several measures were adopted by the government to provide equal
opportunity to all children in the age group of 6 - 14 and to bring qualitative improvement
of elementary education. Some of these measures are as follows:
a. Provision of minimum two classrooms in primary schools.
b. Provision of minimum two teachers in primary schools.
c. Supply of black board and teaching aids to primary schools free of cost.
d. Renewal of primary education curriculum.
e. Identification of minimum learning continuum.
f. In-service training of primary school teachers for ensuring q u a l i t a t i v e
instruction in the classroom.
g. Instruction of work books for children.
h. Introduction of teachers’ handbook in different subjects.
Several schemes and projects were implemented in different states to bring
qualitative improvements in elementary education. These include the following:
Primary Education Curriculum Renewal (PECR).
a. Operation Black Board (OBB)
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b. Project Mass Orientation of School Teachers (PMOST)
c. Survey on Educational Backwardness of Girls
d. Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Integrated.
e. Education for Disabled Children (EDC).
f. Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC).
These attempts to ensure universal achievement were no doubt noteworthy. Yet
we are far away from the goal. It will not be surprising that we again have not completely
achieved universalisation of elementary education even after we have reached the 21th
century. Teachers have, no doubt, a crucial role to play for the success of UEE. We
have always expected too much too soon from the teachers. If we expect teachers to
work hard and with a sense of dedication and commitment, we have to take care of
their demands, regular salary, promotional benefits, retirement benefits, incentives,
health working conditions, etc.
Attempts made at Present:

New attempts are being made at present in our country to improve the quality of
elementary education and to realize the goal of UEE. District Primary Education Project
(DPEP) is being implemented in different states with assistance from world bank. In
order to realize the goal of UEE the DPEP focuses on the following:
a. Attainment of Minimum Level of Learning (MLL).
b. Updating and reorganizing the primary education curriculum and the text books
(area-specific approach)
c. Emphasis on child-centered approach.
d. Emphasis on activity-based approach to teaching-learning process.
e. Shift of emphasis from teaching to learning
f. Joyful learning.
g. Multi-grade teaching.
h. Provision of infrastructure facilities in primary schools.
i. Community participation in education.
j. Care of special groups of children - disadvantaged, disabled, girls, and first
generation learners.
k. Preparation and utilization of low-cost and no-cost aids in teaching and learning.
l. Continuous and comprehensive evaluation in the context of MLL.
m. Enlisting parental cooperation and community mobilization in the education of
the child.
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The DPEP is ultimately meant to lead to greater achievement among all children
in the age-group of 6-14. This means that children should find it worth coming to
school and worth staying in the school long enough. This can happen only if the school
becomes an attractive place where:
a. The education offered is able to cater to children’s needs.
b. Effective and feasible teaching practices are available.
c. They have good materials to learn from.
d. They have competent and motivated teachers.
e. Their learning is constantly monitored and supported.
f. Their teachers are supported in aspects they need help, with.
A National Elementary Education Mission (NEEM) is being set up in the country.

The chief objective of NEEM would be to expedite, resolve and take concerted action
in partnership with states, local bodies such as Panchayat Samiti and Village Education
Committee (VEC), teachers and NGOs. In addition to this, a number of submissions
would be established to deal with critical aspects of elementary education.
Measures taken by the Ministry of Education for Universalization of Primary

Education:
1. Special Central assistance to backward states for their progress of non-formal
education for primary school children. The total central sector outlay for this
scheme was Rs. 25 crores for 1980-85. Under this scheme financial assistance
was extended to voluntary agencies in the nine educationally backward states
for running non-formal education centers.
2. A modest programme for early childhood education was envisaged in the sixth
plan by way of broad-basing universalization of elementary education, including
training of teachers needed for the programme.
3. A 20 - year programme (1980-2000) has been initiated under IYDP for disabled
children. The main plan of the educational programmes for the disabled is to
integrate education in schools along with normal children.
4. Under central initiative, a few innovative projects have been in operation to
improve the school curriculum. These programmes are being assisted by
UNICEF. For the period of 1981- 83, a Master Plan of Operation (MPO) was
drawn up as follows:
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Nutrition, Health Education and Environmental Sanitation: Launched as a pilot
project in 1976, this project has been implemented till 1980 through 5 regional centers
at Coimbatore, Jabalpur, Baroda, Calcutta and Ludhiana. The curricular materials
developed were tried in 2308 primary schools involving training of 7091 primary teacher
educators and supervisors.
Primary Education Curriculum Renewal: Implemented since 1975 in 15 states in 30
primary schools in each state. This project aims at a qualitative improvement of the
curriculum. During the MPO period, this project was extended to another 100 schools
in the existing 15 states/union territories.
Development Activities in Community Education: The project was initiated in 1976.
Till 1980, the experimental phase was in operation in 30 centers, at 2 per state. The
project aimed at developing non-formal educational programmes for various target
groups, particularly for out-of-school children and adults.
Comprehensive Access of Primary Education (CAPE): This was taken up for
implementation in 29 out of 31 states/union territories with a view to decentralizing
the curriculum according to the needs and life situations of out-of-school children. The
learning materials developed will be utilized in the network of non-formal learning
centers. More than 3500 teacher educators and 550 education officers in the participating
states have been trained by NCERT, SCERT, etc.,
Children’s Media Laboratory - Early Childhood Project: This project aims at
developing new capacity for the training of pre-school educators, extension of reach
and developing activities and development of model, pre-school centers, play materials
and audio-visual materials for pre-school children have been devised.
Non- formal Education Programme for Women: This project aimed at introducing a
substantial component of maternity and child care training in the programme of Adult
Education. An important feature will be to link child care centers with adult education
centers so that women can attend adult education classes simultaneously leaving their
children to the child care centers.
Schemes Implemented:
Operation Black Board (OBB): This is a scheme to bring improvement in impediments
and for increasing the quality of primary education. It was started in the year 1987 - 88
by the central government. Following are the provisions of this scheme:
1. Facility of lavatory for boys and girls and with a verandah at least two big halls
suitable for all weathers:
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2. Atleast two teachers in every school out of them one should be a lady as far as
possible.
3. There should be arrangement of necessary teaching materials with blackboard,
maps, charts, toys and instruments of working experiences.
In the period of years 1987 - 88 to 1992 - 93 this scheme was implemented in
91.5% blocks of the country in which 91 % primary schools are included. In connection
with facilities of schools with the aim of making the revised Policy and POA of 1992
active under the operation blackboard during 8th plan, the following three sub schemes
have been included:
1. In the 7th Plan, the OBB to be continued for including the rest of the schools
which fixed in the above plan.
2. To make available three teachers and three classrooms in the primary schools
where the enrolment in above 100.
3. To extend the area of the OBB in the upper primary schools.
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)

The Government of India launched a massive programme to bail out primary
education and ensure its universalisation by 2000 namely, District Primary Education
Programme (DPEP), which seeks to develop and implement in the selected districts,
“a replicable, sustainable and cost-effective programme” to-
1. Reduce difference in the enrolment, dropout and learning achievement among
gender and social groups to less than 5%,
2. Reduce overall primary dropout rates for all students to less than 10%,
3. Increase average primary learning achievement by 25% over measured base
line levels,
4. Provide, according to national norms, access for all children to primary education
in formal primary schools wherever possible, or its equivalent non-formal
education.
Activities undertaken under this programme include:

1. Micro-planning and school mapping.
2. Expansion of school facilities.
3. Improvement in the existing levels of equipments and teaching-learning aids.
4. Streamlining the production and distribution of text-books.
5. Development of school libraries.
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6. 1nprovement in the current MLL and upgrading it to reach the prescribed norms
with a specific time -frame.
7. Recruitment, training and induction of teachers wherever necessary to meet the
existing shortfall with special emphasis on rural areas and recruitment of women
teachers.
8. Provision of free text-books for the focus group of the disadvantaged.
Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL)

This is a programme, which was prepared to enforce minimum learning levels for
bringing about improvement in the receptibility of studies in the schools. For
implementing this programme, the central government has provided cent-percent aid.
Two thousand primary schools, ten thousand teachers and 3.86 lakhs of students were
included in this programme. To enrich the teaching atmosphere of the class, the teachers
have been provided with hand-books on the three subjects of language, mathematics
and environment studies, work books and evaluation materials have been prepared for
the students. State Council for Education, Research and Training(SCERT) and District
Institute of Education and Training (DIET) have been included in the programme by
imparting essential training to the members of Education Institutions in many states
including Karnataka.
Navodaya Vidyalaya:
It is universally accepted that the children of special talent should be given
opportunity for fast progress. With this viewpoint, arrangements have been made under
the NPE that in the different parts of the country on definite bases such schools should
be established so that the proper opportunity may be available for new researches and
experiments. With this objective, the Government of India decided under a plan that at
least one such residential school with co-education should be established in each district.
Such a school has been given name as “Navodaya Vidyalaya”. The following are the
main objectives of Navodaya Vidyalaya -
1. Irrespective of the family, social and economic distinction of the talented children,
for their all round development, the best and modern education is to be made
available for them with ultra-modern technical facilities.
2. Proper Knowledge in three languages according to the “Tri-Language Formula”.
3. On the basis of experiences and facilities to work as a centre for the improvement
of education.
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For running Navodaya Vidyalayas, “Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti” was established
which is an autonomous body under the Ministry of H R D. This was registered dated
February 28, 1985 in the form of a “Samiti”. It is affiliated with the Central Board of
Secondary Education (CBSE). With the objective of making available modern education
of good standard for the talented and sharp students of rural areas, the Government of
India commenced a plan to establish one Navodaya Vidyalaya in each district as an
average in 1985-86.
Admission in Navodaya Vidyalayas starts from class VI. Keeping this fact in mind
that most of the students who want to seek admission in these schools, they have acquired
their previous education through mother tongue/regional language. They are imparted
education through the same medium upto VI or VIII class and in this way, during this
period, they are made to study Hindi and English languages deeply as subjects and co-
media. After this, Hindi or English becomes general medium. Till this stage 30% of
them are transferred from one Navodaya Vidyalaya to another in different language
regions. Mainly this transfer will be between Hindi and non-Hindi districts.
National Open Schools:

They provide alternative education to lakhs of people who are unable to join formal
schools. Rural people, poor people of towns, women, S.C. and S.T., workers, adults
and the people who have left the schools in the mid-way for various reasons. Recently,
national open school has started several vocational courses. In the present time, there
is enrolment of more than 2.5 lakhs of students in the National Open School from all
the Union Territories and the states. At present, there are 346 recognized study centers
of National Open School in entire country in which 40 centers are of vocational education.
Central Schools: The central government implemented the plan of opening central
schools on the recommendation of Second Pay Commission. There are more than
1000central schools at this time in the country in which more than 10 lakhs of students
are getting education.
In these schools free education is imparted upto 8th class and the fees of classes 9,
10 and I I’ is fixed according to the pay of the parents of the student. These schools
have been opened for those officials whose posts are inter-state transferable. These
schools are conducted by an autonomous body namely “Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan”.
The students of these schools appear in the All India Higher Secondary Examination of
Central Board of Secondary Education(CBSE). The main objective of these schools is
to maintain the level of education on low cost.
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Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
Many efforts have been made in the last four decades for the Universalisation of
Elementary Education and to fulfill the mandate of the Indian constitution. The NPE
1986 and 1992 also gave top priority to the achievement of UEE. Many projects and
programmes at the micro and macro levels have been undertaken in the past in this
direction. Experiences have shown that with all the past interventions, there has been
considerable progress in providing access to primary education, increasing in enrolment
and retention, improvement in school attendance and generation of strong demand for
education, specially for girls. However, pupils achievement has been low and there
have been inter-state and inter-district disparities in pupils’ attendance and achievement
level.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is an attempt to provide human capabilities to all
children through provision of community owned quality education in a mission mode,
therefore, SSA focuses on the following:
1. A programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary education.
2. A response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
3. An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
4. An effort at effectively involving the Panchayat Raj Institutions, School
Management Committees, Village and Urban Slum Level Education Committees,
Parents-Teachers Associations, Mother-Teacher Associations, Tribal
Autonomous Councils and other grass roots level structures in the management
of elementary schools.
5. An expression of political will for universal elementary education across the
country.
6. A partnership between the central, state and local government.
7. An opportunity for states to develop their own vision of elementary
education.
Aims and Objectives of SSA

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is to provide useful and relevant elementary
education for all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. There is also another
goal to bridge social, regional and gender gaps, with the active participation of
the community in the management of schools. Following are the main objectives
of SSA:
1. All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School, ‘Back-
to-School’ camp by 2003.
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2. All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
3. All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
4. Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education
for life.
5. Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at
elementary education level by 2010.
6. Universal retention by 2010.
Basic Features of SSA

1. Institutional reforms in state.
2. Sustainable financing in partnership with states (IX plan 85 : 15, X plan 75: 25,
After X plan 50 : 50).
3. Community ownership of school based interventions through effective
decentralization.
4. Institutional capacity building for improvement in quality.
5. Community based monitoring with full transparency in all aspects of
implementations.
6. Community based approach to planning with each village as a unit of planning.
7. A mainstreaming gender approach.
8. Focus on the educational participation of children from the SC/ST religious
and linguistic minorities, etc.
9. Thrust on quality and making education relevant.
10. Recognition of critical role of teacher and focus on the human resource
development needs of teachers.
11. Preparation of District Elementary Education Plans reflecting all governmental
and non-governmental investments.
Major Areas of Interventions

Following are the key areas of interventions under SSA:
Quality Improvement.
Special Focus Group.
Education of out-of-school children (Educational Guarantee Scheme and Alternative
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& Innovative Education).
Research and Evaluation.
Management Structure and Institutional Capacity Building.
Community Mobilization.
Civil Works.
Monitoring and Management Information System (MIS).
Finance and Procurement.
(TLC) Total Literacy Campaign

This programme was implemented under the NAEP as ‘Centre-based’ approach
has been now shifted to ‘Mass Approach’. The main characteristics of the Mass Approach
are as follows:
a. Literacy as a means of Empowerment and Development.
b. The well defined goals are area specific, time-bound and total coverage for a
given age group.
c. The TLC is a volunteer-based approach under the Zilla Saksharata Samities
(ZSS), participation of all sections of the society including NGO will be ensured.
d. Environment building and mass mobilization are important components for the
success of TLC. For this purpose, organization of Jathas, folk and electronic
media, person to person contact and conventions and pledges are essential.
e. Improved pedagogy with emphasis on learning outcomes be used.
f. It is a cost effective programme.
g. Stress was given on Post-Literacy (PL) and Continuing Education (CE).
The implementations of TLCs are going on throughout the country, following
the above characteristics of TLC. In the TLC, the duration of the functional literacy
programme is 200 hours spread over 5-6 months. Functional literacy implies:
a. Achieving self-reliance in literacy and numeracy.
b. Becoming aware of the causes of their deprivation and moving towards
improvement of their condition through organization and participation in the
process of development.
c. Acquiring skills to improve the economic status and general wellbeing.
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d. Imbibing the values of national integration, conservation of the environment,
women’s equality, observance of small family norms, etc.
Under the TLC, the endeavour is to provide education to all children and adults
who have been denied the opportunity. Special focus is on women and girls and SC/ST.
The objective is to achieve 80-85% literacy in each target or focus group. The TLC is
based on the assumption that there would be active involvement of the community,
students, youths, elders, women activists, voluntary workers and the people who are
expected to benefit from the literacy campaign.

A Choose appropriate answer:
1. Induction of MLL is to ensure,
a) Universal retention b) Universal achievement
c) Universal enrolment d) Universal success
2. Reorienting the curriculum to the needs, problems and aspirations of the community
is a strategy for:
a) Education for disadvantaged groups b) Education for the disabled groups c)
Adult literacy d) Quality education
3. Programme for Early Childhood Education (ECE) was envisaged in,
a) 5th plan b) 6th plan c) 7th plan d) 8th plan
4. C A P E means,
a. Central Administration for Primary Education
b. Children Accessibility for Primary Education
c. Comprehensive Access to Primary Education
d. None of the above
B. Answer the following briefly:

1. Enlist the measures taken by the Ministry of education for UEE.
2. Mention the strategies of UEE regarding:
a. Girls b. Adult Literacy
c. Disabled groups d. Quality education
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3. Write Short Notes on:
a. MLL b. SSA c. TLC
25.7 Let Us Sum-Up

Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE): Means making education available
to all children in the age group of 6 to 14 and in classes Ito VIII. It has 5 stages:
1. Universal Provision,
2. Universal Enrolment,
3. Universal Retention,
4. Universal Participation, and
5. Universal Achievement.
Universalisation of elementary education denotes two processes namely,
1 .Access 2. Success.
UEE is important for the following reasons:

● Eradication of Poverty,
● Fostering economic progress,
● Managing the growth of population and
● Creating a clean and healthy environment.
The problems which caused failure are of various types such as:
● Social Problems.
● Economic Problems.
● Educational Problems.
● Geographical Problems.
● Administrative Problems.
● Political Problems.
Strategies for UEE:

1. Giving top priority to primary education of an acceptable quality.
2. Ensuring the efficient and effective use of existing infrastructure and schools.
Expansion of non-formal system for out-of-school children.
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3. Mobilization of community, involvement of parents, NGO and voluntary agencies
for the cause of elementary education.
4. Decentralisation of educational planning for elementary education - block
planning and district planning in place of state planning to ensure universal
success and universal participation.
5. Introduction of MLL to ensure universal achievement.
6. Accountability of primary schools and teachers to the community for success/
failure of elementary education.
Several schemes are:

1. Primary Education Curriculum Renewal (PECR). Operation Black Board (OBB).
2. Project Mass Orientation of School Teachers (PMOST) survey on Educational
Backwardness of Girls.
3. Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Integrated. Education for Disabled Children
(EDC). Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC).
Some of the Projects / Programmes are:

(i) Operation Black Board (OBB)
(ii) District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
(iii) Wastage and Stagnation
(iv) Sarva Shikshana Abhiyana (SSA)
(v) Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL)
(vi) Navodaya Vidyalayas

(A) 1- c 2-a 3-b 4-c 5-b 6-e
1. (a) Universal Provision (b) Universal Enrolment

(c) Universal Retention (d) Universal Participation
(e) Universal Achievement
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3. See Page 25.3
2. See Page 25.3
4. Any four reasons from page 25.3 have to be written
‘Check Your Progress’ - 2 (A) 1-d

(B) 1-d, 2-f, 3-a, 4-b, 5-c, 6-e
‘Check Your Progress’ - 3 (A) 1-b, 2-a, 3-c, 4-c

1. Explain briefly the concept of universalisation of education.
2. What is the importance of universalisation of education?
3. State the aims of universalisation of education
4. What are the measures taken by Centre and State with regard to universalisation
of education?
5. What are the problems involved in universalisation of education?
6. What are the causes for not achieving universalisation of education even after
50years of independence?
7. Write short notes on.
a. Operation Black Board (OBB)
b. District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
c. Wastage and Stagnation
d. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyana (SSA)
e. Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL)
f. Navodaya Vidyalayas
g. National open schools
h. Central Schools/ Kendriya Vidyalayas.
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25.10 References
1. Dash. B .N : Principles of Education, Nilkamal Publications, New Delhi, 2001.
2. Dash. M : Education in India Problems and Perspectives, Atlantic Publishers
and Distributors, New Delhi, 2000.
3. Khanna S. D : Education in the Emerging Indian Society and the Teacher, Doaba
House Booksellers & Publishers, Delhi, 1985.
4. Nanda S. K. : Indian Education and Its Problems Today, Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana, 2000.
5. Sharma Ramnath : Problems of Education in India, Sharma. K. Rajendra Atlantic
Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 2000.
6. Sukhia. S. P. : Educational Administration, Organisation & Health Education,
Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra.
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UNIT - 26 ❐ EDUCATION OF THE DIS-
ADVANTAGED GROUPS
Structure
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Objectives
26.3 Education of Physically and Mentally Challenged
26.4 Education of SC/ST
26.5 Education of Women
26.6 Education of Minority and other Backward Groups
26.7 Let Us Sum Up
26.10 References
26.1 Introduction
From a sociological point of view, one of the important objectives of education is
to provide equal opportunities for all the sections of society - backward, linguistic and
religious minority, handicapped, under privileged, economically poor, weaker section
and all other disadvantage to enable them to get educated, participate and contribute to
build an egalitarian human society - a society in which democracy, secularism, equality
and social justice be the norms. All efforts should be made to provide equal educational
and employment opportunities to all the weaker sections of the society, especially SC,ST,
backward communities and women.
In this regard, all kinds of related efforts have been made both by the State and
Central Governments to bring in ‘equality’ among the various classes of society in
terms of education, economic development and social status by way of ‘equality of
educational and employment opportunities’. Many policies were formulated to
implement the recommendations of various committees and commissions. Education
is the right of every individual of this country and hence, it has been universalized i.e.,
it is made to be obtained by all (Education For All - EFA). Thus it has become the
constitutional duty (Article 28, 29,30,45,46, etc.) of the state to endeavour to provide
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equal educational opportunities to all the sections of society, irrespective of any social
or economic considerations.
In this regard, one has to understand what are the constitutional provisions for
‘equality of educational opportunities what educational provisions are made for various
sections of society, what are the recommendations of various committees and
commissions in this regard and what is the Programme Of Action (POA) by the
government to implement the same. This forms the thrust area of this unit.
26.2 Objectives
After studying this Unit you will be able to,
¾ Define “disadvantaged groups”.
¾ State the constitutional provisions related to education for disadvantaged groups.
¾ Explain the educational provisions for physically / mentally challenged children.
¾ State the recommendations of various committees and commissions for education
of various disadvantaged groups.
¾ Explain the educational provisions for SC/ST students.
¾ Discuss the importance of education of women and related educational
provisions.
¾ Explain the educational provisions for minority groups.
26.3 Education of the Physically and Mentally Challenged

In our schemes of child welfare, attention is being paid to the needs of handicapped
children too. These children can be classified on two bases, viz., casual and
symptomatically. While the first classification is done by referring to the personal or
subjective handicaps which prevent the child from attaining normal adjustment, the
second classification is based upon the abnormal or awkward behaviour, which may be
a symptom of some handicap deterring the individual from acquiring normal adjustment.
Casual Classification - The handicapped children, according to the first classification,

are of three categories: (1) Physically challenged, (2) Mentally challenged, and (3)
Socially challenged.
The physically challenged can be divided into three groups, viz., the visually
impaired, the hearing impaired and the orthopedically impaired. On the basis of the
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intellectual capacity of the mentally challenged, they are classified as under:
1. Profoundly challenged - has an I.Q., below 20 or 25 (varying on different test
scales) and a mental age below 4 years.
2. Severely challenged - has an I.Q., of 20 or 25 to 35 or 40 (varying according to
different test scales) and a mental age of 4 or 6 years.
3. Moderately challenged - fails in the I.Q., range of 35 or 40 or 50 or 55 (differing
on different scales) and the mental age range of about 6 to 8 years.
4. Mildly challenged - has an I.Q., ranging between 50 to 55 and 65 to 70 (according
to different test scales) and a mental age of about 8 to 12 years. They can learn
academic skills approximately upto VIII grade level under special education
programmes. Such individuals are termed as ‘educably- challenged ‘. They can
also be benefited by vocational training.
5. Borderline cases - fall under the I.Q., range of about 70 to 90. They are ‘slow-
learners’. All their psychomotor developments are approximately normal and
they can reach upto the lower classes of the university.
Symptomatic Classification - A human child is born with a number of physical,

physiological and social needs. This can be illustrated by our needs for food, physical
comforts, social recognition, affection and security. There are a number of subtle
handicaps, which however, come in the way of satisfying these fundamental needs.
Three symptoms in behaviour are usually accepted as indications of this type of
abnormal condition. These are: (1) delinquency, (2) neurotic tendencies leading to mental
disorder, and (3) general backwardness in school attainments. These three symptoms
are, however, often intermixed and are to be treated simultaneously.
Educational programmes for the handicapped

Aim -The main objectives in the education of the handicapped are to reduce the intensity
of the hurdle, and to lead the child to learn according to his own abilities so as to help
him overcome frustration and to develop in him a healthy, self-respecting independent
individuality. Every handicapped child is a separate entity and deserves to be treated
on his own merit.
Diagnosis - The most important problem in the education of the handicapped especially
classified under symptomatical approach, is the discovery of the handicapped child at
an early stage through proper medical examination, guidance and counseling. Each
individual case requires a thorough investigation. This work can be properly done in
child guidance and mental hygiene clinics.
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Educational Institutions - After the medical diagnosis and educability of the child are
determined, there rises the question of giving him suitable training. There are three
alternative plans : (1) to keep the child under a specialist or in a clinic or a mental
hospital; (2) to place the child in a regular classroom with a modified curriculum; and
(3) to transfer the child to a special school or institution. The special institutions are of
the following types: (1) schools for the blind, (2) schools for the deaf and mute, (3)
centers for the crippled, (4) schools for the mentally defective, (5) orphanages, (6)
institutions for delinquents, and (7) clinics and guidance centers.
Present facilities in Indian administrative set up - The responsibility for implementing

welfare schemes is being shared between the central and state governments. The
responsibility of center rests with the ministry of welfare, and its activities are
carried out through five bureaus. They are - handicapped welfare, social defence
administration and minorities, tribal development, and scheduled castes and backward
classes.
In our country, there are more than 5000 special schools for blind and deaf children,
and for the mentally challenged. A majority of them are run by voluntary organizations.
It is estimated that there are five million disabled children who need special care, viz.,
improvement of health service, nutrition standards, mother care and effective measures
to prevent disability.
There cannot be one model for special education programme. One can, however,
suggest a few alternatives. These models are: (1) hospital model, (2) full-time residential
or day school, (3) home - bound model with peripatetic teaching, (4) part-time special
schools or part-time classes in regular school, (5) regular school class plus resource
room help, and the like.
The NPE suggests the following incentives for special schools:
(1) Provision of aids and appliances.
(2) Transportation allowance.
(3) Cost of a rickshaw in rural schools with a minimum strength of ten handicapped
children.
(4) Supply of text books and uniforms free of cost etc.
Training of Teachers
(a) Pre-service Education: Under the PIED (UNICEF) aided project integrated education
for disabled, one year multi - category training in different disability for primary teachers
has been introduced. For secondary teachers, a special education course for the
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handicapped in the B.Ed. or M.Ed. course is introduced. In addition, a year’s course
leading to post-graduate diploma in this special field has been offered.
(b) In-service education: The NPE has suggested adequate training for at least three
persons at SCERT, three at DIET level, and at least one at block and sub-divisional
levels. It holds that the ministry of H.R.D. through its agencies like the NCERT, National
Institute of Education Planning and Administration (NIEPA) and Regional Institutes
of Education (RIE) may undertake the task of training through the SCERTs.
(c) In addition to the above suggestions, short time programmes can be introduced for
primary and secondary teaching. Instructional/ non-instructional courses can be tried
in areas like human relations, communication, and behaviour necessary to run parental
programmes dealing with learning disabilities. The parents should be motivated in the
integrated education programmes and planning meetings for educating their children.
Major Problems - The education of the handicapped faces a number of problems. Some
of them are:
(1) Preparation of careful statistics of under privileged groups.
(2) Provision of better institutions.
(3) A rural bias in curriculum.
(4) Need for trained personnel, and
(5) Administrative weaknesses.
The tendency of withdrawing handicapped children from normal schools has
to be abandoned. Society must be ready to accept them as its integral part. Such children
should be given opportunity to interact with normal children, which is very necessary
for the comprehension of the mentally handicapped. These unfortunate children should
not be looked upon with pity. They need social acceptance.

A. Match the Following:
Type of Mentally Challenged I.Q
1. Profoundly Challenged a) 70-80
2. Moderately Challenged b) 35-40
3. Mildly Challenged c) 20-25
4. Border-line cases d) 65-70
5. Severely Challenged e) 50-55
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B. Answer the Following:
1. List out the possible plans of education programmes for handicapped children.
2. Mention the problems involved in the education of handicapped children.
26.4 Education of SC/ST

Generally, it is observed that people of minority community belong to the weaker
section of the society. The weaker sections of the society include scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes, de-notified tribes, nomadic tribes and other backward classes of the
minority community. The ‘scheduled castes’(SCs) refer to all those classes as
untouchable, traditionally regarded by Hindu caste people. The ‘Scheduled Tribes’(STs)
refer to aboriginal and lull tribes of India. De-notified tribes are those who were
designated as ‘criminal tribes’ before independence. The ‘nomadic tribes’ are those
who have no permanent home and who move from one area to another in search of
food or employment. The term ‘weaker sections’ or ‘backward classes’ is used for
those groups of miscellaneous castes, which are economically poor and socially and
culturally backward.
In our country, the minority community is formed on the basis of religion, caste
and language. The state government may identify other groups, which are educationally
backward at the state level. For a very long time in the past, the tribes were totally
neglected by the education department of the government. Most of the tribes lived in
remote, inaccessible and forest areas. There was the difficulty of understanding their
dialects. None of their dialects has a script and no educated tribals were available to
teach them. Thus, at the time of independence, they were in a very bad state of minorities
groups. There are five minority communities in our country. They are Muslims, scheduled
castes, scheduled tribes, urban slum people, and linguistic minorities.
Constitutional Provisions regarding Education of Scheduled Castes and Tribes.

Article 15: “Nothing in this article or in clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the state
from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally
backward class of citizens or for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.”
Article 15(Clause 2): The state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds
only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, or any of them.
However, the state can make special provisions for the advancement of women,
children, SC and ST. Articles 14 and 15 have indirect implications for education. Every
citizen should enjoy equality before law so far as his education is concerned. Admission
should not be denied to any student in any educational institution run by the state
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government simply on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, or any of
them.
Article 15(3): “Nothing in this article shall prevent the state from making any special
provision for women and children.”
Article 46: “The state shall promote with special care the educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the SC and ST, and
shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. Inspite of this
provision and after 55 years of independence we have not yet been able to educate all
SC/ST children improve their economic conditions.
Clause 17: Untouchability has been declared as a social crime. The people practicing it
may be prosecuted.
Clause 29: Equal right to admission of SC and ST students in all schools and colleges
maintained by public funds.
Clause 16 and 335: Reservations for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in all public
services. Commissions and Committees for Education of SC and ST students
The Dhebar Commission (1960 - 61)

The Government appointed a commission under the chairmanship of Dhebar in
1960 - 61 for finding out the condition and problems of the SC/ST people. The
commission observed that adequate arrangements have not yet been made for the
education of SC/ST.
Recommendations
The Commission made the following recommendations for the expansion of primary
education:
1. The children of SC/ST should be trained in some handicraft or practical skills.
2. The teacher appointed to teach SC/ST children should be given special
allowances and residential facilities.
3. Children in schools for SC/ST should be given food, clothing, books and
stationeries free.
4. Teachers appointed for teaching SC/ST children should be trained in training
colleges established in their area in order that during the training period they
may get acquainted with the life style of the SC/ST.
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5. Teachers appointed to teach SC/ST children should be fully conversant with
their culture.
6. Primary education for SC/ST children should be given through their mother
tongue. Suitable books should be published for this purpose in mother- tongue.
The Kothari Commission, 1964 - 66

In addition to the recommendations of the Dhebar commission the Kothari
commission has given welcoming suggestions for various levels of education of SC/
ST children.
1. Primary Education: Primary education for SC/ST children should be better organized.
More schools should be opened in the densely populated areas of SC/ST people.
2. Secondary Education: More secondary schools should be opened with facilities for
hostels and stipends.
3. Higher Education: More scholarships should be instituted for higher education.
Those engaged in the service for SC/ST people should be assigned a separate cadre. In
the beginning, Non-SC/ST people may be appointed in this cadre, but later on suitable
people from the SC/ST groups alone should be appointed in this cadre.
Programmes for SC/ST people

The following three types of programmes have been organized by the government for
the SC/ST people:
1. The work directly done by the central government.
2. The work done under the supervision of the central government.
3. The work clone by the various states in the country.
The work directly done by the Central Government:

The central government grants reservation in government services in favour of SC/ST
people. But many reserved posts are not filled-in by the SC/ST people, because suitable
hands from them are not available. For improving this situation, the government has
opened coaching - cum - guidance centers at Channi, Jabalpur and Kanpur in order to
transmit information regarding employment opportunities and also to impart training
to SC/ST people for specific jobs. Since 1953 many scholarships have been instituted
for sending people of SC/ST groups to foreign countries for obtaining education. 17.5
% of seats in educational institutions have been reserved for SC/ST people. Some seats
have been reserved for them in medical and engineering colleges also.
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The work done under the supervision of the Central Government:
a. After passing high school examination the SC/ST students are granted
scholarships for continuing further education. These days, about three lakh
scholarships are awarded to students of SC and about a lakh scholarship to the
ST classes.
b. There are more than 25 centers all over the country for coaching people for SC/
ST classes for I.A.S and I.P.S. services.
c. The central government gives grants to the various state governments for
instituting scholarships for SC/ST students.
d. More than twenty five centers have been established throughout the country for
doing research on SC/ST people.
e. A central research advisory council has been established for correlating the
activities of these research centers spread all over the country.
f. The central government gives various kinds of financial assistance for
rehabilitation and education of SC/ST people. Through this assistance provisions
have been made for meals, hostels, residential schools, examination fees,
scholarships and tuition fees.
The work done by the various states:

The financial assistance received from the central government by the various state
governments are treated as loans and block grants. Through this assistance the state
government runs the following types of programmes for SC/ST people:
a. Opening Ashram schools.
b. Organizing teaching materials.
c. Establishing schools and hostels.
d. Stipends for primary and higher education.
e. Mid - day meals.
f. Exemption from tuition and examination fees.
Measures after Independence

In the National Adult Education Programme, launched in October 1978, with great
expectation, it was categorically stated by the central govt. that women and SC/ST
people would be given top priority and special treatment.
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Strategies in the Programme of Action
The POA-NPE has suggested the following operational strategies with respect to SC/
ST education.
a. Contact micro-planning and verification will be done to ensure that enrolment,
retention and successful completion courses by SC/ST students do not fall at
any stage.
b. Recruitment of teachers from SC/ST category.
c. Provision of hostel facilities for SC/ST students at district headquarters.
d. Location of hostel buildings and school buildings, balwadis and adult education
centers in SC/ST extensions.
e. Content and orientation of the curriculum in respect of SC/ST.
f. Measures will be further strengthened to ensure that incentives in the form of
scholarships, uniforms, books, etc., reach the backward groups.
On the other hand, a number of centrally sponsored schemes are being continued
in the 8th Five year plan (1992 - 97) for SCs, STs and other backward sections. These
are:
a. Post - metric scholarships
b. Grant-in-aid to voluntary organizations
c. Pre-metric scholarships for children of those engaged in un-clean occupation.
d. Books banks
e. Boys’ and girls’ hostels, and
f. Coaching and allied schemes.
In addition to these, two schemes in the central sector have also been approved, viz.,
a. Special educational development programme for girls belonging to SCs of very
low literacy levels, and
b. Educational complex in low literacy pockets for development of women’s literacy
in tribal areas.
These programmes are in addition to the special thrust given to the weaker sections
in the general programmes for educational development like opening of schools, running
of Non Formal Education (NFE) Centers and Adult Education Centers, Operation
Blackboard, upgradation of merit of SC/ST students, reservation in educational
institutions, etc.
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Elementary Education
Taking into account the experience gained in the implementation of NPE, 1986
and POA, the following strategies are proposed:
Access and Enrolment: In order to ensure universal access and enrolment of SC children
in rural areas, henceforth, in opening primary and upper primary schools, priority would
be given to the needs of SC habitations and hamlets. As far as possible, pre - primary
sections will be an integral part of such schools.
Every ST habitation will be provided with a primary school or other suitable
institution before the end of the 8th five year plan in order to ensure universal enrolment
and participation.
In tribal areas educational plan will be implemented in an integrated manner. Pre-
school education (through Balwadis), Non Formal Education, elementary education
and adult education will be organically linked and integrated to ensure achievement of
total literacy of the entire population. This integrated educational complex will be
responsible for total education within its area serving all children in the age group 3 -
14 and adults in the age-group 15 and above.
For SC children access and enrolment will be assured primarily in the formal
school. Where SC children are not able to attend the formal school provision for non
formal and distance education centers will be established to ensure universal access
and enrolment. It will be the responsibility of the teachers to organize enrolment drives
at the beginning of every academic session on all school-age children specially girls
belonging to SCs, STs and other backward sections. For this purpose active assistance
of voluntary agencies and local communities shall be taken. Traditional and folk media
can be very effective in reaching parents and children in remote areas to motivate
them.
Participation:
Adequate incentives have been provided for the children of SC, ST and other
backward sections in the form of scholarships, uniforms, textbooks, stationery and
mid - day meals. All schools, NFE centers and pre-school centers in SC/ST habitations
are equipped with necessary and essential infra-structural facilities in accordance with
the norms laid down for Operation Blackboard and for achieving Minimum Levels of
Learning (MLL). Operation Blackboard shall cover within a period of two years all
schools in tribal areas and Harijan Bastis irrespective of the date on which the school
was set up. The indigent families among SC/ST will be given incentives to send their
children, particularly girls, to schools.
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Achievement:
Children from tribal communities have been taught through mother tongue in the
earlier stages in primary school. Teaching/learning material in the tribal languages is
prepared providing for a transition to the regional language by class III.
The home language of children of SC/ST may be different from others. Therefore,
standard teaching/learning material is re-written to make them intelligible to the SC/
ST children especially in areas where the standard language and the learners’ dialect
are different.
It will be ensured that MLL already set-up for primary schools will be achieved,
that the necessary standards of three R’s (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic) are acquired
by all children in SC/ST communities. Effective methodologies for measurement of
MLL are implemented.
Adult education:
Adult education programmes are an integral part of educational micro-planning in
all tribal areas. Under the total literacy campaign, SC and ST populations have been
the major focus for achieving total literacy. Special attention has been paid to adult
illiterate women. Adult education programmes for SCs/STs are essentially the
programmes of empowerment. Special and relevant curricular and materials are prepared
for this purpose as a crash programme. Post - literacy centers have been set up in SC/
ST areas where literacy campaigns are carried out in order to provide facilities for
continued literacy for adult neo-literates, especially women.
Incentives
Under the scheme of pre-metric and post-metric scholarships, the rates are linked
with the increase in the cost of living index. Scholarships for SC/ST students in upper
primary (middle) school and onwards are distributed through bank/post-office.
Scholarships are paid in advance on the first day of each month. Special provisions
have been made to allow minor children to operate bank accounts.
Coaching, training and remedial teaching classes are organized for students of
SC/ST and other backward sections in order to enhance the scholastic achievement of
these students. Special coaching for entrance examinations for institutions of higher
learning, particularly for professional courses are provided to SC/ST students of classes
X and XIL.
Residential facilities are provided for SC/ST students preparing for competitive
examinations. Additional scholarships are provided for SC/ST girl students in the
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secondary and senior secondary classes. Special coaching and remedial courses are
organized for SC/ST girl students.
Merit scholarship schemes covering A grade students have been implemented in
all the states. Books of proven quality including classics from Indian and foreign
languages have been abridged, adapted, translated and reproduced and made available
at subsidized rates to the children and neo-literates in SC/ST communities.
Reservations
Implementation of reservation is monitored at all levels and failure to adhere to the
same is punishable. Reservation in recruitment of teachers from SC/ST communities
has been ensured in all educational institutions. In Navodaya Vidyalayas, admission
for SCs and STs are reserved on the basis of either the national norm of 15% and 7.5%
respectively or of the percentage of SC and ST population in the district, whichever is
higher. This principle is considered for adaptation by state governments in other
educational institutions, wherever feasible, the criterion of reservation being the national
percentages of 15 and 7.5 or the state percentages of SC and ST or the district percentages
of SC and ST, whichever is higher.
Teachers and their Training

Where teachers are not available in schools located in SC/ST localities, crash
programmes for giving suitable training to eligible persons from SCs/STs have been
started. The eligible amongst them are appointed as teachers in the schools. Specified
teachers training institutions such as DIETs are identified for training of SC/ST teachers
on a large scale.
In order to encourage SC/ST students to become teachers, special courses integrating
secondary, senior secondary and professional training have been devised. This will
encourage such candidates to opt for the teaching profession from an early stage and
get adequate training as teacher. Wherever possible husband - wife teams are posted as
teachers in tribal areas. This has ensured high participation by such teachers in school
education.
Additional Measures
A chain of pace-setting institutions from primary to higher secondary have been
established in areas of SC/ST concentration for providing quality education to talented
learners as well as for upgrading the achievement levels of comparatively slow learners
in these communities.
Education in tribal areas is linked with out - door activities. Many tribal children
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excel in sports, games and other out - door activities. Such talent is identified and
nurtured. Adequate coaching is provided at early stages so that these talented sportsmen
and women can participate in sporting activities and competitions. Scholarships have
been provided for such students paying special attention to their dietary requirements.
There is a need for improvement in the standards of hostels for SC/ST students.
Special attention has been paid to the nutritional needs of the students. As far as possible
hostels are managed by teachers. Hostels for SC girls are constructed in or around the
vicinity of the school/college where the girls are enrolled and adequate security measures
are provided.
Philosophy of Dr. Ambedkar, which emphasized an untiring effort to alleviate the
educational standards of SC/ST people and an inculcation of an understanding among
teachers and students about the richness of the culture of SC/ST and of their contribution
to culture and economy has been incorporated in the school curriculum.
Monitoring
Monitoring of education in SC/ST areas has been entrusted to the local community
/ village education committee with adequate representation of SC/ST members specially
women. The local community takes the total responsibility of planning the educational
facilities in SC/ST areas.
In most of the state and at the centre the incentive programmes like scholarships,
mid-day meals, free uniforms, etc. and setting up of hostels and ashram schools for SC/
ST are being implemented by the welfare departments, while the departments of
education run programmes of setting up of schools, appointment of teachers, preparation
of text books, curriculum, etc. which cater to SC/ST students as a part of the general
programmes of education departments. In some states, educational institutions for
scheduled tribes are being run by agencies other than the education department. It is
better that these are managed by department of education.

