CHAPTER- I

Introduction

I. Concept of Rājadharma: Dandanīti vs Rājadharma

Dharma in general:

The scope and meaning of the term Dharma is very wide.

Etimologically dharma means ‘dhārana’ (to hold ) from root √

dhr with the affix manin: ‘dharati viśvam iti man’ i.e., that which

holds the universe is dharma. The word dharma denotes in

general all the customs, codes of conduct, education and culture,

tradition and civilization, which hold or control a society. In the

Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata it is said that, dharma upholds

society, people and all creatures of the world; hence it is called

dharma, because of capability of other holding and protecting

everything in it 1.So, it can be assumed that ‘dharma’ involves all

1. dhāranād dharmamityāhurdharmena vidhrtāh prajāh /

yah syād dhāranasanyuktah sa dharma iti
niścayaha //
Mbh. XII, 109.11-13 and also ibid. X.69.58
 2

customs, codes of conduct aiming for the welfare of the entire

living being of the world.

Dharma means duty also, when a particular person

performs a particular act due to him/ her then it is called dharma.

The grandsire Bhīşma expresses in the Mahābhārata that, dharma

is created for welfare of all creatures. It gives protection to those,

who are in dangerous situation. Deeds of a person should not

herm anybody but assure welfare for others. Such deeds which are

devoid of animosity are declared as dharma even by Paramesthi

Brahmā for the advancement and growth of all creatures. Again, it

may call dharma, if someone behaves in a deceitfull manner with

2
a deceit and honestly with an honest.

Although the Dharmaśāstras require a correct approach to

the meaning of the term dharma but it is difficult to ascertain

what was originally the exact meaning of the term dharma. In the

2. yasmin yathā vartate yo manusya-

stasminstathā vartitavyam sa dharmah /
māyācāro māyayā bādhitavyah
sādhvācārah sādhunā pratyupeyah // Mbh.XII.109.30
 3

3
Vedic literature, the term dharma denotes law and customs.

According to the Manusmŗti, dharma means the eternal

knowledge, which is found from the supreme spirit or Brahman.

4
When a learned or wise does righteous act that is called dharma.

And entire Vedic literature (four Vedas, six Vedāngas, Samhitās,

Brāhmana, Āranyaka and Upanisadic literature) is called

5 6
dharma. According to the Yājnyavalkyasmrti, when a wise

person ( who had the knowledge of four Vedas) expresses one

speech that is called dharma. According to Śukra, the speech of

7
the thinker of supreme and individual soul, is called dharma. In

the various parvan of the Mahābhārata, Ācāra is stated to be a

8
sign or laksana of Dharma, and dharma results from Ācāra, cf.,

‘ācārah phalate dharmah’ Mbh. V.113.15

3. Rg. I, 22,18; 164 , 43 50; III, 3,1; 17,1,10,6; V.26.6;63,7,72,2 etc.

AV. XIV,5,51;VS. X,29;XV,6;XX,9; XXX,6. and TS., III,5,2,2.
[ VS=Vājasaneyīsamhitā and TS= TaittiriyaSamhitā]
4. Vidvadbhih sevitah sadbhirnityamadvesarāgibhih /
hrdayenābhyanujnato yo dharmastam nibodhata //
MS. II.1.
5. ibid. II. 1.6
6. Yāj.S. 1.9
7.‘sabrūteyamsadharmah syādekovādhyātmacintakah’ /
ŚNS. 4. 57
8. ācāralaksano dharmah’
Mbh. XIII.104.9.
 4

Thus, the concept of dharma wants some essential requirement,

which prescribe certain duties and Principles of morality for

improving the general conduct of man.

According to Manu, the Veda ( four Vedas) is called ‘Śruti’

and dharma ( Dharmaśāstra works) is called ‘ Smrti’. In ancient

Indian works, Śruti, Smrti , good conduct and self satisfaction are
9
called the important sources of dharma.

The Mahābhārata frequently speaks of, the Vedas, the

10
Smrtis and the Sadācāra as the sources of dharma. The

Mahābhārata clearly expresses the relative importance of the

Śrutis and the Smrtis, “duties have been laid down for the

respective ages according to the power of human beings in the

respective ages. Therefore all the declarations in the Vedas do not

apply equally to all the ages, the declaration of the Vedas are true

9. vedah smrtih sadācārah svasya ca priyamātmanah /

etaccaturvidham prāhuh sāksāddharmasya laksanam // MS. II
10. vedoktah paramo dharmo dharmaśāstresu cāparah /
śistācāraśca śistānam trividham dharmalaksanam //
Mbh. Vana. 207.821/2
tatah sa dharmam vedoktam tatha sastroktameva ca /
sistacinaim ca dharmam ca trividham cintya cetasa // ibid. Śānti. 353.6
 5

is only a popular form of speech indulged in for popular

satisfaction. The scope of the Śrutis and Smrtis are very wide. If

the Vedas be authority for everything, then authority would attach

to the smrtis also for the latter are based on the former. When,

however, the Śrutis and the Smrtis contradict each other, how can
11
either be authoritative.”

The Gautama and the ĀpastambaDharmasūtra also

12
mentioned the Vedas and the Smrtis as the root of dharma.

According to Vaśistha, the Vedas and the Smrtis are more

13
important than the ācāra of noble men. In the YājnavalkyaSmrti,

the Vedas, the Smrtis and good conduct are mentioned as the
14
sources of Dharma. .

11. anye krtayuge dharmastretāyān dvāpare pare/

anye kaliyuge nrnān yugahrāsānurupatah // Mbh.XII.231.27
Jauhari. M. “ Politics and Ethics in Ancient India”. pp.76-77
12. vedo dharmamūlam / tadvidām ca smrtisīla / G. Dh. I .1-2 and
dharmajnasamayah pramānām vedāśca / Ā. Dh.Sū. I 1.1.2,
13. śrutismrtivihito dharmah / tadalābhe śistācārah
pramānam / śistah punarakāmātmā / Vasistha. Dh. I, 4-6
14. Yāj. S.1.7
 6

Dharma in general , from the religious point of view it is

divided into, two viz, Śrauta, i.e. Vedic dharma and the Smārta,

i.e. The dharma prescribed by Dharmaśāstra work mainly smrtis.

15
The Matsyapurāna , the Parāśaramādhaviya etc. speaks of

Śrauta and Smārta dharmas. The Mahābhārata, furnishes a

threefold classifications viz., Deśa-dharma (dharma for a

particular state or place) Jāti-dharma (for a particular caste or

16
class), and Kula- dharma( dharma in hereditary form) .

According to Kullukabhatta, the commentator of the

Manusmrti, ‘Dharma’ divided into fivefold, these are namely,

Varnadharma, Āśramadharma,Varnāśramadharma, Gunadharma

and Naimittikadharma. Varnadharma the rules to be followed by

four castes, viz, Brāhmana, Ksatriya, Vaiśya, and Śudra.

Āśramadharma based on four āśramas.,viz, Brahmacarya,

Gārhasthya, Vānaprastha and Sanyās.

15. MP. 142. 41-42

16. deśajātikulānam ca dharmajnoa’smi janārdana/
Mbh. XII. 54.20 and also . ibid. VIII.3.55
 7

That is called Varnāsrama Dharma, where varna and

āśrama are discussed. The qualities of a king, duties of kings

(rājadharma), coronation ceremony, rules for protecting the

kingdom etc.- all are included in Gunadharma.

Naimittika dharma, which is performed only for special

matter. e.g. PrāyaścittaVidhi. The Mitāksarā on Yājnavalkya

17
smrti, classified Dharma into sixkinds, these are viz,

Varnadharma, Āśramadharma, Varnāśrama dharma, Gunadharma,

Nimittadharma and Sādhāranadharma.

The Varnadharma, Āśramadharma and Varnāśramadharma

are dicussed in the Mahābhārata. It emphasises on the primary

meaning of Dharma which denotes truth and virtue with the

reference of trivarga. The duties of a King, administrative rules of

a state, law of punishment are also included in the purview of

Dharma. All these duties lead to moksa (salvation). The

18
Brhadāranyaka Upanişada mensions that nothing is greater than

17. esā dharmasya yo yonih samāsena prakirtitā

sambhavaścāsya sarvasya varnadharmān nibodhata//
MS.II.25 (here,Varnadharma
means five bold dharma) and Yāj.S. I.1
18. Br.Ār.Up. 1.4.11-14
 8

dharma, it is ever powerful than the Ksatriyas,because a righteous

weak man can defeat an unrighteous strong man. According to

Manu , non- violance and truthful speech may be a dharma but

19
unpleasent truth can not be a dharma. Bhīsma also expresses in

the Mahābhārata, that where falsehood would assume the aspect

of truth, truth should not be spoken there , again, where truth

would assume the aspect of falsehood than falsehood should be

20
said. Again in the Mahābhārata it is mentioned that, in

primitive age or the beginning of the creation of the world, all

people lived on dharma, there was no state, no king , no

chastisement nor chastiser.

Out of these dharmas , which are already mentioned above,

the Mahābhārata emphasized on Rājadharma. Rājadharma is

greater than all dharmas and all dharma depend on Rājadharma.

Therefore the grandsire Bhīsma, gives a comprehensive definition

21
on Rājadharma, and says that all varnas should depend on

19. MS. 4. 138

20. Mbh. XII.109. 5-6
21. sarve dharmā rajadharmapradhānāh
sarve varnāh pālyamānā bhavanti /
sarvastyāgo rājadharmesu rājan-
styāgam dharmam cāhuragranthan purānana // Mbh. XII. 63.27
 9

Rājadharma and all types of penances are included in

Rājadharma. So, it is the superior of all.

Concept of Rājadharma:

The meaning of the term Rājadharma is very wide. It

covers the entire responsibility of a king regarding internal and

external administration. According to the Mahābhārata,

‘Rājadharma’, denotes two different meanings, viz, royal duties

and politics, which denotes duties of a king in both internal and

external. In modern context, it has a wider connotation, which

includes only the duties of a ruler or king but also influenced the

origin of king and the way by which he attains his supreme goal.

In the Mahābhārata , rājadharma has been regarded as the

most important science and as the refuge of all other branches of

knowledge ( Vidyās) cf.

“ sarvā vidyā rājadharmesu yuktāh.”

Mbh.XII.63.29

If it is strictly followed by the ruler, he gains prosperity and

then there will be well-being of the ruler and the ruled.

Literally and historically, Rājadharma means, the duties of

a particular functionary, viz, the crowned king, and

 10

22
Laxicographically, Rājadharma means, rules relating to a king.

The term Rājadharma or the ancient kingly duty is known

as ‘Kşātradharma’, because, kşatriyas were the ruling class. The

Pitāmaha Bhīsma opines that the dharmas of all āśramas will

disappear if the ksātra dharma is abandoned. c.f.

“ ksātre tyakte rājadharme purāne”.

Mbh.XII. 63.28

The ksatriyas are regarded as the healer of the wounds of the

Brāhmanas., cf

‘brahmanānām ksatatrānāt tatah ksatriya ucyate’

Mbh.XII.59.126

In the Rgveda the primary meaning of the term ‘ ksatra’ is given

as the ‘rule’ or ‘dominion’ or ‘rulers’. It is worth mentioning that,

the word ‘rājā’ is used in place of ‘Ksatra’ and it has two

meanings , viz, rule or ruler . Warfare is very important duty of a

23
ksatriya .

22. Apte. V.S., “ Sanskrit English Dictionary” p.467 and the ‘Sanskrit
Hinduism Dictionary’
23. Mbh. XII. 60.18
 11

In Indian conception, the head of the state should be a

ksatriya, the position might go to other varnas also, but even then

the duties of the head of the state will still devolve on him. And

the duties of administration devolve on him, who is put at the

head of a state.

24
In the Yājnavalkyasmrti, the term ‘ narādhipa’ (king) is

used instead of rājā, i.e, the head of a state , which is frequently

used in Smrtis in the sense of a ‘king’. The duties which is plain,

productive of great happiness, evident in respect of their results,

free from deceit, and beneficial to the whole world are imposed

upon rājadharma or ksatriyas25.

In Buddhist tradition, the terms ‘Khattadharma’ and

‘Khattavijiā’ is taking unanimously as the science of royal duties

and the science of polity. And the ancient Indian scriptures or

Śāstras in which these science of royal duties or rājadharma are

26
explained called Rājaśāstra or Rājanītiśāstra, Dandanītiśāstra,

24. Yāj.S. Mitāksarā, I.13.311

25. Mbh. XII. 64.5
26. ibid. XII. 58.3
 12

27
Nītiśāstra and Arthaśāstra etc. Some Indian writers of modern

time has used the term ‘rājadharma’, in the sense of polity or

28
rājanīti .

In the Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata, the grandsire

Bhīsma presents a discourse on ‘rājadharma’ as requested by

Yudhisthira. He elaborates the essential qualities, duties,

education system, administrative abilities of a King. According to

him, a king should have knowledge about Purusārthas, scriptures,

he should punish unrighteousman, who had done bad works and

reward the honest person. The knowledge of four castes, āśramas

and strategy of war, foreign affairs etc. are included in the

rājadharma. The main duty of a king is the protection of subjects

and kingdom, and ready to die in the battle field. All these are

depicted in the Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata in detail from

which one can have full knowledge about rājadharma.

Dandanīti vs Rājadharma:(Origin of Dandanīti)

It is stated in the Mahābhārata that, Brahmā has composed

a Nītiśāstra consisting of one lakh chapters and it contains rules

27. ibid . XII. 59.78 and also , 59. 29 ½

28. Aiyangar. K.V. Rangaswami: Rājadharma. p.67
 13

for different means to be observed by morals on this earth. It also

contains knowledge about Vedatrayī, Ānviksiki (Philosophy),

Vārtā(economics) as well as Dandanīti (politics). The term

‘danda’ is used in the sense of dandanīti, which indicates the

rules of punishment or the rules for maintaining the subjects in a

right path. The danda or the ‘Punishment rod’ helps a king for

maintaining the balanace of good and bad deeds of the inhabitants

of a state, So, Arjuna opines that, danda governs and protects all

the people, remains allert even at night when the whole world is

asleep. Therefore, wise regards, danda as the dharma of a

29
King. The Policies related to these affairs is called dandanīti or

rājanīti and rājadharma is another term used in the same sense.

