Geothermal heat pump

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This article is about methods of using the ground in a heat pump to warm & cool a system close
to the average surface temperature of a location. For generation of electricity from rocks much
hotter than the average annual temperature, see geothermal power. For using rocks much hotter
than the average annual temperature to heat directly, see geothermal heating. For a quick primer
on the controversial terminology, see Geothermal heat pump#Differing Terms and Definitions.
It has been suggested that Deep water source cooling be merged into this article or
section. (Discuss)

Ground source heating and cooling

Ground source heating and cooling

A geothermal heat pump or ground source heat pump (GSHP) is a central heating and/or
cooling system that pumps heat to or from the ground. It uses the earth as a heat source (in the
winter) or a heat sink (in the summer). This design takes advantage of the moderate temperatures
in the ground to boost efficiency and reduce the operational costs of heating and cooling systems,
and may be combined with solar heating to form a geosolar system with even greater efficiency.
Geothermal heat pumps are also known by a variety of other names, including geoexchange,
earth-coupled, earth energy or water-source heat pumps. The engineering and scientific
communities prefer the terms "geoexchange" or "ground source heat pumps" to avoid confusion
with traditional geothermal power, which uses a high temperature heat source to generate
electricity.[1] Ground source heat pumps harvest a combination of geothermal power and heat
from the sun when heating, but work against these heat sources when used for air conditioning.[2]

Depending on latitude, the upper 3 metres (9.8 ft) of Earth's surface maintains a nearly constant
temperature between 10 and 16 °C (50 and 60 °F).[3] Like a refrigerator or air conditioner, these
systems use a heat pump to force the transfer of heat from there. Heat pumps can transfer heat
from a cool space to a warm space, against the natural direction of flow, or they can enhance the
natural flow of heat from a warm area to a cool one. The core of the heat pump is a loop of
refrigerant pumped through a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle that moves heat. Heat
pumps are always more efficient at heating than pure electric heaters, even when extracting heat
from cold winter air..[citation needed] But unlike an air-source heat pump, which transfers heat to or
from the outside air, a ground source heat pump exchanges heat with the ground. This is much
more energy-efficient because underground temperatures are more stable than air temperatures
through the year. Seasonal variations drop off with depth and disappear below seven meters due
to thermal inertia.[2] Like a cave, the shallow ground temperature is warmer than the air above
during the winter and cooler than the air in the summer. A ground source heat pump extracts
ground heat in the winter (for heating) and transfers heat back into the ground in the summer (for
cooling). Some systems are designed to operate in one mode only, heating or cooling, depending
on climate.

The geothermal pump systems reach fairly high efficiencies (300%-600%) on the coldest of
winter nights, compared to 175%-250% for air-source heat pumps on cool days.[4] Ground source
heat pumps (GSHPs) are among the most energy efficient technologies for providing HVAC and
water heating.[5][6]

The setup costs are higher than for conventional systems, but the difference is usually returned in
energy savings in 3 to 10 years. System life is estimated at 25 years for inside components and
50+ years for the ground loop.[7] As of 2004, there are over a million units installed worldwide
providing 12 GW of thermal capacity, with an annual growth rate of 10%.[8]

Sustainable energy
Renewable energy
Anaerobic digestion
Hydroelectricity · Geothermal
Microgeneration · Solar
Tidal · Wave · Wind
Energy conservation
Cogeneration · Energy efficiency
Geothermal heat pump
 Green building · Passive Solar
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Plug-in hybrids · Electric vehicles
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Contents
[hide]

 1 Differing terms and definitions

 2 History
 3 Ground heat exchanger
o 3.1 Direct exchange
o 3.2 Closed loop
 3.2.1 Vertical
 3.2.2 Horizontal
 3.2.3 Pond
o 3.3 Open loop
 3.3.1 Standing column well
 4 Building distribution
 5 Seasonal thermal storage
 6 Thermal efficiency
 7 Environmental impact
 8 Economics
 9 Installation
 10 See also
 11 References
 12 External links

[edit] Differing terms and definitions

This section requires expansion.

There is a great deal of controversy and confusion with regard to exactly what geothermal heat
pumps do. There are several concepts commonly attached to the idea of geothermal:

 Utilizing geologically hot rocks, which have little relationship to the surface climate and
derive their heat from deep in the earth, to run a heat engine which produces electricity.
Such a system can be operated only until the rock around the bore cools, then it gradually
loses its generating ability. All of these systems are in tectonically or volcanically active
areas. Most people are pretty clear that this should be called "geothermal power".
  Utilizing geologically hot rocks to heat some type of liquid or gas which is pumped up to
be used to heat a building is often called "geothermal heating".

 Utilizing a heat exchanger with a finite amount of external material to incorporate

additional thermal mass to a building. This makes the building change temperature
slowly, and allows the inhabitants to go through a time period with less overall
temperature variation. This is the main focus of this article, and many terms have been
applied. The most common ones appear to be "geothermal heat pump" by laymen and
"ground-source heat pump" by experts, but even these are broad, barely understood terms
about which there is no consensus.

Builders may try to smooth out the indoor climate over surface temperature variations resulting
from the day-night cycle, variations due to short-term weather patterns, or variations due to
entire seasons. The amount of thermal mass incorporated is on a spectrum, so one cannot say
their system addresses any of these cycles specifically – a system sized for day-night cycling will
still help somewhat in a week-long blizzard. Such a system requires power to pump the coolant,
but can be operated indefinitely.