A. Choose the appropriate alternative:
1 . De-notified tribes before independence were designated as,
a. SC b. Nomadic tribes c. Criminal tribes d. ST
2. The Constitutional Articles to safe-guard the educational and economic interests of
SC/ST people,
a. 29(l) & (2) b. 15 (1) & (2) c. 30(1) & (2) d. All these
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B. Answer the Following:
1. Mention the different types of backward classes.
2. Mention the educational programmes organized by State Governments for SC/
ST students.
3. Enlist the different strategies quoted in POA-NPE(1992) for education and
employment of SC/ST people.
26.5 Education of Women

For full development of our human resources, the improvement of homes and for
moulding the character of children during the most impressionable years of infancy,
the education of women is of greater importance than that of man.
The education of women is very essential for happy and healthy homes,
improvement of society, economic prosperity and national solidarity. There is no doubt
that women education in India is on the increase but still it is lagging far behind when
compared to other countries. Still millions of women are deprived of these basic rights.
Still there is a wide gap between the education of men and women in our country.
Every effort should be made to remove this gap.
Education of women is more important than that of man. Kothari education
commission has rightly asserted that “There can’t be an educated people without educated
women”. If general education had to be limited to men or to women, then opportunity
should be given to women for then it would most surely be passed on to the next
generation”
Laying stress on the need of women education, National policy on education says
“The education of women should receive emphasis not only on grounds of social justice
but also because it accelerates social transformation. So if homes are to be made happier
and healthier, if new generation is to be made cultured and educated, if social
transformation is to be brought rapidly education of women should be increased to be
the maximum.
Constitutional Provisions:
Regarding education of women the constitutional provision are 15(l) 15(3) and 16(1)
● 15(1): The state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of
religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.
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● 15(3): Nothing in this article shall prevent the state from making any special
provision for women and children.
● Article 16(1) provides equality of opportunity for all citizens, men as well as
women, in employed or appointment of any office under the state.
From this, it can be inferred that the constitution has given women absolute
equality with men.
Gandhiji used to say “if you educate a boy, you educate only one individual but
if you educate a girl, you educate the whole family.” Hence, importance of education of
women has been recognized since the achievement of independence. Accordingly,
strenuous efforts have been made in this area. There is an increasing awareness among
the women about their rights and an important challenge is establishing linkage between
the education and women’s right. Women’s rights have been strengthened from time to
time since independence.
In free India much faster progress was made, both in raising the social status of
women and developing their education. After independence the following commissions
and committees were appointed to suggest measures for the improvement of education
in general.
University Education Commission, 1948-49: University of education commission
appointed in 1948- 49 under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishan recommended
for the improvement of Women’s Education at higher education level. Dr. Radhakrishan
very emphatically remarked, “Women are human beings and have as much right to full
development as men have. The position of the women in any society is a true index of
its cultural and spiritual level.”
National Committee on Women Education, 1958 - 59: The national committee on
women education was constituted by the ministry of education in 1958 - 59 under the
chairmanship of Durgabai Deshmukh to examine the problems of women education
and make recommendations.
National Council for Women Education: An important outcome of the
recommendations of this committee was the setting up of the national council for women
education in 1959 by the government of India. It was reconstituted in 1964.
Hansa Mehta Committee, 1962: Examined carefully the problems of differentiation
of curriculum between boys and girls.
Bhaktavatsalam Committee, 1963: Studied the problems of women’s Education in
six states where the education of girls was less developed.
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The Kothari Commission 1964- 66: The Indian education commission, 1964 - 66
which was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari to investigate the
problems of education in general, accepted the suggestions of National committee on
women’s education.
Women had been at the center stage of developmental planning since independence.
The programmes for women and development of women have been taken up right
from the First five year plan. The emphasis currently had shifted from the welfare of
women to women’s development, so that they are a source of strength for reaching
further national goals.
In India it is in the eighties that women’s development was recognized as one of
the development sectors by including a separate chapter “Socio-economic development
of women” in the plan document of sixth five year plan. So women’s empowerment
received fresh impetus in the 1980s, when women were recognized as a separate target
group and given their rightful place in developmental planning in this sixth plan.
The sixth plan gave more emphasis on three aspects of women viz. health, education
and employment. In the seventh plan, the focus of effort was on the following:
1. Promotion of girls’ education through appointment of women teachers.
2. Attachment of pre-school centers.
3. Provision of free uniforms and other incentives.
4. Encouragement of talented girls to pursue higher education.
5. Promotion of technical and vocational education for girls by opening women
polytechnics.
6. Boosting of education among the girls of the SC and ST and backward sector.
7. Encouraging women and girls to participate in sports and games.
The eighth plan emphasized on increased opportunities and improved conditions
of “employment and training for women”. Ninth five year plan provided access to
good primary health care for the promotion of women welfare to ensure that new primary
health care centers are established which provide basic health and family welfare services
to the rural population in general and women population in particular.
It is hereby revealed that many, committees and commissions have expressed
concern regarding slow progress of girls and women education in India since
independence from time to time. Lastly, the well known National Policy on Education,
1986 was concerned about the status and education of women in the country.
The major recommendations regarding the education of women according to the
Policy of 1986 are as under:
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“Education will be used as an agent of basic change in the status of women. In
order to neutralize the accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a well-conceived
edge in favour of women. The national education system will play a positive,
interventionist role in the empowerment of women. It will foster the development of
new values through redesigning curricula, text-books, the training and orientation of
teachers, decision-makers and administrators and the active involvement of educational
institution. This will be an act of faith and social engineering. Women’s studies will be
promoted as a part of various courses and educational institutions encouraged taking
up active programmes to further women’s development.
The removal of women’s illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their access to, and
retention in, elementary education will receive overriding priority, through provision
of special support services, setting of time targets, and effective monitoring. Major
emphasis will be laid on women’s participation in vocational, technical and professional
education at different levels. The policy of nondiscrimination will be pursued vigorously
to eliminate sex-stereo-typing in vocational and professional courses and to promote
women’s participation in non-traditional occupations, as well as in existing and emergent
technologies.”
National Policy on Education Review Committee (NPERC)1990:

NPE, 1986(NPERC), under the chairmanship of Acharya Ramamurti considered
women’s education to be a vital component of the overall strategy of securing equity
and social justice in education. This committee states that: “in order to promote
participation of the girls and women in education at all levels, there is need for an
integrated approach in designing and implementing the schemes that would address all
the factors that inhibit their education. More implementation of disaggregated schemes
such as opening of Non-formal education centers for girls, adult education centers for
women etc. by themselves are not adequate. In this context special mention may be
made of inter-action of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) with primary
education. Education of women is not to be construed as a question of mere access, but
of empowerment in them through education of all on equality of sexes.”
Programme of Action, 1992:

The valuable suggestions regarding the women’s education in the draft POA 1992,
“Education for women’s equality is a vital component of the overall strategy of securing
equity and social justice in education. What comes out clearly from the implementation
of NPE, 1986 and its POA, is the need for institutional mechanisms to ensure that
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gender sensitivity is reflected in the implementation of all educational programmes
across the board. It is being increasingly recognized that the problem of UEE is, in
essence, the problem of the girl child. It is imperative that participation of girls is
enhanced at all stages of education, particularly in streams like science, vocational,
technical and commerce education, where girls are grossly under-represented. The
education system as a whole should be re-oriented to promote women’s equality and
education.”
The committee recommended that the following measures will be taken to make
education an effective tool for women’s empowerment.
● Enhance self-esteem and self-confidence of women.
● Building of positive image of women by recognizing their contribution to the

society, policy and the economy.
● Developing ability to think critically.
● Fostering decision-making and action through collective processes.
● Enable women to make informed choice in areas like education, employment
and health.
● Ensuring equal participation in developmental processes.
● Providing information, knowledge and skill for economic independence.
● Enhancing access to legal literacy and information relating to their rights and
entitlements in society with a view to enhance their participation on an equal
footing in all areas.
The World Bank assisted technical education project involving 90 % of the approved
polytechnics in the country is currently going on. It gives thrust for women’s education
through the creation of additional jobs for women in polytechnics by establishing new
women polytechnic institutions.
It is recommended in the new education policy that education will be used as an
agent of basic change in the status of women and women’s empowerment. A component
of women’s development is being added to all the on-going programmes of the
department. For example:
Stress on women teachers while providing an additional teacher under Operation
Black Board.
Non-formal education to be treated as a programme of women’s development
by linking it with condensed courses and special training of women instructors.
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National Literacy Mission to have a special focus on women’s equality and
running of centers for women.
Women’s vocationalisation has been given special stress.
Women’s studies would continue to receive attention in higher education.
The content and processes of education are being modified to introduce the
value of women’s equality at all stages of education, in formal as well as non-formal
areas. In conclusion, we should look back at our achievements in women’s education
with a sense of pride but not with a sense of complacency. Inspite of being a developing
country, we have committed ourselves to increase our efforts in the field of women’s
education through increased allocation over the five decades, and we have achieved
significant results, but we have not been able to break the barriers between men and
women. We have grown in quantity and have also improved our quality, we have achieved
spikes of excellence in several areas, but by and large, our efforts in women’s education
in its totality needs considerable thrust upwards and a thrust which is possible through
careful planning and managing our efforts in women’s education.

1. Choose the appropriate alternative:
1. The constitutional articles for women empowerment and equality of opportunity for
men and women.
a. 1.5 & 16 b. 28 & 29 c. 30 & 16 d. 45 & 46
2.” Educating a boy is educating an individual only, but educating a girl is educating
the whole family”, this was opined by:
a. Swamy Vivekananda b. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan c. Mahatma Gandhiji d. Kothari
Commission
2. Answer the following:

a. List out the Committees and Commissions constituted regarding women education.
b. State the efforts of Government regarding women education during 7th five year
plan (1985-90).
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26.6 Education of Minority and Other Backward Groups
So far as minorities are concerned the following constitutional guarantees have
been provided which are in addition to Articles relating to Fundamental rights in part
III of the Constitution:
(i) Article 29. Protection of interests of minorities:
a. 29 (1) : Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part
thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the
right to conserve the same.
b. 29 (2): No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution
maintained by the State or receiving aid out of state funds on grounds only of
religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
(ii) Article 30. Right of Minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions.
30(1): All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the
right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
30 (1A): In making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any
property of an educational institution established and administered by minorities,
referred to in clause (1), the state shall ensure that the amount fixed by or
determined under such law for the acquisition of such property is such as would
not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed under that clause.
30 (2): The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate
against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management
of minority, whether based on religion or language.
(iii) Article 350A. Facilities for instruction in mother tongue at primary stage.
It shall be the endeavor of every state and of every local authority within the state
to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage
of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups and the president may
issue such directions to any state as he considers necessary or proper for securing the
provision of such facilities.
The implementation of the aforesaid guarantees has been uneven although the
various conferences of education ministers, Government of India Memorandum of 1956
etc., have been laying emphasis on the special treatment to linguistic minorities. Efforts
should be made to safeguard these constitutional guarantees more vigorously.
The high power panel on minorities, SC/ST and other weaker sections, appointed
by ministry of home affairs and headed by Dr. Gopal Singh has identified Muslims and
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Neo-Buddhist as educationally backward at national level. Subsequently, the government
has extended to neo-Buddhists all the benefits which are available to SCs. The state
governments may identify other groups which are educationally backward at the state
level. Special efforts need to be taken to bring the educationally backward minorities
on par with the rest of the society and to make them participate fully in the national
development activities.
The National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 states the following regarding
educations of minorities vide par 4.8 of the document: “Some minority groups are
educationally deprived or backward. Greater attention will be paid to the education of
these groups in the interest of equality and social justice. This will naturally include the
constitutional guarantees given to them to establish and administer their own educational
institutions and protection to their languages and culture. Simultaneously, objectivity
will be reflected in the preparation of text books and in all school activities and all
possible measures will be taken to promote an integration based on appreciation of
common national goals and ideals, in conformity with the core curriculum “. This has
been reiterated in the revised policy formulations.
15-point programme for the welfare of minorities

Former Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi issued a 15-point directive on welfare
of minorities to the central and state governments in May 1983. Point Nos. 11 and 12
concern education of minorities.
Point No. 11: In many areas recruitment is done through competitive examination.
Often minority groups are handicapped in taking advantage of the educational system
to compete on equal terms in such examinations. To help them overcome these handicaps,
steps should be taken to encourage the starting of coaching classes in minority educational
institutions to train people to compete successfully in these examinations.
Point No. 12: The acquisition of technical skills by those minorities who are today
lagging behind would also help in national development. Arrangements should be made
to set up ITIs and polytechnics by government or private agencies in predominantly
minority areas to encourage admission in such institutions of adequate number of people
belonging to these areas.
On-Going programmes for minorities education

1. The UGC introduced a coaching scheme in 1984 to prepare students belonging
to educationally backward minorities to enable them to compete in various
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competitive examinations for recruitment in services and for admission to
professional courses including Engineering, Medical etc.
2. Ministry of Welfare had launched during 1990-91, a scheme of pre - examination
coaching/training to prepare candidates belonging to educationally and
economically backward minority communities for various competitive
examinations/professional courses/entrance examinations through reputed
minority voluntary organizations. Many pre - examination coaching / training
centers were sanctioned till March 1991.
3. The planning commission has agreed to include a scheme of pre -examination
coaching for weaker sections based on economic criteria under the 8th Five
Year Plan. The modalities are being worked out by the Ministry of Welfare.
4. A scheme of Community polytechnics was initiated in 1978-79 with a view to
ensuring for the rural society a fair share of benefits from the investments in
technical education system. The major areas of activities of community
polytechnics are socio-economic surveys, training programmes for providing
skills to unemployed people for self/wage employment, organizing technical
services in villages etc.
5. NCERT has been organizing seminars and training programmes for principals/
teachers of minority managed schools. The programmes include seminar cum
workshop for principals and managers, and training programmes for teachers
from minority managed institutions in subject areas of English, Science,
Mathematics, Vocationalisation of education and Educational Evaluation. Such
training programmes are also being organized by the Regional Resource Centers.
Guidelines for recognition on minority managed institution

The Union Department of Education has prepared policy norms and principles for
recognition of educational institutions as minority managed institutions and these have
been circulated to State Governments for enabling them to prepare detailed guidelines
in the matter. However, the response from state governments has not been encouraging.
These guidelines need to be vigorously pursued and effectively monitored.
Review of Textbooks from the standpoint of national integration

The programme of review of text books from the point of view of providing
communal harmony, secularism and national integration is being implemented jointly
by NCERT and state governments; NCERT takes up review of text-books of state
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governments on sample basis. A steering committee has been set up at national level to
make this programme a regular feature.
In pursuance of the revised POA 1992, a new central scheme i.e., scheme of area
intensive programme for educationally backward minorities has been launched during
1993-94. The objective of this scheme is to provide basic educational infrastructure
and facilities in areas of concentration of educationally backward minorities, which do
not have adequate provision for elementary and secondary schools.
Under this scheme cent percent assistance is given for (i) establishment of new
primary and upper primary schools, non-formal education centers where such a need is
felt and is viable on the basis of a school mapping exercise; (ii) Strengthening of
educational infrastructure and physical facilities in the primary and upper primary
schools; and (iii) opening of multi-stream residential higher secondary schools for girls
where science, commerce, humanities and vocational courses are taught to the
educationally backward minorities.

1. The Constitutional Article, which provides for protection of interest of Minorities
is,
a. 29 b. 45 c. 350 A d. 46
2. The Constitutional Article 30 is for,
a. Conservation of language, script, and culture of minorities
b. Right of admission into any educational institution irrespective of caste, sex,
language, religion etc.
c. Establishment and administering of educational institutions by minorities.
d. No discriminations of any individual on the grounds of religion, caste, etc.
3. Text books were reviewed by NCERT and state governments in order to provide
for:
a. National integration b. Communal harmony c. Secularism d. All these
4. The Constitutional Article 350 A is for,
a. Hindi as the National language.
b. Mother tongue as the medium of instruction at primary level.
c. Free and compulsory education for all.
d. Reservation for women.
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B. Answer the following questions:
1. State the Constitutional Provisions which provide for education of minorities
and backward groups.
2. Enlist the on-going programmes for education for minorities.
26.7 Let Us Sum-Up

Education of the Physically and Mentally Challenged
Handicapped children are classified as casual and symptomatically.
Casual (1) Physically handicapped, (2) Mentally challenged, and (3) Socially
handicapped. The physically handicapped are the blind, the deaf and mute, and the
crippled. On the intellectual capacity, the mentally challenged are classified as:
Profoundly Challenged, Severely Challenged, Moderately Challenged, Mildly
Challenged and Borderline cases.
Symptomatic: (1) delinquency, (2) neurotic tendencies leading to mental disorder, and
(3) general backwardness in school attainments.
Educational programmes for the handicapped
Aim -Reduce the intensity of the hurdle, and to lead the child to learn according to his
own abilities so as to help him overcome frustration, and to develop in him a healthy,
self-respecting independent individuality.
Diagnosis - Discovery of the handicapped child at an early stage through proper medical
examination, guidance and counseling and a thorough investigation in child guidance
centers and mental hygiene clinics.
Educational Institutions: (1) schools for the blind, (2) schools for the deaf and mute,
(3) centers for the crippled, (4) schools for the mentally defective, (5) orphanages, (6)
institutions for delinquents, and (7) clinics and guidance centers.
Present Facilities in India
1. Administrative set up
The responsibility of Center rests with the ministry of welfare, through five bureaus.
Viz., handicapped welfare, social defence administration and minorities, tribal
development, and scheduled castes and backward classes.
a. Model for special education programme are : (1) hospital model, (2) full-time
residential or day school, (3) home - bound model with peripatetic teaching, (4) part-
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time special schools or part-time classes in regular school, (5) regular school class plus
resource room help, and the like.
b. The NPE suggests the following incentives for special schools: (1) provision of
aids and appliances (2) Transportation allowance (3) Cost of a rickshaw in rural schools
with a minimum strength of ten handicapped children (4) supply of text books and
uniforms free of cost etc.
2. Training of Teachers:
(a) Pre-service Education: ‘PIED (UNICEF) aided project integrated education for
disabled, one year multi - category training in different disability for primary teachers
has been introduced. For secondary teachers, a special education course for the
handicapped in the B.Ed. and M.Ed.
(b) In-service education: The NPE has suggested adequate training through SCERT,
and DIET at block and sub-divisional levels. NCERT, NIEPA and RIE may undertake
the task through the SCERTs.
(3) Major Problems - The education of the handicapped faces a number of problems.
Some of them are: (1) Preparation of careful statistics of under privileged groups (2)
Provision of better institutions
(3) A rural bias in curriculum (4) Need for trained personnel and (5) Administrative
weaknesses.
Education of SC/ST
The ‘scheduled castes’(SCs) refer to all those classes as untouchable, traditionally
regarded by Hindu caste people. The ‘Scheduled Tribes’(STs) refer to aboriginal and
hill tribes of India. De-notified tribes are those who were designated as ‘criminal tribes’
before independence.
The ‘nomadic tribes’ are those who have no permanent home and who move from one
area to another in search of food or employment.
Constitutional Provisions regarding Education of Scheduled Castes and Tribes: Article
15,(2),(3), Article 46, (17), Clause 29, Clause 16 and 335
Commissions and Committees for Education of SC and ST students
The Dhebar Commission 1960 - 61 and The Kothari Commission, 1964 - 66 - for SC/
ST people: Programmes:
● The work directly done by the central government.
453
● The work done under the supervision of the central government. The work
done by the various states in the country.
The state government runs the following types of programmes for SC/ST people:
1. Opening Ashram Schools.
2. Organizing teaching materials.
3. Establishing schools and hostels.
4. Stipends for primary and higher education.
5. Mid - day meals.
6. Exemption from tuition and examination fees.
After Independence the operational strategies with respect to SC/ST education include,
● Contact micro-planning and verification will be done to ensure that enrolment,
retention and successful completion courses by SC/ST students do not fall at
any stage.
● Recruitment of teachers from SC/ST category.
● Provision of hostel facilities for SC/ST students at district headquarters.
● Location of hostel buildings and school buildings, balwadis and adult education
centers in schedule caste extensions and tribal villages.
● Utilisation of NREP, RLEGP resources to provide educational facilities for
SC/ST.
● Content and orientation of the curriculum in respect of SC/ST.
● Existing gaps in educational infrastructure in remote and inaccessible areas,
islands, hills and desert areas will be identified and plans for implementation to
remove the backlog will be undertaken.
● Measures will be further strengthened to ensure that incentives in the form of
scholarships, uniforms, books and dictionary etc., reach the backward groups.
Education of women
National policy on education stresses, saying, The education of women should
receive emphasis not only on grounds of social justice but also because it accelerates
social transformation.
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Constitutional Provisions: 1 S (1) 15(3) and 16(l)
In the seventh plan, the focus of effort was on the following:
Promotion of girls’ education through appointment of women teachers. -
Attachment of pre-school centers.
Provision of free uniforms and other incentives.
Encouragement of talented girls to pursue higher education.
Promotion of technical and vocational education for girls by opening women
polytechnics.
Boosting of education among the girls of the scheduled castes and scheduled
tribes and backward sector.
● Encouraging women and girls to participate in sports and games.
The eight plan emphasized on increased opportunities and improved conditions of

“employment and training for women”.
Ninth plan: Providing access to good primary health care for the promotion of women
welfare.
National policy on education review committee (NPERC) 1990: Considered Women’s
education to be a vital component of the overall strategy of securing equity and social
justice in education. Childhood Care and Education (CCE) with primary education
was advocated.
Programme of Action, 1992:

The following measures will be taken to make education an effective tool for women’s
empowerment.
● Enhance self-esteem and self-confidence of women.
● Building of positive image of women by recognizing their contribution to the
society, policy and the economy.
● Developing ability to think critically.
● Fostering decision-making and action through collective processes.
● Enable women to make informed choice in areas like education, employment
and health.
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Education of minority and other backward groups
Constitutional Articles in this regard: 29(1) and (2), 30 (1), (1A) and (2) and 350
A
The national policy on education (NPE) 1986 states the following regarding
education of minorities vide par 4.8 of the document: Some minority groups are
educationally deprived or backward. Greater attention will be paid to the education of
these groups in the interest of equality and social justice.
Former Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi issued a 15-point directive on welfare
of minorities to the central and state governments in May 1983. Point Nos. 11 and 12
concern education of minorities.
On-Going programmes for minorities education
● Scheme of coaching classes for competitive examination
● Community polytechnics in minority concentration areas
● Training programmes for principals/managers/teachers in minority managed
schools.
The programmes include seminar cum workshop for principals and managers,
and training programmes for teachers from minority managed institutions in subject
areas of English, Science, Mathematics, Vocationalisation of education and Educational
Evaluation. Such training programmes are also being organized by the Regional Resource
Centers. About 1400 principals and teachers have been trained so far to know the
guidelines for recognition on minority managed institution and to develop ability to
review textbooks from the standpoint of national Integration

‘Check Your Progress’ 1.
A 1. Match the Following: 1-c, 2-e, 3-d, 4-a,5-b
B 1. Page 5 SC/ST, Minorities
‘Check Your Progress’ - 2.
A-1-c, 2-d
B.1 - Page 8 3.Page 8
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‘Check Your Progress’- 3.
A - 1-a, 2-c
B.1 2. Page 15 1. Page 14.
2. Page 5 Backwards
‘Check Your Progress’ - A4

1-a, 2-c, 3-d, 4-b
B.2 1. Page 18, 19 2. Page 19, 20

1. State the Constitutional provisions for
a. Education of SC/ST
b. Education of Women
c. Education of Minority groups.
2. What are the programmes and approaches of governments towards the education
of handicapped children?
3. What are the problems involved in the education of different types of handicapped
children?
4. Mention the different types of backward groups and define the different types
of tribes.
5. Mention the different strategies enlisted in NPE-POA,1992 regarding the
education of SC and ST.
6. Enlist the recommendations of various committees and commissions regarding
education of women.
7. What are the problems involved in the education of women in Indian context?
8. Briefly explain the on-going programmes of education of minority groups by
the State and Central Governments.
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26.10 References
1. Dash B. N. Principles of Education, Nilkamal Publications, New Delhi, 2001
2. Kashinath H. M & Nagaraj. P, Trends and Innovations in Indian Education,
Vidyanidhi Prakashana, Gadag, 2000.
3. Khanna S. D. & Others, Education in the emerging Indian society and the
Teacher, Doaba House, New Delhi.1985.
4. Mukhaiji S. N Education in India Today and Tomorrow, Vinod Pustak Mandir,
Agra, 2001.
5. Sharma Ramanath : Problems of Education in India, Atlantic Sharma K.
Rajendra Publishers and Distributers, New Delhi 1996.
6. Swain. K. Sanjay : Trends and Issues in Indian Education, Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi,1998.
7. Veeraiah B : Education in Emerging India, Himalaya Publishing House, New
Delhi, 2003.
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UNIT - 27 ❐ EDUCATION FOR NATIONAL AND
EMOTIONAL INTEGRATION
Structure
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Objectives
27.3 National and Emotional Integration
27.3.1 Meaning
27.3.2 Barriers of National and Emotional Integration
27.3.3 Promoters of National and Emotional Integration
27.3.4 Objectives of Education for National and Emotional Integration
27.4 Role of Education in developing National and Emotional Integration
27.5 Approaches to develop National and Emotional Integration
27.6 Role of Teacher in developing National & Emotional Integration:
27.7 Let Us Sum-up
27.8 Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’
27.10 References
27.1 Introduction
India is the land of many religions, castes, languages, places of worship, customs,
traditions, norms etc. It is a secular state with people of different attitudes and aspirations.
The climatic conditions also differ from region to region. It is the seventh biggest
country and second highly populated country in the world facing both internal and
external aggressions.
The unity of any nation depends on the view of its citizens on themselves and
members of the group. There must be desire and will of understanding each other and
uniting together among the citizens of the nation. In this context, National and Emotional
Integration need top priority, especially in the present time of national and international
crises. Every citizen of the country needs to be much more vigilant than ever before on
this issue and achieve the goal of attaining the same for the sustainable growth and
development of the country.
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In this context, as a citizen of a country you will always have to reflect for a while
upon the following:
● Are National Integration and Emotional Integration different concepts or are
they same and complimentary to each other?
● Can India be called a nation?
● How national and emotional integration are important in building a nation?
● What are the barriers and promoters of emotional integration?
● Why Indians exhibit diversity in unity and also unity in diversity?
● What is the role of education in developing national and emotional integration?
The more you reflect upon the concepts of national and emotional integration,
more parameters, dimensions and intricacies involved in the same are likely to rise in
your mind. This Unit will introduce the understandings of aforesaid issues.
27.2 Objectives
¾ Define national integration and emotional integration.
¾ Describe the barriers and promoters of national and emotional integration.
¾ Explain the need and importance of national and emotional integration. List the
objectives of education for national and emotional integration.
¾ Explain the role of education in developing national and emotional integration.
Explain the approaches to develop national and emotional integration.
27.3 National and Emotional Integration

27.3.1 Meaning
1. National Integration
National integration is unity in diversity. The term implies social, political,
economic, linguistic and cultural unity. In the words of R. N. Tagore, “Where the world
has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls.” National integration
is a mental attitude and it is a state of mind. It is based on the feeling of oneness among
Indians with common ideals of life and common code of behaviour. National integration
is the negation of all differences of caste, creed, religion, communities, sects, beliefs,
provinces or regions.
460
The word national integration consists of two parts - national and integration. The
word ‘national’ implies a country, which has become a state in political terms. The
word ‘integration’ means the fusion of the people into one. Thus it implies that the
people of a country recognize the oneness of their country.
Now study the following definitions of national integration.
According to National Integration Conference Report, 1961, National integration
is a psychological and educational process involving the development of a feeling of
unity, solidarity and cohesion in the hearts of people, a sense of common citizenship
and a feeling of loyalty to the nation.
According to Kothari Education Commission Report, National integration includes
a confidence in the nation’s future, a continuous rise in the standard of living,
development of feeling of values and duties, a good and impartial administrative system
and mutual understanding.”
According to Dr. Bedi, National integration means bringing about economic, social,
cultural and linguistic differences among the people of various states in the country
within a tolerable range and importing to the people a feeling of the oneness of India.
Compare the above-mentioned three definitions of national integration. Do you
find common characteristics among these three? What are they?
2. Emotional Integration
Emotional integration means unity of thoughts and feelings of all the citizens of a
country or a nation. In the words of Pandith Jawahar Lal Nehru, “By emotional
integration, I mean the integration of our minds and hearts, the suppression of feeling
of separatism.”
Emotional integration is the sentiment or feeling of an individual as one with the
people of differences in religion, language, customs, region, dress patterns, food habits,
norms, usages etc. It is the feeling of unity in diversity. This uniting together and rising
above the differences with a feeling of unity as a whole is termed as emotional integration,
leading to national unity.
National integration and emotional integration are complementary. It is difficult
to draw a dividing line between these two. Emotional integration is the basis of national
integration. Emotional integration prepares the people mentally for national integration.
It prepares a line of defence for national integration in the hearts and heads of the
people. You know, it is not sufficient to train the army physically with all skills, but it
is extremely essential to prepare them mentally for war with a common feeling of
oneness. Emotional integration leads to nationalism required for national pride, national
loyalty and national welfare.
461
In this way, both national and emotional integration are complimentary to each
other, and by establishing harmony and balance between them, we can free ourselves
from communalism, casteism, provincialism, linguistic disparities and build a broad
outlook. Thus, in order to maintain our own unity and diversity, it is essential that we
should form our own philosophy of life, which reflects social and emotional security
among all citizens of India.
27.3.2 Barriers of National & Emotional Integration

There are a number of identifiable and not so easily recognizable factors that operate
against national integration. By and large these factors are expressions of self-centered
groups with vested interests. Some of them work as under-currents, which do not come
to the surface and hence not noticeable. Those that can be easily noticed and labeled
are discussed here:
a. Race: Racial diversity has not been a source of social conflict in India to the extent
it has been in some other parts of the world. Moreover, race in its pure stock does not
exist in India. However, the racial origins of the people of India can be traced back to
the Indo-Aryans, the Dravidians and to some extent the Mongolians. Even now the
racial sentiments are played up. For instance, the Dravida Kajhagam party of Tamil
Nadu for which the Dravida Munnetra Kajhagam was the political wing staged a row
against what they call the Aryan domination of Indian culture. In fact, they burnt the
epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharatha, which are revered as sacred by a large section
of the Indian masses. But this was only a passing phase not a permanent feature of the
Indian social life.
b. Language: Language has been one of the strongest threats to the stability of the
nation. There are nearly 900 dialects out of which 850 are spoken by less than a lakh of
people. Non-Indian languages are also spoken in the country. However 95% of the
Indian population, fall under one or the other of the 16 national languages, which are
declared so according to the 8th schedule of the Indian constitution. Because of the
vastness of the land, India has not been able to settle upon a language so far which can
be taken as the link language for official purposes. More indications of attempts to
evolve a link -language, for instance Hindi, which is spoken by the majority of the
population in the country has led to widespread violent reactions. Occasions were many
when normal life was paralyzed, public property was destroyed and many types of
criminal acts were committed in the name of language.
Language has become a strong disintegrating force of Indian social life. Even the
462
states of India were reorganized on linguistic basis so as to solve this problem.
Regionalism as an evil force centers largely on language. The Shiv Sena movement led
by Bal Thakare in Maharashtra is only an apparent illustration of such sentiments.
Such regional groups, which play on linguistic sentiments, exist in most of the Indian
states today.
c. Cultural Differences: There are a number of other cultural differences that also are
potential threats to the solidarity of the nation. Some of them are the caste and sub-
caste consciousness among the people, practice of untouchability, religious diversities
(Eg. Punjab problem) etc. A discerning observer of Indian socio-political life would be
able to identify many more sources of disintegration.
d. Economic Disparities: Such disparities exist between and among the states of India,
among the districts in a state, and among the blocks in a district. Economic backwardness
leads to emotional unrest between regions (Eg. Gorkhaland agitation) and among social
groups.
e. Provincialism: It is a very big obstacle in the way of national and emotional integration.
It is natural that every person loves his/her province but he/she should not forget that
nation is greater than the province. The people of one province should not look down
those of other province with hatred and feeling of inferiority. One should not forget
that all provinces make a nation and its solidarity depends extremely on the unity of
these provinces.
f. Unemployment: Unemployment is real obstacle in the way of national integration.
A hungry man forgets national interest. Unemployment would generate in him
disappointment, frustration, conflict, hatred, restlessness, characterlessness, corruption
etc., which all would make him anti-social.
g. Self-centered Political parties: The existence of political parties is a must for the
success of democracy in a country. Political parties without vested interests and with a
future vision for sustenance are a wealth of a country. But unfortunately in India no
political parties are accomplishing this task. They are organized and working in the
name of community, caste, religion, region, province etc., that is a serious threat to
national integration.
h. Lack of National Character: There is a lack of national character in India. In a
society where there is a fall in moral values, there is anarchy and restlessness. In such
a situation the ideal of national character alone acts as defence. These days we do not
have anything called character. At every step destructive tendencies such as corruption,
dishonesty, adulteration, black-marketing, betraying of trust and smuggling are prevalent.
463
i. Inequality: Inequality is proving a serious obstacle in the way of national integration.
Social, economic, political and religious inequalities are prevalent in the country.
Especially the gulf between the haves (rich) and have-nots (poor) is increasing. This
would naturally cause a serious threat to nationalism.
j. Lack of Social Sense: Prof. V. R. Taneja has rightly observed, “It is unfortunate that
in this country, we lack, what maybe called, social sense.” We are not at all considerate
to the needs of other people and their feelings. We are self-centered and do not realize
that we have duties towards them as they have towards us.
k. Lack of Vision in Education: “Where there is no vision, the people perish.”The
same is the fate of our country. Education is the most important means of developing
national integration. Unfortunately, it has not been able to complete this task till this
day. Our education system has not been linked to the national life. Hence all the
parameters of our education system are to be reoriented around national development.
27.3.3 Promoters of National and Emotional Integration

There are a number of geographical, historical and socio-political forces that
contribute to the stability of India. Even the high school textbooks discuss the
geographical and historical factors that have given a sense of unity to the nation. In
recent times, that is after independence, the development of tourism, the carrying of
science and technology to rural areas and the like have strengthened the previously
existing sense of unity in the country. A common constitution, federal set up, national
symbols and songs etc., have also helped in this regard.
There are also a number of cultural values that have held the nation as a strong and
stable unit inspite of the changes arising out of foreign invasions, internal squabbles
and anti-social trends. Tolerance, as a value of life is only an illustration. Tolerance is
not indifference. Apart from tolerance, there are also other modern values such as
democracy, socialism and secularism, the emerging awareness of which is most
favourable to the building of a strong unified and integrated India.
Thus, there is already an undercurrent of strong potential to bring about unity in
Indian social life. But this has to be lifted to the surface and those who live this social
life must be made aware of this.
27.3.4 Objectives of Education for National Emotional Integration

Education is the most powerful medium for the achievement of national and
464
emotional integration in India. It provides the necessary inspiration. In this regard it is
worth to know some of the more significant objectives of education for national and
emotional integration.
a. to bring about a correct understanding and appreciation of cultural diversities
among the different sub-cultures.
b. to develop a commitment - both mental and behavioural to the ideals of
democracy as set out in the constitution.
c. to develop healthy appreciation of one’s sub-culture therein avoiding bias against
other sub-cultures. ‘

A. Select the most appropriate answer among the alternatives:
1. National Integration is:
a. Unity and Diversity b. Unity in Diversity
c. Diversity in Unity d. Neither Unity nor Diversity
2. Emotional Integration is, “Integration of our minds and hearts, and the suppression
of feelings of separation”. This was told by:
a. Mahatma Gandhiji b. Kothari commission
c. Jawahar Lal Nehru d. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
3. Which is not correct?
a. National integration and Emotional integration are complementary.
b. Emotional integration leads to National integration.
c. National integration leads to Emotional integration.
d. Both National integration and Emotional integration are sentiments and
feelings of individuals.
4. The conflict between India and Pakistan is mainly due to:

a. Economic disparities b. Provincialism
c. Cultural differences d. Religious disparities
5. The most powerful means of National and Emotional integration is:
a. Education b. Economic development
c. Employment d. Defence
465
6. “National integration cannot be built by bricks, mortar, chisel and hammer, it has to
grow silently in the minds and hearts of every individual”. This was told by:
a. Dr.Bedi b. Shrimali
c. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan d. Mahatma Gandhiji
B. Answer the following:
1. List the objectives of Education for National integration.
2. Differentiate between National and Emotional integration.