So the Mahābhārata opines-- according to Brahmās Nītiśāstra,

because of danda this world is established in a good path or a

king can control his subjects with danda; Therefore, this nīti

(Vidyā) is known as dandanīti and it will expand in three

30
world.

. .

29. dandah śāsti prajāh sarvā danda evābhiraksati /

dandah suptesu jāgarti dandan dharman vidurbudhā // Mbh. XII.15.2
30. dandena nīyate cedam dandam nayati vā punah /
dandanītiriti khyātā trilokānabhivartate //Mbh. XII.59.78
 14

In the Nītiśāstra, composed by Brahmā, there are

description of dharma, artha and kāma and this portion which

contains these descriptions is known as trivarga. This trivarga is

meant for protecting the riches , increasing the persons those who

are in true path and destruction of the wicked. cf.,

‘sthānan vrddhih ksyayaścaiva trivargaścaiva dandajah’

Mbh.XII.59.31

So far as the origin of Dandanīti is concerned the

Mahābhārata, speaks of two types of origin, these are namely,

‘divine’ and ‘human’.

According to divine origin of Dandanīti, there was no king ,

no state , no chastisement and chastiser in the begining of the krta

yuga. The people lived happily and protected each other by their

own virtue. But in course of time, the situation was changed.

Unrighteousness prevailled and disorder crept in. In this condition

people approached to Brahmā and requested him to remove the

chaotic condition and to rescue the world. Then lord Brahmā

composed a great treatise, consisting of 1,00000 chapters , with

the title Nītiśāstra. This treatise gradually came down to different

authorities like,Śiva, then it was known as Vaiśālāksa, when it

 15

goes to Indra, his treatise was known as Bāhudantaka, then it goes

to Brhaspati and his treatise is known as Bārhaspatya and Śukras

treatise is as Kāvya. Gradually these treatises were summarised

for the benefit of the human beings for the coming ages. These are
31
composed in 10,000; 5,000; 3,000 and 1000 chapters . Hence, the

Dandanīti is older than even the state.

The another account of the divine origin of Dandanīti is

found in the Śāntiparva itself. Therein Bhīsma refers to the

dialogue, between the great king Vasuhoma and Māndhātā.

Māndhātā was asking Vasuhoma about the origin of Dandanīti,

then he conveyed the following myth where in the origin of

Dandanīti has been attributed to Sarasvatī. Once upon a time,

Lord Brahmā wanted to perform a sacrifice, but he could not find

a perfect priest (rtvik). Then (for performing the sacrifice) he gave

birth to a child from his head and he is known as ksup. As the

sacrifice begins the danda of Brahmā disappeared. Consequently

arised a great confusion, unrighteousness, disorder and unrully

situation in the society. Seeing theseunexpected situation,Brahmā

31. Mbh. XII.59.80-85

 16

worshiped the eternal god Visnu and went to Śiva with a request

to remove this chaotic situation. Then, Śiva transformed himself

to a Danda. From that form of Śiva , the goddess Sarasvatī created

32
Danda-nīti ( the science of chastisement ).

In these two accounts of the divine origin, Danda and

Dandanīti, have been deified respectively as Visnu, Nārāyana,

Prabhu ( the great Purusa) and Sarasvatī. On the otherhand,

Dandanīti has also been called Laksmī, Vrtti, Sarasvatī and the
33
daughter of Brahmā. The origin of Dandanīti is depicted in the
34
Bhāgavata and the BrahmāndaPurāna also.

Human Origin:

The seven sages, such as , Marici , Atri, Angira, Pulastya,

Pulah, Kratu and Vasistha seems to have attributed to the human

origin of Dandanīti. In the Mahābhārata it is told that, they have

composed a treatise on the mount Meru for the welfare of the

whole world and it was compared with the four Vedas. After
.…..

32. ibid. XII.122.25

33. dando hi bhagavānvisnuh dando nārāyanah prabhuh /
śaśvad rupam mahad vibhran mahān purusa ucyate //
tathoktā brahmakanyeti laksmīrvrttih sarasvatī /
dandanītirjagadhātrī dando hī bahuvigrahah // Mbh. XII. 121.23-4
34. Bhā. P.III.12.44; Brh. P.II 29.8-9; 32,40; 35,195.
 17

completion, they eulogised Nārāyana so that the treatise be

approved. Nārāyana too was highly pleased to see that useful

work and gave boon to those seven sages, telling them it (the

science) would be powerful for a long period. That the science

composed by those seven sages in one lakh slokas was known as

Dandanīti. Nārāyana, further opined that the treatise would prove

to be important source of information for the treatise of Manu,

35
Brhaspati and Śukra. .

From the above discussion of the origin of Dandanīti,

Human and Divine, it may be said that, it is originated for the

establishment of peace and order in the society. It was created by

Brahmādeva for protection of whole world from evil power. A

king should protect his subjects by use of Danda. so, learned

36
opines that, ‘ danda’ is the highest duty ( dharma) of a king. Its

necessity was felt for prosperity, happiness and welfare. The king

is to be impartial to everybody. He should never become a despot.

A ruler cannot use the Danda, if he has no knowledge of

Rājanītiśāstra. The ancient Indian thinkers believed this divine

. .
35. Mbh. XII. 335.27-55
36. ibid. VII. 18
 18

origin and human origin of Dandanīti, because the god Nārāyana

approved this treatise. In these context Modern scholar C.V.

Vaidya rightly observed, “by thus assigning a divine origin to

Dandanīti of the rules of government, the Indians tried to put a

37
check on the absolutely unfettered will of their monarchs.”

The term Dandanīti is commonly used in the Kautilyas

Arthaśāstra , Manusmrti, Purānas and the later works like the

38
Kāmandakīa Nītisāra and the Śukra Nītisāra .

Literally, Dandanīti means the science of coercion (danda)

or the policy ( nīti) of punishment. But, the scope and contents of

Dandanīti is very wide; it deals with all the aspects of state and

government. As a whole, it is best rendered as the science of

government.

According to Kautilya, Danda is the means for acquisition

and protection of the ‘Ānvīksikī (philosophy), ‘Trayī’( the three

Vedas) and Vārta ( economics). The rules related to danda is

37. Jauhari M. “Politics and Ethics in Ancient India.” p.41

38. Aś.I.2,5-16; MS.VII.43, Ag.225.21;238,8,9; MP.41;
Visnudharmottara. 2,71,13; KNS. II. 1-5, 7-9,15 and 44 and also
ŚNS. I.151 and 156.
 19

39
called Dandanīti.

Kāmandaka, expresses his opinion as follows, Danda

means restraint (damah), Danda is the king, since it resides in

him, the direction (nīti) of Danda is Dandanīti. Nīti is so called

40 41
because it directs.’ The Śukranītisāra also expresses similar

view like Kāmandaka. In the Manusmrti, Manu says that, Danda

is created by Brahmā for the rulers to rule righteously. According

to him , ‘Danda is the dharma, king, chief and the protector or

42
shelter of four āśramas’. Dandanīti treats of the several modes
43
of policy ( nayānayau ) . Here, ‘nayānayau’ means ‘nīti’

(nyāya) and ‘durnīti’ (anyāya).

Altekar opines that, in early stages,the science was known

as Rājadharma, and a little later this science became more popular

44
and then it was known as Dandanīti .

. .
39. ānvīksikītrayīvārtānām yogaksemosādhano dandah /
tasya nītih dandanītih // Aś. I .4
40. domo danda iti khyātah tāsthyāt dando mahīpatih /
tasya nītih dandanītih nayanānītiruchyate // KNS. II .15
41. ŚNS. I 156 ( here ‘naya’ means ‘ nyāya’ or nīti )
42. MS. VII 14. and 17
43. nayāpanayau dandanītyām / AŚ. I.2
dandanītau nayānayau / KNS.II.7
arthānarthau tu vārtāyām dandanītyām nayānayau //
ŚNS. I. 153andalso Ag. 238.8.9.
44. “State and government in ancient India,” p.4
 20

The term Dandanīti has been interpreted and translated by

some modern scholars. According to them, Dandanīti means, “the

science of government”,“the functions of the government and the

machinary of government”, “the science of politics” and “ the

45
rules of government.” .

The Position and scope of Dandanīti:

Brahmā had included the fourfold end of human life in his

great treatise, and those are namely, Dharma (Virtue), Artha

(wealth), Kāma (enjoyment) and Moksa (salvation). Then come

the third triple aggregate on governance, comprising conservation,

growth and destruction. This was supplemented by another

sixfold compendium , treating , inter alia, of human psychology,

alliances and ‘causes’ messangers and important agents of various

classes, secret agents and spies, figured therein. All the aspects of

politics, connected with both internal and external affairs,

administrative machinery, ministers, revenue administration, legal

affairs for establishment of place, the fourfold policy consists of

45. Prasad Beni “ Theory of government in ancient India” p. 21.’ or Jauhari

. M. “ Politics & Ethics in ancient India”, p.32; Dikshitoar’s “Hindu
Administrative Institutions,” p.1; Purāna Index , Vol. III, p.61. and
Vaidya. C.V., Epic India “ p. 197
 21

sāma ( reconciliation), dāna ( giving of gifts) , bheda (creating

dissension) and danda (war ), three types of treatises, viz., uttama

(good), madhyama (middling) and adhama (bad), exact time for

attacking an enemy, kinds of war, various types of army, arrays

(vyūhas), war- tactics, fortification and ditchning etc., trickery and

its employment, coronation of princes, kingship, qualities of king,

universal functions of a state,- all these are well acknowledged in

46
the Mahābhārata. The very extensive branch of knowledge

called punitive legistration was also there. The seven essential

elements of sovereignty were explained and their “waste, growth,

and harmoney’ exemplified. Here, the whole subject of domestic

administration and foreign policy are included. All kinds of

knowledge, secular and spiritual are conceived therein. It may all

be designated as the science of state craft. At last we may say, this

treatise is the master of all which is composed in hundred

thousands chapters by Brahmā, and according to it the ends of

politics was ethical.

. .

46.Mbh. XII. 59.29-79

 22

Dandanīti : its necessity and importance :

The Mahābhārata, stresses on the necessity and importance

47
of the Dandanīti, it beings “ a favourite theme of the Epic.” On

the enquiry of Yudhisthira on rājadharma, Bhīsma replied,

according to learned and wise, the kingly duties, which is called

48
rājadharma, constitute the highest science of duty. It is the

shelter of the entire living beings.

cf.,

sarvasya jīvalokasya rājadharmah parāyanam //

Mbh. XII. 56.3

Morality (dharma), Profit (artha), and pleasure (kāma) are

adhering together in rājadharma. Not only these, the salvation

(moksa) also depend on it. It keeps the whole world under

restraint. Hence, as the reins check the steed , or as an iron hook

controls the elephant, the rājadharma constitutes the reins for

checking the world. It destroys all evils as the Sun, which

removes darkness. In absence of these science, whole world will

47. Anjaria : “ Nature and ground of Political obligation in Hindu State ”,

p.59
48. rājnyām vaiparamo dharma iti dharmavido vidoh”
Mbh . XII . 56.2
 23

49
be in confusion, disorder and unright- eousness.

Bhīsma’s account of the origin of Dandanīti is that it was

created by Brahmā for removing chaos and establishing order and

dharma, in the society, later on approved by Indra infront of

Māndhātā in these words,- “ upon the disappearence of kingly

duties, and the science of chastisement, all the creatures become

50
exeedingly afflicted, as a result of the tyranny of the king. where

as, “when sinful men are restrained with the aid of science of

chastisement (dandanīti ) then Dharma, which is eternal, superior

to everything and the source of everything good, becomes firmly

51
established”. Thus the Mahābhārata, greatly emphasises on

Dandanīti, because it has full guarantee of the maintenance of

Dharma.

Again, the grandsire Bhīsma answered the question in

favour of the formers view. He further explained Yudhisthira that,

49. Mbh. XII 56.4-7

50. vinastāyām dandanītyām rājadharme nirākrte /
sampramuhyanti bhūtāni rājadaurātmyatoa’nagha //
Mbh. XII. 65.24
51. Vide Jauhari, M. ‘Politics and Ethics in Ancient India’, p.43 and
yadā nivartyate pāpo dandanītyā mahātmabhih /
tadā dharmo na calate sadbhūtah śāsvatah parah //
Mbh. XII.65.27
 24

the king makes the four ages by proper use of Dandanīti these are
52
namely, Satya (Krta), Tretā, Dvāpara and Kali or vice Versa.

When the king rules with a complete and strict reliance on the

Dandanīti, the foremost of ages called krta or Satya. At that time,

aries the righteous conduct of all subjects and the members of the

four varnas stick to their specific duties. In the age of Krta, the

Vedic rites were performed everywhere. People were healthy,

long living and widows are not to be found. Actually, virtue and

happiness prevailed in a state. When the king relies upon only

three- fourths of Dandanīti and leaving out one -fourth of the

same, the age called ‘Tretā’.When the king observes the

Dandanīti by only a half or fifty percent and neglectes the other

half, then the age sets in a ‘Dvāpara’. That time, all conditions

deteriorated and become still worse. And when the king,

abandons the Dandanīti totally, oppresses his subjects by evil

means of diverse kinds, the age that sets in is called ‘Kali’. In the

age of Kali the Vedas disappear and righteousness comes to an

end. People suffer from diseases and die at an early age. The rain

52. Mbh. XII. 69.80-91 and also ibid . V.132.15

 25

does not come in proper time and the earth does not yield
53
satisfactory grains.