To further complicate things, even though most home-sized systems termed "geothermal"
operate primarily on the former principle, the thermal mass in such systems is rarely perfectly
finite and closed. Groundwater flows through the area, and heat leaks out and warms/cools the
surrounding area. True geothermal heat may play a small or large role in such systems.

When trying to explain this subject, experts may go through a series of explanations and
divisions.

First, people separate out terms for geothermal electricity generation:

 geothermal power

Then, they split out geothermal heating, which is commonly used in tectonically or volcanically
active regions:

 geothermal heating

Then, they explain the traditional concept of a heat pump which uses only inside and outside air:

 heat pump

After that, they try to identify simple systems in which the coolant is air which is pumped
directly out of and back into the building, going through a simple hole in the ground:

 earth tube or earth air heat exchanger

 ground-coupled heat exchanger
After that, they remove systems which depend on large quantities of water or wet ground,
primarily for cooling:

 lake water cooling

 deep water source cooling

At this point they may explain the concept of a seasonal thermal store or a thermal mass climate
control strategy:

 trombe wall
 seasonal thermal store
 thermal mass

Then, they may try to figure out the size of the system. Is it targeted at a home? A building? Is it
a full-scale district heating system?

Then they go into the specifics of the system. First, is the coolant water, and if so is it "open
loop" – exposed to groundwater – or "closed loop" – not exposed.

Are other energy sources helping? Is solar absorbed from the house or from a dedicated thermal
collector?

 annualized geothermal solar or annualized geo solar

 geosolar or solar combisystem

After this they concentrate on the specific form factor of the system. Is it a grid of pipes buried
3 feet (0.91 m) underneath the owner's garden? Does it consist of a hundred-foot borehole? A
thousand-foot borehole? Dozens of 8-foot (2.4 m) boreholes?

 downhole heat exchanger or borehole heat exchanger

Finally they may try to decide what the locals call the system, as identical systems are often
called different things in different countries, and in some countries generic terms may be
trademarked in others:

 Geoexchange is a trademarked product in the US, but is a standards coalition in Canada.

 Earth tubes, Air-earth heat exchangers and "heat exchanger" in general, appear to be
primarily used in the UK.

[edit] History
The heat pump was described by Lord Kelvin in 1853 and developed by Peter Ritter von
Rittinger in 1855. After experimenting with a freezer, Robert C. Webber built the first direct
exchange ground-source heat pump in the late 1940s.[9] The first successful commercial project
was installed in the Commonwealth Building (Portland, Oregon) in 1946, and has been
designated a National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by ASME.[10] The technology
became popular in Sweden in the 1970s, and has been growing slowly in worldwide acceptance
since then. Open loop systems dominated the market until the development of polybutylene pipe
in 1979 made closed loop systems economically viable.[10] As of 2004, there are over a million
units installed worldwide providing 12 GW of thermal capacity.[8] Each year, about 80,000 units
are installed in the USA (geothermal energy is used in all 50 U.S. states today, with great
potential for near-term market growth and savings)[11] and 27,000 in Sweden.[8]

[edit] Ground heat exchanger

Loop field for a 12-ton system (unusually large for most residential applications)

Heat pumps provide wintertime heating by extracting heat from a source and transferring it to the
building. In theory, heat can be extracted from any source, no matter how cold, but a warmer
source allows higher efficiency. A ground source heat pump uses the shallow ground as a source
of heat, thus taking advantage of its seasonally moderate temperatures.

In the summer, the process can be reversed so the heat pump extracts heat from the building and
transfers it to the ground. Transferring heat to a cooler space takes less energy, so the cooling
efficiency of the heat pump gain benefits from the lower ground temperatures.

Shallow horizontal heat exchangers experience seasonal temperature cycles due to solar gains
and transmission losses to ambient air at ground level. These temperature cycles lag behind the
seasons because of thermal inertia, so the heat exchanger can harvest heat deposited by the sun
several months earlier. Deep vertical systems rely heavily on migration of heat from surrounding
geology, unless they are recharged annually by exhaust heat from air conditioning.

Ground source heat pumps must have a heat exchanger in contact with the ground or
groundwater to extract or dissipate heat. This component accounts for a third to a half of the total
system cost. Several major design options are available for these, which are classified by fluid
and layout. Direct exchange systems circulate refrigerant underground, closed loop systems use a
mixture of anti-freeze and water, and open loop systems use natural groundwater.

[edit] Direct exchange

Main article: Direct exchange geothermal heat pump

The Direct exchange geothermal heat pump is the oldest type of geothermal heat pump
technology. It is also the simplest and easiest to understand. The ground-coupling is achieved
through a single loop circulating refrigerant in direct thermal contact with the ground (as
opposed to a combination of a refrigerant loop and a water loop). The refrigerant leaves the heat
pump appliance cabinet, circulates through a loop of copper tube buried underground, and
exchanges heat with the ground before returning to the pump. The name "direct exchange" refers
to heat transfer between the refrigerant and the ground without the use of an intermediate fluid.
There is no direct interaction between the fluid and the earth; only heat transfer through the pipe
wall. Direct exchange heat pumps are not to be confused with "water-source heat pumps" or
"water loop heat pumps" since there is no water in the ground loop. ASHRAE defines the term
ground-coupled heat pump to encompass closed loop and direct exchange systems, while
excluding open loops.

Direct exchange systems are signifcantly more efficient and have potentially lower installation
costs than closed loop water systems. Copper's high thermal conductivity contributes to the
higher efficiency of the system, but heat flow is predominantly limited by the thermal
conductivity of the ground, not the pipe. The main reasons for the higher efficiency are the
elimination of the water pump (which uses electricity), the elimination of the water heat
exchanger (which is a source of heat losses), and most importantly, the latent heat phase change
of the refrigerant in the ground itself.