National integration Emotional integration
27.4 Role of Education in Developing National and Emotional

Integration
Today the unity of the nation is passing through crisis. No ones life is secure and
extremism is over-powering the national unity. Disintegrating factors such as casteism,
provincialism, linguism, economic disparities, deterioration of values, etc., have become
a challenge for national and emotional integration. The existence of freedom, which
we obtained after the sacrifices of martyrs, is now in peril. In this context, Dr. K. L.
Shrimali has written, “The process of national integration must continue and be
strengthened, if we are to preserve and enrich our hard-won freedom”.
Dr S. Radlhakrishan has said, “National integration cannot be built by bricks and
mortar, it cannot be built by chisel and hammer, it has to grow silently in the minds and
466
hearts of every individual. The only process to accomplish this task is the process of
education.” Education is the most important means of national and emotional integration.
It is such a process as it can slowly overcome all obstacles, which are weakening the
unity. Therefore, if education sows the seeds of unity in every individual from the
beginning i.e., from childhood days, this problem can be solved.
At the conference of the Education Ministers held in November 1960, the
importance of the role of education in counteracting the divisive forces and in fostering
unity was stressed. The conference recommended a committee to be set up to study the
problems and suggest positive educational measures for promoting national and
emotional integration. As a follow-up action, the Ministry of Education under the
chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand appointed a committee in May 1961. This committee
has opined that education can play a vital role in strengthening national and emotional
integration. Education should not only aim at imparting knowledge but should develop
all aspects of students’ personality. It should broaden the outlook; foster the feeling of
oneness, nationalism and a spirit of sacrifice and tolerance so that narrow group interests
are submerged in the larger interests of the country.
Education can create patriotic feelings among the people and a sense of sanctity
for the motherland. To promote this feeling, there should be an amalgamation of cultural
issues in the curriculum. Instead of differentiating cultures of different states, there
should be what is called Indian culture, which is to be given more weightage.
27.5 Approaches in Education to Develop National and Emotional

Integration
1. School Programmes: There are many things that the school can do to promote
national integration. The programmes of the school must be phased. In the first phase
children must be made aware of the existence of and the similarities and the diversities
in the different sub-cultures. This is at the early stages of schooling. This phase is basic
to the subsequent phases. At the second phase, opportunities must be provided for
children to discuss common problems with objectivity and concerns. At the third and
final stage, which is by the end of the schooling period, children must be provided
opportunities through work situations to work for common goals and interests. School
programmes must bring about both attitudinal and behavioural changes.
2. Curriculum for National Integration: There are two views with regard to the nature
of curriculum organization for national integration. One opinion is that a special area
on inter-sub-cultural variations must be included in the existing curriculum. But this
467
may not be a practicable suggestion in view of the competing claims of different
objectives of education. It is difficult to accommodate all the claims.
Another opinion is that an orientation towards national integration should be provided
in the existing curriculum, wherever it is possible. It must become an integral part of
the curriculum, curricular and co-curricular.
3. Text Books: Text books must be prepared carefully as to promote national integration
and if required, they should be re-designed so as to foster national integration. Words
with emotional overtones must be used to highlight the significant and distinguishing
features of one’s own sub-culture without developing prejudices against other sub-
cultures. Omission of facts, prejudiced statements and sweeping generalizations must
be avoided.
4. Development, learning and usage of an all India language: The most important
and practical condition for promoting national and emotional integration in the country
is that an all India language should be evolved, learnt and used by all citizens of the
country. Hindi is our national language, which is capable of performing this role. Hence,
it is desirable that, this language be taught in every kind of educational institution, at
all levels, to all students. A common and national language is a must for every citizen
to live successfully in any state of the country.
5. Co-Curricular Activities: Co-Curricular activities play an important role in the
development of national and emotional integration among students directly and also
indirectly. Activities such as celebration of National Days, birth-days of great men,
cultural festivals, inter-state games or competitions, camps, educational excursions,
talks on matters of national concerns, cultural exchange etc. can be organized which
would definitely contribute for the development of ‘we’ feeling and national unity
among students.
6. National System of Education: The concept of National system of education implies
that upto a given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location, gender have
access to education of a comparable quality. National policy on education has envisaged
10+2+3 pattern, which is based on National Curricular Frame work and is being followed
to bring-in uniformity in the country. This provides for a sense of equality among the
students of all the states and also leads to uniform pattern of admission, evaluation and
such institution related issues, which allows for migration of students across the states
for accessing higher education. This further enables the students to understand and
appreciate cultural diversities of our country.
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The curriculum contains common core contents of national concerns essential for
national identity. These contents will cut across various subject areas and will be designed
to promote national values such as India’s common cultural heritage, democracy,
secularism, equality etc.
7. Equality of Educational Opportunities: In order to create national integration in the
country, National Policy on Education lays special emphasis on the removal of disparities
and equalizing educational opportunities by attending to the specific needs of those
who have been denied opportunities for equality so far. In this regard, special attention
has been given to women’s education, education of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes, education of religious and linguistic minorities, education of special children
such as handicapped and adult education with functional literacy programme
Answer the following questions briefly:
1. List out the co-curricular and extra-curricular activities that foster the
development of national and emotional integration among students.
2. Enlist the educational programmes, which provide for equality of educational

opportunities.
3. Mention the educational approaches to promote National and Emotional

Integration.
469
4. Write Short Notes on:
a. Curriculum for National Integration.
b. Role of Hindi as the Indian national language in the promotion of national integration.
c. Importance of National System of Education in the promotion of National Integration.
27.6 Role of Teacher in Developing National and Emotional

Integration
Teacher has a predominant role in promoting national and emotional integration.

Teacher is accepted as the guide, philosopher and the man of higher ideals in moulding
the society. The ideal character of teacher leaves a lasting impression in the minds of
students.
Teacher should always provide such experiences to students, which develop
emotional attitudes towards national integration. Teacher’s balanced mind and attitude
towards society’s norms, customs, religions, castes etc., will impress effectively upon
his/her students.
It is the teacher who can develop rational attitude of students towards the social
and political factors, which promote and demote national and emotional integration
and act in a convenient manner with constructive contributions to the nation. Every
470
student tends to imbibe the qualities of his or her teacher. Hence, the teacher should act
as a role model and reflect all such attributes, which foster national and emotional
integration.
The teacher should play his/her role judiciously in imbibing the worthy ideas that
promote national and emotional integration. He/she should give thoughts to create
harmony and peaceful nationalism through personal examples. He/she should have a
secular outlook with fullest patriotism.
27.7 Let Us Sum-Up

National Integration is a psychological and educational process involving the
development of a feeling of unity, solidarity and cohesion in the hearts of people, a
sense of common citizenship and a feeling of loyalty to the nation. It is bringing about
economic, social, cultural and linguistic differences among the people of various states
in the country within a tolerable range and imparting to the people a feeling of the
oneness of India.
Emotional Integration is the sentiment or feeling of an individual as one with the
people of differences in religion, language, customs, region, dress patterns, food habits,
norms, usages etc.
National integration and emotional integration are complementary. It is difficult to
draw a dividing line between these two. Emotional integration is the basis of national
integration.
Barriers of national and emotional integration are: Racial disparities, Linguistic
differences, Cultural differences, Economic disparities, Provincialism, Unemployment,
Self-centered political parties, Lack of national character, Inequality, Lack of social
sense, and Lack of vision in education.
Significant objectives of education for national and emotional integration are:
1. to bring about a correct understanding and appreciation of cultural diversities
2. to develop a commitment - both mental and behavioral to the ideals of democracy
as set out in the constitution.
3. to develop healthy appreciation of one’s sub-culture therein avoiding bias against
other sub-cultures.
Role of Education: Education is the most important means of national and emotional
integration. It is such a process as it can slowly overcome all obstacles, which are
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weakening the unity. Education should not only aim at imparting knowledge but should
develop all aspects of students’ personality. It should broaden the outlook; foster the
feeling of oneness, nationalism and a spirit of sacrifice and tolerance so that narrow
group interests are submerged in the large r interests of the country.
Approaches through education:
School programmes: The programmes of the school must be phased. In the first
phase children must be made aware of the existence of and the similarities and the
diversities in the different sub-cultures. At the second phase, opportunities must be
provided for children to discuss common problems with objectivity and concerns. At
the third and final stage, which is by the end of the schooling period, children must be
provided opportunities through work situations to work for common goals and interests.
Curriculum for National Integration: A special area on inter-sub-cultural
variations must be included in the existing curriculum, and orientation towards national
integration should be provided in the existing curriculum, wherever it is possible. It
must become an integral part of the curriculum, curricular and co-curricular.
Text Books: Text books must be prepared carefully as to promote national integration
and if required, they should be re-designed so as to foster national integration.
Development, learning and usage of an all India language: A common and
national language is a must for every citizen to live successfully in any state of the
country. Hindi is our national language, and this language should be taught in every
kind of educational institution, at all levels, to all students.
Co-Curricular Activities: Co-Curricular activities play an important role in the
development of national and emotional integration among students directly and also
indirectly.
National system of Education: National system of education implies that upto a
given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location, gender have access to
education of a comparable quality. This is based on National Curricular Framework
with 10+2+3 pattern and is being followed to bring-in uniformity in the country. This
provides for a sense of equality among the students of all the states and foster national
and emotional integration.
Equality of educational opportunities: Women’s education, education of the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, education of religious and linguistic minorities,
education of special children such as handicapped and adult education with functional
literacy programmes have been provided to ensure-equality of educational opportunities
which would promote national and emotional integration.
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Role of Teachers:
Teacher has a predominant role in promoting national and emotional integration.
It is the teacher who can develop rational attitude of students towards the social and
political factors, which promote national and emotional integration and act in a
convenient manner with constructive contributions to the nation. Every student tends
to imbibe the qualities of his or her teacher. Hence, the teacher should act as a role
model and reflect all such attributes, which foster national and emotional integration.

a. 1. (b) Unity in Diversity
2. (c) Jawahar Lal Nehru
3. (c) National Integration leads to Emotional Integration
4. (b) Provincialism
5. (a) Education
6. c) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
b. To bring about a correct understanding and appreciation of cultural diversities
To develop a commitment - both mental and behavioural to the ideals of
democracy as set out in the constitution.
To develop healthy appreciation of one’s sub-culture therein avoiding bias against
other sub-cultures.

1. Celebration of National Days, birth-days of great men, cultural festivals, inter-state
games or competitions, camps, educational excursions, talks on matters of national
concerns, cultural exchange etc.
2. Women’s education, education of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes,
education of religious and linguistic minorities, education of special children such as
handicapped and adult education with functional literacy programmes.
3. a. Designing suitable school programmes.
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b. Designing, transacting and evaluating suitable curriculum.
c. Redesigning text books.
d. Development, learning and usage of one National language.
e. Organising diversified co-curricular activities.
f. Following National system of education.
g. Achieving equality of educational opportunities.
4. Short Notes: (Ref. Section- 27.5)

● Define the concepts of National and Emotional integration and bring out the
difference between them.
● Enlist the barriers and promoters of National and emotional integration.
● Mention the significant objectives of education for National integration.
● Briefly explain the role of education in the development of national and emotional
integration.
● Briefly explain the different educational approaches to develop national and
emotional integration.
● Describe the role of teacher in fostering national and emotional integration
among students.
27.10 References
1. Seetharamu A. S : Philosophies of Education, (Second ed.) Ashish Publishing
House. New Delhi (2002)
2. Wadhwa S. S : Education in Emerging Indian Society, Tandon Publications.
Ludhiana, (2003)
3. Sharma & Sharma : Problems of Education in India, Atlantic Publishers and
Distributers. New Delhi. (1996)
4. Pandey, R. S. : Principles of Education, Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra (2001).
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UNIT 28 ❐ EDUCATION FOR INTERNATIONAL
UNDERSTANDING
Structure
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Objectives
28.3 International Understanding
28.3.1 Concept and Definitions
28.3.2 Need and Importance of International Understanding and its Education
28.3.3 Objectives of Education for International Understanding
28.3.4 Barriers of International Understanding
28.4 Education and International Understanding
28.4.1 Role of Education for International Understanding
28.4.2 Approaches in Education for promoting International Understanding
28.4.3 Role of teacher in promoting International Understanding
28.4 Let Us Sum Up
28.7 References
28.1 Introduction
“Isolation means backwardness and decay. The world has changed and old barriers
are breaking down, life becomes more international, we have to play our part in the
coming internationalism “(Jawahar Lal Neheru, “Discovery of India”, P.580)
Now the Earth has become a Global village. We are living in a scientific age, an
age of ‘Space traveling’, ‘Information Technology’ and ‘Nuclear Energy’, due to new
explorations and discoveries. Now the distance and other physical barriers have become
insignificant. Life has received a new orientation and fresh challenges.
But, at the same time, the present world is divided into armed camps. Every nation
including developed countries is passing through international crises that have threatened
the very existence and survival of them. Never before in the history of the world has
man suffered international insecurity, distructivism and deterioration of peace and co-
operation to this degree as at this period of time.
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Though nationalism is desirable and patriotism is essential for every citizen of the
country, due to lack of human values, foresight or future vision, narrowness of mind,
self-centeredness with vested interests and racial prejudices, life of individuals especially
in developing countries like India is at stake, insecure, uncertain and lacks peace.
In this regard, people of different countries have to learn to live together with a
feeling of ‘ oneness’ and create a ‘ world society’. Sustained quality life with peace and
cooperation is assured only when all the natural resources of this globe are shared
judiciously among all the countries, irrespective of race, language, economic and
educational levels of people living there. This is possible only when one has an
international understanding. That is, understanding the needs, culture, and economic
conditions of people of other countries and their historical and geographical importance
and dependency.
In this context, you as a citizen of a developing country like India, need to understand
the dynamics and dimensions of “International Understanding” which would orient
around the following questions.
1. What is International Understanding and what is its need at this point of time?
2. Is International Understanding required for people of only developing and under-
developed countries?
3. Now is it so important for the survival of human life on earth with peace and
co-operation?
4. What is the role of education, school and teacher in promoting International
Understanding among students?
5. What are the approaches towards International Understanding?
The more you think about the aforesaid questions, more dimensions, parameters
and complexities related to the concept and dynamics of International Understanding
are likely to rise in your mind. This Unit will introduce you to such reflections, which
concentrate around the answers for aforesaid questions.
28.2 Objectives
Define ‘International Understanding’
¾ Explain the need and importance of education for International Understanding
¾ Mention the objectives of Education for International Understanding
¾ Describe the barriers for International Understanding
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¾ Explain the role of education for International Understanding
¾ Analyse the curriculum, educational programmes, methods of teaching and co-
curricular activities to promote International Understanding
¾ Explain the role of schools and teachers to foster International Understanding
among students.
28.3. International Understanding

28.3.1 Concept and Definitions:
a. The urge of man to bring about understanding between and among nations is
not new. But for the first time in recent history, Jeremy Bentham coined the
word “Internationalism” which is currently referred to as ‘International
Understanding’. In simple terms, international understanding is an understanding
of the problems of mankind and their relation to us. Such an understanding is
characterized by an attitude of mind as follows: Connell, W.F: Readings in the
foundations of education.
b. A desire to live together with all people within a social framework that provides
equal justice for all without considering their nationality, class, race, colour,
creed or status. Equal justice is not identical justice, it is not necessary that the
social framework be the same everywhere.
c. An attempt to encourage and enable all people to plan co-operatively and work
together constructively.
Internationalism is an idea of recent origin through a tendency of people to live
cooperatively for peace after two world wars. It implies creativity that strives together
to eliminate ignorance and prejudices, war and parochial nationalism and to make people
conscious “of the place of one’s own nation in the world, society and the contribution
that it can make to world society. Whose survival depends upon maintenance of peace
and relief from war”.
Dr. Walter A. C. Lewis former Deputy Director General of UNESCO defined
international Understanding as. “It is the ability to observe critically and objectively
amid appraise the conduct of men everywhere, irrespective of the nationality or culture
to which they may belong. To do this, one must be able to observe all nationalities,
cultures and races as equally important varieties of human beings inhabiting this earth”.
Oliver Goldsmith has defined International Understanding as, “It is the feeling
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that the individual is not only a member of his state, but a citizen of the world.”
Internationalism inspires the people of the world “to live together in peace with one
another as good neighbors, to take effective measures for the removal of areas of
differences and to develop friendly relations among nations.
It is the way and means of peace and security. It is the building up of understanding
through knowledge and mutual appreciations. It is the recognition and acceptance of
existence of different nationalities races, culture, idea and ideals.
Hence, International Understanding in a sense is ‘World Citizenship’ which
emphasizes that all human beings are fellows and members of the world family. As
such, this feeling is concerned with international good will and contributes to the
wellbeing of the whole of humanity. In simple terms it indicates love, sympathy and
co-operation among all the people of the nations of the world.
28.3.2 Need and Importance of International Understanding and its Education

The needs for developing International Understanding are numerous and diverse.
But four needs may be considered as significant.
a. Progress of Human Civilization: There has been tremendous progress in all spheres
of life; from Paleolithic and Neolithic ages man has progressed to the nuclear and
space age, from cow-dung and bullock-cart to computer technology, from dictatorship
to communism and democracy, from aristocracy to Republican forms of Government,
in values and beliefs from Adam and Eve to origin of species, from slave trade to
equality and tyranny to liberty. Similarly there has been progress in mathematics,
medicine, agriculture, oceanography, metallurgy and all walks of life. Progress in human
civilization has not been achieved by any race, caste, class, ethnic or national group but
people working in different corners of the world and belonging to diverse groups have
achieved it. All the people of the world have shared this progress. The present state of
the world is due to the combined, cumulative and patient efforts of many nationals.
b) Synchronization of Cultures: International trade and modern means of transport
have given rise to a continuous interaction between and among all the people of the
world. The world of man is enlarging though the world is shrinking. Both the East and
the West have influenced each other. Now needs and problems of humanity are similar.
When two people from different countries meet each other for trade or other economic
purpose, they also unintentionally become familiar with and in many cases influenced
by each others culture. There has been a diffusion of cultures. The world has become a
melting pot of all cultures.
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c) Interdependence of Nations: Every country may try to be self-reliant but no
country can be self-sufficient. All the countries of the world depend upon each other
for their consumer goods or for raw materials; in certain cases even for finished non-
consumable goods. No country can remain free from any tilt in the international economic
balance. Not only there is dependence on goods and services but also on technical
know-how. In recent years, dependence in cultural life has been observed. The value-
system of one nation initiates changes in the value system of another nation. As if
acutely sensing the need for interdependence among nations, Nehru made the opening
statement in his speech at the Geneva Peace Conference thus: “The choice before the
world today is peaceful co-existence or no-existence at all.”
The needs discussed so far for international understanding have a positive overtone.
There is also a rather negative reason to realize this objective.
d) Threat of a Nuclear War: A nuclear war means one mass of total annihilation.
It implies a sophisticated nuclear war technology has been so enormous that it is very
dangerous to take risks about that. To balance this progress, a commitment to international
peace and understanding is very essential. The threat of a nuclear war is haunting every
nation and especially those who are ignorant of nuclear war technology. There is a
need for the nuclear nations to guarantee the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons and
the security of non-nuclear nations.
In addition to these aspects, the following arguments will favour International
Understanding.
1. In this world, there are nations having different colours, races and religions, but
the inner soul or spirit is the same in all. The real fact is that the whole human race is
one and the whole world is also one unit. To promote this feeling of oneness, the
development of International Understanding is essential.
2. In the modern world, all nations have come so close to one another that events
and occurrences in one nation have their direct impact upon the life of people of other
nations also. Under such circumstances, if the emotion of fear will keep developing in
all against the onslaughts of the other, each nation will prepare feverishly for defence
or offence. Thus more and more money and other resources will be diverted towards
military preparations. Not only this, science will be exploited for human destruction.
Hence a sense of international understanding should be developed in all people of the
world so that each nation uses its resources for the welfare of humanity.
3. In the modern world of today, no nation can boast of its self-sufficiency and
self-reliance. All the nations of the world depend upon each other economically,
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politically and culturally. In the field of industry, the success of a nation depends upon
the raw materials imported from other nations. Not only this, the cultural bonds are
also bringing all the nations of the world nearer with the result that no nation can boast
of its own culture as pure. We observe that the culture of a nation invades the culture of
other nations. Hence, it penetrates, changes and grows. As a result, a synthesis of all
cultures is going on and a world culture is gradually coming into being today.
4. All nations belong to one world. Thus all nations, backward or advanced belong
to one family- the world family. Just as all the members of a family have a duty and
moral obligation for each other, much in the same way all nations of the world should
feel dutiful and morally obliged for promoting the welfare of all others, may they be
weak, backward or advanced. The affluent and developed nations should try to improve
the conditions of poor, weak and backward nations. This will develop mutual love and
friendship among all the nations resulting in peace and prosperity throughout the
world.
5. Each human being has certain desirable qualities namely love, sympathy, co-
operation and friendship. Geographical boundaries cannot delimit these human qualities.
It is just possible that the political ideologies of citizens of different nations may differ,
but the essential milk of humanity is the same everywhere in all nations at all times.
This fact should lead us towards international fellow feeling and international
understanding.
6. The development of international understanding has an immense value in our
country. The chief reason of this fact is that India has recently attained its freedom.
Now we have to develop our nation in all spheres. For this, we need peace in the world.
Education for international understanding is the crying need of our age. The war-
minded world is a serious challenge to the peace and happiness of mankind. We can
make our world safe and peaceful only by developing international outlook through
international understanding, which is the vital need of the present generation for the
following chief reasons:
1. To counteract wrong emphasis on ‘My country, right or wrong’. In the words
of the Secondary Education Commission Report (1953) - There is no more dangerous
maxim in the world today than ‘My country, right or wrong’. The whole world is now
so intimately interrelated that no nation can or dare live alone and the development of
a sense of world citizenship has become just as important as that of a national citizenship’.
Education for International Understanding is needed to counteract this wrong emphasis,
to re-interpret patriotism, and to raise national jingoism to international enlightenment.
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2. To emphasize interdependence and intimate relationship of human race.
Modern world is closely knit world and now there is more interdependence and intimate
relationship among people here and people there than ever before. “If it is to survive,”
observes P.E. James, “it must draw upon all the world’s resources and the entire world’s
people must share its benefits.
3. To Educate for Democratic Ideals. The modern world has seen the rise of
democratic forces. The democratic ideal expresses itself in such slogans as “World
Government”, “World Society”, “One State”, etc., The rise of these forces puts an
essential responsibility on education, that of conditioning the young minds to adopt
these ideals as the practical creed of life they live.
4. To Educate for Human Prosperity: It is in the school class rooms that the
destiny of not only a country but of the whole world is being shaped. The future prosperity
of the total human race depends much upon the type of education we propose to provide
in our schools. Mankind today stands at the cross-roads of human prosperity and human
extinction. It is for education to shape the world for a prosperous happy life. Education
for international understanding fulfills this enlightened purpose. We may conclude by
saying : ‘for any system of education which refuses to concern itself with world peace,
is shutting its eyes to the stark fact that, if world peace is not maintained, there must
come a time when there will be no one left to educate.
28.3.3 Objectives of Education for International Understanding

The following specific objectives would serve to realize the general objective
(or aim) of education for international understanding.
a. Highlight the peaceful uses of atomic energy and vividly picturise (describe)
the devastating consequences of the misuse of nuclear energy. For instance, the
uses of an atomic reactor for constructive purposes and the misuse of atomic
bomb for destructive designs may be discussed in comparative frame.
b. Give a basic knowledge of the life and culture of different nations of the world.
c. Develop a spirit of tolerance (not indifference) towards the ways of life of
different people of the world - their religion, customs and traditions, dress and
food habits, etc.
d. Develop rational thinking about the problems of other nations, inter-nation
problems and their relevance to the nation to which the children belong.
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e. Develop a sympathetic attitude towards the (problems of the) less developed
nations of the world; in general a concern for the welfare of humanity.
f. Develop a willingness to place common good before personal interests.
g. Strengthen the sense of national solidarity.
h. Inculcate a belief in the ideals like fraternity, equality, liberty and justice.
In addition to this, other objectives of education for International Understanding are to
enable the student to:
a. know and understand how people of other lands live.
b. recognise the common humanity, which underlines all differences in culture.
c. work for a fair and just world.
d. maintain interest in world affairs.
e. recognise the importance of solving world problems according to democratic
practices.
f. appreciate the contributions of all people to the world citizenship.
g. combine love of one’s country with a broad social consciousness towards an
inter-dependent community of nations.
h. respect the dignity and worth of man by giving him equality of rights and
opportunity
i. take the world as one unit.
j. realize that truth also triumphs and leads to human progress and prosperity.
k. believe in common values and goals for the world community.
l. understand that victories of peace are greater than victories of war.
28.3.4 Barriers of International Understanding

There are many problems, which pose obstacles and barriers in the progress of man
towards International Understanding. Some of these problems are referred to here:
Secrecy: About the nuclear strength of nations.
Racial prejudices: It is one of the strongest barriers in the way towards international
understanding. H. G. Wells had suggested interracial marriage as the solution for all
the problems of the world.
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Inequality of Countries : in size, resources, growth rates, national income, scientific
and technological progress, etc., inequality has led to a sort of inferiority complex
among less developed nations-and consequently to corresponding prejudices and
preferences.
Lack of National Solidarity: When the people of many countries do not cherish a
feeling that they are nationals of a nation and instead owe their loyalties to parochial
groups and ideas, are victims of regionalism, communalism, casteism, etc., how can
they be expected to look at the world as an organization of brothers and equals? So,
national integration and a sense of national solidarity are a pre-requisite for International
Understanding.
In addition to these, the following obstacles in the way of international understanding
are identified.
Physical and geographical isolation: Different nations of the world live in isolation
because of geographical distance.
Political barriers: Different nations profess different political ideologies and issues
such as democracy, socialism, capitalism and totalitarianism etc.
Religious barriers: Nations differ in their religious creeds and practices- Hinduism,
Islamism, Buddhism and Christianity.
Psychological barriers: International peace is sometimes disturbed due to selfishness,
greed, love of power, attitude of hostility, aggressiveness and hatred of some nations.
Social barriers: Differences among nations exist in respect of social customs and habits,
languages, historical traditions and cultural background.
Narrow or parochial nationalism

1. International Understanding is,
a) Acceptance of position of other nations, and their ideas and ideals
b) Feeling of an individual as the citizen of the world
c) The way and means of peace and security
d) All the above
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2. The word ‘Inter-nationalism’ was coined by,
a) Dr. Walter H. C. Lewis b) Jeremy Bentham
c) Oliver Goldsmith d) Barnard Shaw
3. Which is correct?
a) Internationalism is anti - nationalism.
b) Nationalism is anti - internationalism.
c) Internationalism is not anti - nationalism and nationalism is not anti –
internationalism.
d) Nationalism is patriotism and internationalism is anti – patriotism.
4. Which is not a barrier for international understanding?
a) Racial prejudices
b) Inequality of countries in many respects
c) Economic restrictions
d) Interdependence of nations
5. The ultimate aim of promoting international understanding is,
a) To have world peace and co-operation
b) To promote human welfare & prosperity
c) To have security and sustenance of life
d) All the above
B. Answer the following questions briefly

1. Mention any four dangers of narrow nationalism.
2. Define international understanding.
3. Mention any four needs for promoting international understanding among
students.
4. Enlist the objectives of education for international understanding.
5. List out the barriers for international understanding.
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28.4 Education and International Understanding
28.4.1 Role of Education for International Understanding
All philosophers, educationists, politicians, scientists and social reformers of the
world agree that while on the one hand United Nation Organization(UNO) and other
similar world organizations are striving to develop international good will in children,
it is essential, on the other hand that citizens of each nation should realize and appreciate
their good achievements. Education is the only important and effective agency to develop
such type of international understanding. The reason for this is that school has a special
environment, which includes the essential attributes of highest truth, beauty and
goodness. All the philosophers and educationists of the world have accepted education
as the only effective agency to develop international understanding, therefore according
to all of them the aim of education in all the nations of the world should be the promotion
of International understanding.
It is through education the minds of the younger generation that lasting peace in
the world will be possible. In this connection the preamble to the constitution of UNESCO
says, “the state parties to this constitution, believing in full and equal opportunities for
education for all, in the unrestricted pursuit of objective truth and in the free exchange
of ideas and knowledge are agreed and determined to develop and to increase the means
of communication between their people and employ these means for the purpose of
mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each other lives.”
Regarding the role of education in promoting international understanding, the U.N.O.
states that, Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality
and to strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedom.
It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, races
of religious groups and shall further the activities of the U.N.O. for the maintenance of
peace.
Importance of education for maintaining international peace and understanding
cannot be overestimated and the guiding principles of education must influence
internationalism in many ways. The agencies of education do not limit themselves to
the formal systems like schools, but to different informal as well as formal agencies
including all the mass media like radio, television, press, cinema and so on.
International understanding can develop only through the right type of education,
which will allow full awareness, form healthy attitudes, create desirable interests, and
promote critical thinking and appreciation among the students. It is the responsibility
of educational institution to generate a suitable atmosphere in which children can develop
the feelings of oneness and world unity. Students should feel that they are the members
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of one world-community and be encouraged to practice tolerance, mutual help and
respect for others. The seeds of the world citizenship can be sown in the class-rooms or
in the school campus.
Internationalism is not a plant that will grow of its own accord. It is a tree to be
planted, nourished and well-trimmed; it has to flourish with the rich experiences of life
in the school and outside; it has to bear its fruit and flowers of amity and concord,
understanding and friendship in a healthy and wholesome atmosphere.
28.4.2 Approaches in Education For Promoting International Understanding

Among Students
a) Curriculum for Education for Enternational Understanding
Curriculum is highly instrumental in educating for International Understanding.
The traditional curriculum followed in our schools and universities does not fulfill all
the possibilities of internationalism. There is a need to redesign it in the light of the
guiding principles of a programme for International Understanding. The redesigned
curriculum should enable our students:
a. To learn that the earth is the home of man and other living things.
b. To gain knowledge about the world we live in - its people, their similarities and
differences, the variety of their modes of life and its reason, etc.
c. To learn how to promote better understanding of the interdependence of the
people of the world.
d. To inculcate respect for all the major religions of the world.
e. To know something about the long struggle of mankind to replace conflict with
cooperation.
f. To develop a desire and the simple skills to participate effectively in building a
better world.
In view of the above guiding principles the present curriculum should be
reorganized according to the following lines-
a. In the curriculum, essential attributes of all religions of the world, various ideals
of life of different people, ways of living and patterns of behaviour of different
nations and sections of population should be included and amply emphasized.
b. It should also include the review of all international welfare programmes and
higher achievements of all nations in all fields of human activity.
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c. Literature, music and art creations of all nations of the world must find a proper
place in the curriculum.
This means that all the important subjects and other activities that comprise the
curriculum should initiate the students into the world of which they are the members.
This necessitates a two-way programme. There is a need to re-write the school text-
books with a view to promoting International Understanding. Secondly, the
methods and techniques of teaching various subjects have to be re-oriented and re-
modeled.
b) Educational Programmes for International Understanding

International understanding can be fostered at school level, national level and
international level with the help of both curricular and co-curricular activities:
1. Study of some curricular subjects may help to promote international
understanding. Social Science should be taught as “story of man on earth”
studying man in his relations with social, political, economic and moral aspects
of other men. UNESCO has pleaded history teaching for better international
understanding. Stress should be given on the development of human civilization
as a whole-man’s progress on earth from his weak, shaky beginning to the present
position. National greatness is not an isolated fact. It is a part of the general
progress of mankind. At present, no nation lives in isolation. History teaching
widens one’s mental horizon and makes him cosmopolitan. It fosters international
sympathy and goodwill. UNESCO has written a “History of Mankind” in 8
volumes giving stress on the writing of history text-books from a international
standpoint. It should throw light on the fundamental unity of man and human
civilization. It should be the history of mankind. History is the common
storehouse of knowledge of mankind. Human civilization and human history
are interlinked. Human civilization is not the product of the genius of one person,
but rather the result of the cumulative and co-operative effort of many people.
In the words of Lord Russell, the history books should carefully abstain from
glorification of any one nation at the expense of any other. In promoting
international understanding a simplified version of world history can be taught
to the students.
2. Study of civics and social studies can develop a true spirit of citizenship. Its
teaching should cross the narrow boundaries of different nations.
3. Arts and literature have humanistic and universal appeal as they portray the
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failures and achievements, urges and beliefs of man. Their appeal transcends
all barriers. Music has a language, which touches the heart.
4. A specialized course on international understanding and relations may be
introduced in schools and colleges to promote consciousness about the
importance of world understanding.
5. Teaching of an international language or a foreign language can serve as a
stimulus to know, appreciate and respect the cultures of other people. Language
study develops emotional attachment. The three-language formula of our NEP
emphasizes the teaching of one foreign language.
6. Text-books should give stress on the interdependence of nations and the essential
sameness of man. These should emphasize cooperation rather than competition
and peace rather than war. Students should realize that peace is more constructive
than war.
7. Study of world personalities who have served humanity through their thoughts,
deeds and artistic creations should be emphasized in teaching history and writing
history text-books. The biographies of great men and women like Buddha, Asoka,
Christ, Martin Luther King, Gandhi, Mother Theresa etc., who fought to establish
peace in the world will be a great incentive to the children.
8. Education of the soul is the need of the hour. Education for human values is
urgently needed to promote international unity and friendship. Education has a
social purpose. The whole world is to be treated as one society. Study of world
religions and world history can greatly help in this regard. History teaching can
help to develop a respect for humanity at large in the minds of students.
9. Educational institutions may celebrate annual days of international importance
such as United Nations Day, Human Rights Day, International Literacy Day,
Children’s Day, Women’s Day, World Health Day etc.
10. A comparative study of different national cultures can furnish the basis for true
international understanding. Children of every nation must be given an
understanding of the different national cultures and taught to respect them.
11. Prolific use of books, pictures, posters, photo-prints, films and film-strips about
other countries is sure to promote international understanding. Films shown
about the ways, manners and culture of other countries will go a long way in
promoting international understanding.
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12. All institutions of higher learning particularly universities should make studies
of world affairs.
13. The school assemblies, clubs, excursions, exchange schemes, games and sports
are shared by other schools and groups of community and cultivate interests
and co-operation which leads to better understanding.
14. The Red Cross, the Boy Scout and Girl Guide movements inspired by service
to humanity can develop positive attitude and is favorable for establishing
universal brotherhood. A scout is a friend to all and brother to every other
scout, no matter to what country, class or creed the other may belong.
15. Emotional unity has to be stressed in both curricular and co-curricular
programmes. The concept of “One world-One State and World Citizenship” is
the present international outlook and this should be developed in the minds of
the pupils.
16. Racialism, economic imperialism, colonialism, exploitation of the weaker nations
by the stronger ones, interference in one’s internal affairs, economic disparity
between nations, vanity for language and cultural heritage all must be removed.
17. Interchange of Cultural Missions, Interchange of Teachers, Scholars and Students,
Foreign Scholarships, Foreign Travel Grants, Organization of International
Games and Sports, International Youth Festivals, Film Festivals, Scheme of
Travel Grants of Youth Leaders, Programmes of Associated School Projects in
Education, Programmes of Free and Compulsory Education for all are the ways
for the realization of universal brotherhood.
18. The principles of Panchasheela, distinctive human qualities and spiritual values
should always be emphasized in education. Knowledge about other lands and
their culture-patterns should be imparted to them through books, films and
broadcasting.
c) Methods of Teaching in Education for International Understanding