The Udyoga parva of the Mahābhārata states that the king

is the maker of the four Yugas. When a king creats the KrtaYuga

then he goes to heaven and when he becomes responsible for the

Kaliyuga then he goes to hell. From above statement, it is found

that, the four yugas give a good reliance on the Dandanīti.

Dandanīti again creats the different varnas, viz., Brāhmana,

Ksatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra. Every varna should performe some

particular duties, which are engulfed in it, like the foot-prints of

an elephant. If the Dandanīti will disappear, the Vedas will

disappear and the ancient kingly duties belonging to Ksatriya or

rājadharma will come to an end, and all the modes of life will be

lost.

From above context, it is clear that, Dandanīti,

Ksātradharma and Rājadharma are used in the same sense and all

kinds of renunciation, all kinds of initiation, all kinds of learning

54
and all kinds of worldly behaviour are found in Rājadharma. In

53. Mbh. XII 68.76-105

54. ibid. XII.63 28-30
 26

the Śāntiparva, Brahmā says that, Dandanīti was created for the

peace of the world, and it gives punishment to the wicked persons

and reward to the good ones. Kāmandaka says in his Nītisāra that,

“a king who is self-restrained and who controls his subjects with

the help of Dandanīti attains salvation. Without any problems

55
prosperity comes to him, like the rivers merging into a sea.” A

king has been always advised to protect himself and the different

branches of knowledge by Dandanīti, because it aims at the

56
common welfare.

Dandanītiśāstra, the science of chastisement, will always

be regarded high by all people. Because, along with the sixfold

qualities such as, Sandhi, Bigraha, Yāna, Āsana, Dvaidhībhāva

and Samśraya, the four purusārthas (virtue, profit, pleasure and

57
salvation) have also been treated in it .

According to Kautilya, the affairs of the world ( loka-yātrā)

58
also depend on Dandanīti. In the Matsya Purāna, the Dandanīti

55. KNS. II. 44

56. tayāa’tmānam ca śesāśca vidyāh pāyānmahīpatih /
vidyā lokopakārinyastatpātā hi mahīpatih // KNS. II 16
57. Mbh. XII. 59.79.
58. ‘tasyāmāyatrā lokayātrā / Aś. BK. XV . Ch. 4
 27

is said to be necessary for the establishment of orderly progress

and the Vāyu Purāna, states that dandanīti aims at the

59
performance of one’s ordained duties.

The ancient Indian thinkers believed that, there are fourfold

functions of Dandanīti, viz., the learned Ksatriya should strive to

acquire those objects which he desires and protect those that have

been already acquired, increasing what has been achieved and

utilisation of things for the welfare of the people. The Arthaśāstra

of Kautilya also holds similar opinion. On the otherhand the

Nitivākyāmrta states that, that should be acquired which was not

in hand, preserve the already acquired, increase the preserve

60
one.

Dandanīti and Trivarga :

According to the Mahābhārata, Dandanīti was closely

related with Trivarga ( Dharma , Artha and Kāma). This moto is

59. MP. 123, 24; 142. 74 ; 145 . 36; 215.54 and Vā. P. 49. 117-8; 57.82;
59.26; 61.167.
60. dandanītim puraskrtya vijānan ksatriyah sadā /
anāvāptam ca lipseta labdham ca paripālayet //Mbh. XII 69.102 & 140. 5.
‘ alabdhalābhārtha labdhapariraksanī raksitavivardhanī vrdhasya tīrthesu
pratipādinī’ / Aś. I.4
‘alabdhalābhī labdhapariaksanam raksitavivardhanam cārthānubandhah’
NVK. II.3.
 28

found in the Dandanīti, attributed to Brahmādeva , and they are

called Trivarga. Again as the Śāntiparva states that, Dandanīti,

composed by seven sages, dealt with Trivarga along with

61
salvation. Trivarga can be established by the proper use of

Dandanīti. cf.,

‘dande trivargah satatam supranīte pravartate’

Mbh. XII.121.14

Brhaspati also explained the close relationship between the

Trivarga and Dandanīti. So, he says the realisation of Trivarga is

62
the result of Dandanīti . The similar view is found in the

Arthaśāstra and the Śukranītisāra. According to Śukra, Dandanīti

is the root of these three ends and fourth one also. The

somadevasūri expressed that, the realisation of Dharma, Artha

63
and Kāma are the end of the State.

. .
1
61. Mbh. XII . 59. 29 /2 and also ibid . XII 335.33
62. ‘nīteh phalam dharmārthakāmāvāptih’
Br. Sū. II.43
63. Aś. BK.XV 1. 78-9 and also,
sarvopajīvakam lokasthitikrnnītiśāstrakam /
dharmārthakāmamūlam hi smrtam moksapradam yatah”/
ŚNS. I .5
‘dharmārthakāma phalāya rājyāya namah’/
NVK. I. P.7
 29

In the Udyogaparva of the Mahābhārata, it is stated that, a

king must practise these ends to maintain secrecy. Bhīsma told

Yudhisthira that, a ruler should follow the Trivarga in exact time

and place. If the king righteously follow these orders then he rules
64
over this earth for a long period. Discussion on Trivarga is

found in the Sabhāparvan also. Therein, the life of a king is said

to be dependent on these trivarga. In the court of Yudhisthira, the

sage Nārada teaches about the necessity of trivarga to Pāndavas,

he said “ Do you find pleasure in being devoted to Dharma? Do

you sacrifice Artha and Kāma for the sake of Dharma or do you

cause Dharma and Artha to suffer on account of extreme devotion

to Kāma? Are you aware of the order, prescribed for practising

65
the Trivarga and do you practise it in proper time ?”.

From this questions it is clear that, the Trivarga was equally

66
useful for kings and the other persons. In the Śāntiparva, the

64. Mbh. Udyoga. XXXVIII. 16-17 and also

dharmaścārthaśca kāmaśca sevitavyoa’tha kālatah /
dharmena ca mahīpālaściram pālayate mahīm //
ibid. LXIX.70
65. dharmam cārtham ca kāmam ca yathāvad vadatam /
varam vibhajya kāle kālajnah sarvān seveta panditah. //
Mbh. Sabhā. V. 16-19-20 and Vanaparva. 33.42
66. ibid. XII 123
 30

Pitāmaha Bhīsma refers to a dialogue once held between sage

Kāmandaka and a king Angaristha about the Trivarga. After

analysis of Trivarga Bhīsma says,“ A king ruins his power by

practising Kāma in excess and by neglecting Dharma and Artha.

By not following the Trivarga properly, he encourages the wicked

and unrighteous people. His subjects do not obey him. He is

dethroned or even killed by his subjects. To repent for his

misconduct, the king should censure his sinful deeds, study the

Vedas, respect the Brāhmanas, devote himself to Dharma,

Practise Gāyatrīmantra and live in the company of noble

persons.”

Vidura, the minister of Dhrtarāstra emphasises that, without

the knowledge of scriptures a king cannot capture his

67
enemy. Bhīsma opines that, the learned ksatriya should keep in

mind, that the ‘dharma’ and ‘artha’ are most important for them.

Kāmandaka also expressed the same view, saying that, a

king should be devoted to Trivarga for protection of ownself and

his people. If the ruler properly uses the Dandanīti, then the

67. ‘trivargācarane yuktah sa śatrūnadhitisthati’ /

Mbh. V. 39 . 40-41 and ibid. XII.134.1
 31

68
Trivarga will be maintained .

Rājadharma vs Ksātradharma :

According to Bhīsma, Rājadharma is the refuge of all living

creatures, and the fourfold ends of human life depends on it. The

whole world is controled by this kingly duties, as the reins control

the horses and the hooks the elephants. If the royal person

neglects their duties then the world becomes confused, disorder

sets in. Just as the rising sun dispels unholy darkness, likewise,
69
Rājadharma destroys all evil consequences in this world. .

Bhīsma told Vāsudeva that, “as the duty of the Brāhmanas

consists of the practise of charity, studies and penances, the duty

70
of Ksatriyas is to sacrifice their bodies in battlefield.

That is called the duties of a Ksatriya, when he ( Ksatriya)

slays in the battle his very preceptor, relatives and friends if they

. .

68. KNS. I.31 and ‘trivargam vardhayatyāśu rājno dando yathāvidhi’

ibid.II. 38
69. Mbh. XII.56.3-7
70. brāhamanānām yathā dharmo dānamadhyayanam tapah /
ksatriyānām tathā krsna samare dehapātanam //
Mbh. XII.55.14
 32

happen to be sinful and covetous and disregardful of restraints

and vows. cf.,

samayatyāgino lubdhān gurunapi ca keśava /

nihanti samare pāpān ksatriyo yah sa dharmavit //

Mbh. XII.55.16

According to Manu also, Bhīsma told, war is the source of

dharma for a ksatriya. Because a righteous battle creates fame on

71
.
earth and also leads the warrior to heaven Bhīsmas view on

rājadharma is repeatedly conveyed to us by his comparisons with

human values. He says, ‘Ksatriyas by fulfiling the highest

duty,’do welfare for the human beings also, the Veda also diclares

that, all the duties of the three upper classes together with their

auxiliaries are protected by the kings dharma. Again, he

explained, all other dharmas are covered by rājadharma, just like

the foot prints of all creatures by the footprints of elephants.

While all other dharmas bear little relief and get small benefit, the

dharma of the ksatriya alone brings much relief and get big

benefits.

. .

71. Mbh. XII 55.19 and ibid. XII.60.18

 33

72
The ‘daśavarga’ depends on rājadharma, hence a king should

inspect on it regularly. That king earns eternal merit (which is

known as rājadharma also) who has no wickedness,

73
dissimulation, deception and envy. In ancient time sage

Bhārgava sung one verse of rājadharma that, “one should first

select a king then wife and then earn wealth. If there be no king,
74
what would become of his wife and wealth.” Therefore, at first

men should select a king, then the king protects his subjects and it

is the main duty of a king.

Bhīsma quotes two verses of Prācetasa Manu which runs as

follows: Six persons should be avoided like a leaky boat on the

sea, these six are namely, a preceptor who does not advise, a

priest who does not study the scriptures, a king that does not grant

protection, a wife who utters bitter words, a cow-herd who likes

to move within the village, and a barber that desirous of going to

the woods. He also quotes of Brhaspati regarding the enthusiasm

of a king. Because enthusiasm is the root of success for a king.

. .
72. ibid. XII.57.18 ( here daśavarga’ means , minister, state fort , revenue
& Danda are used for self and enemy)
73. ibid . XII. 57.37
74. ibid. XII.57.41
 34

By exertion alone sovereignty can be obtained. By exertion the

Asuras were slains and Indra obtained sovereignty in heaven and

75
on earth.

In another place of the Mahābhārata, the dandanīti is

called ksātradharma i.e., the ancient Rājadharma, it runs as

follows: if the ksātradharma disappears, then the three vedas will

disappear, and the disappearence of the vedas will lead to the

destruction of all religions of the society, and all the modes of life

become lost . cf.,

majjet trayī dandanītau hatāyām

sarve dharmāh praksayeyurvibudhāh /

sarve dharmāścāśramānām hatāh syuh

ksātre tyakte rājadharme purāne// Mbh. XII. 63.28

All kinds of renunciation, all kinds of initiation, all kinds of

learning and all kinds of worldy behaviour found in the

76
Rājadharma.

The ksātradharma is said to have been emerged from the

Visnu Himself. It is stated in the Visnu-Māndhātā samvāda. In

75. Mbh. XII. 58.13-15

76. ibid. XII.63.29-30
 35

ancient times a famous king, named Māndhāta performed a

sacrifice to see Nārāyana. Nārāyana appeared before him in the

form of Indra. Indra asked about his wish- as to why he wishes to

see Nārāyana. Then the king replied he has earned name and fame

in the three world through proper use of ksātradharma but he

does not know that best dharma which is issued from Visnu

Himself. Then Indra told him that Ksātradharma is the first and

the formost dharma that issued from Visnu and other dharmas

created later on.Through Ksāstradharma alone Visnu subduced

the demons and protected gods and priests. Indra assures

Māndhātā that the ancient religions were lost many times but

were rescued by Visnu through Ksātradharma alone. So, this

Ksāstradharma is used years after years and hence it is said to be

77
the first and the foremost dharma among all other dharmas.

Indra told him further that Ksātradharma is the best dharma on

78
earth and it is also regarded as sanātana, nitya and avināśī.

77. yuge yuge hyādidharmāh pravrttā

lokajyestham ksātradharmam vadanti //
Mbh. XII. 64.26
78. sarvadharmaparam ksātram lokaśrestham sanātanam //
ibid. XII. 64.30
 36

II. Its scope as a branch of Knowledge in ancient

India:

In ancient India the branch of knowledge dealing with state

and government had no any fixed and appropriate designation.

Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra mentions dandanīti as one of the four

vidyās i.e. the branch of knowledge.The other three vidyās are

Ānvīksiki (philosophy), Traī (three vedas), and Vārtā

79
(economics). It appears that Dandanīti is the oldest name for this

branch of knowledge. The Mahābhārata calls the work of

Brahmādeva as Dandanīti composed for the protection of the

80
world at the begining of the creation. It is one of the four

essential lores to be studied by a prince as opined by the earlier

schools mentioned in the Arthaśāstra. This lore or vidyā is

concerned with the administration of a State. Dandanīti literally

means “the use or employment of the rod” and obviously refers to

the earliest method of giving punishment on wrong doers by the

ruler. So, Danda as held by the monarch has been the symbol of

authority. So, it appears that Dandanīti, in its origin, was

. .
79. ānvīksiki, trayī, vārtā, dandanītiśceti vidyāh.. Aś. 1.2.1.
80. Mbh. XII.59.78.
 37

concerned primarily with the administration of justice. The

Āpastamba Dharmasutra regards this branch of knowledge as

81
Rājadharama.

Manu has used the terms Rājadharma and Dandanīti for

82
this branch. In the Mahābhārata, it has been designated as,

Rājaśāstra, Dandanīti, and also Arthaśāstra. This branch of

knowledge is called also Nrpaśāstra as it is found in the first

verse of the Pancatantra, but in the very next verse it has been
83
designated as Arthaśāstra. The treatise of Kautilya is entitled

as Arthaśāstra, but this appellation was not coined by him for the
84 85
first time. The term Dandanīti is also found in the Arthaśāstra.