While they require much more refrigerant and their tubing is more expensive per foot, a direct
exchange loop is shorter than a closed water loop for a given capacity. A direct exchange system
requires only 15 to 30% of the length of tubing and half the diameter of drilled holes, and the
drilling or excavation costs are therefore lower. Refrigerant loops are less tolerant of leaks than
water loops because gas can leak out through smaller imperfections. This dictates the use of
brazed copper tubing, even though the pressures are similar to water loops. The copper loop must
be protected from corrosion in acidic soil through the use of a sacrificial anode or cathodic
protection.

[edit] Closed loop

Most installed systems have two loops on the ground side: the primary refrigerant loop is
contained in the appliance cabinet where it exchanges heat with a secondary water loop that is
buried underground. The secondary loop is typically made of High-density polyethylene pipe
and contains a mixture of water and anti-freeze (propylene glycol, denatured alcohol or
methanol). After leaving the internal heat exchanger, the water flows through the secondary loop
outside the building to exchange heat with the ground before returning. The secondary loop is
placed below the frost line where the temperature is more stable, or preferably submerged in a
body of water if available. Systems in wet ground or in water are generally more efficient than
drier ground loops since it is less work to move heat in and out of water than solids in sand or
soil. If the ground is naturally dry, soaker hoses may be buried with the ground loop to keep it
wet.
An installed liquid pump pack

Closed loop systems need a heat exchanger between the refrigerant loop and the water loop, and
pumps in both loops. Some manufacturers have a separate ground loop fluid pump pack, while
some integrate the pumping and valving within the heat pump. Expansion tanks and pressure
relief valves may be installed on the heated fluid side. Closed loop systems have lower efficiency
than direct exchange systems, so they require longer and larger pipe to be placed in the ground,
increasing excavation costs.

Closed loop tubing can be installed horizontally as a loop field in trenches or vertically as a
series of long U-shapes in wells(see below). The size of the loop field depends on the soil type
and moisture content, the average ground temperature and the heat loss and or gain
characteristics of the building being conditioned. A rough approximation of the initial soil
temperature is the average daily temperature for the region.

[edit] Vertical

A vertical closed loop field is composed of pipes that run vertically in the ground. A hole is
bored in the ground, typically 75 to 500 feet (23–150 m) deep. Pipe pairs in the hole are joined
with a U-shaped cross connector at the bottom of the hole. The borehole is commonly filled with
a bentonite grout surrounding the pipe to provide a thermal connection to the surrounding soil or
rock to improve the heat transfer. Thermally enhanced grouts are available to improve this heat
transfer. Grout also protects the ground water from contamination, and prevents artesian wells
from flooding the property. Vertical loop fields are typically used when there is a limited area of
land available. Bore holes are spaced at least 5–6 m apart and the depth depends on ground and
building characteristics. For illustration, a detached house needing 10 kW (3 ton) of heating
capacity might need three boreholes 80 to 110 m (260 to 360 ft) deep.[12] (A ton of heat is 12,000
British thermal units per hour (BTU/h) or 3.5 kilowatts.) During the cooling season, the local
temperature rise in the bore field is influenced most by the moisture travel in the soil. Reliable
heat transfer models have been developed through sample bore holes as well as other tests.

[edit] Horizontal
A 3-ton slinky loop prior to being covered with soil. The three slinky loops are running out
horizontally with three straight lines returning the end of the slinky coil to the heat pump

A horizontal closed loop field is composed of pipes that run horizontally in the ground. A long
horizontal trench, deeper than the frost line, is dug and U-shaped or slinky coils are placed
horizontally inside the same trench. Excavation for horizontal loop fields is about half the cost of
vertical drilling, so this is the most common layout used wherever there is adequate land
available. For illustration, a detached house needing 10 kW (3 ton) of heating capacity might
need 3 loops 120 to 180 m (390 to 590 ft) long of NPS 3/4 (DN 20) or NPS 1.25 (DN 32)
polyethylene tubing at a depth of 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft).[13]

As an alternative to trenching, the horizontal loop field may be laid by mini horizontal
directional drilling. (mini-HDD) This technique can lay piping under yards, driveways or other
structures without disturbing them, with a cost between those of trenching and vertical drilling.

A slinky (also called coiled) closed loop field is a type of horizontal closed loop where the pipes
overlay each other (not a recommended method). The easiest way of picturing a slinky field is to
imagine holding a slinky on the top and bottom with your hands and then move your hands in
opposite directions. A slinky loop field is used if there is not adequate room for a true horizontal
system, but it still allows for an easy installation. Rather than using straight pipe, slinky coils, use
overlapped loops of piping laid out horizontally along the bottom of a wide trench. Depending on
soil, climate and your heat pump's run fraction, slinky coil trenches can be anywhere from one
third to two thirds shorter than traditional horizontal loop trenches. Slinky coil ground loops are
essentially a more economic and space efficient version of a horizontal ground loop.[14]

[edit] Pond

12-ton pond loop system being sunk to the bottom of a pond

A closed pond loop is not common because it depends on proximity to a body of water, where an
open loop system is usually preferable. A pond loop may be advantageous where poor water
quality precludes an open loop, or where the system heat load is small. A pond loop consists of
coils of pipe similar to a slinky loop attached to a frame and located at the bottom of an
appropriately sized pond or water source.