The teacher plays an important role in making the curriculum easily intelligible to
the children. He plans the essential items of all subjects in such a way that children
grasp the truth and essential attributes of every concept taught to them. As such, teachers
should so mould and direct the presentation of facts of all subjects in such a way that
leads children in more or less degree towards international understanding and
brotherhood. He should form his own point of view for this purpose.
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Sometimes “What” is taught is not as important as “How” it is taught. The same
content may be taught with or without realizing the desired objectives. Methods of
teaching are emphasized for achieving objectives of international understanding. While
teaching various subjects, world unity, mutual cooperation, interdependence and faith
in the humanity, sympathy, love and universal brotherhood should be impressed upon
the students. How this can effectively be done depends on the competency of teachers,
their methods of teaching and various learning aids and media that they can use.
The way of presentation, language and format for the purpose are to be decided
according to psychological, cultural and social needs and conditions of the pupils. For
example, at the primary school stage, storytelling method is very effective, whereas at
the secondary stage project method or any kind of activity method brings about better
results than any other method for teaching international understanding.
It should also be impressed upon the young pupils that differences in living,
language, culture, religion and even appearances are mostly due to geographical or
historical or ethnological aspects. These differences have nothing to do with intelligence,
imagination and feelings of human beings. The human passions and emotions, strengths
and weaknesses are universal. Hence too much weight should not be given on the so
called superiority or inferiority ideas which are accidental and temporary. No country
or nation is advanced all through the ages and no nation is destined to be backward for
all time to come. Hence, rational thinking, objective outlook and scientific attitude
should be encouraged through teaching various subjects which are essential for the
development of internationalism.
The instruction in various school subjects can help a lot in promoting a spirit of
international mindedness among the pupils. Instruction in various school subjects should
not be provided with a view to disseminating factual knowledge but with a broader
concept. All the subjects should have a social content, leading the pupils from national
to international understanding. A few guidelines regarding this are:
(a) Literature: Literature should be interpreted as an expression of noble urges of the
individuals of different countries of the world. A UNESCO publication states, “Extracts
from the works of writers such as Dickens, Gorky, Tolstoy, Tagore and Ibsen can be
used to illustrate stages in social progress, in the emancipation of women, in religious
freedom, and in the struggle for human rights in other domains”.
(b) Language Teaching: Language can prove to be an effective vehicle of international
understanding. It can play a vital part in the peaceful interaction of the people of the
world. Emphasis should be placed on the learning of an international language. Pupils
should also be encouraged to study the language of other communities.
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(c) Instruction in Science: Science has got great international potential. During the
course of teaching various science subjects, it may be emphasized that, a man of science
as much belongs to one country as to the whole world. He nourishes in his heart a good
will to the whole of mankind. It should be impressed upon the students that, Science
essentially concerns itself with the progress of human society and betterment of human
civilization.
(d) Instruction in History and Geography: Instruction in History, Civics and Geography
should also be oriented towards international objective. The teaching of these subjects
should re-educate people’s ideas and sublimate their emotions. If curriculum in the
teaching of History is to be effective enough to foster international understanding, the
field of history should be wide enough to enable the students to cultivate international
outlook. History should be taught objectively and with a cultural bias. World history
can also be taught.
The teaching of Civics should impress upon the students the ideas of human
freedom, dignity of the individual and equality and brotherhood of men of the world.
“The need of a moral code of mutual human behaviour and a sense of common
responsibility for world conditions should also be stressed.” The teaching should develop
in the students, “an acceptance of differences and an appreciation of the reasons for
cultural diversity.”
Similarly, Geography should enable the individual to have a global concept of the
world and the interdependence of the people in the different parts of world for the
varied necessities of daily life. It is important to see that text-books do not contain
anything which may prove harmful to international harmony.
(e) Co-Curricular Activities for Promoting International Understanding: Co-curricular
activities, which go on in the school from time to time can be geared to the needs of
educating students for international understanding. The following activities are
suggested:
a. Celebrating birth anniversaries of great men of the world like Buddha, Lord
Christ, Mohammad, Guru Nanak, Guru Gobind Singh, Lord Krishna, Lord Rama,
Pandith Nehru, Washington, Lenin, etc.
b. Celebrating international week and independence days of other countries.
c. Celebrating days of international importance such as the U.N. Day, Human
Rights Day, World Health Day, etc.
d. Organising and running U.N. Societies and international clubs.
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e. Organising Pen Friends’ Clubs for furthering international brotherhood.
f. Inviting foreign scholars to address the students to broaden their mental horizon
regarding world problems and world situation.
g. Reading out important news items of world affairs to the students and discussing
the effect of the events of a country on the world as a whole.
h. Arranging Exhibitions, organizing hobbies like stamp-collecting, coin-collecting,
picture-collecting, etc.
i. Asking students to subscribe to the funds raised in aid of a foreign country,
which might have been afflicted by some natural calamity like earthquake, flood
etc. This will enlarge their sympathy.
j. Dramatic representation of the horrors of war, enacting similar other plays,
arranging film shows, displaying costumes of various countries through fancy-
dress shows etc.
In addition to this the following could also be done.
1. Provide information about other countries; their problems and their contribution
to the progress of human civilization; their role in international economic, social,
political and cultural spheres of life.
2. Provide information about the UNO and its various agencies; about the purposes,
structure and achievements of the UNO. There are three approaches to do this:
a. The historical approach, where the history of the UNO and other agencies
are traced.
b. The problem approach where discussion about the role of UNO or any
of its agencies in the solution of international economic or political
problems would take place.
c. The project approach where children learn about UNO and its wings
through the use of project method of learning.
3. Arrange model UNO in the school.
4. Arrange exhibitions displaying the achievements of the UNO.
5. Observe red-letter days of universal significance such as the UNO or the Red-
cross day.
6. Observe the birth anniversary of great people of the world.
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7. Arrange debates, seminars, symposia and special talks on topics of international
interest.
8. Show films on different countries; their cultural differences.
9. Encourage children to go and collect funds for international causes; for instance,
Red-cross and UNICEF.
28.4.3 Role of teacher in promoting international understanding

The role of the teacher set to develop international understanding is highly delicate.
He is expected to rouse the patriotic spirit in children and at the same time develop an
attitude of looking far beyond the nation and identifying one’s interests and the interests
of one’s nation with the interests of those living far beyond the frontiers of one’s own
nation. Here follows a suggestive list of expectations from the teacher.
a. He should have a world-perspective: Knowledge of the culture of the whole
world. He must possess a quality of imagination to foresee the consequences of
the policies of his nation on other nations and vice versa.
b. He should have a tolerant attitude. The teacher should be able to appreciate the
cultural diversities of other people and also sympathise with their problems.
c. He must be free from prejudices and biases. He needs to be receptive to truth
and objective in thinking. The teacher should possess an open mind and clear
thinking.
d. He should basically be a lover of peace and co-operation
The role of the teacher in bringing about international understanding has been
very well described by L.S. Kensworthy. Though it is long, still it would be useful to
quote it in full: “The teacher should be an integrated individual, skilled in the art and
science of human relations and conscious of the wide variety of behaviour pattern in
the world to which he may have to adjust. He is rooted in his own family, country and
culture, but able to identify himself with the people of other countries and cultures. He
is informed about the contemporary world scene and its historical background and
concerned about improving the conditions of people everywhere. Moreover he is an
intelligent participant in efforts to improve his own community and nation, mindful of
their relationships to the world community, clear in his own mind as to the goals of
education for international understanding, conversant with methods and resources for
such programmes and able to help create world-minded children and youth, but stressed
by a dynamic faith or philosophy of life whose basic tenets can be universalized.”
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Other roles of a teacher in promoting international understanding among students
may be:
1. Research in international concepts and attitudes: Investigations may be made
by the teachers in finding out methods whereby improved concepts and attitudes
in the field of international understanding may be developed. At an early stage
in the course, the staff should try to learn the attitudes of the students and the
extent of training in international understanding which may be needed.
2. Visits to other land: Staff members should be encouraged, by leave of absence,
financial aid, and by other means, to study and travel in other countries, and
exchange of staff members be arranged as frequently as possible.
3. Faith and enthusiasm for the value of international understanding: Teachers
should have faith and enthusiasm for the value of international understanding
and co-operation and should possess the equipments to infuse this spirit in the
minds of the students.
4. Well informed about world situations: They should be well informed about
the contemporary world science and its historical background and concerned
about improving the conditions of people everywhere and try to make students
well informed.

I. Choose the appropriate alternative
1. The most powerful means to promote international understanding is:
a. Economic reforms
b. Equity in sharing of global resources
c. Education
d. Secularism
2. The subject, which offers more scope for promoting international understanding
among students is,
a) Social Science b) Physical Sciences
c) Languages d) Biological Sciences
3. The organization which works mainly for promoting world peace and international
understanding is,
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a) UNICEF b) UNESCO c) UNO d) SAARC
II. Answer the following questions briefly:
1. Enlist the factors that should be emphasized in the curriculum of education for
international understanding.
2. Mention the required attributes of a teacher, which can promote international
understanding among students.
3. List out any six co - curricular activities which can foster international
28.5 Let Us Sum-Up

International Understanding in a sense is ‘ world citizenship’ which emphasizes
that all human beings are fellows and members of the world family. As such, this
feeling is concerned with international good will and contributes to the wellbeing of
the whole humanity. In simple terms, it indicates love, sympathy and co-operation
among all the people of all the nations of the world.
The needs for developing International Understanding are:
● Progress of Human Civilization.
● Synchronization of Cultures.
● Interdependence of Nations.
● Threat of a Nuclear War.
● To counteract wrong emphasis on ‘My country, right or wrong’.
● To emphasize interdependence and intimate relationship of human race.
● To Educate for Democratic Ideals.
● To Educate For Human Prosperity.
Objectives of Education for International Understanding

● Highlight the peaceful uses of atomic energy and vividly picturise (describe)
the devastating consequences of the misuse of nuclear energy. For instance, the
uses of an atomic reactor for constructive purposes and the misuse of atomic
bomb for destructive designs may be discussed in comparative frame.
● Give a basic knowledge of the life and culture of different nations of the world.
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● Develop a spirit of tolerance (not indifference) towards the ways of life of
different people of the world - their religion, customs and traditions, dress and
food habits, etc.
● Develop rational thinking about the problems of other nations, inter-nation
problems and their relevance to the nation to which the children belong,
● Develop a sympathetic attitude towards the (problems of the) less developed
nations of the world; in general a concern for the welfare of humanity.
● Develop a willingness to place common good before personal interests.
● Strengthen the sense of national solidarity.
● Inculcate a belief in the ideals like fraternity, equality, liberty and justice know
and understand how peoples of other lands live.
● Recognize the common humanity, which underlines all differences in culture.
● Work for a fair and just world.
● Maintain interest in world affairs.
● Recognize the importance of solving world problems according to democratic
practices.
● Appreciate the contributions of all people to the world citizenship.
● Combine love of one’s country with a broad social consciousness towards an
interdependent community of nations.
● Respect the dignity and worth of man by giving him equality of rights and
opportunities.
● Take the world as one unit.
● Realize that truth also triumphs and leads to human progress and prosperity.
● Believe in common values and goals for the world community.
● Understand that victories of peace are greater than victories of war.
Barriers of International Understanding.
● Secrecy about the nuclear strength of nations.
● Racial prejudices.
● Lack of National Solidarity.
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● Physical and geographical isolation.
● Political barriers.
● Religious barriers.
● Psychological barriers.
● Social barriers.
● Narrow or parochial nationalism.

1. (d) All the above.
2. (b) Jeremy Bentham.
3. (c) Internationalism is not anti - nationalism and nationalism is not anti –
internationalism.
4. (d) Interdependence of nations.
5. (d) All the above.
2. (1) 1. Un-judicial distribution of global resources
2. International wars or world wars.
3. International distrust & disharmony.
4. Increasing gulf among developed, developing and underdeveloped countries.
(2) Refer section 28.3.2
(4) Refer section 28.2
‘Check your Progress ‘- 2
I 1. (c) Education
2. (a) Social Science
3. (b) UNESCO
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II 1. Refer section 28.4.2 (b)
2. Refer section 28.4.3
3. Refer section 28.4.2 (d)
28.7 Unit - End Exercises

1. Explain briefly the role of education in promoting international understanding
among students.
2. List the programmes that can be organized in a school to promote international
understanding.
3. What is international understanding? What is its importance in the present
context?
4. Briefly explain the role of teacher in promoting international understanding
among his/her students
5. What should be the curriculum of education for international understanding?
6. Mention the barriers for international understanding.
7. Briefly explain the methods of teaching various subjects to promote international
28.8 References
1. Seetharamu A. S: Philosophies of Education, Ashish Publishing House New
Delhi (2002)
2. Rai B. C. Education and Society, Prakashana Kendra,Lucknow (1985)
3. Pandey R. S: Principles of Education, Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra(1999)
4. Mohanthy J, Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishing
House. New Delhi(1982)
5. Aggarawal J.C, Theory and principles of Education, Vikas Publishing House.
New Delhi (1996)
6. Dash N. Principles of Education, Nilkamal Publications, New Delhi
(2000)
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UNIT-29 ❐ VOCATIONALISATION OF EDUCATION
Structure
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Objectives
29.3 Vocationalisation of Education
29.3.1 Concept and Meaning
29.3.2 Objectives of Vocationalisation of Education
29.3.3 Need and Importance of Vocationalisation of Education
29.4 Problems Involved In Vocationalisation of Education
29.4.1 Recommendations on Vocationalisation of Education
29.4.2 Strategies & Approaches in the Vocationalisation of Education
29.5 Let Us Sum-Up
29.8 References
29.1 Introduction
In ancient India, we had ‘Gurukula’ system of education where, education was
offered by ‘Guru’ (teacher) to his disciples (students) in his hermitage. (Ashram) Students
were required to perform all kinds of manual work for learning and living. Education
was mostly related to the life of pupils and there was no alienation or isolation between
the world of life and world of work. It was education of life, for life and through life.
When the British rulers introduced formal education in this country, its objective
was to prepare students for white-collared jobs. Consequently, education was mostly
theoretical and bookish as there was no provision for manual or practical activity in
general education. In 1854, the Wood Dispatch pointed out this defect and recommended
for vocationalisation of education i.e., to introduce pre vocational components in
education. But nothing much could be done in this respect by British rulers to the required
extent.
During the past three or four decades, we realized that education in our country has
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little utility to life, because it was not preparing an individual for earning a living. We
all know India is a poor country with rich resources. There are plenty of natural resources
in our country. Due to lack of adequate technical knowledge and skills, we have not yet
been able to explore and exploit them fully for the economic development. Because of
this inadequacy, the need for vocationalisation of education was felt. It was also felt
that the students must be made self- dependents after completing their education with
the acquisition of both knowledge and skills, and become more competent to earn their
living. It was believed that, voctionalising education i.e., linking education with
employment would promote all-round development of personality of the student &
provide him economical self - reliance.
Consequently, Rabindranath Tagore deplored the ineffectiveness of bookish
education and emphasized on the role of manual work in education. Added to this,
Mahatma Gandhiji not only insisted to introduce manual work but also to make manual
work productive and medium of education. This idea was put into practice in terms of
‘Basic Education’ as national education of the country in 1938 by the Zakir Hussain
committee.
In this context, the following questions would be raised in our minds.
a. What is vocationalising our education? And how it could be done?
b. How is vocationalising our education important in making our country
economically self dependent?
c. How is it so important in getting rid of unemployment problems?
d. What are the objectives and barriers of vocationalising of education?
e. What are the strategies/ approaches of voctionalising our education?
This unit will introduce the elementary concepts of vocationalisation of education
and related issues reflecting answers for aforesaid questions. This constitutes the focus
of the present unit.
29.2 Objectives
¾ Explain the meaning of vocationalisation of education
¾ Mention the objectives of vocationalisation of education
¾ Explain the need and importance of vocationalisation of education
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¾ Analyse the problems involved in the vocationalisation of education
¾ State the recommendations of various commissions and organizations on
vocationalisation of education.
¾ Discuss the strategies / approaches in the implementation of vocationalisation
of education.
29.3 Vocationalisation of Education

29.3.1 Concept and Meaning
The term vocationalisation of education has many different meanings. Some people
explain it as training in some specific vocation and others view it as combination of
general education and vocational education. The first view implies learning of some
trade, skill of some vocation or occupation so as to enter the world of work just after
the successful completion of the particular course. As regarding the terminal nature of
the course, there is nothing wrong with the view. But according to the other view,
vocational training, in this narrow sense, is not correct. Such educational courses must
include general education courses also, besides training in the specific vocation so as
to train the practical aptitudes of students in the preparation for definite vocational
work later.
In India, education has little utility to life, as it does not prepare a person for
earning a living. Due to this inadequacy, the necessity of vocationalisation of education
has been keenly felt. Vocationalisation means that vocational subjects should be given
a place in the curriculum of general subjects so that the student becomes competent to
earn his living after completing his general education. Vocationalisation of education
does not intend to make the child a carpenter, an artisan, a weaver, a goldsmith or
businessman or producer of some article. It only means to give a self-dependence to
the student in life afterwards. Vocationalized education seeks the development of the
total personality of the child. Vocationalisation does not mean only to impart vocational
education. Vocational education should be organized according to the individual aptitudes
of the student. A good vocational capacity may be developed in the child after ascertaining
his various aptitudes and interests.
The concept of vocationalisation was introduced by the Kothari Education
Commission for bringing education into close contact with productivity. According to
the Commission, this would give a strong vocational bias to secondary education and
increase emphasis on agricultural and technological education at the University level.
The Commission maintains that hitherto, the educational system has been training young
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people mostly for government service and the so-called white-collared professions.
Now, education must be related to the needs and aspirations of the people. The standard
of living of people is increasing day by day. An increase in population demands an
increase in production of all commodities. This can be done only if education is
vocationalized, especially at the secondary stage, because the young people coming
out of higher secondary schools will meet the needs of the industry, agriculture and
commerce.
(Al pg.119)
Vocationalisation of secondary education is different from technical or vocational
education imparted in technical schools, polytechniques or Industrial Training Institutes.
The UNESCO Report, 1974 pointed out that vocationalisation of education embraces
all those aspects of the educational process “which involve in addition to general
education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical
skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge related to occupations in the various
sectors of economic and social life”. Thus the dichotomy between education and work
should go through vocationalisation.
Vocationalisation of secondary education links with facilities covering a large
number of fields such as (a) Agriculture, (b) Industry, (c) trade and commerce, (d)
Medicine, (e) Public health, (f) home management, (g) Art and Crafts, and (h)
Management and secretarial practices. D.R. Dua has rightly remarked, “The cardinal
aim of vocationalisation of education, it may be asserted, is to ensure an integral
development of the personality and not the development of a mere technician or
mechanic”.
29.3.2 Objectives of Vocationalisation of Education

Following are the objectives of vocationalisation of education reflected by the
purposes and recommendations of various education commissions and national education
organizations.
1. To bring education into close contact with productivity.
2. To give a strong vocational bias to secondary education.
3. To relate education to the needs and aspiration of students.
4. To fulfill the increasing demands for occupation and employment opportunities.
5. To enable youth to become economically self-dependents.
6. To enhance the employment potential of educated youths.
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7. To boost-up the economic prosperity of the country with potential man power.
8. To provide for diversified vocational courses according to the aptitudes and
aspirations of students.
9. To provide for all-round development of personality of students.
10. To develop a sense of ‘dignity of labour’ among students.
29.3.3 Need and Importance of Vocationalisation of Education

(a) Need:
The emerging technological developments in India challenge our old concept of
‘unilateral’ academic type of education and lay emphasis on teaching of science and
vocational subjects at the secondary stage. Because of unfavorable economic conditions,
a large number of students give up their studies after high school and try to enter into
some profession. But it is not possible to provide employment to all. Hence they have
to choose some alternative. It is due to this reason that subjects like agriculture,
technology, handicrafts, commerce, and home science have been introduced in the
modern curriculum. The students who learn these subjects do not depend on others for
their livelihood.
Manual work becomes educative if it gives expression to the creative impulses of
the child. It is not wise to have compartments between mental work and manual work.
Experiences prove that even same mental works are quite mechanical and do not involve
thinking. On the other hand, manual work may demand the use of higher mental process
like analysis, reasoning imagination etc. the gulf between manual work and mental
work reflects the stage of society which is divided into labouring and exploiting classes.
In a country like ours, which desires to transform itself into a socialistic pattern of
society, all work should be equally respected. Therefore, in the emerging Indian society,
emphasis is laid on vocationalisation of secondary education.
In order to shape the personality of the students, to reduce unemployment, to give
some financial benefits and to suit the attitude of the students, vocationalisation of
secondary education is very much important. The adolescent getting education at the
secondary stage of education learns the dignity of labour and derives pleasure from
creative work. The Education Commission therefore, opines, there should be much
greater emphasis on craft and productive work in all schools, and in addition,
diversification of courses should be introduced. Students may take up agricultural,
technical, commercial or other practical courses, which will train their varied aptitudes
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and enable them to take up vocational pursuit at the end of secondary course or to join
technical institutes for further training.
Various Commissions and Committees have given valuable suggestions to
vocationalise the secondary stage of education. They all give unanimous opinions that
educational planning in a developing country like ours must be properly generated to
meet the immediate requirements of society. Life-career motive with a vocational bias
should be the aim of planning at the secondary stage.
(b) Importance
1. The Feeling of Fullness in Life: Only vocational or general education makes the
development of the individual one-sided. But vocationalized education may bring fullness
in his life. General education makes an individual unemployed and dependent on others
for economic assistance. Vocationalized education alone may make a child a skillful
worker in some area, but not a fully developed individual.
2. Creating a Spirit of Self-dependence: Vocationalized education creates a spirit of
self-dependence in the individual, because through his education he begins to earn
something even during his school or college career. Thus ultimately he becomes a
useful member of the society.
3. Satisfaction of Psychological Tendencies: Through vocationalized education, the
individual may satisfy his instincts of construction and self-display. Many of his latent
interests, too, may get full play. He acquires some abilities. If he has talent, it may also
be further developed. Needless to say that in vocationalized education, the student is
not a passive listener; in fact, he becomes an active partner in the very process of this
education. He learns by doing things. Various types of vocation should be incorporated
in a vocationalized curriculum in order to cater to the varying needs, interests and
aptitudes of students.
4. Dignity of Labour: As one has to do some manual work for learning some vocational
skill in the vocationalized education, it develops in him a sense of dignity of labour,
not possible in purely general and academic education.
5. Economic Prosperity: Vocationalisation of secondary education is important from
the point of view of economic development and prosperity of the country. The students
coming out of such schools, where both general and vocational educations are provided
side by side will emerge as potential manpower in boosting the economic prosperity of
the country. They will be able to find jobs in industry, agriculture or some other fields.
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The Kothari Commission visualized the link between education and productivity through
vocationalisation of secondary education.
6. Flexible Stage: By giving a strong vocational bias to secondary education, we can
make it a terminal stage for many young people who will be entering the world of work
after schooling. At present, secondary education is academic in nature and paves the
way for university education only.
7. Eradication of Unemployment problem: Vocationalisation of education will inculcate
the habit of hard work and dignity of labour among the students. The present tendency
to run after white collared professions will be checked. There is a tendency these days
among men and women in rural areas to run to cities in search of employment. This
programme should be strategically planned to solve the problem of unemployment
among educated people.
8. Provision of Diversified Courses: Vocationalisation at the secondary stage will also
provide diversified courses according to aptitudes, which would cater to the needs of
students with a very wide variety of talents. The students will choose their careers
according to their aptitude, intelligence and interest. Thus, they will be able to get a
right job and hence, job satisfaction.

1. Choose the most appropriate alternative:
1. Vocationalisation of education is,
a. Imparting vocational education
b. Imparting occupational knowledge, skills and understanding in addition to
general education.
c. Study of Science and technology
d. All the above.
2. Gandhiji’s Basic Education was adopted as National Education by,
a) Iswarabhai patel committee
b) Adiseshaiah Committee
c) Zakir Hussain Committee
d) Kothari Commission
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3. The concept of vocationalisation was introduced by,
a) lswarabhai patel committee
b) Adiseshaiah Committee
c) Zakir Hussain Committee
d) Kothari Commission
4. The main aim of vocationalisation of education is,
a) To link education to employment
b) To relate education to the needs and aspirations of students
c) To integrate occupational skills and attitudes with general education
d) All the above
II. Answer the following questions briefly.
1. List out the objectives of vocationalisation of education.
2. Bring out the need for vocationalisation of education.
3. What is the importance of vocationalisation of education for Indian youth?
29.4 Problems Involved In Vocationalisation of Education

Main Problems
1. Form and Organization of Education: What should be the form of vocationalized
education and how shall it be determined? These questions are concerned with
the form of vocational education.
2. Organization of the curriculum: This includes the problem of how to harmonise
the vocational courses with the general courses.
3. Training of teachers. The vocationalized education will require special type of
teachers who can impart vocational education along with instruction in general
education. It will mean change in the current set-up of teachers’ training
institutions like the multi-purpose schools. The vocationalisation of education
will fail in absence of suitable teachers.
4. Bringing in Changes in the Instructional Procedures. Vocationalized education
requires an integrated teaching procedure in which a certain vocation will have
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to be accepted as nucleus and the various subjects will be taught around it in a
correlated manner. However, all the subjects of general education cannot be
taught in this manner. Only those subjects can be taught which may be correlated
with the vocation concerned.
5. Laboratories and other equipments. Each school will require some workshops,
laboratories and other physical facilities and equipments after vocationalisation
of education. This will mean enough money. But due to want of financial
resources even traditional schools lack the required facilities.
6. Selection of Vocation at the time of Admission of Students. At the time of
admission, it is difficult for the student to choose a vocation. His aptitude should
be ascertained through aptitude tests. Educational and vocational guidance
services should be organized in schools. These services help the students in
identifying their aptitudes and interests. Training in a particular vocation may
be given accordingly.
7. Administration and Control. General education has been under the control of
Government education department alone cannot control education. The co-
operation of the departments of industries, agriculture and others will be
necessary.
In addition to this, Department of public education in almost all states has not had
the advantage of expert guidance through a technical adviser of sufficient standing to
enable it to plan these courses on an intelligent and comprehensive basis. There has not
been sufficient coordination and cooperation between the different departments of the
government. Some institutions were under the Director of Industries, others were under
the Director of Labour and the rest under the Director of Education.
Most excellent schemes came to grief on the rock of finance. It is of little use
envisaging any type of technical education unless the minimum amount of efficiency
can be ensured both at the initial stages and in later periods of training. It is costly to
equip school for most kinds of technical training; it is more costly to get properly
trained personnel to run these schools.
29.4.1 Recommendations on Vocationalisation of Education

Vocationalisation of education must include some practical courses according to
the aptitudes of the student, besides the general educational courses. The Secondary
Education Commission observed that these education programmes would not be
narrowly vocational but would have a definite vocational bias as secondary schools are
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not purely vocational as per their curriculum. Vocational courses should be introduced
in the secondary schools along with various subjects of general education. In this regard,
the Kothari Education Commission observed,
“We visualize the future trend of school education to be towards a fruitful mingling
of general and vocational education- general education containing some elements of
pre-vocational education. In the kind of society in which we will be living increasingly
in the coming years, a complete separation between the two will not only be undesirable
but impossible. We also expect a considerable expansion of professional education at
the university stage, especially in agricultural and technological fields.
Recommendations of Committees and Commissions:

(a) Pre- Independence
Committees and Commissions of education were appointed keeping in view the problems
arising out of vocationalisation of education. These Committees and Commissions
have given following suggestions for vocationalisation of education.
1. Indian Education Commission (1882): It suggested that vocational subjects

should be given due place in the current curriculum. But the government made
no efforts to implement this suggestion.
2. Hartog Committee (1929): It suggested that after passing the middle school
examination a student should be given an opportunity to study industrial and
commercial courses.
3. Sapru Committee (1934): It suggested that various types of vocational courses

should be taught at high school level.
4. Basic Education Scheme (1936-37): A number of basic schools were opened

under this scheme. An attempt was made to teach a number of subjects around a
certain craft with the interest of the student.
5. Abbot-Wood Committee (1937): It submitted its report on vocational education.

This report emphasized the introduction of vocational courses for removing
unemployment.
F. Sarget Scheme (1944-45): It recommended the continuance of Basic Scheme. It

suggested to incorporate local crafts and industries in the curriculum.
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(b) After Independence
1. Secondary Education commission (1952-53): It recommended the incorporation
of vocational courses in the secondary school curriculum as follows:
a. Multi-purpose schools should be established. The current secondary schools should
be gradually converted into multi - purpose schools. Till then vocational courses
should be taught in them according to the varying interests of students. The whole
curriculum was sub-divided into seven parts. Every student should study at least
one of these parts according to his interest. Each student should study some
vocational subject to develop a sense of respect for manual work. The commission
emphasized the need of educational and vocational guidance services in each
school.
b. Each student should be given an opportunity to do some productive work in the
school. The courses should be diversified to make many alternatives available
for the students. It will enable each student to choose some manual work according
to his interest.
c. The student should be given theoretical knowledge and practical training in
agriculture. Such vocations as gardening, animal husbandry, veterinary science
and bee-keeping etc., may be encouraged in schools. These vocations were
considered more useful for rural children. The rural school should function as
community centre also.
d. Technical education should be provided in secondary schools. The student may
choose some technical subject as his hobby. Some industrial tax may also be
levied for acquiring some funds for technical education. The central government
should annually give financial grants to state governments. A federal board for
technical education should be established. Multi-purpose schools should be opened
at some places.
2. University Education Commission (1948- 49): It emphasized the need of
establishing rural universities for teaching agriculture and allied subjects. It also
recommended for making more progressive medical education, teachers training
and education in law.
3. Kothari Commission (1964-66): It emphasized the utility of vocational education
and gave the following suggestions:
a. We have not yet fully emphasized vocational education at the secondary stage.
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Secondary education must be vocationalized according to the means available to
us.
b. Vocational education should be sub-divided into the following stages according
to the curriculum
i. Junior Secondary Stage: The student who has passed seventh or eighth class
should be admitted in Industrial Training Institutes (I.T.I). The admission age
should be reduced to 14 years of age. This may also benefit the primary school
passed student. Part - time education should be arranged for industrial training to
benefit those children who are mostly engaged in domestic work. The students
should be given training in agriculture and domestic science.
ii. Higher Secondary Stage: Poly-technical institutions should be established for
those students who have passed secondary school classes. Part-time training or
Correspondence training courses may also be arranged for such students. In health,
commerce, administration and small scale industries varying courses of six months
to three years duration should be instituted.
iii. Separate Committees and Sub-committees should be organized within the
jurisdiction of the Education Department of Government for giving training in
their respective vocation. These committees will look after part-time training
and correspondence courses in their respective areas. The manpower available
for various vocations should be ascertained. Then the training for the same should
be organized. The firms which may absorb the trained hands should also be
consulted about the trained hands that they would require.
iv. The Central Government should give adequate financial assistance to the various
states for vocational and technical education. In U.S.A. it was due to the federal
assistance that secondary education could be vocationalized. This practice should
be adopted in India also.
v. The current facilities for vocational and technical education should be further
extended. The training of workmen should be grouped into two parts: semi-skilled
and skilled. The number of vocational and technical institutions should be
increased. The private and state trade schools should be encouraged by giving
financial help.
vi. People have no interest in vocational curriculum as they do not understand its
utility. Government should try to create interest in the people for vocational and
technical training. Vocational courses should be made more interesting. Vocational
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Guidance Committees should be organized in schools to give psychological
vocational guidance to the students.
The National Review Committee (1978) has given the following
recommendations for making vocationalisation of education successful:
1. There should be no rigid streaming of courses into the general Education and
Vocationalized Education spectra. The student should be free to offer either the
general education or vocationalized courses or a mix of the two, particularly in
relation to the vocational courses as agriculture, and related vocations and other
relation to the vocational courses as agriculture, and related vocations and other
general sciences. There should be in-built elasticity in the choice of the general
education or vocationalized subjects.
2. Learning must be based on work. It must be either through the Socially Useful
Productive Work (SUPW) or through vocationalized courses.
3. Vocational courses should be provided in agricultural and related rural occupational
areas and in managerial, commercial, health and para-medical vocations and not
industrial and engineering occupations.
4. Books should be written on a priority basis to suit local conditions and make
available to the schools, in order to impart instruction in vocational courses, in
agricultural and related subjects.
5. Semester pattern and credit system may also be introduced in higher secondary
classes. Suitable steps may be undertaken for the orientation of teachers in this
connection.
6. To begin with, teachers with post-graduate qualifications need not be insisted,
people who have had actual experience of on-the-job may be fruitfully utilized to
reach vocational courses. Part-time teachers may also be appointed wherever
necessary.
7. Both pre-service and in-service teacher education should be organized, in
collaboration with Colleges of Education, SCERTs, NCERT, Agricultural
Universities, ICAR etc.
8. A vocational survey of the area-metropolitan, block, taluk, district or state should
be undertaken.
9. As little or no vocationalized education facilities are readily available for rural
students, all the new schools should be constructed in rural areas and should be
adequately equipped.
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10. Shift system should be introduced wherever it is feasible.
11. Apprenticeship facilities should be extended to all the students who complete
education in vocational streams if they desire to benefit from such training.
12. Vocationally qualified people should be preferred to graduates and be entitled to
the pay scales available to the graduates as long as the job performed is the same
or similar.
13. A National Council of Vocational Education should be set up.
14. At the State level, State Councils for Vocational Education be created and should
function under the general guidance of the National Council of Vocational
Education.
15. The vocationalisation of Education must be supported by the local community
and other agencies, such as Panchayat, Union, Agricultural Co-operatives, the
Small Scale Industries Corporation, Khadi and Village Industry Commission,
Local branches of nationalised and other banks etc.
29.4.2 Strategies / Approaches in the Vocationalisation of Education

Our country is passing through a period of transition. There are a number of
development plans before the country. Now there is a tendency to convert the unilateral
schools into multilateral schools. To give secondary education a vocational bias, the
following steps should be undertaken.
1. Diversification of Secondary Education Curriculum: The Government of India

appointed a number of committees and commissions with the aim of re-organising
secondary education. The diversification of the curriculum has been made on the basis
of the recommendations of these committees and commissions. With the introduction
of this system, the roads for the all round development of the students will remain wide
open. They can get an opportunity to study subjects according to their abilities, aptitudes
and capacities. To facilitate the students to choose their subjects according to their own
sweet will, diversification of the curriculum is the best means.
2. Opening of Multi-purpose Schools: Before independence, students had to study

subjects compulsorily. As a result of which, the natural tastes and aptitudes of the
students were neglected and the study of the prescribed curriculum was forced upon
them. With the dawn of independence, steps are being taken to convert secondary schools
into multipurpose schools. If this programme becomes successful, we can enable the
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students to study subjects of their choice and make the best use of their talents and
energy. We can also enable students to acquire proficiency in some vocational subjects,
so that they can get an opportunity to get self-employment.
3. Guidance Movement: To enable the students to choose vocation according to their

interest and aptitudes, vocational guidance should be encouraged in the country. Eminent
educationists and efficient teachers should remain in charge of the programme.
4. Introduction of Work Experience: Work-experience is directly related to productivity.