According to Kāmandaka it is designated as a Nītisāra;

Vaiśampāyana’s treatise is called Nītiprakāśikā and Śukra’s work

is termed as Nītisāra. The Jātakamālā of Āryasūra, has used the

86
term Rājadharma for this branch of knowledge. In the Purāna,

81. Ā.Dh.Sū. II 10.25.1

82. Mbh. XII. 58.3
83. Panca, Kathāmukham ( Edgerton’s ed)
84. “yāvantyarthaśāstrāni pūrvācāryaih prasthāpitāni ...” Aś. I.1.
85. ibid . II , 1,2,4,6, etc.
86. Jātakamālā, vol. I P. 147 ( H.O.S)
 38

87
the term Rājadharma occurs along with Rājanīti, Dandanīti and
88
Arthaśāstra for the branch of knowledge dealing with the

science of polity.

All these different names mentioned above are used for that

branch of knowledge, the subject matter of which is state and

government; and is accepted by scholars in general. But few

opines that it has been used as ‘ Ksatravidyā’ for the first time in
89
the ChāndogyaUpanisad. The commentary of Śamkarācārya

holds it to be synonymous with‘dhanurveda’ and, scholars in

90
general have followed this meaning.

Among the modern scholars, A.B. keith holds that the

meaning of the word Ksatra-Vidyā probebly means the

91 92
dhanurveda . Hopkins also gives the same view. Dr. V.S.

87. e.g. in Ag.ch. 239 is entitled , as ‘Rājadharmah’, while in ch. 242 is

entitled as Rājanītih.
88. e.g. Vā.P. 57.82, “maryādā sthāpanārthanca dandanītih pravartate.”
But in 97.105-106, Vāyu uses the term nīti only. The D.P. ch. 107 says
that Aś is an Upaveda ofAV.Vayu P.in its enumeration of the eighteen
vidyas mentions Aś but not Dandanīti
89. Chā. Up. VII. 1.2; 1.4; 2.1; 7.1
90. Prasad. B, Theory of government in Ancient India. Intro XVII.
91. Keith V.I. S.V. Ksatravidyā.
92. Hopkins, JAOS, XII, p. 104 ( 45-43/1972)
AV. Vā.P. in its enumaration of the eighteen vidyās mentions Aś but not
Dandanīti.
 39

93
Agrawala uses this term as military science, in his book

entitled, “ India as known to Pānini.” This term occurs in Pāninis

94 95
Astādhyāyī and the Mahābhāsya of Patanjali, but it is

difficult to say what was the exact meaning of it in these two

works.

It is already mentioned that, some scholars had

differentiated, ‘the Ksatravidyā’ from the ‘state and government’.

Some branches of knowledge is found in the earlier literature also.

The Atharvaveda states that, it as the Itihāsa-Purāna and Itihāsa

singly as well as compounded is mentioned in the Śatapatha-

96
Brāhmana. Sarpa-Vidyā is also found in the Śatapatha -
97
Brāhmana. In the Chāndogya upanisada the term ksatravidyā

is mentioned along with the four Vedas, Itihāsa-Purāna, Rāśi,

Naksatra-vidyā, Bhuta-vidyā, Sarpa-vidyā, Vyākarana, Ekāyana,

Deva-vidyā, Brahma-vidyā, Jana-vidyā etc.

. .

93. Agrawal V.S. P.304.

94. Agrawal V.S. “ India as known to Pānini.” P. 337
95. Patanjali, Mahābhāsya, IV, 260, p. 284 ( kielhorn’s ed)
96. AV. XV 6.5 and also ŚB. XIII. 4.3. 12-13 and as compounded in
XI.5.6.8 ; 7.9.
97. Ś.B . XIII. 4.3.9
 40

But all these branches of knowledge are not found in the earlier

literature because the most of these terms are new. Like the other

branches of knowledge, the term Ksatravidyā is naturally

organised as the body of knowledge. In the Chāndogya

98
Upanisada, Nārada calls himself a mantravit. So, it is found in

the position of mantra, i.e. wordly knowledge as distinct from

99
ātma-vidyā.

In the Mahābhārata, the term ksatravidyā is used in the

sense of the science of polity or statecraft.

Another scheme of Branches of knowledge:

The Mahābhārata speaks of four branches of knowledge

(vidyās) these are viz, Ānvīksikī (philosophy), Trayī (three

100
vedas), Vārtā (economics) and Dandanīti (science of politics).

The part of Ānvīksikī is omitted in the Vanaparva and the

Trayī, Vārtā and Dandanīti are used for the welfare of the whole

98. Chā. Up. VII 1.3 “ mantravidevāsmi nātmavit.”

99. Munda.( Mundaka) I. 1,4-5; Mai.S. VI, 21.6 for the nature of ātmavidyā.
Quoted in Prasad . V. ‘ Theory of government in Ancient India.”
100. trayī cānvīksikī caiva vārtā ca bharatarsabha /
dandanītiśca vipulā vidyāstatra nidarśitā //
Mbh .XII.59.33
 41

101
world. Prosperity will come to the proper use of Trayī and
102
Dandanīti.

The Śrīmad Bhagavadgīta, establishes the superiority of

spiritual knowledge, which is called Adhyātmavidyā, (i.e.the

science of spiritual self) to all other branches of knowledge. But

in the Bhīsmaparva of the Mahābhārata, the Adhyātmavidyā is

103
described as the king of vidyās or rājavidyā. Again, in another

chapter of this parvan, Lord Krsna expresses the similar view,

that, “ of all the vidyās , I am AdhyātmaVidyā, the science of

104
spiritual self.”

Kautilya, in his very first book of Arthaśāstra holds the

same view with the Mahābhārata saying that Ānvīksikī-Trayī-

Vārtā- Dandanīti as the branches of knowledge. He refers to the

views of various schools of thought. Brhaspati mentions only two

vidyās in his Bārhaspatya, viz; Vārta and Dandanīti, and excluded

Ānvīksikī and Trayī from the list. The schools of Auśanasa of

101. trayīvārtā dandanītistisro vidyā vijānatām /

tābhih samyak prayuktābhirlokayātrā vidhīyate // Mbh. III.150.31
102. ibid. II. 207.24
103. rājavidyā rājaguhyam pavitramidamuttamam /
pratyaksyāvagamam dharmyam susukhan kartumavya-yam /
ibid. VII. 33. 2
104. adhyātmavidyā vidyānān vādah pravadatā maham. ibid . VII. 34. 32
 42

Śukrācārya, regarded the Dandanīti as only science and it is the

root of all other branches of knowledge or sciences. But Kautilya

did not agree with them, he recognizes all the four vidyā is
105
necessary for the knowledge of Dharma and Adharma. The

Mānavas, the followers of Manu, emphasises only three branches

of knowledge namely, Trayī, Vārtā and Dandanīti, and the science

Ānvīksikī is omitted from the school of Mānavas. Kautilya, does

not ignore the importance of all Vidyās, he specially gives more

importance on Ānvīksikī (philosophy). He holds the view that this

science, in the light of reasoning keeps the mind steady in weal

106
and woe, it gives skill in knowledge, speech and action. So it is

regarded as the lamp of all sciences, as the means of all actions

107
and as the support of all laws.

105. ānvīksikītrayīvārtādandanītiśceti vidyāh /

trayīvārtādandanītiśceti mānavah /
vārtādandanītiśceti Bārhaspatyāh /
dandanītirekā vidyeyouśanasāh /
tasyān hi sarvavidyārambhāh pratibadhā iti /
catasra eva vidyā iti kautilyah //
tābhidharmārthau yadvidyāttad vidyānān vidyātvam //
Aś. I . 2. 1 -9
106. Aś. BK I. 2 P.10
107. pradīpah sarvavidyānān upāyah sarvakarmanām /
āsrayah sarvadharmānām śaśvadānvīksikī matā //
ibid.
 43

108
According to Manu Ātma-vidyā (the science of self) is

one of the four branches of knowledge. Kāmandaka deals with the

views of Manu in considerable details. He respects the Kautilyan

109
view but he speaks highly of Dandanīti. According to him, the

absence of Dandanīti, the other three vidyās become ineffective. If

the ruler relies on Dandanīti then the rest of the vidyās also
110
flourish. Therefore, a king should protect himself as well as the

other sciences with the help of Dandanīti, which is benificial to

111
the whole world.

The Agni Purāna, briefly noted the contents of these four

112 113
branches of knowledge. The Matsya Purāna also includes the

science of self (Ātma-Vidyā) in the list of the four vidyās. The

Visnu Purāna too accepted the same traditional four-fold

108. traividyebhyastrayīm vidyām dandanītin ca śāsvatīm /

ānvīksikīm cāa’ tmavidyām vārtārambhānśca lokatah //
MS. VII.43
109. KNS. II . 10-6
110. ibid . II. 8-9
111. tayāa’tmānam śesāśca vidyāh pāyānmalūpatih /
vidyālokopakārinyastatpātā hi mahīpatih //
ibid . II.16
112. Ag. 238. 8-9
113. Matsya P. 215.53
 44

114
knowledge. At another place of this work, a list of eighteen

vidyās, consisting of the four Vedas, their six angas (śiksā, kalpa,

vyākarana, chanda, jyotis and nirukta), Mimānsā, Nyāya, Purāna,

Dharmaśāstra, Āyurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharva-vidyā and

115
Arthaśāstra are found. The Mimānsā and Nyāya are included in

Ānvīskikī.

The four branches of knowledge is found in the

Śukranītisāra also. Śukra speaks that, a king should always

practise these four vidyās, because, the four varnas and āśramas
116
are established by the help of these four sciences.

It is found that, the Dandanīti is regarded as one of the

sciences of the fourfold vidyās, in the Mahābhārata, the

Arthaśāstra of Kautilya, the Manusmrti, the Kāmandakīya

Nītisāra, the Agni Purāna , the Matsya purāna, the Visnu Purāna

and the Śukranītisāra. Generally, the place assigned to dandanīti

. .
114. ānvīksikī trayī vārtā dandanītistathāparā /
vidyācatustayam caitadvārtāmātram śrnusva me //Visnu. P. V.10.29.27
115. Visnu. P. III. 6. 28-9
116. ānvīksikītrayīvārtādandanītiścaśāścvatī /
vidyāścatasraevaitā abhyasennrpatihsadā//
ānvīksikyān tarkaśātranvedāntāntādyanpratisthitam /
trayyāndharmohyadharmaścakāmea’kāmah pratisthitah //
arthānarthauvārtāyāndandanītyānnayānayau /
varnāhsarvāśramāścaivavidyāsvāsupratisthitāh // ŚNS.I.151-3
 45

is equal to that of the other branches of knowledge. Kautilya

emphasized the superiority of Ānvīksikī then Dandanīti, but

Kāmandaka emphasises the necessity of Dandanīti. According to

him, Dandanīti is essential for the progress of the remaining three

branches of knowledge.

III. Rājadharma literature:

So far as the Rājadharma literature is concerned, we have

found mythological originators in the Mahābhārata. Brahmā is

said to have composed a Nītiśāstra containing one lakh chapters

in the matters of maintenance of state -affairs by a monarch. After

then the Nītiśāstra was abridged by Maheswara to ten thousand

chapters which was again made into five thousand, three thousand

and one thousand chapters by Indra, Brhaspati, and Usanasa

respectively.

Coming from the mythological aspect, if we look into the

practical world we may notice that each king has a priest as

religious guide as well as political adviser. Normally they were

think-tanks. As the ancient India was studded with a

conglomeration of independant small kingdoms, there were fights

among themselvs for protection of their own and acquisition of

 46

new states . The rulers were expected to discuss the problems of

the state administration with their advisers. Who were normally

sages and scholars of mature judgement. And this process of

deliberations perhaps led to the growth of the science of state

craft. This branch of knowledge is known differently as

Rājadharma, Dandanīti, Rājanīti etc., while the works dealing

with the subject are known variously as Dandanītiśāstra, or

Dandaśāstra, Rājaśāstra or Rājanītiśāstra, Arthaśāstra or simply

Nītiśāstra. Kautilya calls his work on the subject Arthaśāstra. The

Kāmandaka entitled his work as ‘Nītisāra’; Somadevas

Nītivākyāmrta;Vaiśampāyanas Nītiprakāśikā; Osanās the

Śukranītisāra; Somesvaras Mānasollāsa or

Abilāsitārthacintāmoni; Bhojarājas the Yoktikalpataru so on and

so forth. Besides these independent works on state craft, the

subject is dealt with in the Dharmaśāstras (samhitās) as in the

Manusamhitā, the Yājnavalkyasmrti etc; the two great epics, the

Rāmāyana and the Mahābhārata, and the Purānas also in

frequently elaborate on the principles and practice of Nītiśāstra.

The former authorities mentioned by Kautilya, Manu

(Prāsetasa), Brhaspati, Uśanasa (Śukra), Vātavyādhi , Bharadvāja,

 47

Viśālāksa etc. In the period of the Mahābhārata, some other

117
names of ancestors of this literatre are added.

The Nītiprakāśikā of Vaiśampāyana added the names of

Brahmā, Maheśwara, Skanda, Indra, Prācetasa Manu, Brhaspati,

Śukra, Bhāradvāja, Vedavyāsa, Gauraśirāmuni as the author of

118
Rājadharma or Rājaśātra.

Again he (Vaiśampāyana) mentioned the number of

chapters of the works on Rājaśāstras composed by those authors,

respectively, as 1,00,000; 50,000; 12,000; 6,000; 3,000; 1,000;

119
700; 500 and 300.