[edit] Open loop

In an open loop system (also called a groundwater heat pump), the secondary loop pumps natural
water from a well or body of water into a heat exchanger inside the heat pump. ASHRAE calls
open loop systems groundwater heat pumps or surface water heat pumps, depending on the
source. Heat is either extracted or added by the primary refrigerant loop, and the water is
returned to a separate injection well, irrigation trench, tile field or body of water. The supply and
return lines must be placed far enough apart to ensure thermal recharge of the source. Since the
water chemistry is not controlled, the appliance may need to be protected from corrosion by
using different metals in the heat exchanger and pump. Limescale may foul the system over time
and require periodic acid cleaning. Also, as fouling decreases the flow of natural water, it
becomes difficult for the heat pump to exchange building heat with the groundwater. If the water
contains high levels of salt, minerals, iron bacteria or hydrogen sulfide, a closed loop system is
usually preferable.

Deep lake water cooling uses a similar process with an open loop for air conditioning and
cooling. Open loop systems using ground water are usually more efficient than closed systems
because they are better coupled with ground temperatures. Closed loop systems, in comparison,
have to transfer heat across extra layers of pipe wall and dirt.

A growing number of jurisdictions have outlawed open-loop systems that drain to the surface
because these may drain aquifers or contaminate wells. This forces the use of more
environmentally sound injection wells.

[edit] Standing column well

A standing column well system is a specialized type of open loop system. Water is drawn from
the bottom of a deep rock well, passed through a heat pump, and returned to the top of the well,
where traveling downwards it exchanges heat with the surrounding bedrock.[15] The choice of a
standing column well system is often dictated where there is near-surface bedrock and limited
surface area is available. A standing column is typically not suitable in locations where the
geology is mostly clay, silt, or sand. If bedrock is deeper than 200 feet (61 m) from the surface,
the cost of casing to seal off the overburden may become prohibitive.

A multiple standing column well system can support a large structure in an urban or rural
application. The standing column well method is also popular in residential and small
commercial applications. There are many successful applications of varying sizes and well
quantities in the many boroughs of New York City, and is also the most common application in
the New England states. This type of ground source system has some heat storage benefits,
where heat is rejected from the building and the temperature of the well is raised, within reason,
during the Summer cooling months which can then be harvested for heating in the Winter
months, thereby increasing the efficiency of the heat pump system. As with closed loop systems,
sizing of the standing column system is critical in reference to the heat loss and gain of the
existing building. As the heat exchange is actually with the bedrock, using water as the transfer
medium, a large amount of production capacity (water flow from the well) is not required for a
standing column system to work. However, if there is adequate water production, then the
thermal capacity of the well system can be enhanced by discharging a small percentage of
system flow during the peak Summer and Winter months.

Since this is essentially a water pumping system, standing column well design requires critical
considerations to obtain peak operating efficiency. Should a standing column well design be
misapplied, leaving out critical shut-off valves for example, the result could be an extreme loss
in efficiency and thereby cause operational cost to be higher than anticipated.

[edit] Building distribution

Liquid-to-air heat pump

The heat pump is the central unit that becomes the heating and cooling plant for the building.
Some models may cover space heating, space cooling, (space heating via conditioned air,
hydronic systems and / or radiant heating systems), domestic or pool water preheat (via the
desuperheater function, demand hot water, and driveway ice melting all within one appliance
with a variety of options with respect to controls, staging and zone control. The heat may be
carried to its end use by circulating water or forced air. Almost all types of heat pumps are
produced for commercial and residential applications.

Liquid-to-air heat pumps (also called water-to-air) output forced air, and are most commonly
used to replace legacy forced air furnaces and central air conditioning systems. There are
variations that allow for split systems, high-velocity systems, and ductless systems. Heat pumps
cannot achieve as high of a fluid temperature as a conventional furnace, so they require a higher
volume flow rate of air to compensate. When retrofitting a residence, the existing duct work may
have to be enlarged to reduce the noise from the higher air flow.

Liquid-to-water heat pump

Liquid-to-water heat pumps (also called water-to-water) are hydronic systems that use water to
carry heating or cooling through the building. Systems such as radiant underfloor heating,
baseboard radiators, conventional cast iron radiators would use a liquid-to-water heat pump.
These heat pumps are preferred for pool heating or domestic hot water pre-heat. Heat pumps can
only heat water to about 50 °C (122 °F) efficiently, whereas a boiler normally reaches 65–95 °C
(149–203 °F). Legacy radiators designed for these higher temperatures may have to be doubled
in numbers when retrofitting a home. A hot water tank will still be needed to raise water
temperatures above the heat pump's maximum, but pre-heating will save 25-50% of hot water
costs.

Ground source heat pumps are especially well matched to underfloor heating and baseboard
radiator systems which only require warm temperatures (40 °C) to work well. Thus they are ideal
for open plan offices. Using large surfaces such as floors, as opposed to radiators, distributes the
heat more uniformly and allows for a lower water temperature. Wood or carpet floor coverings
dampen this effect because the thermal transfer efficiency of these materials is lower than that of
masonry floors (tile, concrete). Underfloor piping, ceiling or wall radiators can also be used for
cooling in dry climates, although the temperature of the circulating water must be above the dew
point to ensure that atmospheric humidity does not condense on the radiator.

Combination heat pumps are available that can produce forced air and circulating water
simultaneously and individually. These systems are largely being used for houses that have a
combination of air and liquid conditioning needs, for example central air conditioning and pool
heating.