The entire scheme of Basic Education is based on this principle. Its purpose is to relate
education to productivity. It can work as a greater force for the vocationalisation of the
secondary education. Therefore, the Indian Education Commission (1964-66) has
suggested introducing it at the school stage of education. A scheme for providing well
graded work - experience programme with scientific bias is introduced immediately in
all the secondary schools of India.
5. Manpower needs should be carefully studied: Acute technical manpower shortage

in some industries is an acute problem in our country. Therefore, we should carefully
study the manpower needs of our country and accordingly include vocational subjects
at the secondary stage.
6. Proper planning: Without proper planning, the programme of vocationalisation of

secondary education cannot be successful. Therefore, emphasis should be laid on proper
educational planning.
The National Review Committee and the working group on vocationalisation of
education are unanimous in recommendations for making preparation and
implementation to go hand in hand. The following guidelines are suggested for effective
implementation.
1. The former has suggested two streams as given by the NCERT in its national
document. They are (i) General Education Spectrum, and (ii) Vocational Education
Spectrum. Of course, there is no rigid streaming of the courses into “general
education” and “vocational education”.
2. Three models have been recommended in the offering of elective subjects by the
schools:
a. Those offering only General Education Spectrum and its elective subjects.
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b. Those offering only the Vocational Education Spectrum and its elective subjects,
and
c. Those offering both General Education and Vocational Education courses and
their elective subjects.
3. Both the above bodies are unanimous on the issue of vocational surveys, services
at the Block, Taluk, District, State and National level, to identify the vocations
and the manpower needs of the rural and urban schools before launching the
programme.
4. The pattern of vocationalized courses recommended by the review committee is
as follows:
Courses Time Allocation
(i) Language/s 15%
(ii) General Foundation Courses 15%
(iii) Elective Subjects 70%
5. 70 per cent of the weekly hours of instruction is allocated to the teaching of
vocational elective subjects with 50 per cent practical work.
6. Different broad-based vocational courses linked to agriculture and industry and
other allied fields have been suggested by the review committee.
7. Counselling and placement officers particularly in rural areas to start with should
be appointed to advise students on the choice of elective subjects.
8. Introduction of SUPW and community services as compulsory and integral part
of education at the higher secondary stage for all students offering general education
and launching of vocationalized courses demands for reorganization of teacher
education. That is why teachers are to be prepared to take up the new challenges
through pre-service and in-service education.
These guidelines are suggestive, not exhaustive. Proper understanding of the
scheme, adequate planning and resource mobilization are necessary for success of
vocationalisation. As regards methodology to be followed for implementation of the
scheme the following guidelines may be suggested:
1. Educational potentiality of the programme can be realized by adopting the
problem-solving method.
2. Every activity has to be related to the needs and conditions of the child, his
schools and his locality or community.
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3. Adequate data collection is necessary through exploration, experimentation and
study of related literature.
4. The teacher and taught should discuss the project in detail and make joint
planning for execution.
5. The teacher should demonstrate the processes and explain the principles utilizing
various teaching aids and media.
6. Field studies may be conducted for better understanding of the environment,
local resources and marketing conditions.
7. Constant evaluation of the process and the products with reference to norms
and targets should be made.
The Adiseshaiah Committee has enunciated how SUPW could be integrated
with the actual classroom instructions. Such linking of instructional programmes with
SUPW at the secondary stage is quite feasible. But the vocationalisation of education
needs a lot of field-work and discussion at various levels. Teachers are the main springs
and pivots of the new system. But unless they are oriented and trained in the philosophy
and realities of vocationalisation and adequate resources are provided in the planned
manner, the scheme may not be a success. Collective planning evolved from grass
roots, provision of necessary facilities, adequate awareness and total commitment as
well as involvement of all concerned will ensure the realization of its objectives.

I. Choose the most appropriate alternative:
1. The education commission which recommended the establishment of Multi-purpose
schools is,
a) Kothari Commission (1964 - 66)
b) Secondary Education Commission (1952- 53)
c) University Commission (1948-49)
d) Indian Education Commission (1882)
2. The education commission which recommended the establishment of rural universities
for teaching agriculture and allied subjects is:
a) Kothari Commission (1964 - 66)
b) Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)
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c) University Commission (1948-49)
d) Indian Education Commission (1882)
3. With regard to Vocationalisation of education, Kothari Commission(1964-66)
advocated,
a) Practical training in agriculture in high schools
b) Incorporation of local crafts and industries in the curriculum.
c) Opening of basic schools
d) Establishment of polytechnic institutions.
1. What is the pattern of vocationalized courses recommended by the National
Review Committee?
2. Enlist the guidelines suggested by National Review Committee for effective
implementation of vocationalisation of education.
3. State any four causes for slow progress in vocationalisation of education.
4. State one important recommendation of the following committees regarding
vocationalisation of education.
a. Indian Education Commission (1882)
b. Hortog Committee (1929)
c. Sapru Committee (1937)
d. Abbot-Wood Committee (1944 - 45)
5. State any four problems of vocationalisation of education.
29.5 Let Us Sum-Up

Vocationalisation
Meaning: The concept of vocationalisation was introduced by the Kothari Education
Commission for bringing education into close contact with productivity.
Vocationalisation means that vocational subjects should be given a place in the curriculum
of general subjects so that the student becomes competent to earn his living after
completing his general education.
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Objectives of Vocationalisation of Education:
a. To bring education into close contact with productivity.
b. To give a strong Vocational bias to secondary education
c. To relate education to the needs and aspiration of students.
d. To fulfill the increasing demands for occupation and employment opportunities.
e. To enable youth, to become economically self-dependents.
f. To enhance the employment potential of educated youths.
g. To boost-up the economic prosperity of the country with potential man power.
h. To promote for diversified vocational courses according to the aptitudes and
aspirations of students.
i. To provide for all-round development of personality of students
j. To develop a sense of ‘dignity of labour among students.
Importance of Vocationalisation of Education

Student will have
1. The feeling of fullness in life.
2. A spirit of self-dependence.
3. A satisfaction of psychological tendencies.
4. A feeling of dignity of labour.
5. Economic prosperity.
6. No unemployment problem.
7. Provision of diversified courses.
Problems involved in Vocationalisation of Education

The Main Problems are with respect to:
1. Form and Organization of Education.
2. Organization of the curriculum.
3. Training of teachers.
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4. Bringing in Changes in the Instructional Procedures.
5. Laboratories and other equipments.
6. Selection of Vocation at the time of Admission of Students.
7. Administration and Control.
Strategies / Approaches in the Vocationalisation of Education

1. Diversification of secondary education curriculum.
2. Opening of Multi-purpose schools.
3. Guidance Movement.
4. Introduction of Work- Experience.
5. Manpower needs should be carefully studied.
6. Proper planning.
‘Check your progress’- 1
1. 1. (b) Imparting occupational knowledge, skills and understanding in addition
to general education.
2. (a) Zakir Hussain Committee.
3.(d) Kothari Commission
4. (e) All the above
2. 1. Refer Section 29.3.2
2. Refer section 29.3.3(a).
3. Refer Section 29.3.3(b)

1. 1. (b) Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)
2. (c) University Commission
3. (d) Establishment of polytechnic institutions.
2. 1. Refer Section 29.4.2
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2. Refer section 29.4.2
3. Refer Section 29.4
4. Refer Section 29.4.1
5. Refer Section 29.4

Answer the following questions:
1. Explain the concept of vocationalisation of Education with its relevance in the
present context.
2. Enlist the objectives of vocationalisation of Education.
3. Explain the need and importance of vocationalisation of education with
illustrations.
4. What are the problems involved in the vocationalisation of education?
5. Describe any four strategies of vocationalisation of education
29.8 References
1. Seetharamu A. S: Philosophies of Education, Ashish Publishing House New
Delhi (2002)
2. Rai B. C. Education and Society, Prakashana Kendra, Lucknow (1985)
3. Pandey R. S: Principles of Education, Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra(1999)
4. Mohanthy J, Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishing
House. New Delhi(1982)
5. Aggarawal J. C, Theory and principles of Education, Vikas Publishing House.
New Delhi (1996)
6. Dash B.N. Principles of Education, Nilkamal Publications, New Delhi (2000)
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UNIT - 30 ❐ DISTANCE EDUCATION
Structure
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Objectives
30.3 Distance Education
30.3.1 Concept and Definitions of Distance Education
30.3.2 Need and importance of Distance Education
30.3.3 Objectives of Distance Education
30.3.4 Special features of Distance Education
30.4 Let Us Sum Up
30.7 References
30.1 Introduction
This is an era of explosion of knowledge and for the present and future generation
of people, ‘knowledge is power’ and hence their hunger and need for information and
knowledge through education is enormously increasing. In this context, with a view to
widen the horizons of education opening the new frontiers of knowledge and
democratizing the teaching-learning process, non-formal education systems like open
universities, open schools, distance learning or distance education systems are introduced
to overcome the deficiencies and inadequacies of the traditional and formal education
system. The expansion which has been done over the hundreds of years through this
formal system has been lopsided and undemocratic in the sense that the rich and
aristocratic people have been benefited more than the poor and the lower classes. There
is, therefore, glaring disparities and discriminations between the rich & poor and high
& low classes. Education has to be made accessible to all irrespective of financial,
social and psychological and other conditions. In this kind of situation, distance education
has been found to be an alternative, a boon and a remedial measure.
In addition to this, it has been observed over the past three or four decades that
520
there is a constant increase in the social urge for knowledge and demand for qualification
by way of degrees universally. But the resources available to establish and run the
conventional type of universities are limited especially in a developing country like
India with very huge population. In this context, distance education emerged as a concept
of modern education and has proved an effective alternative to formal education. It had
its beginning in India over three decades ago with the introduction of correspondence
courses. Now distance education has become a rapidly developing global phenomenon.
It has not only gained a ground, but also has made rapid strides at various stages and in
different dimensions of education.
In recognition of this rapid expansion of the scope and need for distance education,
you would get the following questions in your mind:
● What is the concept of distance education?
● What is the nature and scope of it?
● What are its special features?
● What is its need and importance in Indian context?
This Unit shall provide you with such reflections which form the focus of issues related
to the aforesaid questions.
30.2 Objectives
¾ Define the concept of Distance Education
¾ Explain the nature and scope of Distance Education
¾ Explain the need and importance of Distance Education
¾ Reason out why there is an increasing demand for Distance Education. State
the objectives of Distance Education
¾ Enumerate the special features of Distance Education
30.3 Distance Education

30.3.1 Concept and Definitions of Distance Education
In lay man’s language we mean education provided at a distance. That is, unlike
the formal system, the teaching-learning process is not mostly conducted in a room or
in an institution; a distance is maintained between the teacher and the taught. It is a
kind of non-formal education, in which there are no restrictions of age, class and duration
521
even qualification, etc., for a degree. There is flexibility in all aspects of Distance
Education from admission to examination. Distance Education was started and even
now it is known in various names such as Instruction through Correspondence, Home
Study, Postal Tuition, External Study, Off -Campus study, Open Learning, Open School,
Open University, Education without Walls and so on.
Distance education, simply and broadly defined as the system of education in
which education is imparted to students from a distance. It contains two basic elements:
(a) The physical separation of teacher and learner and (b) the changed role of the teacher,
who may meet the students only for selected tasks such as counseling, giving tutorials
or solving students’ problems. The system is heavily dependent today upon the printed
material or instructional material, supplemented partly by the electronic media, radio,
television, and computer, in addition to limited face-to-face contact sessions.
Distance Learning lends itself to a variety of interpretations which empowers it as
a concept. “Distance Education” is an umbrella term which indicates the tangible distance
between the learner and the teacher where the process of teaching and learning is not
confined within the four walls of the classroom any more. With its horizontal mobility,
distance education transcends the barriers-of time, space, sex, creed, community and
religion, thus breaking the myth of elitism in conventional higher education.
The following definitions given by various experts and organizations would explain
the meaning of the concept in clear and concrete terms.
1. Henri Dieuzeide has defined Distance Education as the “Copernican Revolution
changing the entire gravity from teacher-centered mentality to the student-
centered approach”.
2. Otto Peters defines Distance Education as “The distance teaching/education is
a method of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalized by
the application of division of labour and organizational principles as well as the
extensive use of technical media especially for the purpose of reproducing high
quality teaching material which makes it possible to instruct a great number of
students at the same time wherever they live. It is an industrial form of teaching
and learning”.
3. Document entitled “Open Learning” by Mackenzie and others published by
UNESCO (1975) defines, “Such systems are designed to offer opportunities
for part-time study, for learning at a distance and for innovations in the curriculum.
They are intended to allow access to wider section of adult population, to enable
students to compensate for lost opportunities in the past or to acquire new skills
and qualification for the future. Open learning systems aim to redress social or
522
educational inequality, and to offer opportunities not provided by conventional
colleges and universities”.
4. The Council for Educational Technology (CET), UK has defined the open
learning systems as “Those which offer students measure of flexibility and
autonomy, to study the programmes of their choice when and where they with
and at a pace to suit their circumstances (David Butts).
5. Adiseshaiah defined Distance Education as, ‘the teaching- learning process
undertaken where space and time dimensions intervene between the teaching-
learning”.
6. According to G. Rama Reddy, “Distance Education is one such alternative
and it has the potential to transcend the barriers of time and space”.
7. Moore, 1973 has defined Distance Education as, The family of instructional
methods in which the teaching behaviours are executed apart from the learning
behaviour; including those that in a contiguous situation would be performed
in the learner’s presence, so that communication between the teacher and learner
must be facilitated by print, electronic, mechanical or other devices.
30.3.2 Need and Importance of Distance Education

In all progressive countries of the World the system of Distance Education is now
being introduced. In our country, equipments and resources for providing education
are quite inadequate because of the rising population every year. Under this situation, it
has not been possible for us to meet the educational needs of all those who desire to
receive education. The utility of Distance Education has been so much recognized
these days that sixty countries have jointly established an International Council of
Distance Education. The existing traditional education can benefit only those who have
not yet taken up any job. If one gets admission in some school or college be will have
to remain there till he finishes the prescribed course successfully.
Under this system generally the poor students are deprived of the facility of higher
education. In this context, we shall have also to admit that the existing system of higher
education is quite expensive. The larger portion of our population resides in rural areas.
To make higher education available to all the rural people will be quite expensive and
extremely difficult. Secondly, our state governments and central government have
inability to provide the necessary funds for education. So it appears impractical to
expand the prevailing system of education. In the present age of democracy, it is very
necessary to give benefit of education to all. If many people cannot go to schools,
523
colleges and universities, education should be offered at their very doorstep.
For a developing country like India with its given demographic and economic
conditions, the non-formal systems may be better suited for many of its societal aims
such as ‘literacy for all’ and ‘universal primary education’ which are still just dreams
even after more than 55 years of independence. Alternative strategies under the non-
formal systems need to be strengthened further so that they may help in accelerating
democratization and modernization.
The system of Distance Education has the potential to fulfill the enormous
responsibility of universalisation and democratization of education, as it holds the
promise of checking the falling standards at reasonable costs, making the optimum use
of media and technology and providing education relevant to the needs of the country.
Distance education methods can be successfully used for relating to groups who, for
geographical, economic, or social reasons, are unable or unwilling to make use of
traditional/conventional (Classroom based) provision of education.
Although, there is no total unanimity regarding the concept and the meaning of
distance education, the needs for the same are felt by all in various ways and stages.
The needs may be as follows:
a. To provide educational opportunity to those who are deprived of or missed the
chance earlier.
b. To advance and disseminate knowledge, skills, attitudes, interests, etc., by
multifarious means.
c. To improve the quality and standard of education at all stages.
d. To meet the needs of the learners and to make education relevant to the needs
of the country.
e. To make universalisation of elementary education its success through open
schools.
f. To reduce the pressure on formal education at various levels.
g. To meet the needs for scientific and technical manpower required.
h. To facilitate the implementation of constitutional provisions for equalization of
educational opportunity.
i. To remove inequality and inadequacies of the existing education system.
In addition to this, its importance can be realized by observing the following advantages:
1. It overcomes successfully the deficiencies of the formal system of education.
524
2. It is being an off-campus teaching system; it effectively meets the explosion of
higher education.
3. It can to a great extent help realizing the Constitutional Directives of
Universalisation of Elementary Education.
4. The rigidity of the conventional classroom-oriented education is avoided through
distance education.
5. Since it is a non-formal pattern of education it caters to the needs of the deprived
sections of the society.
6. It promotes motivation among the learners for advancing in his own pace.
7. It is very cost-effective as it does not require going and coming every day to the
school/college nor required for staying in the hostel.
8. Distance education can be availed by the service-holders for whom earning
bread is more important than prosecuting study.
9. Distance education is a boon for the handicapped people for whom journey is a
problem and attending classes regularly is a hurdle.
10. Since distance education is a multimedia approach to education, learning
becomes more effective due to multi-sensory advantages.
11. The study materials in various forms: audio, video, print, etc., help students to
adopt and utilize according to his interest and ability.
12. The components like assignments, attending study centers and discussion or
counselling with the course or subject experts facilitate learning.
13. Television being a very powerful medium can enable distance learners to see
scientific experiments, interviews and discussions with eminent educationists,
etc.
14. Innovations like teleconferencing, interactive programmes facilitate learning
through two-way dialogue.
15. The use of computers in distance education provides rich learning resources,
additional support and feedback facilities to its learners.
It would be proper if more relevant and flexible courses are offered through distance
education mode. The distance education courses should be suited to the capabilities
needed in the society. These could be developed in collaboration with industry, agriculture
developmental agencies and social institutions.
525
It is also obvious from all that has been stated above, that the distance education
system will play a crucial role in educational development in the country in the years to
come. The success of the system will, no doubt, depend upon the manner in which it is
organized and developed.
30.3.3 Objectives of Distance Education

The major objectives of distance education in India are:
a. To provide an alternative cost-effective non-formal channel for higher education.
b. To supplement the conventional university system and to reduce the pressure
on it.
c. To provide a second chance to education for those who have had to discontinue
their formal education or could not join regular colleges/universities because
of some inevitable problems.
d. To democratize higher education by providing access to large segments of the
population, in particular the disadvantaged groups such as those living in remote
and rural areas, including working people, women and other adults who wish
to acquire and upgrade their knowledge and/or skills through studies in various
fields.
e. To strengthen and diversify the degree, certificate and diploma courses related
to the needs of employment and necessary for building the economy of the
country on the basis of its natural and human resources.
f. To provide a means for continuing and life-long education for enriching the
lives of the people.
g. To provide an innovative system of university education which is both flexible
and open in terms of methods and pace of learning, combination of courses,
eligibility for enrolment, age of entry, conduct of examination, and operations
of the programmes with a view to promoting learning and encouraging excellence
in new fields of knowledge (IGNOU Act, 1985; APOU Act, 1982; KOU Act,
1987; IGNOU project report, 1985, UGC Annual Report, 1981-82).
The Education Commission (Kothari Commission, 1964-66) had suggested the
objective of enrolling about one-third of the students at the university level
correspondence education. (GOI, 1966)
526
30.3.4 Special Features of Distance Education
Distance Education is that field of educational endeavour in which the learner is
quasi-permanently separated from the teacher throughout the length of the learning
process; a technological medium replaces the inter-personal communication of
conventional, oral, group-based education; the teaching/learning process institutionalised
(thus distinguishing it from the teach-yourself programmes); two-way communication
is possible for both student and teacher ( thus distinguishing it from other forms of
educational technology). It represents an industrialization of the educational process
(Keegan 1983).
Keegan’s latest definition of distance education (1986) has synthesized all the
various views held with regard to the definition of the terms distance education. Distance
education is a form of education characterized by:
The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length of
the learning process; this distinguishes it from conventional face-to-face education.
The influence of an educational organization both in the planning and preparation
of learning materials and in the provision of student support services; these distinguish
it from private study and teach-yourself programmes.
The use of technical media, print, audio, video and computer, to unite teacher and
learner can carry the content of the course. The provision of two-way communication
so that the student may benefit from or even initiate dialogue; this distinguishes it from
other uses of technology in education.
The quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the length of the
learning process so that people are usually taught as individuals and not in groups, with
the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and socialization purpose
(Keegan, 1990).
In addition to this other features of distance education are:
a. Great flexibility in the system starting from admission to examination,
particularly in the teaching- learning process, is the most important characteristic.
b. The concept of equality is emphasized.
c. A multiple strategy and matching model approach is given importance.
d. Distance education is democratic in nature as it takes care of all particularly the
deprived and depressed sections of society.
e. It is socialistic in nature as it seeks to provide social justice to those who are not
able to get equal opportunity.
527
f. It can be provided at any stage and to any group of learners.
g. The learner is required to learn and make progress according to his own pace.
h. Physical infrastructure is not so much essential as in case of formal education.
i. Software materials are produced at a large scale and are developed mostly on
the programmed learning modes.
30.4 Let Us Sum-Up

Concept and Definitions of Distance Education
Distance education, simply and broadly defined as the system of education in
which, education is imparted to students from a distance. It contains two basic elements:
(a) The physical separation of teacher and learner; and (b) the changed role of the
teacher, who may meet the students only for selected tasks such as counseling, giving
tutorials or solving students’ problems.
Henri Dieuzeide has defined Distance Education as the “Copernican Revolution
changing the entire gravity from teacher-centered mentality to the student-centered
approach”.
Otto peters defines Distance Education as “The distance teaching/education is a
method of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalized by the
application of division of labour and organizational principles as well as the extensive
use of technical media especially for the purpose of reproducing high quality teaching
material which makes it possible to instruct a great number of students at the same
time wherever they live. It is an industrial form of teaching and learning”.
Macknzie has defined Distance Education as, “Such system, designed to offer
opportunities for part-time study, for learning at a distance and for innovations in the
curriculum. They are intended to allow access to wider section of adult population, to
enable students to compensate for lost opportunities in the past or to acquire new skills
and qualification for the future. Open learning systems aim to redress social or educational
inequality, and to offer opportunities not provided by conventional colleges and
universities”.
The needs of Distance Education are as follows:

1. To provide educational opportunity to those who are deprived of or missed the
chance earlier. To advance and disseminate knowledge, skills, attitudes, interests,
etc., by multifarious means. -To improve the quality and standard of education
at all stages.
528
2. To meet the needs of the learners and to make education relevant to the needs
of the country. To make universalisation of elementary education a success
through open schools.
3. To reduce the pressure on formal education at various levels.
4. To meet the needs for scientific and technical manpower required.
5. To facilitate the implementation of constitutional provisions for equalization of
educational opportunity.
6. To remove inequality and inadequacies of the existing education system.
Importance of Distance Education:

● It overcomes successfully the deficiencies and inadequacies of the formal system
of education.
● It being an off-campus teaching system, effectively meets the explosion of higher
education.
● It can to a great extent help realizing the constitutional directives of
universalisation of Elementary Education.
● The rigidity of the conventional classroom-oriented education is avoided.
● Since it is a non-formal pattern of education it caters to the needs of the deprived
sections of the society.
● It promotes motivation among the learners for advancing in his own pace.
● It is very cost-effective as it does not require going and coming every day to the
school/college nor require for staying in the hostel.
● Distance Education can be availed by the service-holders for whom earning
bread is more important than prosecuting study.
● Distance Education is a boon for the handicapped people for whom Journey is
a problem and attending classes regularly is a hurdle.
● Since Distance Education is a multimedia approach to education, learning
becomes more effective due to Multi-sensory advantages.
● The study materials in various forms: audio, video, print, etc., help students to
adopt and utilize according to his interest and ability.
● The components like assignments, attending study centers and discussion or
counseling with the tutors or subject experts facilitate learning.
529
● Television being a very powerful medium can enable distance learners to see
scientific experiments, interviews and discussions with eminent educationists,
etc.
● Innovations like teleconferencing, interactive programmes facilitate learning
through two-way dialogue.
● The use of computers in Distance Education provides rich learning resources,
additional support and feedback facilities to its learners.
Objectives of Distance Education

1. To provide an alternative cost-effective non-formal channel for higher education.
2. To supplement the conventional university system and to reduce the pressure
on it.
3. To provide a second chance at education for those who have had to discontinue
their formal education or could not join regular colleges/universities owing to
pecuniary or other circumstances.
4. To democratize higher education by providing access to large segments of the
population, in particular the disadvantaged groups such as those living in remote
and rural areas, including working people, women and other adults who wish
to acquire and upgrade their knowledge and/or skills through studies in various
fields.
5. To strengthen and diversify the degree, certificate and diploma courses related
to the needs of employment and necessary for building the economy of the
country on the basis of its natural and human resources.
6. To provide a means for continuing and life-long education for enriching the
lives of the people.
Special Features of Distance Education

● The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length of
the learning process; this distinguishes it from conventional face to face
education.
● The influence of an educational organization both in the planning and preparation
of learning materials and in the provision of student support services; this
distinguishes it from private study and teach-yourself programmes.
530
● The use of technical media: print, audio, video and computer, to unite teacher
and learner can carry the content of the course.
● The provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit from
or even initiate dialogue; this distinguishes it from other uses of technology in
education.
● The quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the length of
the learning process so that people are usually taught as individuals and not in
groups, with the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and
socialization purpose (Keegan, 1990).
● Great flexibility in the system starting from admission to examination,
particularly in the teaching - learning process, is the most important characteristic.
● The concept of equality is emphasized.
● A multiple strategy and matching model approach is given importance.
● Distance Education is democratic in nature as it takes care of all particularly,
the deprived and depressed sections of society.
● It is socialistic in nature as it seeks to provide social justice to those who are not
able to get equal opportunity.
● It can be provided at any stage and to any group of learners.
● The learner is required to learn and make progress according to his own pace.
● Physical infrastructure is not so much essential as in case of formal education.

I. Choose the appropriate alternative:
1. Distance Education is also termed as:
a. Correspondence education
b. Open University education
c. External study
d. Open learning
2. The ultimate aim of Distance Education is:
a. Universalisation of Education
531
b. Democratisation of education
c. Providing employment to all
d. Providing qualification by way of degrees to all
1) a and b 2) c and d 3) b and c 4) a and d

3. Distance Education is a type of:
a) Formal education b) Non-formal education
c) Informal education d) Incidental education
4. The type of education that gave way to Distance Education is,
a) Basic education b) Vocational education
c) Correspondence education d) University education.

1. Mention any two definitions of Distance Education and state the similarities
you find.
2. Justify the growing need for Distance Education with one reason of your own.
III. Answer the following questions briefly:

1. Mention any two definitions of Distance Education and state the similarities
you find.
2. Justify the growing need for Distance Education with one reason of your own.
3. Illustrate the importance of Distance Education in Indian context with an
example.
4. List out the objectives of Distance Education.
5. Enumerate any 4 salient features of Distance Education.

1. 1. (e) All these
2. 1. a and b (Universalisation and democratization of education)
3. (b) Non formal education
4. (c) Correspondence education
532

1. Briefly explain the concept of Distance Education with a special reference to
its nature.
2. What are the needs to have Distance Education in India at this context?
3. State the objectives of Distance Education in Indian context.
4. Bring out the importance of Distance Education in the universalisation and
democratization of education in India.
5. Enumerate salient features of Distance Education.
30.7 References
l. Chube, S. P : History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Pustak Mandir,
Agra, 2001.
2. Manjulika, S., Reddy and V. Venugopal : Distance Education in India - A Model
for Developing countries, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
3. Mohanthy Jaghannath : Studies in Distance Education, Deep and Deep Publications
Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi-2001.
533
534
EDUCATION IN INDIA
BLOCK 06
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
AND SUPERVISION
535
536
B.Ed.CC-01 : EDUCATION IN INDIA
Block
6
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION
Unit - 31
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION–AN
INDTRODUCTION 541
Unit - 32
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION–ROLE OF
CENTRAL AND STATE GOVERNMENTS & NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANISATION 557
Unit - 33
INDIAN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION - STRUCTURE 579
Unit - 34
INDIAN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION -
PROBLEMS 604
Unit - 35
TEACHING AS A PROFESSION IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT 616
Unit - 36
PROFESSIONALIZING EDUCATION IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT 623
537
Vice Chancellor
Mysore 570 006
Karnataka

Dean - Academic
Mysore 570 006

Mysore 570 006

Mysore 570 006
Dr. H. S. Raghavendra Rao Course Writer

Lecturer in Education
RIMSE
Mysore 570 004

Mysore 570 006
Mysore 570 006.
538
BLOCK 06 : EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
AND SUPERVISION
INTRODUCTION
Educational administration is a relatively recent profession, it being only slightly

more than one hundred years old. Compared with the professions of law, medicine,
architecture, engineering and others, it is extremely young. When its short life is
considered, it must be admitted that its development has been remarkable. Its recognition
as a separate field of study is also of recent origin in the country. This new branch of
knowledge has a special feature of its own. It can be classed as public administration
along with the administration of all other non-profit-making enterprises. But there are
a large number of educational institutions, run by private bodies. Some of them are of
the proprietary type and are conducted primarily for profit, but the majority of them
receives stable grants and do not seek profits. “Educational administration,” as French
and others hold, “therefore, along with the administration of social service organizations
of an educational, religious or philosophic nature, quasi-public in character, may be
considered as public administration.”
Educational Administration is concerned with the management of things as well

as with human relationship, i.e., the better working together of people. In fact, it is
more concerned with human beings and less with inanimate things. Educational
administration is, therefore, primarily a social enterprise. Like any other branch of
administration, this new field of knowledge is more an art than a science. It is indeed
true that an educational administrator bases his activities on a body of basic principles,
which has been arrived at inductively from the study of human experience of organization.
But such principles are not large in number, and can be applied to a few fields only. In
fact, educational administration cannot achieve such remarkable control and great
productive accuracy as has been achieved by the natural sciences in their narrow field.
539
Educational administration is again concerned with both human and material
resources. Among the human elements with which administration is concerned are
children, parents, teachers and other employees, the citizen in general, the board of
education, and other officials at local, state and national levels of government. On the
material side are money, buildings and grounds, equipment, and instructional supplies.
A modern school system must be administered competently, if waste of both human
and material resources is to be minimized. This is not enough. Beyond these two elements
are ideas, curricula, courses of study, methods, principles, laws and regulations,
community needs, and so on - all of which have a bearing on the educational process
and hence are concerns of administration.
In this Block you are going to study about the meaning and principles of educational
administration, the role of Central and State governments and NIEPA, UGC, NCERT,
NCTE, AICTE, IMC, etc., in it and the problems of educational administration and
supervision. You will also study about teaching as profession, professional organizations
and the need for code of conduct for teachers, etc .
540
UNIT - 31 ❐ EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
AND SUPERVISION–AN INTRODUCTION
Structure
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Objectives
31.3 Meaning
31.4 Principles
31.5 Let Us Sum Up
31.8 References
31.1 Introduction
Ordway Tead defines administration as ‘a comprehensive effort to direct, guide
and integrate associating human strivings which are focused towards some specific
ends or aims.’ Educational administration is also a comprehensive effort intended to
achieve some specific educational objectives and it deals with the educational practices,
whereas educational philosophy sets the goal, educational psychology explains the
principles, educational administration, tells the do-how of educational objectives and
principles. It, in fact, is the dynamic side of education. Educational administration
deals with educational institutions -right from the schools and colleges to the secretariat.
The many changes, which have taken place in educational thought and practice
since the advent of independence in this country, have exercised a considerable influence
on secondary school administration. In the first place, it has been recognized that
secondary education should be an instrument of democratic policy in India. It should
help our youths discover their vocations and responsibilities and not merely cramp
their minds with facts and figures. It has to prepare them to live in a contemporary
society and face its problems without fear, happily and integrally. Concurrent with
this, there has been a rapidly growing recognition that democratic administration is
necessary to the development and operation of democratic education. Thus democratic
leadership is the only acceptable kind of leadership for education. It gets things done,
541
and it improves the schools also. Finally, the secondary school has grown larger and
more complex, and a considerable number of duties confront a secondary school
administrator today. Anyone familiar with these developments cannot help being
impressed with the increasing complexities of administering a forward-looking
programme of secondary education.
31.2 Objectives
After you complete the study of this unit, you will be in a position to:
● Conceptualize the meaning of Educational Administration.
● Find out the relationship between Administration, Organization and Supervision
in Education.
● Realize the Scope of Educational Administration.
● Analyze the principles of Educational Administration
31.3 Meaning of Educational Administration

Educational administration is a comprehensive effort to direct, guide and integrate
associating human strivings, which are focused towards the development of educational
institutions. It is intended to achieve some specific educational objectives and it deals
with the educational practices.
Nature
Educational administration is a relatively recent profession. Compared with the
profession of law, medicine, architecture, engineering, and others, it is extremely young.
When its short life is considered, it must be admitted that its development has been
remarkable. Its recognition as a separate field of study is also of recent origin in the
country.
This new branch of knowledge has a special feature of its own. It can be classed as
public administration along with the administration of all other non-profit-making
enterprises. But there are a large number of educational institutions, run by private
bodies. Some of them are of the proprietary type and are conducted primarily for profit,
but the majority of them receives stable grants and do not seek profits.
Purpose
According to Kendel, “Fundamentally the purpose of educational administration
542
is to bring pupils and teachers under such conditions that are ideal to successfully
promote the needs of education.” Sir Graham Balfour writes very aptly, “the purpose
of educational administration is to enable the right pupils to receive the right education
from the right teachers, at a cost within the means of the state, which will enable pupils
to profit by their learning.”
India is a big democracy. The number of schools and colleges are ever growing;
the number of teachers is very large. Therefore, a good administration is essential to
manage all these things. Some suitable, stable element properly motivated and organized
in the machinery becomes necessary to withstand and survive the changes and upheavals
caused because of change of governments. Superior educational administration, in fact,
is so basic to the satisfactory functioning of democracy. Errors of judgment can be
retrieved in a farm or factory but these can be fatal when we are concerned with the
moulding of ideas and values of society. An efficient and sound system of educational
administration is, in fact the basis of a good democracy.
Obviously, these things do not come by themselves. They have to he planned; a
systematic and permanent system of educational administration, with a philosophy and
vision, has to be evolved to feed on young democracy with the rights of citizens.
Process
Educational administration has a number of components such as:
1. Forecasting
2. Decision Making
3. Planning
4. Organization
5. Direction or Motivation
6. Control
7. Co-ordination
8. Evaluation
9. Recording and Reporting
These varied functions are named and identified merely for the sake of convenience
in analysis; administration is not a collection of disjointed tasks; rather it is a seamless
wall, in which functions are closely integrated into a process or pattern.
Forecasting is a systematic assessment of future conditions by inference from

known facts today. We should collect all sorts of information about the present position
of the system, its present and expected resources and try to form a picture in terms of
543
the accepted philosophy in a particular country. A democratic decision-making structure
is an integral part of a human organization. It assumes that people, including adolescents,
operate most effectively in a context that maximizes their freedom and responsibility.
After considering the various alternatives and weighing the consequences of each
course of action, a choice must be made; a course of action must be determined. Decision-
making is a key factor in educational administration, as here we have to think of
generations, which will be affected by the policies decided. Guess work, arbitrary exercise
of authority, ill-considered hasty decisions, should have no place in educational
administration.
The following points must be borne in mind while deciding:

1. The goal must be clear.
2. The course of action should be simple and easily understood by all concerned.
3. Standards for targets must be laid.
The plan should be flexible. There should be enough scope for change to cater to
any unforeseen situation. There are many variables; the priorities may change due to
unforeseen circumstances; equipment and grants may not become available as expected;
personnel may be posted out or proceed on leave - all these variables contributing to
the non-implementation of decisions. The very existence of variables and uncertainties
make decision-making and planning necessary.
Organization is the combination of necessary human effort, material equipment
brought together in systematic and effective correlation to accomplish the desired results.
In education, we organize:
Human beings into schools, classes, committees, groups, school staff, the inspecting
staff.
Materials into buildings, furniture and equipment, libraries, laboratories, workshops,

museums and art galleries.
Ideas and principles into school systems, curricular and co-curricular activities, time
schedules, norms of achievement and the like.
Direction or motivation is the process of guiding the human effort for achieving the
target. The modern term for direction is motivation i.e., to make the man to be cheerfully
willing to do the job we want him to do. Involvement in deciding policies and plans
help in motivation. Communication in all directions, vertical and horizontal, is also of
544
great importance to motivate the members of organization. It is always better to have
face-to-face communication to motivate anyone for any kind of job.
Effective control is another important element of educational administration. The
administrator must have constant check on his team and on his own performance to see
that it corresponds to the standards laid down. The administrator needs to take corrective
measure in the form of adjustment of the physical environment of work, modification
and addition of materials and methods, or review of the .personnel in terms of their
spirits, abilities and motivation, to achieve the targets. The administrator can bring
about co-ordination between the persons and materials with his administrative
competence. This is necessary to see clearly (i) the relations among people (ii) the
allocation of tasks and (ii) divisions of labour necessary to organizational achievement.
It is very important that our administration should be put to test often. This is
evaluation. Good measures are required to find out the reasons why it failed or succeeded.
Questions like, which were the steps in the process most successful? What should be
done to improve the present situation? What are the changes to be introduced? etc.,
will help to evaluate and adopt necessary measures to improve the administration.
Recording and reporting are also essential elements of administration. The educational
administrator is answerable to the parents, the higher authorities, the society, etc. for
whatever is done in the educational institutions. It is, therefore, very important that a
faithful record of all the events is maintained and reports are sent to the concerned
persons.
Administration, Organization and Supervision

You have already understood the meaning of administration. An effective
administration results in the economy of material, time and energy. Organization is
concerned with arrangement and rearrangement of equipment, material, apparatus and
persons. The administrator is to operate and manage the things so organized.
Therefore, as you have already understood, the administration and the organization
must run side by side on parallel lines to help each other and supplement the efforts of
one another. A good administration is required to ensure continuous realization of the
possibilities of good organization. Cox and Langfitt say, ‘Administration executes,
directs; supervision advises, stimulates, explains, leads, guides and assists. Both of
them plan, both diagnose, both inspect, but administration decides and orders execution,
while supervision helps to decide and assist in improving instruction.’
Thus one can come to a conclusion that effective supervision too should go together
with administration. Many of the activities in administration have definite supervisory
545
implications. Administration represents the whole enterprise of school management
and the supervision represents a portion of it that is delegated to others by the
administrators. Supervision represents a practical part of the over-all direction of the
school enterprise.
Inspection and supervision are terms often confused with each other and sometimes
treated synonymously. Some people think that whatever is done by an inspecting official
is part of his supervisory responsibility; similarly, it is at times thought that supervisory
functions include inspection. Supervision of an educational institution is a continuous
process undertaken to encourage and direct self-activated growth. The ultimate aim of
supervision is, of course, improvement of instruction for providing better education.
The headmaster of a school, for example, supervises the working of his institution; and
to discharge a part of his responsibility in this matter, he inspects teaching work by
sitting in a class or he inspects and countersigns the fee-collection registers of different
class-teachers in his school. Inspection, which has the same ultimate objective, is done
periodically and it includes an element of supervision. A BEO, for example, supervises
the work of school education in his block and inspects the institutions of a particular
level, say high schools, assigned to him. For effective inspection, therefore, the
educational inspector should also know appropriate technique of supervision. The word
inspection carries with it the concept of automatic supervision whereas it is really,
taken to be more democratic and cooperative in character.
The traditional concept of supervision and inspection was authoritarian and rigid
and did not include the element of professional guidance to teachers. But the modern
concept is more scientific, professional, and democratic in approach and character.
The term supervision, accordingly, implies professional leadership by the head of the
institution and senior teachers of the school. It is a dynamic function involving and
stimulating the teachers while evaluating their performance with the ultimate aim of
improving the entire teaching-learning situation. Supervision, as such, should involve
demonstration teaching, observation lessons, organization of seminars, meetings and
workshops, guidance in the preparation of institutional plans, etc. Similarly, inspection
should include academic guidance to teachers, encouragement to educational
innovations, transport of useful ideas and techniques from one institution to others
apart from finding out, as in the past, whether (i) the school has the prescribed number
of qualified teachers, (ii) the buildings, accounts and records are maintained properly,
(iii) the departmental rules and regulations are observed, (iv) the prescribed curriculum
and syllabi have been adopted, and (v) the grants (in case of private schools) have been
utilized well.
546
Principles of Supervision
Some of the basic principles of supervision in education may be listed as under.
1. Supervision, an integral part of an educational programme, is a co-operative
and team activity.
2. All teachers of the school need, and are entitled to, supervisory help and guidance.
This service is the responsibility of the headmaster or principal of the institution.
3. Supervision should be adapted to meet the individual needs of school personnel.
4. Trained as well as untrained teachers need, and should benefit from, supervision.
5. Supervision should assist in clarifying the objectives and goals of education
and their implications.
6. Supervision should help in the organization and administration of curricular
activities for students.
7. Supervision should contribute to improve human relations among personnel in
the institution, and with people out-side it.
8. Responsibility for improving supervision of a school rests with the teacher for
his/her classroom. Likewise, this responsibility rests with the Headmaster /
Principal for the whole school and with the inspectorate and higher authorities
for the entire school system.
9. Supervision also requires planning, both long-term and short-term. The planning
should be done on scientific lines and with the appropriate involvement of all
concerned.
10. Supervision should help interpret and put into practice the findings of the latest
educational research.
Supervision of instructional work, co-curricular activities, and school environment,
school registers and of development aspects are important. The procedure followed for
supervision are through guidance to the teachers and the headmaster, school and
classroom visits, teachers’ meetings and conferences, holding conferences with the
individual teacher, holding teachers’ meeting for consideration of major instructional
problems, meeting the school management members, etc. The supervision is of several
types to fulfill a number of different objectives. It may be corrective, preventive, creative,
autocratic, inspirational, humanistic, democratic, etc.
When a fault is detected in administration, suggestions to correct it and also not to
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do so in future puts any administration in good stead. It becomes creative when it
encourages teachers to think freely for themselves in matters pertaining to objectives,
curriculum, organization and content, methods of teaching and evaluation. Sometimes
the supervision may be autocratic or authoritarian. It forces and prescribes methods.
When the supervision inspires the teachers, of course, it is the most useful and long
lasting. It will lift the teachers above themselves. This is possible when the supervisor
is an ideal man who nurtures qualities like sincerity and honesty. ‘Impression’ rather
than ‘oppression’ is the essence of inspirational supervision. Humanistic supervision
aims at developing healthy human relationships among all the partners of educational
enterprise. The democratic supervision recognizes the dignity and worth of the individual.
It encourages freedom while providing direction, advice and suggestion.