The Arthaśāstra is one term used for the science of politics

which we have already mentioned. The literal meaning of the

term ‘Arthaśāstra’ is the science of wealth or economics, because

‘Artha’ means money or wealth . According to Kautilya, the term

artha indicates the territory where the people live together and
120
vrtti means ‘sustenance’ or ‘ livelihood’ . And since the term

. .
117. Mbh. XII 58.2-3
118. NP. I. 21-22
119. ibid. I. 23-28
120. manusyanam vrttirarthah, manusyavati bhumirarthah,
tasyah prthivya labhapalanopayah sastramarthasastramiti //
As. XV. I
 48

artha is understood in the sense of the earth where men live

together and seek their material well being in general, then the

Śāstra concerned with the general well being on earth. And state

activity alone can make such general well-being possible. So, the

śāstra, which shows how this activity of the acquisition and

protection of the earth be carried out, is called as Arthaśāstra.

However, ‘Artha’ is regarded as one of the three goals

(trivarga) of human existance and the other two being ‘Dharma’

and ‘Kāma’. Artha is the primary and most important, and the
121
dharma and kāma are dependent on it .

In Book one (I) of the Arthaśāstra various problems

connected with the kingship are discussed. InBook two (II) an

exhaustive picture of the civil adminstration is depicted. The next

(III) and (IV) Books discuss the civil, criminal, and personal laws.

The duties and responsibilities of the courtiers and retainers of the

king in Book (V) and Book (VI) states the nature and functions of

the seven element of the state. Then the works devotes its last

nine Books to the foreign policy, ‘ circle’ of kings and the policy,

121. artha eva pradhāna iti kautilyah arthamūlohi dharmakāmāviti /

Aś. I. VII. 6-7
 49

122
occasions and suitable for war and peace, the warfare etc.

The Kāmandakīya Nītisāra : ( 5th Century )

The Nītisāra of Kāmandaka is one of the work on the

science of polity and it has written in the style of artificial poetry.

The Nītisāra is divided into cantos (Sargas) and sections

(Prakaranas). Variety of metres mainly Anushtub, and numerous

poetical similes and metaphors are found here.

It is found that the Nītisāra seems to have followed the

Arthaśāstras pattern. In the opening verses of the Nītisāra the

author (saluted briefly to the kings in general and fully to his

master) Vishnugupta (Kautilya). After salutation he expresses his

intention to instruct kings in the process of acquisition and

preservation of dominions. In this matter he seems to have

followed Kautilya who saluted Śukra and Brhaspati at the

begining of his work. And yet it is not deniable that, Kāmandakas

branch of learning is separated by a long gap of time from his

forerunners. Hence, Kāmandaka leaves out the whole material in

Kautilyas Arthaśāstra relating to the working of the state

. .
122. BK .Altekar A.S. State and Government in Ancient India. p.10
 50

administration and the branch of law and justice.Which did not

interest his scholastic fase. But he prepared other materials under

more convenient headings.

Kāmandakīya contains instructions relating to the kings

education in three cantos, danda is explained in one canto, the

merit and demerits alongwith the functions of the seven

constituent elements of the state is included in three cantos, and

another three cantos describe about the policy of security of the

ruler and the subjects; the state system found in two cantos the

six types of foreign policy ( sādgunya) are explained in three

cantos, consultation with the minister of king’s in one canto, the

duty of the ambassador is in two cantos, the list of the kings

traditional vices in one canto and the political expedients are

discussed in twelve cantos.

After Kautilya, Kāmandaka also accepts the Taryī in its

broadest sense. And he summarized the law and social order

(dharma). Generally Kāmandaka followed the general Smrti

literature. For example one passage from Smrti: Protection of the

people depends upon the king and their livelihood depends upon

protection. Again a king should be ready to for operation the

 51

whole scheme of duties, and without him the law (dharma) would

disappear, and with the disappearence of the law the world would

perish. The above passages evidently repeat a familiar Smrti

principle of the king’s authority.

Again in the theory of the danda of the king, Kāmandaka

(II-37-43) takes some ideas of the Arthaśāstra and Smrti tradition.

The author takes ideas of Kautilya for making a state. According

123
to him the state does not work well if it looses a single limb, so

a king should quickly try to make it the whole i.e., (the seven

elements of a state). In the Nītisāra of Kāmandaka, the state

(rājya) is divided into two units ,viz, internal and external part.

It is already mentioned that, the education of a king is dealt

with by Kāmandaka in the first canto. First of all he (king) should

furnish himself with discipline (vinaya), then his officials and

124
assistance, then his sons, and lastly his subjects. In another two

cantos XIV and XV of his Nītisāra, he describes about kings

qualifications alongwith his characteristic vices (vyasanas).

Kāmandaka particularly observes, three kinds of punishment

. .

123. KNS. IV 1-2

124. ibid. I. 25
 52

(Danda), these are namely, execution (Vadha), imposing fines and

inflicting corporal punishment. Again execution is further divided

in two subsections, viz, the public and the secret. According to

Kāmandaka, the minister is an eye of kings; and the officials and

the coronated prince are his two arms. Some principal political

expedients are also described by Kāmandaka in his Nītisāra.

Again in another canto (VI) he deals with the old Arthaśāstra

branch of policy which is known as Extirpation of Thorns

(Kantakaśodhana). The protection is the main duty of the king so

he should punish all those who oppress his subjects. The author

mentioned in canto (VII), that, it is great danger to the king and

the kingdom if greedy and haughty princes are here. Kāmandaka

gives numerous definitions of the constituents of the state-system

in the chapter of the inter-state relations. As well as he explained

a list of the sub-types of peace, war, marching and neutrality,

along with a large body of the relevant rules and principles. A

king should apply a fourfold policy for complete destruction of

his enemy.

The policy of peace and war is found in another two

separate cantos (IX-X) also. The author gives a list of various

 53

kinds of wars which should be avoided. A king should wage war

when he has all the advantages, like-well equipped troops, many

prosperous and loyal subjects and fixed allies. In canto (XI),

Kāmandaka explains of foreign policy. Finally, he suggests that

if a king finds himself completely alone or defenceless and he

face of an attack by a powerful enemy then he should either seek

the protection of a sovereign of high family, character and

conduct or surrender his forces or revenue or territory to the

assailant for his own safety. The policy of marching to the enemy

is dealt with in a later canto (XVI). The author describes here that,

the king should march for victory when he is free from all

calamities, and equipped with the threefold power. Again he

observes that, strength of counsel is very necessary than physical

strength for attaining highest goal, e.g. the Indra (king of heaven)

conquered the demons by the strength of counsel only.

In the last part of the nineteenth canto Kāmandaka

describes about faithless warfare and its alternatives (XIX).

The Bārhaspatya Sūtra :

The another treatise on science of polity or treatise of nīti is

 54

the Bārhaspatya sūtra (the aphorisms of Brhaspati). It is a short

work of general morals ( nīti) , which is composed by Brhaspati,

the preceptor of the gods, for Indra the king of heaven. The author

mainly deals with the political ideas and notions in his sūtra.

According to Brhaspati, the science of politics is

teachnically called Dandanīti. Taking the reference of the old

125
Arthaśāstra, he says that, Dandanīti is the only science (Vidyā).
126
It should be studied by all the four castes. He further says that ,

Dandanīti is differently used in four ages. In the Krta (Satya) age

it is fully learnt by the people. In the Tretā age people are active

and skilled in policy , in Dvāpara age men depend on tantras and

are versed in policy and at last in Kali age men are strong in

knowledge and action by one quarter and are versed in dandanīti ,

and that thereafter the men are of contrary rules of life, colour and
127 128
dress and are devoid of Dandanīti. Brhaspati declares that,

the result of policy are the attainment of virtue ( dharma), wealth

(artha ), and pleasure ( kāma ). Again he says that, even a son and

125. Bā.Sū . I. 3
126. ibid. III . 141-8
127. ibid. II.
128. ibid. II. 43
 55

129
a preceptor who is devoid of policy is an enemy and should be

disregarded. In another place of this Sūtras it is mentioned that,

the king should not follow that dharma which is condemed by the
130
people .

According to Brhaspati, policy (nīti) is essential for a

complete life of individuals. He says, three ends of life namely,

dharma, artha and kāma is essential for fulfilment of the

complete life of the individuals. When Brhaspatis theories as well

as principles and policies of government agreeing to outlook on

life then he repeats some conceptions of the Arthaśāstra and the

Smrti.

In the first place of these sūtra, the author states that, the

king should be equipped with self- mastery and warns him against
131
hunting and over indulgense in women. A person who

possesses good qualities comprising of learning and wealth and

132
self restraint he may get rulership. The author defines,

. .
129. ibid. II. 50 and 74
130. ibid. I (4-5)
131. ibid. I. 1 and also 33-35
132. ibid. II . 1-2
 56

133
‘counsel’ ( mantras) as the necessary part of king’s assistants.

And it is the root of victory; arranges the same in three divisions,

134
viz, good, intermediate and bad. For making a counsel it is

necessary the company of friends and kinsmen along with learned

and steady persons. When the steady minister makes counsel on

the science of polity that is called best counsel. That counsel is

middling which is first time differences of opinion but afterwards

unanimity. And that caunsel is worst when there arise quarrel and

reproach one being for wealth and another for virtue, in the

company of women, children and old men are found (one

infavour of tears and another is anger).

In the third place of these sūtra the author defines about the

internal and foreign policy. when the both parties are equal in
135
strength then they should be slain in war . In war when

difficulties arise then a king should apply all the six expedients of

conciliation, dissension, bribery, creating illusion, pretended

indifference and slaying.

133. ibid. II. 41-42

134. ibid. IV . 27-36
135. ibid. I. 30-31
 57

Here, the author repeats the all political expedients of the

Arthaśāstra work except one, viz, magic ( indrajāla) Although

the author agreeing with the Arthaśāstra tradition, but he

advocates war with an enemy of equal strength.

Nītivākyāmrta:

The Jaina writer Somadeva of tenth century A.D. writes a

treatise on nīti is called Nītivākyāmrta. He quotes fragments of the

metrical works on polity attributed to Atri, Angīras, Kauśika,

Garga, Devala, Nārada, Parāśara, Bhāguri, Bhāradvāja, Bhrgu,

Brhaspati, Śukra, Vyāsa etc.

Although, the author describes after Kautilya’s pattern but

136
with a strong Jaina bias, the functions of the four sciences viz,

philosophy (ānvīksikī), the three vedas (trayī), Economics (vārtā)

and Politics (dandanīti ) in a prince’s training. The study of

philosophy, it seems that, confers mental alertness and moral

discipline as well as practical efficiency; at its lowest level of

materialistic philosophy, if a king study this part then he enables

to solve the problem of dealing with the anti-social elements in

. .
136. quote in, Ghoshal. U. N. A history of Indian political ideas, Oxford
University press 1959, p.477.
 58

his kingdom. The Vedas provide the king with great knowledge of

the duties of the four castes and the orders and teach the

performance of Vedic sacrifices and so forth. Economics fulfils

the material needs of both the king and his subjects. Politics

ensuring just punishment, secures the complete happiness of the

individulas.

Somadeva defines, Dandanīti comprising the chastisement

of the wicked and cherishing of the good. Defining the parallel

137
term Nītiśāstra, Somadeva observes more generally that, it

involves the kings application towards the security of his own

circle of state and acquisition of the enemy’s state-circle. From

above extracts it is found that more or less the old Arthaśāstras

view’s are repeat. Here found twofold scope of the science of

polity (nīti) comprising the branches of the king’s internal

administration and foreign policy.

138
The Nītivākyāmrta, states that, the king is a great deity ,

and as such he bows to no one except to his superiors . In another

137. NVK. XXX 45-7

138. ibid. V. 67.
 59

place, the author declares that, there is no visible deity other than

the king. He combines a king is the form of three deities viz,

Brahmā, Visnu and Śiva. The Ksatriya (Prince) becomes Brahmā,

when on attaining the first stage (child hood) of life he fixes his

mind at the eternal Brahman, serves his preceptor’s family, and

makes a complete study of the branches of Knowledge. The king

is called Visnu when on attaining royal fortune and receiving the

ceremonial initiation at his consecration, he attracts the love of his

subjects with his good qualities. And he becomes Śiva when

blazing with strength as with the third eye of that God and gifted

with the highest authority, he sets about extirpating the thorns of

the state as well as his demon-like enemies and becomes a

conqueror.
139
In the first extract, the author mentions that, the king

stands to his friends and foes in the position of the gods Indra and

Yama respectively, i.e. a king comprises chastisement of the

wicked and reward the good. Here government signifies, the act

of protecting the territory. The duties of the four castes are discuss

139. ibid. VI.4

 60

in second extract (VII.8). The king gains one-sixth of the merits

acquired by his subjects from gifts, religious worship and so forth,

and he can increage his treasury from these tax. Somadeva

borrowed from Kautilya about the conception of the structure of

the state.

From above discussions it is found that, sometimes the

view of the Nītivākyāmrta are same with the Mahābhārata.

Śukranītisāra ( 13 C A.D.) :

The Nītiśāstra is said to be benificial treatise and

generalised science of society. It is a system of morals (social,

economics and political). Nītiśāstra gives practical advice as to

social well being. It is specially useful to rulers and ministers.

With the knowledge of Nīti they can conquere the enemy and

become master of the world. The four ends human life

(Purusārthas. i.e. dharma- artha- kāma and moksa) are found in

Nītiśāstra and it gives fame and prosperity.

Śukrācārya delivers the essence or spirit of Brahmā’s

nītiśāstra, which is known as Śukranītisāra. It is divided into four

chapters and named as (1) rājakrtyakathana, (2) yuvarājādikrtya

kathana, (3) sādhāraninītiśāstra kathana and (4) misraprakarana

 61

kathana. Śukra gives more importance on nīti. He states that the

whole world is established by these nīti, without the nīti or the

system of morals, no man can be established, like wise without

140
food a man cannot survive . Nīti is the very essential part of a

king and it is stated by various examples in the first chapter of the

Śukranītisāra. The protection of the subjects and destruction of

evils are the main duty of a king, which is possible through the
141
proper knowledge of nīti . The king, who has the knowledge of

nīti and full of strength, he can attain all prosperity in his life.