[edit] Seasonal thermal storage

A heat pump in combination with heat and cold storage
Main article: seasonal thermal storage

The efficiency of ground source heat pumps can be improved by using seasonal thermal storage.
If heat loss from the ground source is sufficiently low, the heat pumped out of the building in the
summer can be retrieved in the winter. Heat storage efficiency increases with scale, so this
advantage is most significant in commercial or district heating systems. Geosolar combisystems
further augment this efficiency by collecting extra solar energy during the summer (more than is
needed for air conditioning) and concentrating it in the store.

Such a system has been used to heat and cool a greenhouse using an aquifer for thermal storage.
[16]
In summer, the greenhouse is cooled with cold ground water. This heats the water in the
aquifer which can become a warm source for heating in winter.[16][17] The combination of cold
and heat storage with heat pumps can be combined with water/humidity regulation. These
principles are used to provide renewable heat and renewable cooling[18] to all kinds of buildings.

Also the efficiency of existing small heat pump installations can sometimes be improved a lot by
adding large, cheap, water filled solar collectors. These may be integrated into a to be overhauled
parking lot, or in walls or roof constructions simply by putting lots of one inch PE pipes into the
outer layer. A very simple option is to add a large mechanically ventilated out door water-air
heat exchanger (like the one that is in front of your car engine, but larger). In the summer they
allow to pump lots of heat, almost free of running cost, into the ground. This only works well
when ground water mobility is not too high, and it works better when more houses install this
system next to each other. (In the winter such outdoor components have to be drained of water.)

[edit] Thermal efficiency

Main article: thermal efficiency

The net thermal efficiency of a heat pump should take into account the efficiency of electricity
generation and transmission, typically about 40%.[8] Since a heat pump moves 3 to 5 times more
heat energy than the electric energy it consumes, the total energy output is much greater than the
input. This results in net thermal efficiencies greater than 100% for most electricity sources.
Traditional combustion furnaces and electric heaters can never exceed 100% efficiency, but heat
pumps provide extra energy by extracting it from the ground.
Geothermal heat pumps can reduce energy consumption— and corresponding air pollution
emissions—upto 44% compared to air source heat pumps and up to 72% compared to electric
resistance heating with standard air-conditioning equipment.[19]

The dependence of net thermal efficiency on the electricity infrastructure tends to be an

unnecessary complication for consumers and is not applicable to hydroelectric power, so
performance of heat pumps is usually expressed as the ratio of heating output or heat removal to
electricity input. Cooling performance is typically expressed in units of BTU/hr/watt as the
Energy Efficiency Ratio, (EER) while heating performance is typically reduced to dimensionless
units as the Coefficient of Performance. (COP) The conversion factor is 3.41 BTU/hr/watt.
Performance is influenced by all components of the installed system, including the soil
conditions, the ground-coupled heat exchanger, the heat pump appliance, and the building
distribution, but is largely determined by the "lift" between the input temperature and the output
temperature.

For the sake of comparing heat pump appliances to each other, independently from other system
components, a few standard test conditions have been established by the American Refrigerant
Institute (ARI) and more recently by the International Organization for Standardization. Standard
ARI 330 ratings were intended for closed loop ground-source heat pumps, and assumes
secondary loop water temperatures of 77 °F (25 °C) for air conditioning and 32 °F (0 °C) for
heating. These temperatures are typical of installations in the northern USA. Standard ARI 325
ratings were intended for open loop ground-source heat pumps, and include two sets of ratings
for groundwater temperatures of 50 °F (10 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C). ARI 325 budgets more
electricity for water pumping than ARI 330. Neither of these standards attempt to account for
seasonal variations. Standard ARI 870 ratings are intended for direct exchange ground-source
heat pumps. ASHRAE transitioned to ISO 13256-1 in 2001, which replaces ARI 320, 325 and
330. The new ISO standard produces slightly higher ratings because it no longer budgets any
electricity for water pumps.[1]

Efficient compressors, variable speed compressors and larger heat exchangers all contribute to
heat pump efficiency. Residential ground source heat pumps on the market today have standard
COPs ranging from 2.4 to 5.0 and EERs ranging from 10.6 to 30.[1][20] To qualify for an Energy
Star label, heat pumps must meet certain minimum COP and EER ratings which depend on the
ground heat exchanger type. For closed loop systems, the ISO 13256-1 heating COP must be 3.3
or greater and the cooling EER must be 14.1 or greater.[21]

Actual installation conditions may produce better or worse efficiency than the standard test
conditions. COP improves with a lower temperature difference between the input and output of
the heat pump, so the stability of ground temperatures is important. If the loop field or water
pump is undersized, the addition or removal of heat may push the ground temperature beyond
standard test conditions, and performance will be degraded. Similarly, an undersized blower may
allow the plenum coil to overheat and degrade performance.

Soil without artificial heat addition or subtraction and at depths of several meters or more
remains at a relatively constant temperature year round. This temperature equates roughly to the
average annual air-temperature of the chosen location, usually 7–12 °C (45–54 °F) at a depth of
six meters in the northern USA. Because this temperature remains more constant than the air
temperature throughout the seasons, geothermal heat pumps perform with far greater efficiency
during extreme air temperatures than air conditioners and air-source heat pumps.

Standards ARI 210 and 240 define Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) and Heating
Seasonal Performance Factors (HSPF) to account for the impact of seasonal variations on air
source heat pumps. These numbers are normally not applicable and should not be compared to
ground source heat pump ratings. However, Natural Resources Canada has adapted this approach
to calculate typical seasonally adjusted HSPFs for ground-source heat pumps in Canada.[12] The
NRC HSPFs ranged from 8.7 to 12.8 BTU/hr/watt (2.6 to 3.8 in nondimensional factors, or
255% to 375% seasonal average electricity utilization efficiency) for the most populated regions
of Canada. When combined with the thermal efficiency of electricity, this corresponds to net
average thermal efficiencies of 100% to 150%.