1. What is educational administration?
2. What is the purpose of Educational Administration according to Kendle?
3. Why is Educational Administration important in India?
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4. Mention any four components of Educational Administration.
5. What are the points to be borne in mind while taking a decision?
6. What is Organization?
7. What is Supervision?
31.4 Principles of Administration

Educational administration is very vast. The school is the basal unit of educational
administration. You have to note that in the Education Commission Report of 1964-66,
it is rightly stated that, “the destiny of India is now being shaped in the class-rooms.”
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Thus the good administration of schools has become more important. Efficient school
administration is crucial to the success of democracy.
The school administration involves a number of components. They may be listed
as follows: Providing the human equipment, i.e., headmaster, teaching staff, ministerial
staff, and menial staff. Providing material equipment like, building, furniture, playfields,
laboratory, library, museum, etc. Preparation of curriculum, timetable, organization
of co-curricular activities, etc., for different classes, maintaining discipline, organization
of health and physical education, exhibitions and museums, guidance service,
maintaining the school records, providing various auxiliary services like mid-day meals,
school uniforms, text books, etc.
Evaluation of students’ achievement, that is, conducting tests and examinations,
issue of progress reports and financing, preparation of the budget, co-operation with
the departmental authorities and implementing the orders of the higher educational
authorities, are the important components of school administration.
Characteristics
A good school administration will have the following features:
It is flexible in character. That means, it is not static, it is always dynamic, providing
enough scope for additions and alterations whenever they become necessary. But this
does not mean that the administration will be always in fluid condition. It must maintain
certain norm and standard rules and regulations. So that, there will be no confusion or
chaos at different steps. It means that there should be proper balance between rigidity
and elasticity. Only theory is of no use. The school administration should not be only a
bundle of theoretical principles. It must help by giving practical measures to achieve
the desired objectives. Objectives decided must be achievable and practicable to avoid
frustration.
There must be close connection between school administration and the social and
political philosophy of a country. It must adjust itself to the impact of new ideals, new
patterns and new mores of the society. Successful administration is that which results
in maximum efficiency. This will be possible only when human and material resources
are properly utilized - right man at the right place; right work at the right time, every
activity and project is well planned and well executed. Successful administration is
one which, leads to the successful achievement of desired objectives of education in
a particular community e.g., healthy social living, development of good physical, social,
moral, intellectual and aesthetic qualities and healthy democratic living. Thus, school
administration must facilitate education. It exists for the pupil and its efficiency has to
be measured by the extent to which it contributes to teaching and learning.
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Principles
You know that India is a democratic country. As the school administration should
have conformity with the social and political conditions of the country, all the principles
of school administration should revolve round the democratic principles. Thus the
schools can help to have everlasting good democratic set up in the country. The following
are the important principles:
Democratic Philosophy of Education

Dr. Paul H. Appleby, in his report on Indian Administration has emphasized the
need for a philosophical but simple theory for administration for a country, which is
determined to create a welfare state. If a philosophy is necessary for general
administration, it is all the more so for educational administration which is seeking to
fashion a new pattern of education suited to the needs and aspirations of modern India.
In an educational institution in a democracy, the administrator is not a small dictator,
but a friend and a guide; he consults his colleagues, honours their opinions, converses
with them in staff meetings, and meets them informally in gatherings and clubs- he is
one among the equals. He recognizes each individual child, finds out his potentialities
and gives him help and guidance according to his requirements. Thus the total
administration becomes a joint show of the headmaster, teachers, and pupils. Everybody
has a clear consciousness and realization of the purpose of democratic philosophy with
which the school is administered.
Freedom
All should enjoy enough freedom to exhibit their powers and talents. Individuals
in an atmosphere of freedom can only cultivate the power of critical thinking, an important
requisite of democracy. The headmaster should give due recognition to any signs of
display of resourcefulness on the part of teachers. They should be free to question,
offer constructive suggestions, conduct fresh experiments and bring about healthy
changes. The pupils should also be allowed enough freedom to rise to the full stature of
their abilities.
Student centered
All educational administration should be student-centered. The purpose of all
educational endeavors is the welfare of the student. This ‘flesh and blood’ should never
be lost sight of in the midst of facts, figures and files. Enough opportunities must be
provided for the wholesome development of the students. Whatever is done in the
school should be of the students, by the students and, for the students.
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The Administration must be flexible, adaptable and stable
We have already studied that the administration should have the quality of flexibility.
With that we have also came to know that it should not go beyond certain norms and
standard regulations. Therefore, it must hold fast to the good, change what requires
changing and be fertile in considering individual differences in all personalities involved.
In this way it should be flexible.
Some practical measures may be suggested for school administration. Formation
of Staff and Student Councils and conducting meetings often and receiving the
suggestions from students and staff as the case may be, will help the administrator to
go in a democratic way. It is better the students and staff members participate in social
service in the locality they live or the school is located. They may take interest in
cleanliness and literary campaigns, helping the sick, collection of national defense
funds, etc.

1. Why is School Administration important?
2. List any four components of School Administration.
3. Write one of the important characteristics of School Administration.
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31.5 Let Us Sum Up
• Ordway Tead defines administration as ‘a comprehensive effort to direct, guide
and integrate associating human strivings which are focused towards some
specific ends or aims.’
• Educational administration is also a comprehensive effort intended to achieve
some specific educational objectives.
• Educational administration deals with educational institutions - right from the
schools and colleges to the secretariat.
• The many changes, which have taken place in educational thought and practice
since the advent of independence in this country, have exercised a considerable
influence on secondary school administration.
• Concurrent with this, there has been a rapidly growing recognition that democratic
administration is necessary to the development and operation of democratic
education. Thus democratic leadership is the only acceptable kind of leadership
for education.
• Educational administration is a relatively recent profession. Compared with
the profession of law, medicine, architecture, engineering, and others, it is
extremely young.
• Educational administration has a number of components.
• Organization is the combination of necessary human effort, material equipment
brought together in systematic and effective correlation to accomplish the desired
results.
• Supervision represents a practical part of the over-all direction of the school
enterprise.
• The supervision is of several types to fulfill a number of different objectives. It
may be corrective, preventive, creative, autocratic, inspirational, humanistic,
democratic, etc.
• The school administration should have conformity with the social and political
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conditions of the country all the principles of school administration should
revolve round the democratic principles.
• Some practical measures may be suggested for school administration.

1. Educational administration is a comprehensive effort to direct, guide and integrate
associating human strivings, which are focused towards the development of
educational institutions.
2. The purpose of educational administration according to Kendel, “Fundamentally

the purpose of educational administration is to bring pupils and teachers under
such conditions as will more successfully promote the end of education.”
3. India is a big democracy. The number of schools and colleges are ever growing;
the number of teachers is very large. Therefore, a good administration is essential
to manage all these things.
4. They are,
a. Forecasting
b. Decision Making
c. Planning
d. Organization
5. The following points must be borne in mind while deciding:
1. The goal must be clear,

2. The course of action should be simple and easily understood by all
concerned,
3. Standards for targets must be laid.
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6. Organization is the combination of necessary human effort, material equipment
brought together in systematic and effective correlation to accomplish the desired
results.
7. Supervision represents a practical part of the over-all direction of the school
enterprise.

1. The Education Commission Report of 1964-66, states that, “the destiny of India
is now being shaped in the class-rooms.” Thus the good administration of schools
has become more important. Efficient school administration is crucial to the
success of democracy.
2. The components are,
a. Human and material equipment,
b. Curriculum,
c. Timetable
d. Library and laboratory.
3. It should be flexible in character. That means, it should not be static, but always
be dynamic, providing enough scope for additions and alterations whenever
they become necessary.

Answer the following questions in about two pages each.
1. What is the meaning of Educational Administration? What is its need and
purpose?
2. Explain how the administration, organization and supervision are related to
each other.
3. Explain the process of educational administration with the help of its components.
4. What are the principles of educational administration?
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31.8 References
1. Kochhar S.K: Secondary School Administration, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 1978.
2. Mukerji S. N: School Administration, Acharya Book Depot, Baroda, 1963.
3. James J. Jones and others: Secondary School Administration, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1969.
4. Bill R. Hampton and Robert H. Lauer: Solving Problems in Secondary School
Administration, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1981.
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UNIT - 32 ❐ EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
AND SUPERVISION–ROLE OF CENTRAL
AND STATE GOVERNMENTS AND NON-
GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
Structure
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Objectives
32.3 Role of Central Government
32.4 Role of State Government
32.5 Role of Non-Governmental Organizations
32.6 Let Us Sum Up
32.9 References
32.1 Introduction
You are well aware of the fact that we have considered education to be an important
tool for resolving social problems and for maximizing the well being of individuals. In
our country, where most of the people, even today, remain illiterates, there is an urgent
need of providing education to all. This has become more important at the primary
education level. India, being a democratic country, requires more educated people for
the survival of democracy. The country, as a developing nation, needs the support of
the government to provide education at the basic level. As education at the primary and
secondary level is quantitatively huge, naturally involves huge expenditure. Only in
urban areas, some private organizations may show interest in running schools for children,
but not without some profit at least to run the school. As such, in rural areas, where
other than government agencies do not take interest in running the schools, it becomes
the duty of the government to provide education.
It is not only providing education to a large number of children which becomes
important on the part of the government, but it has to impose some control over the
institutions run by itself and others to safeguard the interest of the people and to maintain
the quality of education. As you know, our Constitution, in its Directive Principles of
State Policy, requires the government to make primary education universal and
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compulsory. This is in view of providing education to all. Thus the responsibility of the
government - both Central and States - is to provide education and also to have
administrative control over them.
In this unit you are going to study the role of Central and State governments and also of
Non-Governmental Organizations in educational administration and supervision.
32.2 Objectives
¾ Recognize the importance of the role of
● Central Government.
● State Governments, and
● Non-Governmental Organizations in Educational Administration and
Supervision.
¾ Describe the role of these in Educational Administration and Supervision.
32.3 Role of Central Government

Before independence, in the field of education, there was no proper educational
development plan. The British government did not take it seriously. Due to some
historical circumstances, there existed some system of education during those days,
but not out of any conscious planning.
As you have studied in History, in 1921 a system of rule called Diarchy was
introduced. The provincial autonomy was introduced in 1937. These developments
resulted in transferring education to Indian control. Thus the central government during
the British rule retained only an authority over the provinces and did not do anything
directly. The local authorities were first placed in-charge of primary education. It was a
part of the programme of transferring powers to Indian people. Later on they were
permitted to develop educational programmes at their discretion. The private educational
institutions played an important role in British Indian provinces, especially in post -
primary education. This was due to lack of government enterprise. The private agencies
used to meet the growing demands for education.
After Independence, a new chapter was opened in educational administration in India.

The Constitutional Provisions have made the Central and State governments take the
responsibility of providing education to the people.
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The 7th Schedule of the Constitution, which was amended in 1976, put education
in the concurrent list with effect from 3.4.1977. Thus the Constitutional provisions
envisage: (a) education is in the main a state responsibility, (b) the Government of
India has an indirect but significant responsibility for education, (c) there has to be
healthy partnership between the Central and the State Governments in the national task
of educational reconstruction.
For the purpose of implementation, the educational programmes are divided into
three categories.
1. State Programmes: These programmes are eligible for central financial
assistance. But the responsibility for executing them largely rests with the states.
2. Centrally Sponsored Programmes: These are drawn up at the instance or
suggestions of the Central Ministry, and have all-India applicability. These are
also implemented through the State Governments, like the scheme in the state
Sector.
3. Central Schemes: These are entirely worked out and implemented by the Central
Ministry.
The programmes in each of the three categories are so formulated that they reinforce
and supplement the programmes in the other categories.
In India at present the schools are managed by three agencies. They are,
1. Government: The Government institutions form only one fifth of the total number
of institutions.
2. Local Authorities: The institutions conducted by the local authorities are the
largest in number- a little less than half of the total and most of them are primary
schools.
3. Voluntary Organizations: The institutions run by private enterprises form about
one third of the total, and dominate pre-primary and post-primary education.
The government not only finances its own institutions, but also those of local
authorities and voluntary organizations to a substantial extent. The bulk of the
expenditure on school education comes from State funds and fees. The
contribution made by local authorities and voluntary organizations is very small
and of less significance.
Now let us try to understand educational administration at the national level.
At the national level, the agencies, which are concerned with educational development,
are,
1. The Ministry of Education - now it is The Ministry of Human Resource
Development (HRD).
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2. The University Grants Commission (UGC), and
3. The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT).
The Ministry of Human Resource Development

The Minister for HRD is the highest authority to control and formulate educational
policies. He directs, executes and ensures uniformity in the pattern of education in
different states. One or two deputy ministers according to the exigencies assist him.
The Educational Adviser is the administrative head of the ministry. He is the
Secretary to the Government of India and is the principal adviser to the Ministers on all
matters of policy decisions and administration. The Ministry of HRD at present functions
mainly through five bureaus and deals with the heads of these bureaus.
These bureaus are,
1. School Education.
2. Higher Education.
3. Language, Literature and Fine Arts.
4. Scholarships, and
5. Planning and Ancillary Educational Services.
The Bureau of School Education deals with elementary, basic and secondary education
and the Central and Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya School units. The Bureau of Higher
Education covers both university and technical education. Thus it brings about
coordination between the higher and technical education. The Bureau of Language,
Literature and Fine Arts looks after cultural matters and development of Indian
languages and the three Academies. The Scientific Research Division is allied to the
Bureau of Scholarships.
The Bureau of Planning and Ancillary Education Services includes the NCERT
Unit, social education, planning, publications, statistics and information. Each bureau
has been put in charge of a Joint Secretary or a Joint Education Adviser to whom are
attached divisional heads for major subjects. The Physical Education and Recreation
Division and the External Relation Division are separated under the charge of a Joint
Educational Adviser.
Advisory Bodies
The Ministry has set up a number of advisory bodies which function in different sectors
of education. The oldest and the most important of these is The Central Advisory
560
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Board of Education. The Board is presided over by the Union Minister of HRD and
includes all State Education Ministers as members. Until 1949, it was the only body,
which considered the national problems in education and gave advice to the Central
and State governments.
Union Ministry of Human Resource Development

After independence a number of other advisory bodies were constituted. Each of
them is expected to deal with special sectors of education. At present there are about
15 such bodies. They are,
1. Indian National Commission for Co-operation with the UNESCO (1949);
2. Advisory Board for Social Welfare (constituted in 1951 and reconstituted in
1954);
3. Board of Scientific Terminology;
4. Central Board of Physical Education and Recreation (constituted in 1950 and
reconstituted in1956);
5. Hindi Shiksha Samiti (1951);
6. National Board of Audio-visual Education (1953);
7. All India Council for Sports (constituted in 1954 and reconstituted in 1959);
8. National Advisory Council for the Education of the Handicapped (1952);
9. National Council for Rural Higher Education (1956);
10. All India Council for Secondary Education (1950);
11. Central Committee for Educational Research (1957);
12. All India Council for Elementary Education (1957);
13. Children’s Literature Committee, (1958);
14. National Council for Women’s Education (1959);
15. Central Sanskrit Board (1959).
These advisory bodies are very useful. They bring official and non-official workers
together in the consideration of educational problems and tender advice to the Central
and State Governments on issues, which are of importance in formulating educational
policies and programmes. They also bring to bear an all India approach on the discussion
of problems entrusted to them.
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According to the suggestions made by the Indian Education Commission, the
following advisory and executive bodies are constituted:
1. National Board of School Education besides the Central Advisory Board of
Education to coordinate the standards of education at the national level and
help the States.
2. Central Board of Secondary Education to deal with all aspects of Secondary
Education at the State level.
3. National Staff College of Educational Administration for training in educational
administration and supervision.
4. State Board of School Education to deal with all the aspects of secondary
education at the State level.
5. State Board of Vocational Education to look after vocational education in the
State.
6. State Institute of Education for providing in-service or regular training for
supervisors and administrators and other programmes.
7. State Higher Secondary Committee to look after the Higher Secondary Education.
8. State Education Organization for prescribing standards, improving education
techniques, prescribing textbooks, etc.
9. District School Board in each district, to administer elementary education in
the district.
10. Block School Committee to look after the management of Government and
local body schools in the area.
Functions of Central Government

In the educational administration, the Central Government has the following functions:
1. Educational Planning.
2. Organization of Special Fields of Education.
3. Control of Educational Programmes by giving grants.
4. Direction and Guidance in Educational matters to States.
5. Equalizing Educational Opportunities.
6. Pilot Projects to demonstrate new programmes.
7. Clearing House Function regarding educational information.
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8. Administration of Education in the Union Territories and the Centrally
Administered Areas.
Now let us know briefly the above-mentioned functions.

Regarding Planning, it lays down the general policy regarding education to be
followed by the States. It will determine the targets and priorities and prepare a tentative
plan-frame for the country as a whole. It appoints commissions, committees and boards
to study the various phases of education and suggests steps to improve the same.
The central Government appoints commissions and committees to organize special
fields of education like the mass education, professional education, employment of the
educated, provision for the backward classes, indiscipline among students, grants
commissions for universities, research institutes and laboratories and the central
universities. For these purposes, it has set up the All India Council for Technical
Education, All India Council for Secondary Education, the All India Council for
Elementary Education, the National Council of Educational Research and Training,
Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti, etc.
It directs and guides the state governments, local bodies and individual enterprises
so as to encourage education on right lines. Through the Central Advisory Board of
Education, it tries to solve some serious problems of education, such as, medium of
instruction, assessment and evaluation, text book nationalization, teaching personnel,
libraries and laboratories.
The Central Government controls educational programmes through giving financial
assistance to the State Departments of Education. Centre allocates suitable grants for
the state, local bodies, private agencies and individual scholars out of the Central Budget.
It arranges students’ exchange programmes with foreign countries. It makes available
certain fellowships and scholarships for outstanding scholars to go into advanced study
of subjects. It arranges students’ training abroad and in-service training of teachers
through the extension service departments.
Regarding establishing Equalization of Educational Opportunities, it provides
financial assistance to weaker States to help them advance to the level of forward
states in the country. Thus it helps to reduce the inequality and also to establish equality
of educational opportunities. Thus it helps the weaker states to achieve the set targets.
As a leader, the Central Government puts up pilot projects to show the way to
others. It is necessary to introduce new things now and then in the field of education.
On such occasions the Central Government undertakes certain pilot projects like Rural
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Universities, Education Extension Services, Regional Institutes, preparation of text
books for different school subjects through the department of Curriculum, Methods
and Textbooks. It will also provide leadership for developing programmes of significant
and fundamental research in education to assist state governments in improving the
quality of education.
The Central Government serves as a repository and clearing house of information
and ideas on education, research, training and expansion for all the states. This is done
by collecting various information and statistics from a number of sources and publishing
them in its publications namely, Education in India, Education in the States and Education
in Indian Universities. It also publishes studies and surveys, reports of commissions
and committees and such other educational documents. The Ministry of Human Resource
Development has a special publication section and it has brought out a large number of
publications. Magazines like, Education Quarterly, Secondary Education, Youth, Indian
Journal of Educational Administration and Research are some of the important
periodicals.
The Ministry of HRD, Govt. of India is directly responsible for education in the
Union Territories and also in the Centrally Administered areas like, Pondicherry, NEFA,
etc. It is necessary to note that the educational activities are not centralized in the
Ministry of HRD, all the ministries will be conducting one or the other educational
programmes in the country.

1. When was education transferred to Indian control during the British Rule?
2. What are the categories made for the purpose of implementation of programmes?
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3. What are the three agencies, which manage educational institutions?
4. What is the Ministry of HRD?
5. What are the five bureaus through which the ministry of HRD functions?
6. Which is the oldest educational advisory body at the Centre?
7. Mention any three educational functions of the Central Government.
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32.4 Role of State Government
Administrative Set-up
As we have understood already, in the Constitutional provision, the education is
in the main a state responsibility. At the state level, there will be a Directorate of
Education. It works under the direct control of the Minister of Education. The Minister
controls the educational policy and directs its implementation. He is also responsible
to the State legislative of which he is a member.
In a state there will be a number of types of education. The Education Minister is
responsible for the general education. The other types of education referred to here be,
for example, medical education, technical education, agricultural education, industrial
education, etc., come under the concerned ministry.
As far general education is concerned, the education minister administers his duties
through the State Department of Education. The State Department of Education is
organized at two focal points: I) Policy making and coordination function in the
Secretariat and, ii) the direction, regulation and inspection function at the directorate.
Secretariat
The Secretary is the administrative head of the Secretariat. He is directly responsible
to the Minister of Education. Generally, the Secretary will be an IAS officer. A deputy
secretary, a few assistant secretaries and under-secretaries assist him. The Secretary
keeps liaison between Directorate of Education and the Government.
Directorate
A Director of Education called Director of Public Instruction heads the Directorate.
In some States he is called Commissioner for Public Instruction. In the State of West
Bengal it is the Commissioner of Public Instruction who heads the Department of
Primary and Secondary Education. The Commissioner belongs to IAS cadre. He is the
executive head of the Education Department and is responsible for offering technical
advice to the Minister and for carrying out the policy of the Department. He keeps the
Government informed regarding the educational needs and actual progress of education
in the state, people’s reaction to its government policy of education, awards grants,
conducts research, etc. The Commissioner contacts the Department through his staff at
the Headquarters. He is assisted by a number of Joint Directors and Assistant Directors
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in the Headquarters and at the District Level the Education officer is called Deputy
Director of Public Instruction. Formerly there were Divisional Educational Offices for
each revenue division in West Bengal.
In each District in the State, as we have already understood, there will be its Deputy
Director of Public Instruction. Block Education Officers assist him. Each taluk in the
District is considered as it Block. All states do not have identical administrative set-up
but most of them practice a three-tier arrangement, namely, The State Level, The
Divisional Level and the District Level. In West Bengal, as we have already understood,
the Divisional Level is discontinued and therefore, there is only two-tier system, namely,
the State Level and The District Level educational administration.
General education administration, in some states, is divided into two or three
different Directorates. For example in West Bengal, the primary and secondary
education is controlled by the Commissioner for Public Instruction, the pre-university
education is controlled by a separate Director and the collegiate education is controlled
by another Director. There are two ministers in charge of general education.
One for the Primary and Secondary education including the Pre-university education
and the other for the higher education, including technical education, But the medical
education is under the control of another separate minister:
Educational Functions of State Governments

State governments have the following functions as far as education is concerned.
1. Finance: The most important function of State Governments is to find out all
the resources needed for elementary and secondary education. This responsibility
is subjected only to two limitations, (i) Central grants that may be received
from time to time, and (ii) the contribution raised by local bodies and private
agencies, if any.
2. Legislation: To pass laws for different types of education are the second major
function of the state. To pass laws for compulsory attendance for elementary
education, education for women, handicapped, etc., is the state responsibility.
3. Supervision and Inspection: Since the State provides the vast bulk of the funds
required for education and is responsible to account for it to the state legislature,
it has to maintain an agency to supervise schools in all cases. Even when the
authority over elementary and secondary education is transferred to local bodies,
the state has to maintain a supervising machinery of its own to watch over the
manner the schools are being run by them. Where they fail to run the schools
properly, the state takes over these schools.
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4. Recruitment of teachers: The states are responsible for recruitment of teachers,
for prescribing the remuneration and other service conditions of teachers. The
recruitment of teachers is sometimes done by the Public Service Commission
and sometimes by authorities appointed by the state, for example; Local
Appointment Committees, etc. Even when it is transferred to local bodies, the
state retains the right to frame recruitment rules and to lay down the procedure
for recruitment.
5. Prescription of Curricula: State prescribes the textbooks for the entire state or
for different zones or regions in line with the curricula framed. The production
and easy supply of textbooks is one of the major responsibilities of the state.
When the responsibility for education is transferred to local bodies, the state
government has to take over to itself, in relation to the local bodies under its control, all
those functions which the Centre has to perform in respect to the states viz,
a) It has to act as a clearing house and coordinating agency so as to bring about unity
and coherence;
b) It has to provide leadership through training of staff, supervision, research and
pilot projects;
c) It has to equalize educational opportunities by providing special assistance to the
poorer and more backward local bodies.
It is obvious that the state governments have supreme responsibilities for education
and that, even when local bodies are made to share the burden at times, the residual
responsibilities of the state are still large and are of very great significance.
State and Secondary Education
Secondary Education is under direct and full control of the states. The state
governments prepare their education plans in the light of their local conditions and
needs and within the plan-frame prepared at the centre.
State governments have set up Secondary Education Boards as per the
recommendations made by the Secondary Education Commission at the centre. The
Secondary Education Boards are mainly advisory boards. They include secondary school
teachers and headmasters, and representatives of universities. Through their syllabus
committee, they frame and recommend curricula for approval by the Government. They
also conduct the final school leaving examination.
The state governments exercise control, partly direct and partly indirect, over all
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secondary schools irrespective of the type of management, through their power to accord
aid and, or recognition. They give subsidies and grants-in-aid to other managements to
meet a proportion of the total expenditure. Always this financial aid is subject to
conditions laid down by the government in their recognition orders issued to the schools.
In this way, the state governments control the secondary education system by using the
rules and regulations formulated for the purpose, and through the periodical inspection
and supervision over the working of the schools and management.
There are a few schools in each state not coming under state control. They are,
a) Schools administered by other public authorities like the Railway Ministry or
the Defense Ministry, which generally fall in line with the state system, and
send up their pupils for final examination conducted by the State Board.
b) The public schools, which do not fit into any state pattern but are residential
institutions, cater to a select category of pupils, who generally take the Senior
Cambridge Examination.
State and Higher Education

States also control the activities of the universities. They appoint commissions
and committees to give suitable recommendations to improve universities. The state
universities are dependent upon the state government. States provide universities with
the funds for their successful functioning. State government gets things done in
universities through the department of education.
As far as the establishment of colleges and appointment of teachers are concerned,
the state governments have direct control over them. The government, through the
Director of Collegiate Education, directly manages the Government Colleges. The rules
and regulation of the government also govern the colleges managed by private
management. The colleges are affiliated to the university in their geographical location.
The university to which a college is affiliated does the prescription of syllabus and the
conduct of examinations and issue of certificates.
State and Primary Education

Though primary education falls under the control of state, yet because of
decentralization, it is the duty of the local bodies to look after the day-to-day functioning
of primary education. The Zilla Parishad has been given the responsibility of donning
the primary education with the help of the Deputy Director of Public Instruction (DDPI)
who is the head of Primary and Secondary Education at the District Level. The DDPIs
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are assisted by the BEOs at the Taluk level to inspect and supervise the primary
schools.
There are arguments in favor, as well as against, the control of primary education
by Local Bodies. Some argue that since the local bodies have limited financial resources,
lack of leadership and local political interference in school affairs, it is not fair on the
part of the government to give responsibility to Local Bodies. But those who argue in
favor of this proposition say that the local administration always takes necessary action
quickly, fulfill local needs and look after the students’ welfare, etc.
The decentralization will become successful by proper inspection of schools, by
framing definite recruitment rules for teachers’ appointment, and by regular
administrative checkup by the state officials, etc.
32.5 Role of Non-Governmental Organizations

Non-governmental or voluntary agencies have made a very significant contribution
in the development of education in India. Private management manages nearly half of
the educational institutions. There are different types of private institutions such as,
recognized and unrecognized, aided and unaided institutions. A recognized institution
may be aided or unaided. An aided institution is necessarily a recognized institution. It
receives regular financial aid from the government. At the school level, the government
of the state or the union territory concerned gives the recognition.
A recognized school implies the existence of some minimum standards in physical
facilities as well as in the educational work done by the institution. Students of a
recognized school are eligible for admission to the corresponding class or standard of
another recognized school. This privilege is not available to pupils of an unrecognized
school. A high or higher secondary school/intermediate college/junior college is also
affiliated to a board of school or intermediate/junior college education. In that case, the
students of the school or college are eligible to take the examination of the board and
receive certificates on success. This relationship of school/college with the board is
also sometimes loosely expressed as recognition by the board. The question of affiliation
is primarily raised with respect to private schools / colleges because the government
schools/colleges are normally given the affiliation automatically. An autonomous board
(Statutory body or registered society) has, however the authority to refuse affiliation to
a weak school or college set up by the government.
A degree level college should be affiliated to a university. An affiliated college is
entitled to all privileges of the university. If a college is not affiliated to a university, its
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students can take their university examinations only as private candidates if that facility
is available in the university. Degrees of the universities are normally recognized on a
reciprocal basis. Recognition of a particular degree of university by another university
implies eligibility to the degree holders of the former university to seek admission to
subsequent courses in the latter university. Recognition of a particular degree or certificate
or diploma by a government means permission to the possessor of that degree or diploma
or certificate to apply for that government’s post where that particular degree/diplomat/
certificate is the prescribed minimum qualification.
A private or non-government educational institution may be established by a
charitable, philanthropic or social welfare organization/individual. Such an organization
or individual will provide a piece of land, construct buildings, provide furniture, teaching
aids, etc. and finance the teachers and non-teaching personnel for sometime before the
institution is recognized or affiliated and it seeks grants-in-aid from the government.
Even after the financial assistance is received, the management must invariably contribute
some matching share.
A private institution has a governing body by whatever name it may be called. In
many cases, the governing body has on it a representative of the state government or
the local body. In the case of a college, there may be a representative or nominee of the
affiliating university, too. The accounts of an aided educational institution are required
to he duly audited by a chartered accountant, and the installment of financial assistance
is normally not released unless the previous year’s audit report is received and is decreed
satisfactory.
Philosophically, there it is debatable view that the government should have nothing
to do with educational institution and that the entire education should be under private
management. The supporters of this view maintain that full and free growth of the
individual cannot he ensured under a government because it is interested in one particular
ideology - the ideology of the ruling political party. But in a multi-religious and multi-
lingual country like India, there is also the fear of some kind of regimentation in a
private educational institution. It may be noted that in socialist countries, all educational
institutions are with the government.
As far as educational standards are concerned, the facilities provided in and the
restrictions imposed upon government institutions create a situation in which all such
institutions maintain a kind of average standard, and the inter-institution variation among
them is within a narrow range. On the contrary, a private institution may be very low or
very high in terms of the educational standard reached by it. Experience has indicated
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that in terms of results in public examinations or those for scholarships or selection,
students of private institutions often show a better performance.

1. What are the two focal points of the State Department of Education?
2. What is the important work of Education Secretary?
3. Who is the head of Education Department at the District Level?
4. What are the functions of State Government towards education?
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5. Who looks after Primary Education?
6. What are the different types of private educational institutions?
7. Which students exhibit better performance?
32.6 Let Us Sum Up

• After Independence, a new chapter was opened in educational administration
in India. The Constitutional Provisions have made the Central and State
governments take the responsibility of providing education to the people.
• For the purpose of implementation, the educational programmes are divided
into three categories.
1. State Programmes.
2. Centrally Sponsored Programmes and
3. Central Schemes.
• The programmes in each of the three categories are so formulated that they
reinforce and supplement the programmes in the other categories.
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• In India, at present, the schools are managed by three agencies. They are,
1. Government
2. Local Authorities
3. Voluntary Organizations
• The Bureau of School Education in the Ministry of HRD deals with elementary,
basic and secondary education and the Central and Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya
School units. The Bureau of Higher Education covers both university and
technical education. Thus it brings about coordination between the higher and
technical education.
• According to the suggestions made by the Indian Education Commission, a
number of advisory and executive bodies are constituted to help the ministry.
• In the educational administration, the Central Government has the following
functions.
1. Educational Planning.
2. Organization of Special Fields of Education.
3. Control of Educational Programmes by giving grants.
4. Direction and Guidance in Educational matters to States.
5. Equalizing Educational Opportunities.
6. Pilot Projects to demonstrate new programmes.
7. Clearing House Function regarding educational information.
8. Administration of Education in the Union Territories and the Centrally
Administered Areas.
• As far general education at the State Level is concerned, the State Education
Minister administers his duties through the State Department of Education.
The State Department of Education is organized at two focal points: I) Policy
making and coordination function in the Secretariat and, ii) the direction,
regulation and inspection function at the directorate.
• The Secretary of Education is the administrative head of the Secretariat. He is
directly responsible to the Minister of Education.
• In the State of West Bengal, the Commissioner of Public Instruction heads the
Department of Primary and Secondary Education called the Department of Public
Instruction.
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• In each District in the State, there will be a Deputy Director of Public Instruction.
Block Education Officers assist him. Each Taluk in the District is considered as
a Block.
• Though primary education falls under the control of state, yet because of
decentralization, it is the duty of the local bodies to look after the day-to-day
functioning of primary education.
• Non-governmental or voluntary agencies have made a very significant
contribution in the development of education in India.
• A private or non-government educational institution may be established by a
charitable, philanthropic or social welfare organization/individual.
• Experience has indicated that in terms of results in public examinations or those
for scholarships or selection, students of private institutions often show a better
performance.