Śukra gives more importance on kings penances for making a

king more powerful, intelligent and protector, and opines that a

142
king by his previous births of penances rule this world.

Svadharma ( own’s duty), Punishment (danda), three kinds of

penances ( satva, raja and tama), different duties of four castes

(Brāhmana, Ksatriya, Vaiśya and Śudra) all are discussed in this

Nītisāra. The author opines that, the Brāhmanas, Ksatriyas,

. .

140. sarvalokavyavahārasthitirnītyāvinānahi /
yathāśanairvinādehasthitirnasyāddhidehinām //
ŚNS. I.11
141. nrpasyaparamodharmah prajānānparipālanam /
dustanrgrahnannityannanītyātauvinahyubhe // ibid. I. 14
142. ibid. I. 20
 62

Vaiśyas, Śudras and Mlechas are not born but they are marked of
143
their respective qualities and action deeds. It shows that Śukra

did not believe in heriditary castes. A King is the maker of time

i.e. the creator of ages. The seven elements of the state are

discussed here and the king is regarded as the chief of these seven

elements (king, minister, friend, treasury, state, fort and army).

The first chapter deals with the qualities and duties of a

king (good and bad), definition of four knowledge (ānvīksikī,

trayī, vārtā and dandanīti).

In the second chapter, discussions about the functions of

the crown prince and other officials are found. Here the author

expresses that, without ministers and wise a king cannot rule

alone. Prince and ministers are the two arms, eyes and ear of the
144
king. On the other hand priest, envoy, amātya, saciva,

commander, witness -all are described in the chapter second.

In the chapter third, Śukra explained about general rules

of morality. All creatures of the world want to live happily and

143. najātyābrāhmanaścātraksatriyovaiśyaevana /
naśūdronacavaimlecchobheditāgunakarmabhih //
ŚNS. I 38
144. ibid. II. 12
 63

these happiness will come from morality or dharma. So, every

one should be devoted to morality. Here it is found that, a king

should not trust fully his own son, wife, brothers and ministers.

And at the end of the chapter III the author states that it is an

abridgement of the general morals about kings and states, and

145
should be followed by kings for the wellbeings of the kingdom.

The fourth chapter is called ‘misraprakarana’. Here,

briefly noted about the characteristics (laksana) of mitra (friend)

and śatru (enemy). In this chapter different characteristics of

different friends are discussed. Again the functions of a king,

treasure, danda, sāma-dāna for friends, various functions of four

castes, characteristics of preceptor, name of the Vedas- Vedāngas,

Mimānsās, fortresses, army etc., are discussed in the fourth

chapter. Śukra opines that if a king always studies these brief text

of Śukra he can bear the burden of all troubles of state affairs. cf.,

‘śukroktanītisāranyaścintayedaniśannrpah//

vyavahāradhuranvodonsaśaktonrpatirbhavet //’

ŚNS. 4. 1242

145. ŚNS. III. 313

 64

The Śukranītisāra, consists of 2200 ( two thousand two

hundred) slokas. Which is accepted by Manu that is accepted by

146
Śukra also. There is no other ‘nīti’ in the three world like
147
Śukranīti.

The Nītiprakāśikā :

The Nītiprakāśikā is ascribed to Vaiśampāyana, the

disciples of Vyāsa and the narrator of the Mahābhārata and the

Harivamśa. It is a work on science of polity, and contains eight

chapters. Many points of these Nītiprakāśikā bear similarities

with the Rāmāyana, mainly first two kāndas of the Rāmāyana,

and also with the Mahābhārata and the Harivamsa. The

Nītiprakāśikā contains some passages which is found in the works

on law and polity of the Mānavadharma Śāstra and the

Kāmandakīya Nītisāra.

Vaiśampāyana includes the ‘Dhanurveda’ as the chief part

of the Nītiprakāśikā. The Dhanurveda is the Upaveda connected

with the Yajurveda, and narrated it to Janmejaya, Son of king

Pariksita.

146. ibid. IV. 1241

147. ibid. IV. 1243
 65

Vaiśampāyana narrated the Mahābhārata and the

Harivamśa to Janmejya. The style and language of this treatise is

similar to the Mahābhārata and the Harivamśa.

The Nītiprakāśikā contains eight chapters or cantos. In the

first chapter it is stated that the sage Vaiśampāyana visits the king

Janmejaya at Taksasīlā, and after completion of the general

greetings the sage and the king adjourned to the council room.

Therein Janmejaya complained Vaiśampāyana about the

148
depravity of the times .

In the age of Kali, righteousness, truth, purity, patience and

pity are disappeared, and wealth is more highly appreciated than

noble birth, noble deeds, and virtue. The gratification of animal

passions has taken the place of legitimate marriage, the mere

wearing of the thread constitutes a person a Brāhman; the

religious position of a man is only defind by external signs; the

poor men is despised , though he be good. Abstaining from a bad

deed is esteemed a good action; bathing is deemed sufficient for

purification; taking a women is regarded marriage; beauty

148. NP. I. 11-18

 66

consists in wearing hair on the head. Filling one’s stomach is the

principal object in life; good actions are done for the sake of

glorification; ability is only displayed in the keeping up of one’s

family, and rude behaviour passes for truthfulness. All castes are

like Śūdras, as cow’s are like goats, religion abounds with heresy,

and kings behave like thieves. In such situations, how men may

be taught the rules of polity as well as the secrets of the

Dhanurveda and the practice of arms. After knowing the wishes

of Janmejaya, Vaiśampāyana relates him about the rājaśāstra

composed by Brahmā. He says,- Brahmā, Rudra, Subrahmanya,

Indra, Manu, Brhaspati, Śukra, Bharadvāja, Gauraśiras and Vyāsa

had respectively written 1,000,00; 50,000 ; 12,000; 6,000; 3,000;

149
1,000; 700; 500 and 300 chapters on polity. He further told him

about Prthu (son of Vena), how he protects his subjects, and his

subjects called him Ksatriya as he had saved them from

destruction.Thus we find about the definition of Ksatriya. cf.,

ksatatrānāt prajāstan tu ksatriyan cā bruvanstatha //

NP. I.30

149. ibid. I. 20-28

 67

150
and afterwards he is called rājā , because he loves his subjects.

The Dhanurveda is created by Brahmā to control wicked

people and it is given to Prthu by fate. Dhanuraveda protects his

subjects like father protects sons. Here, described about the nature

of peace and war, six political principles, viz, ( Sandhi, Vigraha,

Yāna, Āsana, Dvaidhībhāva and Samśraya), possessing the six

royal qualities (eloquence, fearlessness, wise, retentive memory,

well versed in polity and gifted with originality), the seven state

requisites, and consider all the fourteen faults, spies, and if the

enemy is very weak than quickly attack with the three fold
151
power, (king, minister and warlike enterprize), at the correct

time a king should start the march. All these are found in the

chapter one.

The second chapter deals with the description of the

152
Dhanurveda, i.e. different classes of weapons. The weapons are

divided into four classes according to their nature.

150. namāpi tasya rājeti prajārāgādajāyata /

ibid. I .31
151. Accrding to Sitaram commentary , the threefold power:
mantrakośabhrtyah, or of Prabhumantrotsāhah.
152. NP. II. 1-4
 68

Those are , viz, (1) mukta, (2) amukta, (3) muktāmukta and (4)

mantramukta. The weapons which can be thrown is called mukta,

such as arrows. Amuktas are those which are not thrown, e.g.

sword, mace etc; Muktāmukta are those which are thrown and not

thrown, e.g. cakra etc. and the Mantramukta are those which are
153
thrown by spells. Twelve arms are included in the Mukta
154
class, there are twenty varities of arms in amukta class of the
155
Dhanurveda . The muktāmukta weapon is divided into

‘Sopasamhāra’ and ‘Upasamhāra’. And this Sopasamhāra weapon

156
is consisted of 44 specimens, and Upasamhāra in 55 specimens.

The last class mantramukta is divided into six kinds, these are

very powerful and irresistible. These are resided in the fourth foot

of the Dhanurveda.

The third chapter deals with the origin of the sword and

devoted to this subject.

The fourth and fifth chapters are deal with the weapons to

153. ibid. II. 11-13

154. ibid. II. 17-18
155. ibid. II. 19-20
156. ibid . II 22-28
 69

the first two classes and fifth chapter enumerates the terrible

weapons, used in the wars during the kaliyuga, especially are

mentioned machines made of mental, stone and othermaterials

which throw balls on the enemy, big rocks, saws, smoke-balls,

burning husk- coals, hot sand, boiling oil, melting sugar treacle,

resin of the Śāl-tree, post filled with honey and poisonous

serpents, and other like preparations.

With respect to the balls mentioned above some verses in

the Atharvanaveda appear to support the existance of leaden balls.

Lead is there mentioned as the metal with which the Rāksasa are

to be destroyed, and as weapons made of lead alone, or of which

lead forms the principal ingredient, do hardly exist- as lead is by

far too soft and does not recommend itself for being made use of

in spikes, spears, and C.- the supposition that by lead leaden balls

are meant seems very probable. The verse run as follows: Varuna

blessed the lead; Agni is ford of the lead; Indra gave me the lead;

it is, O friend, the destroyer of the Rāksasas… If thou killest our

cow, horse or servent, we shall pierce thee with lead, that thou
 70

157
mayest not kill weak creatures. The sixth chapter describes

about the army, the arrangement of troops, disposition of men,

review of army, war, elephants, domestic elephants, followers of

king and commissariat kept behind apart, Arsenal for guns, what

persons should be sent infront of the army, the retinue of kings,

place of refuge, when to take revenge, marching, sentinels rounds,

Artisans and others to accompany the army, what places to be

avoided during marching, Encampments, soldiers be drilled for

general duty, use of elephants, chariots, cavalry, country suitable

for infantry, country suitable for cavalary, chariots and elephants,

qualification of commander- in- chief, daily watch words , police,

seniority, punishment of transgressors, appointment of three

generals, change of cantonments, Minister, King to stand in the

place of danger, reserve crops, without ensigns, reward of

meritorious deeds, scale of rewards, troops to be fed while on

march, extra expenses of soldiers, division of booty, soldiers to be

157. sīsmayādhyāha varunah sīsāyāgnirupāvati /

sīsan ma indrah prāyachattadanga yātucātanan //
yadi no gan hansi yadyaśvam yadipurusam /
tan tvā sīsena vidhyāmo yathā noa’sa avīrahā //
Ath.V. I. 16, 2 and 4 : quote in the NP, Gustav oppert,
Kumar brothers. 1970. pp-14-15.
 71

armed at king’s expense, pensions and double wages.

In the seventh chapter, the strength of the nine different

divisions of an army are discussed, these are namely, patti,

senāmukha, gulma, gana, vāhinī, prtanā, camū, anīkinī and

aksauhinī.

The last and the eighth chapter deals with the Rājadharma

in general, and kings duty in particular. A kings duty in the

government and administration of his Kingdom are dealt with.

Many verses of these chapters are found in the Manusmrti, book

(VII). In the first verse of the eighth chapter, Rājadharma is called

158
‘Sanātana’ because it gives pleasure to his subjects.

IV. Rājadharma in Smrti Literature :

Apart from the technical works on Nītiśāstra there are

certain works dealing with the subject of Rājadharma in Sanskrit

literature. For example, Smrti literature like Manusmrti,

Yājnavalkyasmrti, Nāradasmrti, Brhaspatismrti and

Parāśarasmrti etc. Few paurānic works also contain the subject

158. lokaranjanamevātra rājno dharmah sanātanah //

NP. 8.1.
 72

in brief . A brief sketch is of these works are furnishes below:

The Manusmrti : ( 200 BC- 100 A.D.)

The Manusmrti is said to be composed by the sage

Sāyambhūva Manu and it contains twelve chapters. The another

name of this smrti is ‘Mānavadharmaśāstra’.The Manusmrti

enumerates the all castes and discusses the functions of different

yugas, i.e. (Yogadharma). This Smrti is said to be composed for

all men in the world. It deals with the different duties of different

castes (Four castes). In it ‘dharma’ is said to have four legs.

According to Medhātithi (commentator of MS.) dharma is divided

into four parts. The ‘dharma’ of Krta age is ‘Penance’; of Treta

age is ‘ Knowledge’ of Dvāpara age is Yajna ( sacrifice) and the

159
Kaliyugas dharma is gift (dāna) . In the Manusmrti, dharmas

of four castes or the varnadharmas are discussed. According to

Varnadharma, teaching and learning, penance and sacrifice and

donation are the dharma of Brāhmanas; Protection of subjects,

gift, sacrifice, knowledge and self restrained are the dharma of

159. MS. Introduction IV ( P. Sri Jagannathsastritailanga.

Pub Bharatiya vidya prakasan, 2002)
 73

Ksatriyas; Mārchandise, protection of animals, gift, knowledge

and sacrifice are of the Vaiśyas dharma and Śūdras dharma is

hospitality of three Varnas. Among the twelve chapters of the

Manusmrti, the seven chapter deals with the duties and

responsiblity of a king, i.e. rājadharma. In this chapter Manu says

that, protection of the subjects are the main duty of ksatriya and

ksatriya only can bear the responsibility of whole kingdom.

Because, the king is regarded as a deity in human form, who

possesses the powers of different gods like Indra, Varuna, Anila,

160
Yama, Surya, Agni, Chandra and Kuvera. For the well

protection of the subjects Lord Brahmā created sceptre (royal

danda). By this royal Danda a king should punish the wicked and

protect the righteous person. A king should always study the

Vedas, and other treatises, Śāstras etc. And also he should have

the knowledge of the science of Politics. Here discussions about

the four Vidyās (Trayī, Dandanīti, Ānvīksikī and Vārtā) are

161
found.