[edit] Environmental impact

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has called ground source heat pumps the most
energy-efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective space conditioning systems available.
[22]
Heat pumps offer significant emission reductions potential, particularly where they are used
for both heating and cooling and where the electricity is produced from renewable resources.

Ground-source heat pumps have unsurpassed thermal efficiencies and produce zero emissions
locally, but their electricity supply almost always includes components with high greenhouse gas
emissions. Their environmental impact therefore depends on the characteristics of the electricity
supply. The GHG emissions savings from a heat pump over a conventional furnace can be
calculated based on the following formula:[2]

Annual greenhouse gas savings from using a ground source heat pump instead of a high-
efficiency furnace in a detached residence

GHG savings relative to

Electricity CO2
Country
Emissions Intensity
natural gas heating oil electric heating

Canada 223 ton/GWh[23][24][25] 2.7 ton/yr 5.3 ton/yr 3.4 ton/yr

Russia 351 ton/GWh[23][24] 1.8 ton/yr 4.4 ton/yr 5.4 ton/yr

USA 676 ton/GWh[24] -0.5 ton/yr 2.2 ton/yr 10.3 ton/yr

China 839 ton/GWh[23][24] -1.6 ton/yr 1.0 ton/yr 12.8 ton/yr

  HL = seasonal heat load ≈ 80 GJ/yr for a modern detached house in the northern USA
 FI = emissions intensity of fuel = 50 kg(CO2)/GJ for natural gas, 73 for heating oil
 AFUE = furnace efficiency ≈ 95% for a modern condensing furnace
 COP = heat pump coefficient of performance ≈ 3.2 seasonally adjusted for northern USA
heat pump
 EI = emissions intensity of electricity ≈ 200-800 ton(CO2)/GWh, depending on region

Ground-source heat pumps always produce less greenhouse gases than air conditioners, oil
furnaces, and electric heating, but natural gas furnaces may be competitive depending on the
greenhouse gas intensity of the local electricity supply. In countries like Canada and Russia with
low emitting electricity infrastructure, a residential heat pump may save 5 tons of carbon dioxide
per year relative to an oil furnace, or about as much as taking an average passenger car off the
road. But in countries like China or USA that are highly reliant on coal for electricity production,
a heat pump may result in 1 or 2 tons more carbon dioxide emissions than a natural gas furnace.

The fluids used in closed loops may be designed to be biodegradable and non-toxic, but the
refrigerant used in the heat pump cabinet and in direct exchange loops was, until recently,
chlorodifluoromethane, which is an ozone depleting substance.[1] Although harmless while
contained, leaks and improper end-of-life disposal contribute to enlarging the ozone hole. This
refrigerant is being phased out in favor of ozone-friendly R410A for new construction.

Open loop systems that draw water from a well and drain to the surface may contribute to aquifer
depletion, water shortages, groundwater contamination, and subsidence of the soil. A geothermal
heating project in Staufen im Breisgau, Germany, is suspected to have caused considerable
damage to buildings in the city center. The ground has subsided by up to eight millimeters under
the city hall while other areas have been uplifted by a few millimeters.[26]

Ground-source heat pump technology, like building orientation, is a natural building technique
(bioclimatic building).

[edit] Economics
Ground source heat pumps are characterized by high capital costs and low operational costs
compared to other HVAC systems. Their overall economic benefit depends primarily on the
relative costs of electricity and fuels, which are highly variable over time and across the world.
Based on recent prices, ground-source heat pumps currently have lower operational costs than
any other conventional heating source almost everywhere in the world. Natural gas is the only
fuel with competitive operational costs, and only in a handful of countries where it is
exceptionally cheap, or where electricity is exceptionally expensive.[2] In general, a homeowner
may save anywhere from 20% to 60% annually on utilities by switching from an ordinary system
to a ground-source system.[27][28] However, many family size installations are reported to use
much more electricity then their owners had expected from advertisements. This is often partly
due to bad design or installation: Heat exchange capacity with groundwater is often too small,
heating pipes in house floors are often too thin and too few, or heated floors are covered with
wooden panels or carpets.

Capital costs and system lifespan have received much less study, and the return on investment is
highly variable. One study found the total installed cost for a system with 10 kW (3 ton) thermal
capacity for a detached rural residence in the USA averaged $8000–$9000 in 1995 US dollars.[29]
More recent studies found an average cost of $14,000 in 2008 US dollars for the same size
system.[30][31] The US Department of Energy estimates a price of $7500 on its website, last
updated in 2008.[32] Prices over $20,000 are quoted in Canada,[33] with one source placing them in
the range of $30,000-$34,000 Canadian dollars.[34] The rapid escalation in system price has been
accompanied by rapid improvements in efficiency and reliability. Capital costs are known to
benefit from economies of scale, particularly for open loop systems, so they are more cost-
effective for larger commercial buildings and harsher climates. The initial cost can be two to five
times that of a conventional heating system in most residential applications, new construction or
existing. In retrofits, the cost of installation is affected by the size of living area, the home's age,
insulation characteristics, the geology of the area, and location of the home/property. Proper duct
system design and mechanical air exchange should be considered in the initial system cost.

Payback period for installing a ground source heat pump in a detached residence

Payback period for replacing

Country
natural gas heating oil electric heating

Canada 13 years 3 years 6 years

USA 12 years 5 years 4 years

Germany net loss 8 years 2 years

Notes:

 Highly variable with energy prices.

