SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

outlined by: JGCL

WHO ARE YOU?

Most of us have been asked this question many times: when meeting a new person, introducing

ourselves in class, or staring at the mirror and not quite recognizing who you see. Our answer to

this question varies with multiple factors: proof that the self is as complex as the number of

perspectives which attempt to explain it.

In this module, we will talk about how different fields try to shed light into the beautiful enigma

that is 'the self'.

PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
Philosophers were perhaps the first to attempt to explain what makes the 'self'. While

philosophers have different opinions and theories about the topic, most of them agree (at least,

to some extent) with the age-old proposition of THE MIND-BODY DUALITY.

THE MIND THE BODY

Is a metaphysical object, consisting of Is a physical object, consisting of

spiritual essence physical material

Exists in the metaphysical world Exists and interacts with the physical

A perfect soul contained in the body world

There is a truth within our thoughts that An imperfect body

constitute the self, and we must seek Senses the world around it, but these

to discover it senses are deceptive and must not be

thought of as truth

SOCRATES - Believed that the true self is 'the soul' or the rational part of ourselves

Believed that the self consists of body and soul, the soul being the 'true self': unchanging

and immortal

To care for the self, we must know the self

The true self is knowable through questioning, now known as the 'Socratic method'

The body, although a part of the self, is only a receptacle of the soul

PLATO - A student of Socrates; expanded the concept of 'the soul' as having three parts

Humans are rational (i.e., we think and are conscious), and this must be the 'self' which sets

us apart from animals

Our intellect constitutes our true self

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PLATO (contd.)
The three-part self (i.e., soul):

Reason - the rational part of the self; part of the self that knows reality; makes

decisions

Appetite - irrational and instinctive part of the self; our basic physical needs such as

hunger, thirst, and sex

Spirit - our emotions such as anger, love, empathy

The three parts are dynamic and interact with each other. It is likened to a chariot pulled by

two winged horses, where the charioteer is the reason, while the two horses are appetite

and spirit

Reason (i.e., charioteer) must be able to control the horses (i.e., appetite and spirit) and

achieve harmony

Has similarities with Sigmund Freud's view of the structures of the mind

AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO - the true self is our within our mind, which is capable of consciousness;

by knowing ourselves, we are able to know God

We are like animals in that we are able to perceive the physical world, but higher than

animals as we are aware of ourselves

This inner knowledge of our existence must consist the true self

Like Socrates and Plato, he believed that we have an inner knowledge (i.e., truth) which we

must seek out in order to know the self

We can know ourselves through interiority (i.e., the Socratic method of questioning)

But he did not agree that the self is the mind ONLY; he believed that the self is both body

and soul, which is united just like the Trinity is united

As man is made in the image and likeness of God, knowing the self leads us to know God

RENE DESCARTES - Father of Modern Philosophy; formally proposed the mind-body dualism

Like his predecessors, he believed that the true self is within the soul, and we must discover

it through scientific inquiry and scientific method

Because we are capable of doubting our own existence, it must mean that we are

capable of thinking; because we are capable of thinking, we must exist

"Dubito ergo cogito, cogito ergo sum."

To have beliefs about the self, one must doubt their beliefs until they are capable of

achieving beliefs that are their own (not one provided to them by authorities)

Subscribed to Augustine's proposition that while the true self is within the mind, this does

not mean that the body is not part of the self

It only means that the body is secondary to the mind, but is still a distinct dimension of

the self

The mind and the body are intermingling and united

At the Pineal Gland (which, we know now as the gland in the brain which produces

some hormones, such as melatonin)

JOHN LOCKE - 'Tabula rasa' or blank slate; Our consciousness is the self, giving us a sense of

continuity over time

Disputed the idea that we have an inner knowledge which we were born with
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LOCKE (contd.)
This consciousness gives the continuity/stability that establishes the self

However, the self is not something we are born with; rather it is developed through

experience

We are born as blank slates (tabula rasa) with no consciousness, and therefore with no

self yet.

As we gain experience, we discover the self through our consciousness; this

consciousness links our past selves with our present (and future) selves, giving us

continuity and stability of self

While other philosophers thought of the self as the immortal soul and made of spiritual

essence, Locke believed that the self can be anything that has consciousness

So, if your finger was cut off but it still regains a consciousness, then your mutilated

finger is still you!

DAVID HUME - There is no self

Humans perceive two things: impressions, which are our basic sensations of experience such

as happiness, pain, cold, grief; and ideas, which are copies of impressions stored in the

mind

In order for the 'self' to exist as a 'constant and invariable' idea, our impressions of the

self must also be constant and invariable. However, our impressions of the self a

fleeting and variable (e.g., no two experiences of grief are the same). Therefore, it is

logical to assume that there is no such as thing as the idea of an unchanging self.

When we die, we cease to exist. As such, there is no soul containing the self that will

continue to linger on Earth. Thus, there is no self.

The self is an idea, the amalgamation of different impressions over time which we

collectively designate as 'the self'.