160. indrānilayamārakānāmagneścha varunaśya cha /

chandravitteśayoschaiva mātrā nirhrtya śāśvatīh // MS. VII.4
161. ibid. VII. 43
 74

For consultation a king should appoint seven or eight ‘mantra-

162
saciva’, and also other ministers ‘Kāryasaciva’ for maintaining

the state-duties. A brave person should be appointed for

163
protecting the treasury. The seven elements of a state is also

found here. Messengers and spies are the essentials of a king. A

king should construct the suitable palace and fortress. Waging

war also the main duty of a king. A king should always try for

acquisition, protection, growth and donation. Foreign policy, Inter

state relation, six gunas, twelve rājamandalas, four upāyas

(sāma, dāna, bheda and danda) etc, all are described in seventh

chapter.

In fact Manus rājadharma is similar with that of the

Mahābhārata.

The Yājnavalkya smrti : (100A.D.- 300 A.D.)

The Yājnavalkya Smrti, is composed by the sage

Yājnavalkya. It consists of three chapters and these chapters are

divided into various Prakaranas. The name of the first chapter is

‘Ācārādhyāyah’ and last prakarana of the first chapter is known

162. ibid. VII. 54-59

163. MS. VII 60-62
 75

as ‘rājadharma’.

In the first verse of the first chapter of ‘ Ācārādhyāyah’,

Yājnavalkya said, that the ‘dharma’ is consisted of ‘ Varnāśrama,

these are viz.,Varna dharma, Āśrama dharma, Varnāśrama

dharma, Guna dharmah, Nimitta dharmah and Sādhārana

dharma.The rājadharma is included in gunadharma.

In the ‘rājadharma prakarana’, rājadharma is described as

special duty of a coronated king. In this chapter, the various

qualities, characteristics, duties, knowledges of a king are clearly

depicted. In one place of this chapter it is said that, the king

should try for acquisition what is not acquired, try to protect what

is acquired and try to increase what is protected and lastly should

164
make donation to vrddhāh. Six kinds of dūrgas are to be

constructed by kings for the protection of the state and

165
preservation of wealth. The six gunas for inter state relations,

four upāyas, seven elements of the state, three kinds of envoys,

different kinds of danda- all are depicted in this prakarana.

164. Yāj.S. I. 13. 317

165. ibid. I 13. 321
 76

The Nāradasmrti : ( 100 A.D. - 400 A.D.)

The Nāradasmrti also contains discussion on Rājadharma.

166
According to Manu, Nārada is one of the ten primeval

Prajāpatis. In various places of the Mahābhārata,Nārada’s views

are found. In the Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata, sage Nārada

comforted Yudhisthira, when he was doomed in sorrow for

loosing his relatives and warriors in the war of Kuruksetra.

The Nāradasmrti contains three introductory chapters on

the principles of judicial procedure (Vyavahāra- mātrkā), and on

judicial assembly ( Sabhā) and law. Here, Nārada had given two

versions on Vyavahāra, one is smaller and another is larger.

This Smrti has followed the views of Manu and the

arrangement of eighteen titles. There are about 50 verses that are

common to Manu and Nārada. Some verses of the Nārada occurs

in the Mahābhārata. The rules of judicial procedure in Nārada are

more systematic and exhaustive than those of Yājnavalkya.

Nārada expressed certain principles of law and politics,

such as that a man is master of his own house, on the other hand,
167
a man’s house is his castle .
166. MS. I. 35
167. NS. rnādāna. 32
 77

He stronglry eulogises the office of the king, almost assigning it

to a divine origin and exhorts the people to obey and honour even
168
a weak and undeserving king.

Though this Smrti contains few points on rājadharma such

as dealing with the duties of the king’s and subjects; yet its view

are something different from the Mahābhārata and other works.

Here, it is found that the king should hand over his kingdom to

the eldest son after providing maintainance to other sons if he has

many.

The Brhaspati Smrti :

The period of the Brhaspati Smrti is held to be 300A.D. -

500 A.D. Brhaspati was a Sutra writer on politics and probably

the first jurist. The Smrti of Brhaspati on law has not yet been

discovered. Hence, various author had given different views on

this Smrti. Dr. Fuhrer collected together 84 verses and Dr. Jally

collected about 711 verses of Brhaspati on law ( Translated in the

sacred Books of the East, vol-33). In the Mahābhārata, it is stated

168. rājeti sancaratyesa bhūmau sāksāt sahasradrk /

na tasyājnāmatikramya santistheran prajāh kvacit //
…nirbalapi yathā strīnān pujya eva patih sadā /
prajānān vigunopyevan pūjya eva prajāpatih // NS. 20-22
and quoted in Kane, P. V. History in Dharmaśāstra. Vol-I. p.-474.
 78

that, Brhaspati is said to have compressed into 3000 (three

thoudsand) chapters of Brahmās Nītiśāstra on dharma, artha and

169
kāma. This treatise is called Brhaspati-nīti in Vanaparva ( Mbh.

II. 32.61). The Mahābhārata sometimes cites verses ( gāthās or

slokas ) said to have been sung by Brhaspati ( vide Śānti .

23.15,56. 38-39, 57, 6-7, 58. 13-16, 69. 23-24). In the Śāntiparva,

Brhaspaties views are mentioned that, how a king could secure his
170
goal in four ways.

According to the Arthaśāstra, there were two vidyās for

kings of Brhaspaties school, and these are viz., vārtā and

dandanīti. Here, it is found that the council of ministers should

comprise 16(sixteen) members. The Kāmanadaka and

Pancatantra describe the views of Brhaspati that, ‘aviśvāsa’ was

the sheet anchor of royal policy ( II.41).

According to Yājnavalkya, Brhaspati is the writer of

dharma, and politics, Brhaspati also closely follows the extant

. .

169. Mbh. XII 59.80-85

170. caturvidhā arthasiddhirbrhaspatimeva yathā /
pāramparyam tathā daivam kāmyam maitramiti prabho //
Mbh. XII. 170.12
 79

Manusmrti. As a jurist Brhaspati makes a clear distinction

between civil and criminal justice. Sometimes, we have seen

Nārada and Brhaspati agree very closely in several respects.

The Parāśara Smrti:

The Parāśara Smrti is one of the ancient Smrti composed

171
by the sage Parāśara. In the Rgveda, Parāśara is mentioned as a

grandson of Vaśistha.

The Smrti of Parāśara is divided into twelve chapters and

deals with ācāra and prāyaścitta. Here, it is found that Ksatriyas

(king) duty is the protection of subjects. And a king should

172
conquer his enemies and rule his kingdom righteously . The

sage Parāśara includes ‘vyavahāra’ as a part of ācāra.

In the introductory verses of this Smrti, Parāśara imparts to

the sages knowledge of dharma; the dharmas of the four yugas;

differentiation of the four yugas from various points of view. In

Vyavahāra portion Parāśara states about politics and state

administration. Kautilya also mentions the view of Parāśara six

171. Rg .VII. 18.21

172. ksatriyo hi prajā raksan śastrapāni pracandavat /
vijitya parasainyani ksitin dharmena pālayet //
PS. Ch. I .p.6 Bobeu skt series.
 80

times, hence it appears that there was a work of Parāśara on

Politics.173

V. Rājadharma in the epic literature (Epics and

Purānas) :

We Indians have two great epics, one is the Rāmāyana and

another is the Mahābhārata. The Rāmāyana is called ‘ Ādikāvya’

‘or first artificial poem’ written by Ādikavi Vālmiki. It consists of

24,000 verses divided into seven kāndas viz (i) Vālakānda

(ii)Ayodhyākānda (iii)Aranyakānda (iv) KiskindhāKānda

(v)SundaraKānda (vi) LankāKānda and (vii) UttarāKānda. This

epic is the spirit of all śāstras, nyāyas, mimānsās, dharmaśāstra,

nītiśāstra, ganitaśāstra, monovijnāna, rājanīti etc. It deals with

the conflict between Rāma (a representative of the Aryan

civilization) and Rāvana, (a representative of Lankā the non-

Aryan civilization).

During the epic period the government system was

monarchy as well as republic. Under the monarchial system all

the powers of government goes to the king but he was not

173. Quoted from Kane. P. V., ‘ History of Dharmaśāstra’ Vol-I. p.46

 81

autocrat. The king rules according to the principles of justice and

morality. For any important decision a king takes advices from his

wise and learned ministers. In the Rāmāyana, the king Daśaratha

discussed with his subjects for making Rāma as the Yuvarāja.

174
Even the Rāvana has full of knowledge on nīti, he also takes

advice from ministers and learned ones for making a good task. In

the age of the Rāmāyana, people wanted a righteous king but not

a wicked one. If a king troubled his subjects then they could kill

him as a mad dog. Therefore, a king should always try to protect

his subjects righteously.

Among the seven kāndas of the Rāmāyana, the

Ayodhyākānda, deals with the duties of a king i.e., rājadharma.

Here, Rāma has given such advices on rājanīti or rājadharma to

Bharata, when (Rāma) he was in exile and Bharata went to meet

him.

In this kānda it is mentioned that, as a ruler a king should

respect the elders, and appoint such persons as mantrī who is

good, intelligent, restraint , born in a good family etc. The kings

174. Rāmā. 6.6.

 82

duty is not only to protect his subjects but also should protect all

creatures in the world. cf.,

raksā hi rājnā dharmena sarve visayavāsinah

Rāmā. 2.100.48

Mantranā is the root of victory so, a king should make

175
counsel with best ministers and amātyas who are master in nīti.

A king should never publish his mantranā. One learned is better

than thousand fool so, a king should appoint a learned as amātya.

A king should divide his works into three classes, viz., uttama,

madhyama and adhama, and accordingly he selects his assistant

as uttama, madhyama and adhama. A king should earn many but

spend little and he never donates to bad place. In the Lankā Kānda

of the Rāmāyana, we find three kinds of mantranā viz., (uttama,

176
madhyama and adhama) like three kinds of persons .
177
The Ayodhyākānda states that, a king should give up

some bad qualities; these are namely, fourteen vyasanas of

rājanīti, daśavarga (Kāmajadosa), astavarga etc. Again he should

175. Rāmā. 2.100.16

176. yatheme purusā nityamuttamādhama- madhymāh /
evan mantroa’pi vijneya uttamādhama-madhyamāh //
Rāmā. 6.6.11.
177. ibid. 2.100.65-67
 83

make pancavarga (Pancadurga), saptavarga (seven-elements),

knowledge of trivarga and trividyā (veda, vārtā, dandanīti)

caturvarga ( sāma, dāna, bheda and danda) and twelve kinds of

rājamandala.

Here, we find that a king should always maintain his

armies. Punishment is necessary part for protecting of the realm.

Various kinds of taxes were collected from his subjects. For

collection of taxes a king should never troubled his subjects and

he never takes revenue from the Brāhmanas.

In the Aranya Kānda, conversation between Sītā and Rāma

about dharma was held. Again this Kānda, deals with various

kinds of mantranā, mantranā of Śrī Rāmas, various kinds of

war, viz., dandayuddha, rātriyuddha, māyāyuddha , etc. And also

uses of different types of weapons. In the Uttarā Kānda,

discussion on Rājadanda is found.

The another great epic of India is the Mahābhārata . About

the Rājadharma in the Mahābhārata we have already discussed

above. Out of the eighteen parvans of the Mahābhārata,

Śāntiparva, clearly depicted rājadharama and some other parvans

also deal with the duties of king or rājadharma. In the Vanaparva,

 84

different duties of four castes are described. Here we find that, the

duties of the ksatriyas are the protection of subjects,

cf.,

‘ pālanan ksatriyānān vai’ Mbh. III. 150 .35

Purānas : (300 A.D. - 600A.D.)

Some of the extant Purānas, are held to be much earlier

than the 6th century A.D. Etymolgically, Purāna means, “ that

178
which lives from ancient times,” and “containing record of past

events’’179. Originally Purāna signified ‘ancient tale’ or ‘old

narratives’ in the Brāhmana literature.

The Purānas do not speak with one voice on their own

180
origin and transmission. In the Matsya Purāna, it is said that

Vyāsa composed the all Purānas and this same Vyāsa composed

the Mahābhārata also.

In the fifth cetury A.D. Amarasimha described Purānas as

Pancalaksana i.e. having five characteristics, which are viz, Sarga

178. yasmātpurā hyanatīddan purānam tena hi smrtam /

niroktamasya yo veda sarvapāpaih promucyate //
Vā.P. I. 209
179. purātanasya kalpasya purānāni vidurbudhāh.. MP. 53.63
180. MP. 53. 70
 85

(creation), Pratisarga (dissolution and recreation), Vamśa (divine

genealogies), Manvantra (ages of Manus) and Vamśānucarita

(genealogies of kings).

According to traditional view, Purānas are divided into

eighteen Mahāpurānas and eighteen Upapurānas. The list of the

Mahāpurānas are viz, Brahma, Padma, Visnu, Vāyu, Bhāgavata,

Nāradīya, Mārkandeya, Agni, Bhavisya, Brahmavaivarta, Varāha,

Linga, Skanda, Vāmana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and

181
Brahmānda.

It is already discussed that, some Dharmaśāstras dealt with

the duties of king regarding the internal administration as well as

foreign affairs. Some Purānas such as the Matsya, the Visnu, the

Vāyu and the Bhavisya contain Dharmaśāstra materials and the

Garuda Purāna and the Agni Purāna contain several hundred

verses which usually summarise the views of the Yājnavalkya

Smrti or Smrtis view.

In numerous passages of the Mahābhārata mentions of the

Purāna in the singular form is found such as in Ādi. 5, 2, 31.3-4,

181. madvayam bhadvayam caiva bratrayan vacatustayam /

nālingānipurānāni ku skan gārudameva ca //
De.Bh. I. 3
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51.6, 65.52; Udyoga.178.47-48; Karna.34.44; Śānti, 208,5;

Anuśāsana. 22.12, 102.21etc., and sometimes the Purānas in the

Plural number ( as in the Ādi.109.20; Virāta 51.10; Strīparva.