 Government subsidies not included.
 Climate differences not evaluated.

Capital costs may be offset by substantial subsidies from many governments, for example
totaling over $7000 in Ontario for residential systems installed in the 2009 fiscal year. Some
electric companies offer special rates to customers who install a ground-source heat pump for
heating/cooling their building.[35] This is due to the fact that electrical plants have the largest
loads during summer months and much of their capacity sits idle during winter months. This
allows the electric company to use more of their facility during the winter months and sell more
electricity. It also allows them to reduce peak usage during the summer (due to the increased
efficiency of heat pumps), thereby avoiding costly construction of new power plants. For the
same reasons, other utility companies have started to pay for the installation of ground-source
heat pumps at customer residences. They lease the systems to their customers for a monthly fee,
at a net overall savings to the customer.

The lifespan of the system is longer than conventional heating and cooling systems. Good data
on system lifespan is not yet available because the technology is too recent, but many early
systems are still operational today after 25–30 years with routine maintenance. Most loop fields
have warranties for 25 to 50 years and are expected to last at least 50 to 200 years.[27][36] Ground-
source heat pumps use electricity for heating the house. The higher investment above
conventional oil, propane or electric systems may be returned in energy savings in 2–10 years for
residential systems in the USA.[7][28][36] If compared to natural gas systems, the payback period
can be much longer or non-existent. The payback period for larger commercial systems in the
USA is 1–5 years, even when compared to natural gas.[28]

Ground source heat pumps are recognized as one of the most efficient heating and cooling
systems on the market. They are often the second-most cost effective solution in extreme
climates, (after co-generation), despite reductions in thermal efficiency due to ground
temperature. (The ground source is warmer in climates that need strong air conditioning, and
cooler in climates that need strong heating.)

Commercial systems maintenance costs in the USA have historically been between $0.11 to
$0.22 per m2 per year in 1996 dollars, much less than the average $0.54 per m2 per year for
conventional HVAC systems.[10]

Governments that promote renewable energy will likely offer incentives for the consumer
(residential), or industrial markets. For example, in the United States, incentives are offered both
on the state and federal levels of government.[37]

[edit] Installation
Because of the technical knowledge and equipment needed to properly design and size the
system (and install the piping if heat fusion is required), a GSHP system installation requires a
professional's services. The International Ground Source Heat Pump Association (IGSHPA),
Geothermal Exchange Organization (GEO) and the Canadian GeoExchange Coalition maintain
listings of qualified installers in the USA and Canada.[38]