1. In 1921 a system of rule called Diarchy was introduced. The provincial autonomy
was introduced in 1937. These developments resulted in transferring education
to Indian control.
2. The three categories are,
a) State Programmes.
b) Centrally Sponsored Programmes.
c) Central Schemes.
3. They are,
a) Government.
b) Local Bodies and,
c) Non-Governmental Organizations.
4. The Ministry of HRD is the Ministry of Education at the Centre. HRD is Human
Resource Development.
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5. The five Bureaus are,
1. School Education.
2. Higher Education.
3. Language, Literature and Fine Arts.
4. Scholarships, and
5. Planning and Ancillary Educational Services.
6. The oldest Advisory Body is, The Central Advisory Board of Education.
7. The three functions are,
i) Educational Planning.
ii) Organization of Special Fields of Education.
iii) Control of Educational Programmes by giving grants.

They are,
1. Policy making and coordination function in the Secretariat and, the direction,
regulation and inspection function at the directorate.
2. The Secretary keeps liaison between Directorate of Education and the Government.
3. The Deputy Director of Public Instruction.
4. The State government has to Finance, make Legislation, arrange for Supervision
and Inspection of schools, recruit teachers, prescribe curricula, etc.
5. The Primary Education is the concern of Local Administration like Zilla Parishad
in Karnataka.
6. There are recognized and unrecognized and aided and unaided private educational
institutions.
7. The students who come out successfully from private education institutions exhibit
better performance.

1. Justify the need for education administration. Why does democracy need efficient
and good administrative machinery?
577
2. “Although education is mainly a state subject, yet Government of India is doing
a lot for improving education in the country.” In the light of this statement discuss
the functions of the Central Government in respect of education.
3. Discuss the recommendations of the Indian Education Commission for improving
the educational administration and planning in our country.
4. Discuss the relationship between State Government and local bodies (Zilla
Parishad) in the administration of primary education in Karnataka.
5. Explain the service rendered by voluntary organizations in the field of education.
32.9 References
1. Kochhar S.K: Secondary School Administration, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 1978.
5. Shukla PD : Administration of Education in India, Vikas Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1983.
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UNIT - 33 ❐ INDIAN EDUCATIONAL ADMINIS-
TRATION - STRUCTURE
Structure
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Objectives
33.3 Educational Administration -Structure at Central Level
33.4 Educational Administration — Structure at State Level
33.5 Role of NIEPA, UGC, NCERT, NCTE, AICTE & IMC
33.6 Let Us Sum Up
33.9 References
33.1 Introduction
The many changes, which have taken place in educational thought and practice
since the advent of independence in this country, have exercised a considerable influence
on educational administration. In the first place, it has been recognized that education
should be an instrument of democratic policy in India. It should help our youths discover
their vocation and responsibilities and not merely cramp their mind with facts and
figures. It has to prepare them to live in a contemporary society and face its problems
without fear, happily and integrally. Concurrent with this, there has been a rapidly
growing recognition that democratic administration is necessary to the development
and operation of democratic education. Thus democratic leadership is the only acceptable
kind of leadership for education. It gets things done, and it improves the educational
institutions also. Finally, the field of education has grown larger and more complex,
and a considerable number of duties confront educational administrator today. Anyone
familiar with these developments cannot help being impressed with the increasing
complexities of administering a forward-looking programme of education.
In this Unit you are going to study about the administrative structure of Indian
education at the Central and State level and the functions of various Councils and
Commissions set up in our country to help the development of education and safe
guard its quality.
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33.2 Objectives
¾ Draw structures of educational administration at the Centre and State levels.
¾ Prepare a list of functions of various education commissions and councils and
analyze their activities towards maintaining the quality of education at various
levels of education.
33.3 Educational Administration -Structure at Central Level

You have already understood that India is a sovereign democratic republic with a
parliamentary form of government based on universal adult franchise. At present India
is a union of 28 States and 7 Union Territories.
Education in India is at present under the control of three distinct bodies - Central
Government, State Governments and Local Bodies. It may, however, he noted that
since 1921 education at all stages with two important qualifications is a State
responsibility. (The 42"x’ Amendment of the Constitution in 1976 for, the 7th Schedule,
Put education in the Concurrent List, making both Union and State governments hold
equal responsibility as far as education is concerned). These qualifications are in respect
of advanced research and technical education. In view of the need for coordination of
facilities and the maintenance of standards at the higher levels, the Constitution has
placed the Central Government the responsibility in these respects.
Education at the Centre remained combined with Health and Agriculture till 1945,
when bifurcation was effected and a separate Department of Education was set up. In
1947, it was raised to the status of a Ministry. Ten years later, it was further entrusted
with scientific research.
In 1958, the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research was recognized and
was bifurcated into two independent ministries, viz., (i) The Ministry of Education,
and (ii) the Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs.
The Ministry of Education (HRD)

The Ministry of Education at the Centre is recently renamed as Ministry of Human
Resource Development. The Minister heads this ministry for HRD, who is of cabinet
rank. He plays an important role in formulating general policies and ensuring uniformity
in the pattern of education in different states. One or two deputy ministers assist him
according to the need.
580
The HRD Adviser is the administrative head of the Ministry. He is the Secretary
to the Government of India, and is the principal adviser to the Minister on all matters of
policy and administration. The HRD Ministry has nine divisions. They are:
1. Elementary and Basic Education.
2. Secondary Education.
3. University Education.
4. Hindi.
5. Social Education and Social Welfare.
6. Physical Education and Recreation.
7. Scholarships.
8. Research and Publications.
9. Administration.
Excepting the Administration Division, each of the above divisions is in charge
of a Deputy HRD Advisor. They are called Deputy Secretaries. The Ministry is advised
on educational matters by a number of bodies. The most important among these are:
the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), Directorate of Extension Programmes
for Secondary Education (DEPSE), The University Grants Commission (UGC), the
Social Welfare Board, the All-India Council for Elementary Education (AICEE), and
the National Council for Women’s Education (NCWE).
The Central Advisory Board of Education, a statutory body constituted in
1921, is the main pivot of activities of the Ministry. The present constitution of the
Board is as follows:
1. The Honorable Minister for HRD (Chairman)
2. The Educational Adviser to the Government of India.
3. Fifteen members to be nominated by the Government of India, of whom four
shall be women.
4. Five members of Parliament, two from the Upper House and three from the Lower
House, to be selected by Parliament.
5. Two members of the Inter-University Board (India) nominated by the Board from
amongst their representatives of universities in India.
6. Two members of the All-India Council for Technical Education to be nominated
by the Council.
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7. One representative of each State Government, who shall be the Minister-in-charge
of Education. If he is unable to attend a particular meeting he may nominate an
officer of his Department for that meeting.
8. Secretary of the Board - who will be appointed by the Government of India.
The tenure of office of the non-official members of the Board is three years provided
that a member elected or nominated under Clauses (4), (5) and (6) forthwith ceases to
be a member of the Board if he ceases to be a Member of Parliament, the Inter-University
Board or the All-India Council for Technical Education, as the case may be. The ex-
officio members of the Board will similarly cease to be members when they relinquish
the office by virtue of which they are members of the Board.
All casual vacancies among the members, other than ex-officio members, are
filled by the authority or body who nominated or selected the member whose place
falls vacant and the person appointed to a casual vacancy shall be a member of the
Board for the residue of the term for which the person whose place he fills would have
been a member.
The Board meets every year and discusses matters of all India importance. Its
decisions are, however, not binding on the States, as they are free agents accepting the
Centre’s suggestions voluntarily. The Board has, however, established very sound
traditions. Attached to the Board is the Central Bureau of Education, which works
through two secretaries dealing with over-seas and internal information. The Bureau
collects most recent information about educational progress in India and abroad. In
addition to the publication of annual and quinquennial reviews on the progress of
education in India, the Bureau has also published several educational reports of great
importance. It also maintains an excellent library.
The next important advisory body is the Directorate of Extension Programmes
for Secondary Education. On March 22, 1955, the Government of India had set up an
expert body known as the All-India Council for Secondary Education for advising the
Central and State Governments regarding secondary education. But in September 1958,
its executive functions were transferred to a new body, viz., the Directorate of Extension
Programmes for Secondary Education (DEPSE). It is in-charge of the in-service education
programmes of extension departments attached to a number of Teachers’ Colleges of
India.
The reconstituted Council has representatives from the Ministry of Education
and the Ministry of Finance and one member nominated by each of the following bodies:
the All-India Council for Technical Education, the University Grants Commission, the
All-India Council for Elementary Education, the All India Federation of Educational
582
Associations, Association of Principals of Training Colleges, and a nominee from each
of the twenty eight State Governments.
The University Grants Commission was constituted in 1953, and was given an
autonomous statutory status by an Act of Parliament in 1956. Most of the matters
connected with university education including the determination and coordination of
standards and facilities for study and research have been committed to the care of this
body. You are going to study more about UGC in the next section of this lesson.
The Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Directorate was set up in 1953 as an
autonomous body with a chairman and twelve members. The main objectives of the
board are,
1. To survey the needs, assist and evaluate the programmes of social welfare
organizations.
2. To Coordinate the assistance extended to welfare agencies.
3. To promote the setting-up of social welfare institutions in places where they
do not exist.
4. To give grant-in-aid to voluntary institutions providing welfare services and,
5. To subsidize hostels for working women and the blind, etc.
The All-India Council for Elementary Education was set up on July 1, 1957.
The functions of the Council are as follows:
1. Preparation of programmes for the early implementation of Article 45 of the
Constitution (the provision of free and compulsory education for all children in
the age-group 6-14 by 1960)
2. To revise them as and when necessary and to review the progress made in this
direction.
3. Preparation of detailed programmes for the expansion and improvement of
elementary education in each State.
4. Organizing and assisting research in the administrative, financial and pedagogic
problems of elementary education.
5. Production of literature to help the education department and teachers to improve
the quality of elementary education.
6. Conducting sample survey and special investigations, and generally to advise
on all matters as might be deemed necessary to provide proper guidance,
leadership and coordination for the improvement and expansion of elementary
education.
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The National Council for Women’s Education was set up in 1958. It consists of a
Chairman and 28 members - a representative of each state, a representative of the
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), two members of the parliament, two
representatives of the Union Ministry of HRD, a representative of the Union territories,
and a representative from each of the following ministries: Community Development,
Health and Labour.
Coordinating Functions
We have already understood that, the Central Government has a very limited control
over education and the management of public instruction has been entrusted to State
Governments. But the Central Government plays a very important role as a coordinating
agency. Thus it does a number of functions. They may be listed as follows:
1. It fixes a general policy of reconstruction with an All-India outlook, maintain
cultural relations with foreign countries, associations and the UNESCO, and
grants scholarships for Scheduled Caste, Aboriginal and Hill tribes as well as
to overseas students from this country. It also looks after the welfare of Indian
students abroad.
2. The Central Government is a coordinating, advisory and informative agency,
so far as the State Governments are concerned. With the help of the CABE and
the Bureau of Education, it is able to advise and collate for the benefit of the
States, educational experiences derived not only from different parts of the
country but even from abroad. The Bureau publishes educational reports and
statistics of great importance. The Central Government further seeks to discharge
its responsibilities and maintains quality in different fields of education through
the All-India bodies like, NCERT, UGC, CBSE, AICTE, IMC, NCTE, etc.
3. The Central Government is exclusively in charge of education in Union
Territories.
4. It also looks after the Central Universities like, Delhi, Aligarh, Banaras and
Visva-Bharathi.
5. It is in charge of a number of National Institutions, viz., National Institute of
Education, Delhi, Central Institute of English, Hyderabad; Laxmibai College
of Physical Education, Gwalior; Training Centre for Adult Blinds, Dehradoon,
etc.
6. It promotes research through the NCERT.
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7. The Union Ministry of HRD further loans educational films to State Governments
and educational institutions.
8. It is also in charge of the National Archives.
9. It gives liberal grants-in-aid to State Governments and universities for research
work subject to prior approval of projects and programmes.
The Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs

Like the Ministry of HRD, a cabinet minister also heads this ministry. The secretariat
staff of the ministry consists of a secretary (Educational Adviser), a joint secretary and
several deputy secretaries. The ministry is divided into following six divisions:
1. Administration.
2. Scientific Research.
3. Technical.
4. Cultural.
5. External Relations.
6. Cultural Scholarships and Publication Divisions.
The ministry is advised by the AICTE on all matters relating to the coordination
and development of technical education in the country above the secondary school
level. You are going to study more about AICTE in Section 33.5 of this lesson.
For the day-to-day work of the Council, there is a small coordination committee
representative of all the interests in the Council. The other Advisory bodies attached to
the Ministry are: The Central Advisory Board on Museums, CAB on Anthropology,
CAB on Archaeology, and the Art Purchase Committee. The CAB on Museums advises
the Government of India in matters relating to the organization and development of
museums in the country. The CAB on Anthropology and Archaeology advise the
Government in their respective fields. The services of Art Purchase Committee are
utilized by the Government for guidance in acquiring and purchasing art objects ‘worthy
of being preserved by the nation in the National Museum and the National Gallery of
Modern Art’.
33.4 Educational Administration —Structure at State Level

Since the year 1975, education is in the Concurrent List in the Constitution of
India. Before that, it was in the state list only. This is a very sensible change. Although
585
it does not reduce the responsibility of state governments in the field of education, it
empowers the central government also to legislate for education with the provision
that if a state act comes into conflict with the central act, the latter act will prevail. The
teachers of India as a class are greatly in favour of the concurrent status, and several of
their associations have passed resolutions supporting the alteration.
Also you have studied that the Constitutional provisions envisage: (a) education
is in the main a state responsibility, (b) the Government of India has an indirect but
significant responsibility for education, (c) there has to be healthy partnership between
the Central and the State Governments in the national task of educational reconstruction.
Now let us understand the administrative setup of education at the state level.
Education in a state with a few exceptions is generally in charge of two ministers
- one for elementary, secondary and pre-university education and the other for higher
education. One or two deputy ministers assist them. These exceptions are medicine,
agriculture, veterinary science, industry, and technical education. The concerned minister
controls the educational policy and directs its execution. He is also responsible to the
State Legislature, of which he is a member.
The minister administers his duties through the State Department of Education. It
has six major functions to perform:
1. To provide leadership for the entire educational system of the state.
2. To advise the legislature with respect to educational legislation.
3. To coordinate educational activities throughout the State.
4. To determine the effectiveness of the state’s programme of education.
5. To assist private managements and local bodies in conducting their schools.
6. To direct research activities necessary for the solution of educational problems.
The State Department of Education has two wings for administering the above
functions, viz., (1) the Secretariat of Education, and (2) the Directorate of Education.
The secretariat is directly connected with the minister and deputy ministers. It frames
policies regarding different aspects of education. The secretary is the principal officer
in the secretariat. Deputy Secretaries and a few under-secretaries assist him.
The directorate is an executive body. It executes the policy of the government
framed in the secretariat. It is, in fact, the connecting link between the government and
the educational institutions scattered in different parts of the state. It keeps government
informed regarding the educational needs and actual progress of education in the state,
people’s reactions to a government policy of education, awards grants, conducts
researches, etc.
The Director of Public Instruction (DPI) is in charge of the directorate. In West
Bengal, the Director of Public Instruction is called as Commissioner for Public Instruction
586
(CPI). He is, in fact, the chief executive authority of education in a state. He is also the
technical adviser to the minister. Directors, Joint Directors and Assistant Directors of
Public Instruction assist him in his office. Each Director will be in charge of different
wings in the CPI’s office. For example, the Primary education will be in-charge of a
Director, the Mid-day Meals will be in-charge of another Director, preparation and
printing of Text Books will be in-charge of another Director, etc.
A state, as you know, is divided into revenue divisions. The same divisions are
retained for educational administration purpose also. Each of these divisions is considered
as educational division too, and Joint Director of Public Instruction heads each such
division.
The district education office is called the Office of the Deputy Director of Public
Instruction (DDPI). The DDPI is the head of these offices. He is responsible in his
district for:
1. The supervision of all primary and social education.
2. The administrative control of all government primary and secondary schools.
3. The control and inspection of all secondary schools and training institutions for
primary (D.Ed., Colleges) teachers, and such other schools as are under the
control of the CPI.
The Taluks in the District are called Blocks for educational purposes. A Block
Education Officer (BEO) heads each Block. He is directly answerable to the DDPI.
The BEO is responsible for supervision and control of all the primary schools in his
Block. Inspectors and Deputy Inspectors of Schools help him in this work. The BEO
and Inspectors of schools visit primary schools and help the heads of those schools to
run the school in the desired manner by giving them proper guidance. The Subject
Inspectors along with the BEO and the DDPI visit secondary schools for the same
purpose.
Recommending government the case of a private secondary school for the grant
of recognition, periodical inspection of both government and private secondary schools
and training institutions (primary teachers), supervision of different government schemes
like distribution of textbooks, mid-day meal scheme, etc., is the responsibility of the
DDPI and BEOs at the District and Block levels.
Just like the NCERT at the national level, the DSERT (Department of State
Educational Research and Training) at the state level, helps schools in educational
research, and training of in-service teachers. The DSERT will also look after the working
of Teachers’ Training Colleges meant for Secondary Schools in the state. The DSERT
is headed by one of the Senior Officers of the CPI’s office.
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Pre-University Education Department
As far as the Pre-University education is concerned, in West Bengal, it is included
in a separate Government Department called Pre-University Department. The Director
of Pre-university Department heads this department. Joint Directors and Deputy Directors
assist him in his work. This Department is responsible for prescribing curricula,
preparation of textbooks, appointment of lecturers and principals for the government
pre-university colleges, supervision and control of private pre-university colleges, etc.
One of the important functions of this department is the conduct of PU examinations.
For that purpose it will arrange for workshop for examination question paper setters.
As the number of students taking this examination in science, arts and commerce is
considerably very big, the conduct of examination is of great responsibility. The course
being a turning point as the students have to choose professional courses after the PU,
the sanctity of examination becomes very important. After the examination is over it
has to arrange, at various centers, the valuation camps.
In every district there is an office of the Deputy Director of Pre-University Education.
The DDPUE will be in charge of supervision and control of all the PU colleges in the
district. Recommending colleges for sanction of grant-in-aid, sanction of scholarships,
arrangement of sports and cultural activities at the district level for PU students, etc are
the main functions of the DDPUE,
The State and Higher Education

Institutions of higher education are of two types - Universities and Colleges. So
far as universities are concerned, they are independent and autonomous bodies. They,
however, depend on the State Government in two ways: 1. They are created by Acts of
the State Legislature, and are thus dependent on Government for their constitution and
powers; and 2. They receive financial aids for recurring and non-recurring expenses
from the State, the total amount depending on the sanction of the State Legislature. But
for these two restrictions, Indian universities are more or less autonomous.
Three distinct bodies - government, private bodies, and local boards, manage the
Colleges. In West Bengal, at present, all the local body colleges are taken over by the
government. Thus, there exist only two categories of colleges, namely, Government
and Private management colleges.
The number of government colleges is one-third of the total number, whereas the
remaining two-thirds are private management colleges. There is a Directorate for
Collegiate Education headed by Director. The Regional Collegiate Directors used to
help the Director, but very recently, these Regional Directors’ offices are closed and
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the state government is thinking of giving necessary powers to supervise and control
all colleges to the Universities. This has not been finalized. Till then the Director will
be in-charge of all the colleges as far as their supervision and inspection are concerned.
The concerned universities will look after the matters relating to the prescription of
curriculum for different subjects, prescribing text books in languages and recommending
books for reference and conduct of examination, announcement of results and award
of certificates and degrees in case of colleges affiliated by them.
1. What are the bodies, which control education at present?
2. What are the educational responsibilities of the Central Government?
3. What is the education ministry at the Centre called?
4. Which is the main advisory body of HRD Ministry?
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5. What are the two wings of State Department of Education?
6. What are the important duties of the CPI?
7. What are the main functions of Department of Pre-University Education?
33.5 Role of NIEPA, UGC, NCERT, NCTE, AICTE & IMC

In our country there are a number of national agencies which have been given the
responsibility of monitoring the quality of education in schools, colleges and universities,
through offering help in framing curriculum, conducting research in education, inspection
of colleges and universities, arranging short term in-service refresher courses to the
teachers, etc.
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NIEPA
National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) is a National
Institute in educational planning and administration in South Asia. It is an autonomous
organization registered under Societies Registration Act of 1860. It is fully funded and
sponsored by the government of India. With specialization in policy, planning and
management in education, NIEPA is the professional wing of the Government of India.
The prime concerns of NIEPA are capacity building in educational policy, planning
management through research, training, consultancy and dissemination.
Establishment
NIEPA’s establishment can be traced back to UNESCO Regional Centre for
Educational Planners and Administrators in 1961-62. In 1965, it was renamed as Asian
Institute of Educational Planning and Administration. On the completion of the ten
years contract with UNESCO, the Government of India took it over and renamed the
Institute as National Staff College for Educational Planners and Administrators in 1970.
Subsequently, the institute was renamed as NIEPA in 1979 emphasizing on research
besides staff development. Its headquarters is in New Delhi.
Structure
NIEPA is a four-tier organization comprising, The NIEPA Council; The NIEPA
Finance and Executive Committee; The Planning and Programme Committee; and The
Academic and Administrative Units. The Chairman of the NIEPA Council is the HRD
Minister. The members are eminent educationalists. They provide policy directions to
NIEPA. The Executive Committee headed by the Director, is responsible for translating
the policies into action.
Goals of NIEPA
The following are some of the important goals of NIEPA:
1. Organizing training, conferences, workshops, meetings, and seminars for senior
educational officers of the central and state government and Union Territories.
2. Undertaking, aiding, promoting and coordinating research in educational
planning and administration.
3. Providing academic and administrative guidance.
4. Providing consultancy service to state government and educational institutions.
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5. Acting as a clearing house of ideas and information.
6. Preparing, printing and publishing papers, periodicals and books on educational
7. Collaborating with other agencies, institutions and organizations in India and
abroad.
University Grants Commission (UGC)

In this lesson a reference has already been made to the UGC in Section 33.3 while
explaining the educational functions of the Central Government. You must know that a
very important development of the post-independent period is the creation of the UGC,
by an Act of Parliament, for purposes of co-ordination and maintenance of standards in
higher education. This proposal was first made by the Radhakrishnan Commission
(University Education Commission -1948). Accordingly, a non-statutory body was first
set up under executive orders in 1953: and a statutory body was created in 1956 with
Dr. C. D. Deshmukh as its first chairman. The UGC Act has been amended in 1972 and
1973.
The main responsibility of the Commission is to co-ordinate and maintain standards.
To this end, it has been given the necessary statutory authority; and what is more
important, the Central Government places funds at its disposal and the Commission
then allocates them to the universities for developmental programmes. The overall
funds placed at the disposal of the commission are by no means large; and yet the
Commission has been able to achieve commendable results. It has assisted the
development of post graduate research and training; improved the salaries of teachers,
provided better facilities for teaching, strengthened libraries and laboratories, examined
several important problems for higher education, and helped to create an academic
leadership for reconstruction and development. Above all, it has created an appreciation
of the significance of higher education in the country as a whole and succeeded in
focusing attention on some of its urgent and important needs.
The UGC is one of the national bodies, which sponsors research projects in
education. This is one of the important steps of the UGC towards the quality assurance
in education. The UGC identifies talented scholars and encourages them to pursue
research by providing them with necessary inputs. They are encouraged to undertake
research anywhere in the higher education system or research laboratories or other
institutions of national importance. Besides this, there are UGC schemes like Career
Awards, National Associationship, and Emeritus Fellowship through which teachers
with proven ability for research can avail of time slots exclusively for undertaking
research.
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The UGC often reviews the structures of courses of study at higher education
level. It aims at bringing about necessary improvements in the Curriculum by including
therein vocational oriented courses like Creative Arts, for example, Music or Commercial
Art, Electronics, Welding, Computer Applications, Audio-visual Equipment, Fabrication,
Sales Management, Accountancy, Marketing and many other trades and professions
sought by employment market for the educated.
Also, the UGC has initiated, supported and encouraged steps in making the areas
of learning wider. It has given directions to redesign the curriculum so that students of
natural sciences receive reasonable exposure to humanities as well as social sciences
and vice versa. The UGC undertakes a number of measures to improve the quality of
higher education in our country.
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

The NCERT’ has influenced Indian school education considerably since its inception
in 1961. The Headquarters of the NCERT is located at New Delhi. Through its network
of Regional Institutes of Education located at New Delhi, Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhuvaneshwar,
Mysore and Shillong it has been engaged in assisting and advising Central and State
School education authorities in various fields like curriculum development, teacher
education, educational media, computer application in education, vocational education
and many other related aspects.
The NCERT aims at developing institutional capacity at state and district levels in
the country through the SCERT or SIEs (State Council of Educational Research and
Training or State Institute of Education) and the DiETs (District Institute of Education
and Training) to enable these institutions to take up need-based school improvement
programmes. The NCERT has also been providing academic inputs in the planning,
implementation and evaluation of the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
as a part of the National Elementary Education Mission (NEEM) to provide quality
education for all children between six and fourteen years of age.
Functioning in a federal political system with school education primarily as a
state subject, the NCERT has acquired nation-wide acceptability of its programmes.
The constitution of its General Body includes all the State Education Ministers with
the HRD Minister in the Central Government as the President.
The NCERT remains in constant touch with the states to identify their educational
needs through its find offices and extension services departments of Regional Institutes
of Education. The NCERT strikes hard to maintain the quality of school education and
for its development through innovations to meet the demands of the society.
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National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
The Government of India, by an Act of 1993 established a National Council for
Teacher Education (NCTE), “with a view to achieving planned and coordinated
development of the teacher education system throughout the country, the regulation
and proper maintenance of norms and standards in the teacher education system and
for matters connected there with. The Headquarters is located at New Delhi. There are
five Regional Offices in the country, in the North at Jaipur, in the South at Bangalore,
in the East at Bhuvaneshwar, in the West at Bombay and in the Centre at Bhopal. The
NCTE has the responsibility to plan, coordinate and maintain standards in teacher
education programmes. The NCTE has both regulatory and promotional functions.
The former include granting recognition to teacher education institutions to start new
courses. The promotional activities include research, training, extension work,
publication, networking, etc, all converging to improve the quality of both the process
and products of teacher education programmes.
The main functions of the Council may be stated thus,
● Coordinate and monitor teacher education and its development in the country.
● Lay down norms for any specified category of courses or training in teacher
education, including the minimum eligibility criteria for admission thereof, and
the method of selection of candidates, duration of the course, course contents
and mode of curriculum.
● Lay down standards in respect of examinations leading to teacher education
qualifications, criteria for admission to such examinations and schemes of courses
of training.
● Promote and conduct innovation and research in various areas of teacher
education and disseminate the results thereof.
Thus the NCTE has been a watchdog of quality of teacher education throughout India.
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)

Technical Education imparts different techniques of the methods of doing or
manufacturing a commodity or rendering service. Therefore, it is one of time most
significant components of human resource development with great potential for adding
value to products and services. This will contribute a great deal to the economy and
helps to improve the quality of life of the people.
By the turn of the century, the education system had to play its role with greater
relevance and objectivity in socio-economic, industrial and technological areas. With
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this perspective, in India considerable progress has been made in the development of
technical education. A major project has been undertaken with the assistance of the
World Bank, to upgrade the technical education system in the country for enabling the
institutions providing technical education to improve their capacity, quality and
efficiency.
With the above said ideas in mind, the Government of India, in 1945, established
‘The All India Council for Technical Education’, as an advisory body. It was given a
statutory status through an Act of Parliament in 1987. The Act came into effect on
March 28, 1988.
The main functions of the AICTE include proper planning and coordinated
development of technical education in the country, qualitative improvement at all levels
in relation to planned quantitative growth and regulations of the system and maintenance
of norms and standards. All engineering colleges, technical institutes, technological
institutions come under the control of AICTE. The Council has laid down norms and
standards for diploma, degree and post-graduate courses in various fields of technical
education. The AICTE has also issued regulations for granting approval to technical
institutions, courses and programmes in the field of technical education. Under these
regulations, approvals are given to private, unaided technical institutions also.
Indian Medical Council (IMC)

The medical profession is governed by legislation and by a code of ethics. National
and State Medical Councils and the World Medical Association formulate the broad
principles of medical ethics. Enforcement of the code is done by the Medical Councils.
The Indian Medical Council (IMC) has been constituted under the Act of 1956.
According to it, the council consists of following members, namely, (a) one member
from each state to be nominated by the Central Government in consultation with the
State Government concerned. (b) One member from each university, to be elected from
among the members of the medical faculty of the university, by members of the Senate
or by members of the Court of the University. (c) One member from each State in
which a state Medical Register is maintained, to be elected from amongst themselves
by persons enrolled on such register. (d) Seven members to be elected from among
themselves by persons enrolled on any of the state Medical Registers. (e) Eight members
to be nominated by the Central Government.
They hold office for a term of five years. A president and a vice-president are
elected from among these members. The council appoints a Registrar who acts as
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secretary and may also act as treasurer, who looks after the day-to-day work. The
executive committee consists of President, Vice-president and 7 to 10 other
members.
Functions
The main functions of IMC may be stated thus:
(a) Maintaining the Register of Medical Practitioners

The Council maintains a register of medical practitioners known as the Indian Medical
Register. If the name of a person enrolled on a state Medical Register is removed from
the Register, the Council also removes such person’s name from the Indian Medical
Register.
(b) Prescribing the Standard for Post-graduate Medical Education

The Council has the authority to prescribe standards of post-graduate medical education
for the guidance of the universities. The Council also maintains the standards of
undergraduate medical education.
(c) Recognizing Foreign Medical Qualifications

The IMC, which has authority to enter into negotiations with any of the Medical Councils
of the foreign countries, recognizes foreign medical qualification obtained by an Indian
national.
(d) Issuing Warning Notice

The Council may prescribe standards of professional conduct and code of ethics for
medical practitioners. It can issue warning notice containing certain practices, which
are regarded as falling within the meaning of the term, ‘serious professional misconduct.’
Thus the IMC provides quality assurance in medical education.
State Medical Councils (SMC)

The State Medical Councils are autonomous bodies established under the SMC Act.
Each of the Medical Council consists of members elected by the registered medical
practitioners and those nominated by the State Government. The members from amongst
themselves elect the president and the vice president of the Council.
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Functions of Medical Registrar
The Council appoints a Registrar, who keeps a Register of Medical Practitioners. Any
person having any of the recognized medical qualification can get his name registered.
The name, residence, qualification and the date on which each qualification was granted
of every person who is registered under this Act are entered in the Register on payment
of prescribed fees. After passing the qualifying examination, it is necessary to undergo
a period of training, before such qualification is granted to him. A provisional registration
in a State Medical Registrar is given to such person on application to enable him to
practice medicine in an approved institution for the required period. The Registrar
should inform the-IMC without delay of all additions and other amendments in the
State Medical register made from time to time.
SMCs have the disciplinary control over the medical practitioners. They have the
power to remove the names of medical practitioners permanently or for a specific period
from the Registers after due enquiry if they are found to have been guilty of serious
professional misconduct. They are also authorized to direct the restoration of name so
removed.
They can also issue warning notice similar to that of the IMC.
The IMC issues recognition to MBBS and MS courses, the Dental Council of
India for BDS, the Pharmacy Council of India for B. Pharma, and the Indian Nursing
Council for Nursing courses.

1. What is NIEPA?
2. Mention any two important functions of NIEPA.
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3. What is UGC? When was it established?
4. What are NCERT and DSERT?
5. What are the major responsibilities of NCTE?
6. Which is the advisory body for Technical Education in our country?
7. What is State Medical Council?
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33.6 Let Us Sum Up
• Education in India is at present under the control of three distinct bodies - Central
Government, State Governments and Local Bodies.
• Education at the Centre remained combined with Health and Agriculture till
1945, when bifurcation was effected and a separate Department of Education
was set up. In 1947, it was raised to the status of a Ministry. Ten years later, it
was further entrusted with scientific research.
• The Ministry of Education at the Centre is recently renamed as Ministry of
Human Resource Development. The Minister heads this ministry for HRD,
who is of cabinet rank.
• The HRD Adviser is the administrative head of the Ministry. He is the Secretary
to the Government of India, and is the principal adviser to the Minister on all
matters of policy and administration.
• The Central Advisory Board of Education, a statutory body constituted in 1921,
is the main pivot of activities of the Ministry.
• The Central Government has a very limited control over education and the
management of public instruction has been entrusted to State Governments.
But the Central Government plays a very important role as a coordinating agency.
• Education in a state with a few exceptions is generally in charge of two ministers
- one for elementary, secondary and pre-university education and the other for
higher education. One or two deputy ministers assist them. These exceptions
are medicine, agriculture, veterinary science, industry, and technical education.
The concerned minister controls the educational policy and directs its execution.
He is also responsible to the State Legislature, of which he is a member.
• In Karnataka, the Director of Public Instruction is called as Commissioner for
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Public Instruction (CPI). He is, in fact, the chief executive authority of education
in a state. He is also the technical adviser to the minister.
• As far the Pre-University education is concerned, in Karnataka, it is included in
a separate Government Department called, Department of Pre-University
Education. The Director of Pre-university Department heads this department.
• Institutions of higher education are of two types - Universities and Colleges. So

far as universities are concerned, they are independent and autonomous bodies.
They, however, depend on the State Government. This Department is responsible
for prescribing curricula, preparation of textbooks, appointment of lecturers
and principals for the government pre-university colleges, supervision and control
of private pre-university colleges, etc.
• National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) is a

National Institute in educational planning and administration in South Asia.
• NIEPA is a four-tier organization comprising, The NIEPA Council; The NIEPA

Finance and Executive Committee; The Planning and Programme Committee;
and The Academic and Administrative Units.
• The UGC is one of the national bodies, which sponsors research projects in
education. This is one of the important steps of the UGC towards the quality
assurance in education.
• The NCERT aims at developing institutional capacity at state and district levels
in the country through the SCERT or SIEs (State Council of Educational Research
and Training or State Institute of Education) and the DIETs (District Institute of
Education and Training) to enable these institutions to take up need-based school
improvement programmes.
• The NCTE has the responsibility to plan, coordinate and maintain standards in
teacher education programmes.
• The AICTE has laid down norms and standards for diploma, degree and post-
graduate courses in various fields of technical education.
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• The medical profession is governed by legislation and by a code of ethics.
National and State Medical Councils and the World Medical Association
formulate the broad principles of medical ethics. Enforcement of the code is
done by the Medical Councils.
33.7 Answers To ‘Check Your Progress’

1. Education in India is at present under the control of three distinct bodies - Central
Government, State Governments and Local Bodies.
2. The Central Government has a very limited control over education. The
management of public instruction has been entrusted to State Governments.
But the Central Government plays a very important role as a coordinating agency.
3. The Ministry of Education at the Centre is renamed as Ministry of Human
Resource Development. The Minister heads this ministry for HRD, who is of
cabinet rank.
4. The Central Advisory Board of Education, a statutory body constituted in 1921,
is the main pivot of activities of the Ministry. It is the main advisory body of the
Ministry of HRD.
5. The State Department of Education has two wings for administering the above
functions, viz., (1) the Secretariat of Education, and (2) the Directorate of
Education.
6. The Director of Public Instruction is called as Commissioner for Public
Instruction (CPI). He is, in fact, the chief executive authority of education in a
state. He is also the technical adviser to the minister.
7. The Department of PU Education is responsible for prescribing curricula,
preparation of textbooks, appointment of lecturers and principals for the
government pre-university colleges, supervision and control of private pre-
university colleges, etc.
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1. National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) is a
National Institute in educational planning and administration in South Asia.
2. It organizes training, conferences, workshops, meetings, and seminars for senior
educational officers of the central and state government and Union Territories.
It will undertake, aiding, promoting and coordinating research in educational
3. The UGC was established by an Act of Parliament, for purposes of co-ordination
and maintenance of standards in higher education. This proposal was first made
by the Radhakrishnan Commission (University Education Commission - 1948).
Accordingly, a non-statutory body was first set up under executive orders in
1953; and a statutory body was created in 1956.
4. NCERT is National Council for Educational Research and Training. It functions
at the National Level. DSERT is the Department of State Educational Research
and Training. It functions at the State level.
5. The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) is the advisory body of
Technical Education in India.
6. The medical profession is governed by legislation and by a code of ethics.
National and State Medical Councils and the World Medical Association
formulate the broad principles of medical ethics. Enforcement of the code is
done by the Medical Councils.