IMMANUEL KANT - The self is the thread which binds our experiences of 'self' together in a

'unity of consciousness'

Criticized Hume's nihilistic view of the non-existence of the self, saying that it is dangerous

to think of the mind as merely a receptacle of fleeting impressions and ideas

We are able to organize what Hume called 'fleeting and variable' impressions and ideas,

and at the center of these organized perceptions is the conscious self

Like Locke, he believed in the connected unity of consciousness; but he did not agree

that we are blank slates; rather we have existing knowledge (i.e., a priori knowledge)

which we use to make sense and organize our perceptions

Transcendental self - the organizing principle of self; the a priori knowledge

Empirical self - the conscious self or ego; posteriori knowledge

Without the self, we will be unable to make sense of our perceptions and sensations

This 'unity of consciousness' gives the self its consistency over time

GILBERT RYLE - The self is best understood as the pattern of behavior, the tendency or

disposition for a person to behave in a certain way

Subscribed to the main tenets of behaviorism

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RYLE (contd.)
Did not believe the existence of a metaphysical sense which cannot be objectively

observed and measured

Also criticized dualism - if the mind and body are separate, how are they connected?

Where do they intersect? How do they mingle?

Since the mind is not observable, it is impossible to prove its existence (or the existence

of others' minds)

Focused instead on observable behaviors. The self must be viewed in terms of the behavior

we present to the world.

The 'mind' is the concept that expresses the entire system of thoughts, emotions,

actions, etc. that makes up the human self

EDMUND HUSSERL & MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY - The self is experienced subjectively, not

known objectively

Espoused Phenomenology - which proposes that all knowledge of ourselves and our world is

based on the phenomena of personal experience

Fully rejects dualism as it views the self as the experience of the unity between the

mental and the physical

The self is embodied in subjective experiences, rather than objective behaviors

Thus, in order to know the self, we must live it. The self is a lived experience.

If you have not lived, you have not known self.

PAUL CHURCHLAND - The self is a series of neurological phenomena which can be observed in

the brain

The self is the brain (i.e., congruent with materialism).

Materialists believe that mental states or experiences of the self can be explained in terms

of physical brain states.

To explain the self, we must be grounded on neuroscience.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
As society developed, so did the sciences. Philosophers began to study the self as being

centered in the 'mind' or the 'brain'. At the same time, Psychology was rising as a field on its

own, which focused on investigating these topics as a cognitive construction.

Psychology's inquiry focused on internal cognitions and asked questions such as:

1. What can make an effective self? Happy self? Etc.

2. How does the self know itself (consciousness)?

3. What cognitive processes are involved in forming the self?

SIGMUND FREUD - The self has conscious and unconscious parts.

As the Father of Psychoanalysis, Freud espoused that the self is part conscious (i.e., aware)

and unconscious (i.e., unaware).

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FREUD (contd.)
The conscious part of the self includes mental processes which we are aware of.

The unconscious part of the self are those parts which are not easily accessible to our

awareness.

These conscious and unconscious parts of the self are unified in the 'ego'.

Later on, Freud expounded on his idea by formulating a structure of the mind, which

consisted of the ego, id, and the superego

Ego - reality principle; is directly in contact with reality and strives to balance out the

demands of the Id and the Superego

Id - pleasure principle; the unconscious part of the mind; strives to get maximum

pleasure by pursuing instinctual needs (e.g., hunger, thirst, sex)

Superego - moralistic principle; both conscious and unconscious; the superego

impinges upon the ego with its moralistic demands and should's

WILLIAM JAMES - The self is a cognitive construction

Was more concerned with the function rather than the structure of the mind

Father of the Functionalist School of Thought and of American Psychology

He viewed the self in terms of 'I' and 'Me'.

I-Self (the knower) - is the subjective self which does everything in the here and know. It

is the conscious part of the self and gives you the sense of who you are

Me-Self (the known) - is the objective self and the repository of all experiences: past,

present, and future. The Me-Self is the expressed self and is composed of material,

social, and spiritual aspects.

As the I-Self evaluates the Me-Self and all its components, it develops our self-esteem

Self-esteem is our overall evaluation of ourselves.

This gives us the feeling of 'I like (this part of) myself.'

For James, a realistic view of self and one's aspirations is important in order to have

positive feelings about oneself. The problem occurs when one's ideal self turns into an

idealistic and unrealistic MUST SELF (i.e., I must be a good student; I must provide for

my family).

As proactive and agentic humans, we are capable of controlling our behavior towards more

achievable goals, leading to more positive views of the self.

Self-regulation - our ability to control our behaviors towards goals which are more likely

to result in positive experiences and rewards

By regulating our behaviors and adjusting our goals into more realistic and achievable

ones, we increase our self-efficacy. Increased self-efficacy can have profound effects

on our self-esteem (although this is not necessarily a cause-and-effect relationship).

Self-efficacy - our beliefs about our capabilities to achieve a goal

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SOCIOLOGICAL/ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Most of the philosophical/psychological perspectives of the self view humans as isolated

individuals who gain a sense of self on their own, either through self-exploration or interacting

with the empirical world. However, it is also true that the self does not exist in a vacuum. Thus,

Sociological/Anthropological views of the self emphasize that the self must not be viewed in

isolation, but must be seen as part of a larger society, culture, and societal values.