[edit] See also

Renewable energy portal

 Absorption heat pump

 Earth cooling tubes
 Solar thermal cooling
 Thermosiphon
[edit] References
1. ^ a b c d Rafferty, Kevin (April 1997). "An Information Survival Kit for the Prospective
Residential Geothermal Heat Pump Owner". Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin
(Klmath Falls, Oregon: Oregon Institute of Technology) 18 (2): pp. 1–11. ISSN 0276-
1084. http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull18-2/art1.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-21 The author
issued an updated version of this article in February 2001.
2. ^ a b c d Hanova, J; Dowlatabadi, H (9 November 2007). "Strategic GHG reduction
through the use of ground source heat pump technology". Environmental Research
Letters (UK: IOP Publishing) 2: pp. 044001 8pp. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/2/4/044001.
ISSN 1748-9326. http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1748-
9326/2/4/044001/erl7_4_044001.pdf?request-id=dd247af1-1eb0-4c8d-a20b-
426d37d8ee5f. Retrieved 2009-03-22
3. ^ http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/geothermal_basics.html
4. ^
http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=126
40
5. ^ http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/projects/projects.cfm/ProjectID=108
6. ^ http://www.cres-energy.org/techbasics/geothermal_div1.html
7. ^ a b "Energy Savers: Geothermal Heat Pumps". Apps1.eere.energy.gov. 2009-02-24.
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/myt
opic=12640. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
8. ^ a b c d Lund, J.; Sanner, B.; Rybach, L.; Curtis, R.; Hellström, G. (September 2004).
"Geothermal (Ground Source) Heat Pumps, A World Overview". Geo-Heat Centre
Quarterly Bulletin (Klmath Falls, Oregon: Oregon Institute of Technology) 25 (3): pp. 1–
10. ISSN 0276-1084. http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull25-3/art1.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-
21
9. ^ "History". About Us. International Ground Source Heat Pump Association.
http://www.igshpa.okstate.edu/about/about_us.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
10. ^ a b c Bloomquist, R. Gordon (December 1999). "Geothermal Heat Pumps, Four Plus
Decades of Experience". Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin (Klmath Falls, Oregon:
Oregon Institute of Technology) 20 (4): pp. 13–18. ISSN 0276-1084.
http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull20-4/art3.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-21
11. ^ http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/pdfs/40665.pdf
12. ^ a b "Ground Source Heat Pumps (Earth Energy Systems)". Heating and Cooling with a
Heat Pump. Natural Resources Canada, Office of Energy Efficiency.
http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/infosource/pub/home/heating-heat-
pump/gsheatpumps.cfm. Retrieved 2009-03-24. Note: contrary to air-source conventions,
the NRC's HSPF numbers are in units of BTU/hr/watt. Divide these numbers by 3.41
BTU/hr/watt to arrive at non-dimensional units comparable to ground-source COPs and
air-source HSPF.
13. ^ Chiasson, A.D. (1999). Advances in modeling of ground source heat pump systems.
Oklahoma State University.
http://www.solis.pl/index.php/content/download/375/1291/file/GROUND%20SOURCE
%20HEAT.pdf. Retrieved 2009-04-23
14. ^ "Geothermal Ground Loops". Informed Building.
http://www.informedbuilding.com/Geothermal/Main16/Types-of-Geothermal-Ground-
Loops/. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
15. ^ Orio, Carl D.; Johnson, Carl N.; Rees, Simon J.; Chiasson, A.; Deng, Zheng; Spitler,
Jeffrey D. (2004). "A Survey of Standing Column Well Installations in North America".
ASHRAE Transactions (ASHRAE) 11 (4): pp. 637–655.
http://www.hvac.okstate.edu/research/Documents/Orio_Johnson_Rees_Chiasson_Deng_
Spitler_05.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-25
16. ^ a b Van Passel, Willy; Sourbron, Maarten; Verplaetsen, Filip; Leroy, Luc; Somers,
Yvan; Verheyden, Johan; Coupé, Koen. Organisatie voor Duurzame Energie Vlaanderen.
ed (PDF). Warmtepompen voor woningverwarming. p. 28.
http://www2.vlaanderen.be/economie/energiesparen/doc/brochure_warmtepomp.pdf.
Retrieved 2009-03-23.
17. ^ Schematic of similar system of aquifers with fans-regulation
18. ^ Capture, storage and release of Renewable Cooling.
19. ^ http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24782.pdf
20. ^ "AHRI Directory of water-to-air geothermal heat pumps".
http://www.ahridirectory.org/ahriDirectory/pages/wbahp/defaultSearch.aspx.
21. ^ "Energy Star Program Requirements for Geothermal Heat PUmps". Partner
Commitments. Energy Star.
http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/product_specs/eligibility/geo_heat_pump_elig.pdf.
Retrieved 2009-03-24.
22. ^ Environmental Protection Agency (1993). Space Conditioning: The Next Frontier -
Report 430-R-93-004. EPA.
23. ^ a b c European Environment Agency (2008). Energy and environment report 2008. EEA
Report. No 6/2008. Luxemburg: Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities. p. p83. doi:10.2800/10548. ISBN 978-92-9167-980-5.
http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/eea_report_2008_6. Retrieved 2009-03-22
24. ^ a b c d Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy (2007). "Voluntary
Reporting of Greenhouse Gases, Electricity Emission Factors".
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/pdf/Appendix%20F_r071023.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-
22
25. ^ "annex 9". National Inventory Report 1990–2006:Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks
in Canada. Government of Canada. May 2008. ISBN 978-1-100-11176-6.
http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/inventory_report/2004_report/ta9_7_e.cfm.
26. ^ Waffel, Mark (March 19, 2008). "Buildings Crack Up as Black Forest Town Subsides".
Spiegel Online International (Der Spiegel).
http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/0,1518,541296,00.html. Retrieved 2009-02-
24.
27. ^ a b "Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium, Inc.". http://geoexchange.us/. Retrieved 2007-
10-19.
28. ^ a b c Lienau, Paul J.; Boyd, Tonya L.; Rogers, Robert L. (April 1995). Ground-Source
Heat Pump Case Studies and Utility Programs. Klamath Falls, OR: Geo-Heat Center,
Oregon Institute of Technology. http://geoheat.oit.edu/pdf/hp1.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-26
 29. ^ Kavanaugh, Steve; Gilbreath, Christopher (December 1995). Joseph Kilpatrick. ed
(PDF). Cost Containment for Ground-Source Heat Pumps (final report ed.).
http://geoheat.oit.edu/pdf/tp72.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-24
30. ^ Cummings, Paul (June 2008) (PDF). Indiana Residential Geothermal Heat Pump
Rebate, Program Review. Indiana Office of Energy and Defense Development.
http://www.in.gov/oed/files/GHPProgramreport.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-24
31. ^ Hughes, P. (2008). Geothermal (Ground-Source) Heat Pumps: Market Status, Barriers
to Adoption, and Actions to Overcome Barriers. Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
doi:10.2172/948543. edit
32. ^ "Energy Savers: Selecting and Installing a Geothermal Heat Pump System".
Energysavers.gov. 2008-12-30.
http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=126
70. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
33. ^ Example costs in Canada
34. ^ [|RETscreen International], ed (2005). "Ground-Source Heat Pump Project Analysis".
Clean Energy Project Analysis: RETscreen Engineering & Cases Textbook. Natural
Resources Canada. Catalogue no.: M39-110/2005E-PDF. ISBN 0-662-39150-0.
http://www.retscreen.net/ang/textbook_gshp.html. Retrieved 2009-04-20
35. ^ "Geothermal Heat Pumps". Capital Electric Cooperative.
http://www.capitalelec.com/Energy_Efficiency/ground_source/index.html. Retrieved
2008-10-05.
36. ^ a b "Geothermal heat pumps: alternative energy heating and cooling FAQs".
http://www.econar.com/faq.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
37. ^ http://www.dsireusa.org/searchby/searchtechnology.cfm?
&CurrentPageID=2&EE=1&RE=1
38. ^ "Energy Savers: Selecting and Installing a Geothermal Heat Pump System".
Apps1.eere.energy.gov. 2008-12-30.
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/myt
opic=12670. Retrieved 2009-06-08.

[edit] External links

 Geothermal Heat Pumps (EERE/USDOE).
 Cost calculation
 Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium
 International Ground Source Heat Pump Association
 Consumers Guide to Geothermal Heat Pumps

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