1. Explain the structure of Educational Administration at the, (1) Central Level
and (2) the State Level.
2. Explain the role of NCERT in the development of Secondary Education.
3. What are the main functions of UGC, NIEPA and NCTE?
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4. How do the AICTE and IMA function towards the maintenance of quality in
technical education and medical profession respectively?
33.9 References
1. Kochhar S. K: Secondary School Administration, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 1978.
5. Shukla P. D: Administration of Education in India, Vikas Publishing House
Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi, 1983.
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UNIT - 34 ❐ INDIAN EDUCATIONAL ADMINIS-
TRATION AND SUPERVISION - PROBLEMS
Structure
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Objectives
34.3 Educational Administration and Supervision - Problems
34.4 Let Us Sum Up
34.7 References
34.1 Introduction
Educational Administration and Supervision as you have already understood are
very important for maintaining the standards and quality of education and for the smooth
functioning of the system. At different levels, i.e., at the Central level, State Level and
District and Taluk Levels, there have been a well founded administrative and supervision
set up in our country.
In spite of a number of precautions taken for the smooth conduct of education
functions, here and there, and now and then, there will be some problems cropping up
from time to time. It is always better to forecast the problems and see that proper
arrangements are made to solve them well in time, and this will certainly help the
administrators to continue their work without much interruption. In this Unit we are
going to examine such problems in educational administration and supervision and
also find out some suitable solutions thereof.
34.2 Objectives
After you complete the study of this unit you will be in a position to:
¾ Foresee various problems in educational administration and supervision.
¾ Find out solutions to the problems you have encountered.
¾ Enhance the quality of educational administration and supervision.
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34.3 Educational Administration and Supervision - Problems
India is an ancient country, and has always various centers for imparting education.
During the medieval period, such centers were supplemented by other educational
institutions. Remnants of all of them can be seen even today. In the pre-historic period
the family was the main agency for imparting education. Then came the institution of
private tutors, gurukulas and ashrams. Sometimes students used to travel long distances
to study under celebrated teachers called gurus. Well-organized educational institutions
came into existences with the impact of Buddhist monasteries, and during Muslim
rule, Maktabs and Madrasas were set up.
It appears that in ancient or medieval times in India there were no formal government
departments of education, and no officials such as directors of education and inspectors
of schools, existed. Society, however, reported to be always anxious to help the cause
of education in different ways. Even a poor family would offer some food to a student
who came asking for it. The rich would help in more substantial ways. They would
establish free kitchens for students and others, construct buildings for educational
institutions, endow chairs and grant land to meet recurring expenses. Insofar as the
governments were concerned, it is stated that patronage of education was recognized
as one of the most important and sacred duties of the kings. Learned personages of
royal courts used to receive grants of pension and land. The government also supported
the cause of education in various indirect ways: offers of scholarships to students,
organizing literary competitions, offering valuable awards to successful scholars, and
giving preference to men of learning while making appointments.
In so far as modern India is concerned, a beginning was made with Bengal because
Calcutta was the capital of the East India Company’s government in the country. In
July 1823, Mr. Holt MacKenzie, the then secretary of the territorial department, advised
the Governor General of India to appoint a general committee of public instruction.
This was done, and through the medium of this committee direct control of the state
over education was established for the first time. The area of supervision of the committee
extended from Burma in the East to Delhi in the West.
Thus the educational administration became an important issue. There has been a
lot of development in administrative system since then. As the field of educational
administration went on growing, there arose a number of problems. They are,
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1. Problems with the personnel of the department.
2. Problems with the supervision and inspection of educational institutions.
3. Problems with the finance of the educational institutions.
This problem starts with the Ministry, Secretariat and down to the Schools. But
the problem of administration at the top level is confined to some particular office. But
at the school level it spreads over a vast area.
Normally these problems and difficulties are faced by the district educational
authority in dealing with teachers, teachers’ organizations, the general public, educational
institutions in his charge, his supervision, his subordinates, local government agencies,
private educational managements in the district, supervision of teaching work in the
educational institutions in his charge and the work of examining and evaluating pupils.
Political interference, as reported by the Education Officers in some conferences, reveal
that, sometimes such interference has done good in a few cases. But such interference
would have been more meaningful had they helped institutions or individuals without
being prejudiced. But in most cases, the interference is reported to have resulted in
oral-administration, waste of public funds, suppression of the officials’ enthusiasm for
work, delay in disposal, or lowering of the government standard of performance or
reputation.
It would apparently be best if, as the final decision making authority, the minister
in charge of education or the concerned political head laid down policy and made sure
that all the executives working in the department or organization and its lower offices/
units implemented it. In this connection, a joint adviser to the government of India
wishes to give an emulative example from his personal experience. When working in
the ministry of education he was once to chair a committee to select Indian scholars for
study/research abroad. The composition of the committee and the procedure as well as
the basis for selection had been clearly laid down. One Member of Parliament wrote to
the education minister pleading the case of a particular candidate for selection. The
minister acknowledged the letter most courteously and stated that he had set up a
committee to the selection and that he could not interfere in that committee’s work.
What was even more important, he gave instruction on the office copy of the
communication that those papers are delivered to the adviser only after the selection
was over.
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The adviser referred to above says from what he had seen and heard over a long
period of time, he had come to a definite conclusion that appropriate orientation courses
should be organized periodically for the benefit of all elected representatives of the
people, particularly the new ones. These should be awareness courses, to begin with.
Such representatives are, by and large, capable persons who have the acumen to influence
and lead others. They have a bent of mind for social service, and they might already be
rendering the same in one form or other. Moreover, most of them wish and mean to do
good and useful work.
Regretfully, only a few of them appear to have adequate knowledge of the ‘what’,
‘why’, and ‘how’ of all the subjects they have to handle, the implications of the views
they have to express and the decisions they have to take if in authority. Some of them
may also not be fully aware of the national ethos, philosophy and working of a democratic
government or the objectives and functioning of different organizations and institutions
with which they have to be concerned while making a law or an executive order, or
expressing an opinion. Therefore, the said adviser went on pleading for such orientation
programmes for quite a long time.
Since independence, certain numerical strengthening of the inspectorate for
education has taken place in every state and territory of India. The complaint, however,
continues that this strengthening is not proportionate to the expansion of educational
facilities in terms of enrolment of students, number of educational institutions, strength
of the teaching personnel and the difficulties experienced in reaching farfetched areas
where new schools have been established.
Another problem being faced by the educational officers often is the problem of
transportation. Since they have to visit schools, they require efficient means of
transportation, so that they can do their work without any difficulty. They can cover
more schools. They can arrive at schools in time. They are expected to spend more
time in schools rather than somewhere waiting for the means of transportation, etc.
A study group set up by NCERT some years back went into this matter in some
depth. After collecting the data and consulting the people it concluded that “The time
spent by the inspecting officers at various levels on supervisory and inspection functions
on the one hand and on para-academic and non-academic duties on the other, varies
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from state to state. For example, the lowest proportion of time spent on para-academic
and non-academic duties by primary school inspecting officers in Andhra Pradesh is
55 per cent as against the highest proportion of 90 per cent in Assam. The remaining
states lie between these two extremes.”
You have already understood that the administration of elementary education has
in many states been transferred to the panchayat raj institutions under the scheme of
democratic decentralization. This has become necessary particularly at the lower
stages of education, for it should help to stimulate local interest and participation in
education and make it more relevant and meaningful. But in practice the experiment
has not been uniformly successful. It has led to certain difficulties, which cannot be
ignored. Indiscriminate transferring of teachers has been a widespread difficulty in
panchayat raj administration in all states.
There is also the difficulty of duel control. In some states the responsibility for
establishing and maintaining primary schools and appointing teachers for them rests
on the concerned local body, but the work of educational inspection is done by employees
of the state government. In this arrangement the teachers complain that their difficulties
are not heard and appreciated by the inspectional authorities of the state government
and the latter functionaries observe that the local bodies do not take sufficient interest
in education and do not care to implement the inspection reports. Similarly, in some
states the educational inspecting officer attached to the community development block
works, for academic matters, under the district education authority but for administrative
matters he or she is answerable to the block development officer and/or to the elected
head of the panchayat raj institution concerned. His difficulties in such an arrangement
are obvious, and best results cannot follow.
Another problem is regarding the payment of salaries and other emoluments to
the teachers and other members of the staff. The state governments must arrange direct
payment of salaries and allowances to employees of private educational institutions
because they have been receiving complaints of various malpractices adopted by some
organizations in this regard. It has been reported, for example, that managements delay
payments, pay only a part of the salary and obtain receipt for full payment, or compel
employees to make voluntary contributions from their salaries towards the managements
of the Institution.
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Some government officials handling the grants have expressed the view that the
managements of the grant-in-aid institutions here and there produce false accounts
and in this manner, try to procure their matching contribution too, from the government
grant. Perhaps the maneuverability in financial matters, if it is a fact, is used mainly for
the survival of the institution.
Many managers of private educational institutions have been complaining of
delayed payment of grants so much so that they are occasionally received in the last
week or even last day of the financial year and are required to be spent before the year
closes. This creates several problems including hurried purchase of unsatisfactory
furniture, equipment, literature, etc., for the institution and delayed payment of
emoluments to employees.
There is also some tussle between the grant processing machinery of the government
and the grant receiving machinery of the institutions, the former trying to minimize the
grant, within the approved framework, as much as possible, and the institutional
authorities trying to raise their claims as high as they can. The final say in such situations
invariably rests with the government machinery unless the private management has
significant political weight. In these negotiations and otherwise, the grievance of the
private managements is that the items eligible for the non-teaching part of the grant are
too restrictive and the quantum of grant approved against them is inadequate. Those
institutions that try to maintain a better educational standard also complain that the
grant-in-aid system is too rigid.
One bottleneck, which has repeatedly come to notice in the various studies relating
to plan implementation and efficiency of financial administration, is lack of delegation
of financial and administrative powers to lower functionaries. If all such powers
continue to remain only with the state education secretary or the director of education
at headquarters or with the regional or district educational authorities in the field, the
implementation of the plan or the execution of any other programme is bound to be
slow and defective. In such a situation, the decision will be delayed causing irritation,
criticism and frustration everywhere. Concentration of powers in the top authority would
have worked in the past when the responsibilities of the government were limited,
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there was little developmental work to be done, establishments were small and
administrative and other operations were simple.
It should be mentioned that the leading authorities of administration encourage
the philosophy of decentralization and consider it desirable as a generally good
principle of administration. It has at the same time been suggested that such a philosophy
of “decentralization must be tempered by selective centralization of certain areas of
vital major policy.” Decentralized management with centralized control has therefore
been suggested as the solution to the controversy of centralization versus decentralization.
These considerations should generally apply to financial as well as other forms of
administration.

1. At what stages you find problems in educational administration?
2. With whom does the district education authority have to deal?
3. What are the hard results of political interference in educational administration?
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4. What did a politician write to the education minister in the example given?
5. What is the general complaint regarding the strength of the inspectorate?
6. Who looks after the elementary education?
7. What is democratic decentralization?
8. What do the government officials handling grants generally say?
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9. What is delegation of powers regarding financial administration in education?
34.4 Let Us Sum Up

• It appears that in ancient or medieval times in India there were no formal
government departments of education, and no officials such as directors of
education and inspectors of schools, existed.
• In so far as modern India is concerned, a beginning was made with Bengal
because Calcutta was the capital of the East India Company’s government in
the country. In July 1823, Mr. Holt MacKenzie, the then secretary of the territorial
department, advised the Governor General of India to appoint a general
committee of public instruction.
• Thus the educational administration became an important issue. There has been
a lot of development in administrative system since then. As the field of
educational administration went on growing, there arose a number of problems.
• The main problems are, with the personnel of the department, the supervision
and inspection of educational institutions and, the finance of the educational
institutions.
• Normally these problems and difficulties are faced by the district educational
authority in dealing with teachers, teachers’ organizations, the general public,
educational institutions in his charge, his supervisors, his subordinates, local
government agencies, private educational managements in the district,
supervision of teaching work in the educational institutions in his charge and
the work of examining and evaluating pupils.
• Political interference, as reported by the Education Officers in some conferences,
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reveal that they have resulted in mal-administration, waste of public funds,
suppression of the officials’ enthusiasm for work, delay in disposal, or lowering
of the government standard of performance or reputation.
• Regarding strengthening of the inspectorate due to expansion of educational
facilities in terms of enrolment of students, number of educational institutions,
strength of the teaching personnel and the difficulties experienced in reaching
far-fetched areas where new schools have been established, the problem continues
since a long time.
• There is also the difficulty of duel control. In some states the responsibility for
establishing and maintaining primary schools and appointing teachers for them
rests on the concerned local body, but the work of educational inspection is
done by employees of the state government.
• Another problem is regarding the payment of salaries and other emoluments to
the teachers and other members of the staff.
• Some government officials handling the grants have expressed the view that
the managements of the grant-in-aid institutions here and there produce false
accounts and in this manner, try to procure their matching contribution, too,
from the government grant. Perhaps the maneuverability in financial matters, if
it is a fact, is used mainly for the survival of the institution.
• Many managers of private educational institutions have been complaining of
delayed payment of grants so much so that they are occasionally received in
the last week or even last day of the financial year and are required to be spent
before the year closes.
• Lack of delegation of financial and administrative powers to lower functionaries
is another problem. If all such powers continue to remain only with the state
education secretary or the director of education at headquarters or with the
regional or district educational authorities in the field, the implementation of
the plan or the execution of any other programme is bound to be slow and
defective.

1. The main problems are, with the personnel of the department, the supervision and
613
inspection of educational institutions and, the finance of the educational institutions.
2. The district educational authority has to deal with teachers, teachers’ organizations,
and the general public, educational institutions in his charge, his supervisors, his
subordinates, and so on.
3. They reveal that they have resulted in mal-administration, waste of public funds,
suppression of the officials’ enthusiasm for work, delay in disposal, or lowering of
the government standard of performance or reputation.
4. He wrote to the education minister pleading the case of a particular candidate for
selection.
5. Regarding strengthening of the inspectorate due to expansion of educational facilities
in terms of enrolment of students, number of educational institutions, and the growing
number of teachers, etc.
6. The administration of elementary education has in many states been transferred to
the panchayat raj institutions under the scheme of democratic decentralization.
7. The democratic decentralization has become necessary particularly at the lower
stages of education, for it should help to stimulate local interest and participation
in education and make it more relevant and meaningful. It is distribution of certain
powers as against its concentration at one point.
8. Some government officials handling the grants have expressed the view that the
managements of the grant-in-aid institutions here and there produce false accounts
and in this manner, try to procure their matching contribution, too, from the
government grant.
9. It is transfer of certain financial powers to the local authorities to make things go
smoothly and without any unnecessary delay. Instead of everything handled by the
Director it is better to delegate certain financial powers to the District authorities.

1. What is Educational Administration? What are the main problems as far as the
administration and supervision are concerned?
2. What are the problems with regard to financing of educational institutions?
614
3. What is delegation of powers? How does it help for smooth and efficient educational
administration?
34.7 References
New Delhi, 1978.
3. James J. Jones and others: Secondary School Administration, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1969.
5. Shukla P. D: Administration of Education in India, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, 1983.
615
UNIT - 35 ❐ TEACHING AS A PROFESSION IN
THE INDIAN CONTEXT
Structure
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Objectives
35.3 Meaning and Characteristics of a Profession
35.4 Teaching as a Profession in the Indian Context
35.5 Let Us Sum Up
35.8 References
35.1 Introduction
The real dynamic force of the school is the teacher. Building and equipment are
important, so are Curricula, books and transport. But with all these things at their best,
the school without the teacher is the soulless body. There is no greater need for the
cause of education today than the need for strong, manly men and womanly women as
teachers for the young. To secure these for the schools of the-nation, we may well give
the best of our thought, the wisest of our legislation, and the most bountiful of our
wealth.
Since the advent of independence, the teachers of this country have an additional
responsibility. They must, more than anyone else realize the value of freedom. They
should not consider themselves as employees and carryout the orders of their superiors.
On the other hand, they should feel that it is their school and they are going to make
something out of it. As Shri Vinoba Bhave puts it, “A teacher to whom freedom is a
personal experience will think independently of education and carry on his school work
according to his own ideas.” The teacher should further develop a professional sense
and consider it their duty and obligation to guide and mould public opinion on educational
matters. Dr. Zakir Hussain says, “The teachers as a class should occupy their legitimate
616
place in society and experts in the sphere of education.. They should be fearless in their
expression of opinion on educational matters.” Thus teaching has been a profession.
35.2 Objectives
After completing the study of this unit, you will be in a position to:
¾ Conceptualize the meaning of profession.
¾ Prepare a list of important characteristics of a profession.
¾ Examine whether teaching in the Indian context a profession.
35.3 Meaning and Characteristics of a Profession

Meaning
Every specialized group as soon as its members can claim to offer a significant
service to society begins to identify itself as a profession. According to Carr Saunders,
“A profession is an occupation based on specialized intellectual study and training.
The purpose of which is to supply skilled service or advice to others for a definite fee
or salary.”
Characteristics
Following are the main characteristics of a profession. Find out whether teaching
has the following characteristics and decide whether it is a profession or not.
First, a profession involves activity essentially intellectual: Teaching profession
involves intellectual activities like,
1. Mastery over the subject matter.
2. Clarity of thought, organization, presentation.
3. Providing learning experience, preparing teaching aids.
Secondly, A Profession commands a body of specialized knowledge. Teaching
profession has developed a body of specialized knowledge.
1. Philosophical, sociological and psychological foundations of education.
2. School administration and organization.
3. Educational technology.
4. Methods of teaching.
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Thirdly, a Profession requires extended professional preparation. In teaching
profession too there is professional preparation before being employed. There is required
a minimum academic qualification. Professional preparation involves professional
learning of B.Ed., T.C.H., (D.Ed.,), etc.
Fourthly, a Profession involves continuous in-service growth.
In-service growth is the very life of teaching profession. Teachers should attain
professional growth by participating actively in various programmes of school.
1. Summer School Programme.
2. Refresher Courses for teaching of school subjects.
3. Work-shops for preparation of Curriculum, Question Papers, Teaching Aids,
etc.
4. Taking up research work, conducting action research, etc.
5. Reading of books, journals, preparation of papers for seminar, radio talk, etc.
6. Undertake study tours, conduct excursions for students, etc.
Fifthly, A Profession affords life carrier and permanent membership. Once the
individuals enter the teaching profession they consider teaching as their life carrier and
become members of teaching profession organizations.
Sixthly, A Profession sets up its own standard (Code of Ethics). Teaching profession
too lays down its own code of ethics to enhance the standard of the profession. Code of
ethics specifies the commitment of teaching towards, a) pupils, b) profession, c)
colleagues, d) community and e) parents.
Seventhly, A Profession exalts (to give more importance) service over personal
gains. Teaching is a noble profession and teachers commit themselves to ideals of
service to human kind than personal gain. They behave according to high standard
under the code of ethics.
Eighthly, A Profession has a strongly knit professional organization. Teachers too
become members of their professional organization at various levels like, a) school, b)
local, c) district, etc.
35.4 In The Indian Context, is Teaching a Profession?

You have already understood the main characteristics of a profession. You have
618
also come to the conclusion that teaching is a profession. Now the question is whether
teaching is a profession in Indian context. What do you think about this? I am sure that
you know that the teaching profession in the Indian context is more a ‘profession’ than
anywhere else. Let us examine this question step by step.
First, Profession, to be called so must be ‘learned’ in character. In India from time
immemorial the teacher has been a very learned man. He used to provide a lot of
information and lay a very good intellectual foundation for his students. Even today,
that is what a teacher is expected to do. Thus it remains a profession.
A Profession, as you have already studied, requires a lengthy period of academic
and practical training. In India, at present elementary and secondary teachers are
expected to have academic qualification and also teaching qualification, which involves
practical training. At higher education level also, a teacher is expected to have good
academic qualification, research experience, etc. Thus it is a profession in Indian context
too. Another important point you have to note is that, a teacher enjoys more freedom
than anybody else in any other profession. This has been one of the qualities of a
profession. Both as an individual member of the profession and as a member of the
professional group, the teacher enjoys autonomy.
You also know that, a profession generates in-service growth because profession
is based on a body of knowledge and skills, which is constantly changing. At present in
our country, the teachers always strive hard for professional growth. He always keeps
on learning skills of teaching and goes on adjusting to the changing circumstances. He
is always ready to undergo training of some sort or the other connected with teaching
in order to upgrade his teaching skills. At present Indian teachers organize themselves
in order to maintain and improve the quality of their service. This is also necessary for
one who calls himself a professional.
The teachers in India are governed by a code of ethics. A Profession is one,
which has this characteristic of being governed by a code of ethics. From this point of
view also teaching has been a profession in Indian context.

1. What is a ‘profession’ according to Carr Saunders?
619
2. Write one of the characteristics of a ‘profession’?
3. How do you say that teaching profession involves in-service growth of teachers?
4. Why do teachers organize?
35.5 Let Us Sum Up

• Every specialized group as soon as its members can claim to offer a significant
service to society begins to identify itself as a profession.
• A profession involves activity essentially intellectual
• A Profession commands a body of specialized knowledge
• A Profession requires extended professional preparation.
• A Profession involves continuous in-service growth.
• A Profession affords life carrier and permanent membership.
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• A Profession sets up its own standard (Code of Ethics).
• A Profession exalts (to give more importance) service over personal gains. A
Profession has a strongly knit professional organization.
• The teaching profession in the Indian context is more a ‘profession’ than
anywhere else.
• First, Profession, to be called so must be ‘learned’ in character. In India from
time immemorial the teacher has been a very learned man.
• A Profession requires a lengthy period of academic and practical training.
In India, at present elementary and secondary teachers are expected to have
academic qualification and also teaching qualification, which involves practical
training.
• Another important point is a teacher enjoys more freedom than anybody else
in any other profession. This has been one of the qualities of a profession. Both
as an individual member of the profession and as a member of the professional
group, the teacher enjoys autonomy.
• At present in our country, the teachers always strive hard for professional growth.
He always keeps on learning skills of teaching and goes on adjusting to the
changing circumstances.
• At present Indian teachers organize themselves in order to maintain and improve
the quality of their service. This is also necessary for one who calls himself a
professional.

1. According to Carr Saunders, “A profession is an occupation based on specialized
intellectual study and training. The purpose of which is to supply skilled service or
advice to others for a definite fee or salary.”
2. A profession involves activity essentially intellectual:
Teaching profession involves intellectual activities like,
a) Mastery over the subject matter.
b) Clarity of thought, organization, presentation.
621
c) Providing learning experience, preparing teaching aid.
3. In-service growth is the very life of teaching profession. Teachers should attain
professional growth by participating actively in various programmes of school.
4. At present, Indian teachers organize themselves in order to maintain and improve
the quality of their service. This is also necessary for one who calls himself a
professional.

Answer the following questions.
1. What is a ‘Profession’? Explain why do you consider ‘Teaching’ as a profession?
2. Is ‘Teaching’ a ‘profession’ in Indian context? Give reasons.
35.8 References
New Delhi, 1978.
2. ‘Mukerji S. N: School Administration, Acharya Book Depot, Baroda, 1963.
5. Shukla P. D: Administration of Education in India, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
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UNIT - 36 ❐ PROFESSIONALIZING EDUCATION
IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT
Structure
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Objectives
36.3 Professionalizing Education
36.3.1 Role of Teachers
36.3.2 Role of Professional Organizations
36.3.3 Need for a Code of Conduct for Teachers
36.4 Let Us Sum Up
36.7 References
36.1 Introduction
In the previous Units you have studied that teaching is a profession. You also have
understood how teaching becomes a profession.
First, a profession, to be called so, must be ‘learned’ in character. In India from
time immemorial the teacher has been a very learned man. A Profession requires a
lengthy period of academic and practical training. In India, at present elementary and
secondary teachers, in fact all teachers at all level are expected to have academic
qualification and also teaching qualification, which involves practical training. Another
important point is a teacher enjoys more freedom than anybody else in any other
profession. This has been one of the qualities of a profession. Both as an individual
member of the profession and as a member of the professional group, the teacher enjoys
autonomy. Thus teaching has all qualities of a profession.
In this unit you are going to study about the role of a teacher, professional
organizations, and the role of code of conduct for teachers in professionalizing
education.
623
36.2 Objectives
After you complete the study of this Unit, you will be able to:
¾ Analyze the role of a teacher in professionalizing education.
¾ Recognize the role of professional organizations in making education a
profession.
¾ Realize the need for a code of conduct for teachers.
36.3 Professionalizing Education

What is professionalizing education? I am sure you know the answer for this
question already. You know the qualities of a profession. If you can make education
possess all those qualities, it is nothing but making education a profession. I hope you
have gone through the introduction of this unit. In it I have repeated what I have said in
the previous unit. It is an exercise to remind you of the same you have studied already.
Here we shall go deep and find out the work of teachers, their organizations and the
code of conduct they have to follow, etc., and understand how best these are going to
make education a profession.
36.3.1 Role of Teachers

“Teaching,” as Mr. Joad says, “is not everybody’s cup of tea.” There are certain
physical, intellectual, social and emotional qualities, which are requisites for success
in teaching. Several studies have been made of personal and professional traits of
prospective teachers and teachers in service. A careful analysis of all the researches
and results show that successful teaching and making teaching a profession depends
on seven factors. These along with the traits or qualities involved in each of them are
as follows:
1. Teacher’s personal equipment: They are his appearance, refinement, pleasant
manners, industry, enthusiasm, drive, initiative and open mindedness.
2. His professional equipment: Knowledge of psychology, aims of what he is teaching,
its contents and methods and materials of instruction, skill and interest in teaching.
3. His Cultural background and academic equipment: The amount of knowledge he
possesses of the subject he teaches, the amount of general knowledge or information,
cultural background, etc.
624
4. His physical equipment: Health, physical energy, vitality, freedom from physical
defects, etc.
5. His mental equipment: Intelligence, mental alertness, judgement of things, common
sense, etc.
6. His emotional stability: Self-control, mental balance, tolerance, freedom from
unreasonable beliefs, prejudices, etc.
7. His social adjustment: Knowledge of social conventions, ability to get along with
others, good moral conducts, etc.
Teachers with these qualities really make education a profession. Thus the role
of a teacher is indeed very important in making education a profession than a mere
occupation.
Besides these qualities, a teacher should have real sympathy for, and understanding
of his pupils. Swami Vivekananda has said, “A true teacher is he who can immediately
come down to the level of the student, and transfer his soul to the student’s soul and see
through and understand through his mind.” The Taitireeya Upanishad prescribes that
the teacher should have competence to teach and tranquility of thought. He should
acquire full fitness - intelligence that would not decay a strong body, able to do hard
work, a sweet tongue to win the hearts of pupils and an attentive ear to all that they
might ask him. A teacher should have zeal for work and loyalty to the teaching profession.
Thus a teacher’s role is very important in making education a profession.
‘Check Your Progress’ - I

1. What is professionalizing education?
2. What are teacher’s personal equipment?
625
3. Who is a true teacher according to Swami Vivekananda?
36.3.2 Role of Professional Organizations

In the field of education, the main professional organizations are the Teachers’
Associations. These organizations help through various educational activities for the
professional growth of teaches which in turn is useful in making education a profession.
Professional growth of teachers refers to learning experiences of teachers being in
the profession or in-service. It involves a continuous sustained programme of re-training
that counteracts out dated or defective teaching. It also implies growth of the teacher in
terms of skills, perception, knowledge and sensitivity. It consists of programmes that
the teacher undergoes after the completion of programmes coming under pre-service
education. It is an attempt to help teachers to keep in touch with changing times and
new developments. Professional growth of teachers is a vital element in any scheme
for improving school education as well as education at any level. Such programmes,
which help the professional growth of teachers, are often arranged by the teachers’
organizations and the department of education.
Many different organizations run the in-service courses. The local education
authorities offer a number of courses. The Department of Education also gives some,
as do colleges of education and universities. Only in a few of these courses do teachers
receive academic credit for time devoted to this work. Some universities provide evening,
weekend, and vacation courses leading to a degree, but these involve only a small
number of teachers. The majority attends the short courses out of interest and
acknowledges that they will gain professional credit within their school or local authority
for attending. Through in-service training and other facilities, the teachers’ organizations
and the Department of Education make many efforts to improve the quality of learning
in their area. Where their services are more effective, they promote cooperation between
teachers and foster a healthy, positive attitude toward change relaying on the capabilities
of teachers throughout the area.
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1. What is ‘Professional Growth’?
2. What type of course is attended by majority of teachers?
3. What do such programmes promote?
36.3.3 Need for a Code of Conduct for Teachers

Teachers being a group of professionals, require a code of ethics in order to regulate
the quality and standard of service. There are certain principles with regard to the
maintenance of their quality and standard of service. Professional ethics amounts to
understanding and application of those principles.
There is a strong demand for a code of conduct for teachers at all levels. The
purpose of prescribing code of conduct for teachers should be to help enhance their
performance as facilitators of learning and to restrain them from indulging in
unacceptable practices. The purpose should not be to victimize or punish but to check
and guide. Teaching community should welcome code of conduct for their behaviour
if it does not interfere with their freedom of expression and legitimate professional,
627
academic and organizational activities. Any comprehensive code of ethics will have
the following aspects:
1. Commitment to the student.
2. Commitment to the profession.
3. Commitment to the public and,
4. Commitment to professional and employment practices.
From the above-described code of conduct, now you are in a position to understand
that, teaching profession is different from trade. Teaching is a profession of learning.
Ethical standards are pillars for teaching profession. Particularly this profession requires
relatively long, continuous and directional preparations in the chosen area of teaching.
Therefore teachers must learn through classroom teaching learning interactions, research
their own scholarship in the field of education and self-imposed code of conduct.
NCERT has evolved a code of professional ethics for teachers as follows:
• Recognising that every child has a fundamental right to receive quality education.
• Recognising that education should be directed to all round development of human
personality.
• Realizing the need for developing faith in the guiding principles of our policy
namely, democracy, social justice and secularism.
• Recognizing the need for promotion of our enriched cultural heritage, national
consciousness, international understanding and world peace through education.
• Recognizing that teachers, being part of the social milieu, share the needs and
aspirations of the people.
• Recognizing the need to organize teaching as profession for which expert
knowledge, specialized skills and dedication are prerequisites.
• Realizing that community respect and support for the teaching community are
developed on the quality of teaching and teachers with proper attitude towards
teaching profession.
• Realizing the need for self direction and self discipline among members of the
teaching community.
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National Council of Teachers Education (NCTE) - which is both statutory and
accreditation body to the Government of India, has listed five performance areas, ten
competency areas and five commitment areas for teachers. You may refer the booklet
“Curriculum Framework for Quality Teachers Education” NCTE, 1998 for more details.
Besides these, we have to remember the following codes to become better teachers:
• Follow the ideals, principles and standards set by the authorities, community,
society or nation
• Discharge professional duties and responsibilities without disturbing the
institutional environment
• Participate whole heartedly in in-service training programme
• Involve in action-research work
• Maintain the high standards of professional character
• Trust the student
• Have deep faith in the inmate capacities of students
• Behave in such a way that no one questions about your integrity
• Act as loco parent in school
• Never forget the maxim ‘A good example is the best sermon’
• Guide students in right ways at right time
• Image of the teacher should be very high in society
• Teacher must be the source of all virtues and embodiment of values
• Be fair and impartial to all in the class
• Be simple and think highly

1. What is code of conduct?
629
2. What should be the commitment of teachers?
3. What does the teaching profession particularly requires?
36.4 Let Us Sum Up
• A profession, to be called so, must be learned in character. In India from time

immemorial the teacher has been a very learned man. A Profession requires a
lengthy period of academic and practical training.
• A careful analysis of all the researches and results show that successful teaching
and making teaching a profession depends on a number of factors, like: Teacher’s
personal equipment: His professional equipment: His Cultural background and
academic equipotent: His physical equipment: His mental equipment: His
emotional stability: His social adjustment, etc.
• Besides these qualities, a teacher should have real sympathy for, and
understanding of his pupils.
• He should acquire full fitness - intelligence that would not decay a strong body,
able to do hard work, a sweet tongue to win the hearts of pupils and an attentive
ear to all that they might ask him. A teacher should have zeal for work and
630
loyalty to the teaching profession.
• Professional organizations help through various educational activities for the
professional growth of teachers which in turn is useful in making education a
profession.
• Professional growth of teachers is a vital element in any scheme for improving
school education as well as education at any level. Such programmes, which
help the professional growth of teachers, are often arranged by the teachers’
organizations and the department of education.
• Through in-service training and other facilities, the teachers’ organizations and
the Department of Education make many efforts to improve the quality of learning
in their area. Where their services are more effective, they promote cooperation
between teachers and foster a healthy, positive attitude toward change - relaying
on the capabilities of teachers throughout the area.
• Teachers being a group of professionals, require a code of ethics in order to
regulate the quality and standard of service. There are certain principles with
regard to the maintenance of their quality and standard of service. Professional
ethics amounts to understanding and application of those principles.
• NCERT has evolved a code of professional ethics for teachers.
• Besides these, we have to remember many other codes to become better
teachers.
36.5 Answers To ‘Check Your Progress’

1. A Profession requires a lengthy period of academic and practical training. All teachers
at all levels are expected to have academic qualification and also teaching
qualification, which involves practical training. They have professional ethics and
follow the code of conduct. Thus education becomes a profession.
2. Teacher’s personal equipment are his appearance, refinement, pleasant manners,
industry, enthusiasm, drive, initiative and open mindedness.
631
3. According to Swami Vivekananda, a true teacher is he who can immediately come
down to the level of the student, and transfer his soul to the student’s soul and see
through and understand through his mind.

1. Professional growth of teachers refers to learning experiences of teachers being in
the profession or in-service. It involves a continuous sustained programme of
retraining that counteracts out dated or defective teaching.
2. The majority attends the short courses out of interest and acknowledges that
they will gain professional credit within their school or local authority for
attending.
3. They promote cooperation between teachers and foster a healthy, positive attitude
toward change - relaying on the capabilities of teachers throughout the area.

1. Teachers being a group of professionals, require a code of ethics in order to regulate
the quality and standard of service. There are certain principles with regard to the
maintenance of their quality and standard of service. This is called Code of Conduct.
2. They must have commitment towards their students, their profession, to the people,
and to the professional and employment practices.
3. Particularly this profession requires relatively long, continuous and directional
preparations in the chosen area of teaching.
36.6. Unit End Exercise

1. Is teaching a profession? Explain with the help of characteristics of a profession
you have studied.
2. How do professional organizations help teachers become professionals?
3. What is code of conduct for teachers? What is the opinion of NCERT about it?
4. Explain the norms one has to set to become a good teacher.
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36.7 References
1. Casey & Liza Murrow: Children Come First, American Heritage Press, New
York, 1971.
2. Shukla PD: Administration of Education in India, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
3. Mukerji S.N: School Administration, Acharya Book Depot, Baroda, 1963.
633
Notes and Works
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Notes and Works
635
Notes and Works
636
Notes and Works
637
Notes and Works
638
Notes and Works
639
Notes and Works
640

Education in India (For EDU 101 and 202)

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Netaji Subhas Open Karnataka State Open

B.Ed. - ODL PROGRAMME

Professor Subha Sankar Sarkar

B.Ed. –ODL PROGRAMME

COMPULSORY COURSE 01 (CC-01)

BLOCK 1 : AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 7-112

BLOCK 2 : EDUCATION IN INDIA-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 113-222

BLOCK 3 : EDUCATION COMMISSIONS AND THEIR IMPACT 223-312

BLOCK 4 : EDUCATION AND VALUES 313-392

BLOCK 5 : INDIAN EDUCATIONAL RESPONSES TO SOCIAL NEEDS 393-534

BLOCK 6 : EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 535-640

Prof. Vikram Raj Urs Convener

Dr. N. Lakshmi Course Coordinator

Prof. B. N. Manjunathaiah Course Editor

E. Rudramuni Course Writer

Dr. Thejasvi Naviloor Coordinator

● explain the meaning of education as given by the Indians and Westerners.

● distinguish between broader and narrower meanings of education.

● distinguish between liberal and utilitarian education.

● explain education as a process.

● differentiate education from teaching, training, instruction, indoctrination and

● explain education as self-actualization / self realization.

1.3 Education - Etymological Meaning

2. What is the meaning of education according to Gandhiji?

1.4 Education - Broad and Narrow Concepts

‘Check Your Progress’ - 2

2. Define the broader meaning of education.

‘Check Your Progress’ - 3

2. The aim of utilitarian education is to prepare a child for a.

1.6 Education as a Process

‘Check Your Progress’ - 4

1.7 Education as a Product

1.7.3 Attitude and Values

‘Check Your Progress’ - 5

‘Check Your Progress’ - 6

1.9 Education as Self Actualisation / Self Realisation

1. Self actualization is the realization of one’s own...................................................

2. Education makes a man …...................…..and ………..............................……..

1.10 Let Us Sum Up

‘Check Your Progress’ - 1

‘Check Your Progress’ - 2

‘Check Your Progress’ - 3

‘Check Your Progress’ - 4

‘Check Your Progress’ - 5

‘Check Your Progress’ - 7

1.12 Unit-End Exercises

1. NCERT - The Teacher and Education in Emerging Society, New Delhi.

2. Taneja. V. R - Educational Thoughts and Practices.

3. N. R. Swaroop Saxena - Foundations of Educational Thoughts and Practices.

4. Bhatia and Bhatia - Theory and Principles of Education.

2.3 Indian Visionaries

2.3.2. Tagore (Artistic Self Expression)

2.3.3. Vivekananda (Man-Making Education)

2.3.4. Aurobindo (Integral Education)

‘Check Your Progress’ - 1

Fill in the blanks:

1. List four important features of Basic Education.

2. Mention the important principles of Tagore’s educational philosophy.

4. Mention four austerities given by Aurobindo.