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
The self is a product of how the people interact with society at large. Only when one has

participated in different social positions and learn from those experiences can we be self-

conscious.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
The self is differently conceptualized across cultures (e.g., Western/Eastern Orientations).

How we view the self begins and ends with the group we are in.

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD - The self is a sociological construction

Mead, a sociologist, viewed the self to be constructed through the process of socialization,

where we learn to be self-conscious (i.e., aware of how people see us and the roles that

we play).

As children, we were not conscious yet because we do not consider how other people

(i.e. society) view us. We are egocentric. But as we interact with other people and take

on other roles (e.g., playing the role of a mom or doctor at play), we become aware of

perspectives which are not our own.

With this, we also become conscious that other people are perceiving us differently

whenever we interact with them. Here, we are able to distinguish between the I and the

Me.

Mead conceptualized the I-Me self in terms of social interaction; wherein the 'Me' is how

others see the self, and the 'I' is the personal (i.e., subjective) assessment of the social self.

To Mead, there must be a balance between the I and the Me.

W. JAMES' ME-SELF G.H. MEAD'S ME-SELF

The self is a product of cognition (i.e., The self is a product of social

the mind) interaction and role-taking

The Me-Self is an object of awareness, The Me-Self is the sum of all perceived

of the total experiences of the 'I', perceptions others have of the self

having material, social, and spiritual (i.e., the generalized other)

components
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THE CONCEPT OF SELF VARIES WITH CULTURE

Markus & Kitayama (1991) pointed out that the primary method in which cultural values

influence psychological processes is in terms of how individuals define and see their 'selves'

in relation to others in their social network.

That is, our concept of self is relative to how we construe ourselves within our group.

CONFUCIUS - The Eastern/Oriental View of Self

Many of the previous perspectives on the self have been influenced by the philosophy of

seeking personal independence, and have spread throughout the Western parts of the

world (e.g., The US, UK). Thus, the concept of the self is seen as a separate whole among

other wholes in society.

In the Eastern Hemisphere, other philosophies were more prevalent than others. These

philosophies espoused a more interrelated conceptualization of the self.

For Eastern Societies, the self is seen as an emerging concept from a combined set of

multiple identities.

Confucius, one of the most prominent philosophers in the East, laid out the Chinese

philosophy which defined the self in terms of cardinal relationships (e.g., ruler-minister,

father-son, etc.) nurtured by reciprocity, interdependence, and interrelatedness.

This philosophy eventually spread throughout the Eastern parts, influencing societies

and cultures within it.

Confucian philosophy focuses on relational identity as defined by significant relationships.

That is, not all relationships impinge upon our self-view, but only those which we

consider significant.

Most often, this self-view is influenced by societal values and expectation.

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES

INDIVIDUALIST CULTURES COLLECTIVIST CULTURES

Fosters independence and individual Fosters interdependence and group

achievement success

Promotes self-expression, individual Promotes adherence to norms, respect

thinking, and personal choice for authority/elders, and group

Associated with egalitarian consensus

relationships and flexibility in roles Associated with stable, hierarchical

Associated with private property and roles

individual ownership Associated with shared property and

group ownership
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SUMMATIVE STATEMENTS
By now, we have a general (but hardly comprehensive) view of the self. Knowing these

perspectives, it is not surprising why some people think that the self is complicated: it's because

it is! Our personality and identity is thrown into a background of multiple shades and colors

which cannot be fully appreciated if we only look at it through the scope of one field of study.

And perhaps, the reason why the self is still much of a mystery up to now is because it is just

that complicated.

However, it is safe to say this about the self: it is a complex and multifaceted aspect of human

beings defined by ourselves, others, and the environment, which is needed to be a fully

functioning human.

ADDITIONAL READINGS AND RESOURCES

READINGS
Cada, P.B., Echavez, N.Q., Escalona, O.M.D., Maranda, A.G., Palomares, P., Rodil, S.S., &

Sansona, A.Z.B. (2019). Understanding the Self, Work-Text Compilation.

Chafee, J. (2013). Who are you? Consciousness, Identity, and the Self. In the Philosopher's Way:

Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson. 106-169. Retrieved from:

https://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/samplechapter/0/2/0/5/020577699X.pdf.

Edwardes, M.P.J. (2019). The Origins of the Self: An Anthropological Perspective. UCLPress.

Retrieved from: https://www.uclpress.co.uk/products/125998

WEB SOURCES
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mead/

https://batch.libretexts.org/print/url=https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/B

ook%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/04%3A_The_Role_of_Socialization/4.02%3A_The_Self_and_

Socialization/4.2B%3A_Sociological_Theories_of_the_Self.pdf

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-individualistic-cultures-2795273

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-collectivistic-cultures-2794962

VIDEO SOURCES
https://www.ted.com/talks/julian_baggini_is_there_a_real_you?language=en

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oMNaQjtXSGc