13.2; Śānti.339. 106, Svargārohana. 5.46-47 ( which refers to the

182
Purānas as eighteen). So far as rājadharma is concerned, few

Purānas alone deal with the subject.

The VisnuPurāna divided into sixparts and begins with a

dialogue between Parāśara and his pupil Maitreya. The

183
VisnuPurāna states that, the principal duty of the Ksatriya’s is

the protection of all subjects by his arms. The king should

perform some sacrifices for the well being of his subjects. The

king should punish the guilty and reward the good, otherwise he

goes to hell. Again it is stated that, a state without a king is

anarchy.

In the Vāyu Purāna, duty of four castes are well discussed.

Here it is mentioned that, protection of others was the chief duty

182. mahatvādbhāravatvācca mahābhāratamucyate / …

astādaśa purānāni dharmaśāstrāni sarvaśah /
vedāh sāngāstathaikatra bhāratan caikatah sthitam //
Sargārohana. 5.45-46
183. Visnu. P. III 8.21-40
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184
of ksatriyas. Lord Brahmā expressed that, a king should do

these duties also, viz., bala (soldiery) danda (government) and

war.

About the kingship, the Vāyu Purāna states that, in the

Tretā age, the state was established by dharma. The four varnas

worked in perfect social harmoney. But in later time delusion is

come to the mind of the people and dharma is automatically

destroyed. Then people again approached the prajāpati

Svāyambhuva Manu. Then two sons were born from Śatarūpā,

viz., Priyavrata and Uttānapāda. They were designated as the first

kings. From this time onwards the kings were the beares of the

royal danda ( sceptre) and as they pleased their subjects, they are
185
known as rājānah.

According to the Purānic lore, the Cakravarty Kings are

186
born on this earth possessing portion of Visnu’s personality .

The king Māndhātā was also said to have bore the corpus of

. .

184. Vā.P. 8. 162

185. tatah prabhrti rājāna utpannā dandadhārinah /
prajānām ranjanāt caiva rājānastu abhavan nrpāh //
Vā.P. 57.51
186. visnor amśena jāyante prthivyām cakravartinah /
manvantaresu sarvesu atītān āgatesu vai // Vā.P. 57.72
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Visnu. It is also stated that the sage Uttanka complemented

Brhadāśva that he possessed the lusture of Visnu. And when

Kuvalāśva, son of Brhadāśva, proceded to destory Dhundu Lord

Visnu entered his body with all his lustre at the request of
187
Uttanka.

In the Visnupurāna and the Bhāgavata purāna, it is stated

that, the physical sign or Prthus body proved him to be a portion

188
of Visnu. A king is not only the protector of his subjects but

also he is the protector of cattle and agriculture. Side by side

kings duty is to observe the rules of dharma.

In the origin of kingship, it is found that, the king is

connected with danda and danda is the most important part of a

king. The King Dama is called “wielder of danda”. cf.,

‘rājā dandadharo damah’ Vā.P. 86.12

Dandanīti was established for the peace and order. It is

established along with Vārtā.

187. tam āviśat tato visnur bhagavān svena tejasā uttankasya niyogāt tu.
Vā.P. 88.49.
188. vide. p. 334, A History of Indian Political Ideas.
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According to the Vāyupurāna, there is no reference to

election of a king. Hereditary succession was the general rule and

after death of the king his office also devolved on his eldest heir.

That means the rule goes to primogeniture. A king should

performe the Aśvamedha and the Vājapeya sacrifices.

The Bhāgavata Purāna, also deals with some political

passages and it states that, a sinful king should not be disregarded

by the people, or every king embodies the vigour of lokapālas and

189
protectors of the earth . This Purāna also delights in the

delineation of Prthus character. According to this Purāna, the

scepter of dominion and danda of justice can be taken only by

190
those, who are well versed in the Vedas and Śāstras .

The next comes the Mārkandeya Purāna. According to the

Mārkandeya Purāna, as a ruler kings primary duty is to rule

righteously his kingdom and protects and conciliate his subjects.

For protecting of the kingdom a king should abandon the

189. nāvadhyeyah prajāpālah prajābhiraghavānapi //

yadasau lokapālānān bibhartyojah svatejasā //
Bhā. P. 4.13.23.
190. saināpatyan ca rājyan ca dandanetrtvameva ca //
sarvalokādhipatyan ca vedaśāstravidarhati //
ibid. 4.22.45
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seven vices viz, harsh word, heavy punishment, misuse of the

wealth , intoxicant, desire, misuse of time and gambling . A king

should never disclose his secret counsel and examine his ministers

or friends whether they are reliable or not. So, he never confide in

friends, ministers or relatives. But sometimes he should trust even

in an unfriendly person. A king should have the knowledge of

battle and peace. He should first subdue himself, and then his

ministers, relatives, assistance and afterwards his publics and after

he goes to fight against his enemies.

The sādgunyas (six qualities) are necessary to be followed

by the king. These are namely, Sandhi (alliance),Vigraha

(war), Yāna (marching), Āsana (encamping), Dvaidhībhāva

(dividing his forces) and Samśraya. A king should give up desire,

anger, greed, intoxication, pride and joy, otherwise he will be

destroyed. In this Purāna, kings are instructed to learn from the

behaviour of the crow, cuckoo and bee of the deer, serpent and
191
peacock, of the goose and cock etc. He should collect his

191. Mā.P. 24.15-20

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essentials in appropriate time and never ignore his enemies. This

Purāna also states that, in governing a state a king should assume

the five forms of five deities like, Indra, the wind, the sun, the

Moon and Yama. Just as Indra nourishes the people on the earth

with showers of water for four months, so should a king nourish

them with largess. Just as the Sun draws up the water with his

rays for eight months, so should a king collect the tolls and other

dues by trulely subtle means. Jast as Yama restrains friend and

foe when the time arrives, so a king should be impartial towards

friend and foe, towards the vicious and virtuous. Jast as by gazing

on the full Moon, a man grows affectionate, so, where the people

are all peaceful, that is the practice he should adopt from the

Moon. Just as the Wind moves mysteriously among all creatures,

so should a king move among the citizens, ministers and others,

and among his relatives by the agency of spies.192

Afterall, protection of all creatures is the highest duty

(Rājadharma) of a king.

Next comes the Agni purāna, which also deals with

192. Mā.P. 27.21-26

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Rājadharma. In the Agni purāna, we find a good discussion about

Rājadharma. This Purāna is consisted of sixteen thousand stanzas

distributed in three hundred and eighty-three chapters. In few

chapters of this Purāna, deal with Rājadharma.

According to this Purāna, the king assumes fuctions of nine

deities,viz, Bhāskara (the Sun), Moon, Samira (Wind), Manu

Vaivaśvata, Pāvaka, Kuvera (god of wealth), Varuna (god of

rain), Prthivī (earth) and Hari. A crowned king along with his

ministers should attemt to conquer his enemies. He should select

some persons of different categories for different functions, these

are namely, commander-in-chief, porters (at the doors of the royal

chambers), ambassador, foreign minister, soldiers, priest, royal

writer (who is experts on the sciences of orthography), royal

treasurer, royal physician, master of fortress, experts of all arms

and weapons and so on and so forth.

In the chapter 220 (two hundred and twenty) it is stated

that, a king should elect the Brāhmana or the Ksatriya caste for

the post of the commander-in-chief of the kingdom. Porters

should be well acquainted with the precepts of morals. For

represent the king at foreign courts a king should appoint the

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ambassador, who has very sharp intellect, sweet-mouthed,

possessing eloquence of speech and well-versed in the arts of

diplomacy. The bearer of the royal betal-vessel may be either a

man or a women fondly attached to the king and he or she also

sweet-mouthed and capable of enduring fatigue. The minister of

war and peace i.e., foreign minister, who understands well the

expedients should be appointed in foreign politics. Foreign

minister should have the knowledge of Sandhi (alliance), Vigraha

(war), Yāna (March or expedition), Āsana (Halt), Samśraya

(secking shelter) and Daidhībhāva (duplicity). Soldiers should be

appointed with armed and sword to guard the king’s person. This

chapter deals with the royal treasurer, royal physician, castles and

fortress also.

The king who aspires to hold a paramount sway over the

whole world, should enter into alliance with kings and nations

who are friendly to him. A king should appoint the virtuous men

for the works of state- revenue. Here it is mentioned that, spies

are the eyes of the king, hence men should be employed in

espionage and secret service. But the king should not trust the

statement of a single spy, so he should collect information from

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different sources. Activeness is the main quality of a king, and the

epithet (Rāja) is derived from the fact of his pleasing the people (

ranja to please).

The chapter 222 (two hundred and twenty two) deals with

the sites and constructions of forts, wherein a king should have

his residence. There are six kinds of forts in the Agni Purāna,viz ,

Dhanu Durga, Mahi Durga, Nara Durga, Aksha Durga, Ambu

Durga, and the Giri Durga. The next chapter deals with the

appointment of headship as of a single, ten or hundred villages

and so on, each of them to be known as the Grāmādhipati;

Dāsha- (ten), Grāma ( village ) Adhipati ( lord). And here also

discussed about taxes. The 225 ( two hundred and twenty five)

chapter of this Purāna deals with the protection of the royal

princes and training in the science of war and the arts of general

utility as well as in the moral sciences. In the 235 (two hundred

and thirty five) chapter description of duties which a king should

attend every day in the year. The 239 (two hundred and thirty

nine) chapter deals with the seven elements of a state. And these

seven elements are viz., the king, the ministry, the government,
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the fortification, the revenue, the forces and the allies are all

auxiliaries to one another.

In the chapter (236) enumeration of the qualification of

ministers, priest etc., are found.

The chapter 240 deals with the twelve rājamandala, and

here it is mentioned that, a king should always contemplate the

balance of power of the twelve monarchs, constituting the circle

of foreign sovereigns having had dealings with his own

government. And also here describes the principles of making

treatise and wars. In the next chapter (241) it is stated that,

Diplomacy should be held as better than the expedient of war and

energetic action. Military administrations are held in the chapter

242. The six divisions of an army are described in this chapter.

These are viz., Moula (the main body or the centre), Bhuta (the

front), shrouni (the rear), the Sruhid (the auxiliary), the Vishad

and the Ātavika (Pioneer).

A king should worship, protects and make gift to the

Brāhmanas, which is essential of their life and never deprive

them. In the Agni Purāna, the elements of state structure, all

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qualities, duties of a king and other officiels, administrative

organization (ministers, civil-judicial and local administration),

revenue system, army and foreign relations are discussed.The

king should punished the unrighteous and honoured the wise.

Again here we find that, a king should protect the royal princes

and instruct them about the science of war and the arts of general

utility and the moral sciences. For dealings with a foreign ruler,

the six expedients (sandhi, vigraha, yāna, āsana, samśraya and

dvaidhībhāva) are necessary to be known for a king. Constituting

the circle of foreign sovereigns a king should deal with this own

governments.

From the above discussions it is found that, rājadharma of

the Purānas are common with that of the Mahābhārata.

The Matsya Purāna also gives the similar view like the

Mahābhārata. It is regarded as one of the three oldest Purānas,

the other two being the Brahmānda and the Vāyu. This Purāna

gives a lively description of various kingdoms of ancient India.

In the chapter of 215 (two hundred and fiftenth) of the

Matsya Purāna, the king, vaivasvata Manu requsted Matsya

(incarnation of Lord Visnu) , to instruct him about, what a king

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should do after ascends his throne. Then, Matsya told that, a king

should first select worthy persons for his assembly and advisors

and helpers. Without these persons a king can not establish his

kingdom e.g., when a simple task cannot succesfully completed

by one person, then how can a state be well administered without

193
assistance or ministers or helpers. A king should select some

persons for different duties. And he should consult his councillors

over a matter sometimes with one ministers and sometimes with

many. The King never disclose about mantranā.

A ruler is the source of well-being of his subjects; under the

kingly protection alone the whole kingdom flourishes; therefore

194
everyone should be guarded by all means. He should be

sometime mild and sometime hard. A king should devoted

himself for his subjects like eight deities as Indra, Surya, Vāya,
195
Yama, Varuna, Moon, Agni and Prthvī.

The 215th chapter of this Purāna deals with the duties of a

193. MP. 215-2-3

194. ibid. 219.33
195. ibid. 226.9.
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king; the next chapter deals with kings servants, and next one

deals how to protect a fort and a city by a king.

The Varāha Purāna, mentions about the monarchs who

tried of worldy prosperity, installed their sons on the throne and

go to the forest for geting salvation. This Purāna stresses on the

honouring brāhmanas by all people.

About the rājadharma, the Garuda Purāna, also states

similar views like the Mahābhārata. According to Sūta, a king

should examine the all things (good and bad). As a trusty and

righteous ruler he should protects his kingdom and always try to

196
conquere his enemies and righteously protects his subjects.

As a gardener does not pluck up all flowers at a time nor

uprooted them, likewise a king should never give troubles and

197
destroy his subjects, when he rules them. For conquering the

enemies a king should apply all his effort, and then he earns many
198
wealth , land, fame, strength and age ( āyu) . Self restraint is the

important quality of a king. He never hurt others. Again it is

196. GP. 1.67.2

197. ibid . 1.67.3
198. ibid. 1.67.6
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mentioned here that, when the Brāhmana use the word ‘om’ then

the state will acquire many wealth.199A king should have the

knowledge of scriptures, otherwise he is compared with blind. cf.,

‘andho hi rājā bhavati yas tu śāstravivarjitah’

GP. 1.67.19

If his own son, servents, ministers and priest all accompany

with the king then it will be easy to conqure the earth.The king

should preserve many weapons in his own fort and for ruin the

enemy he should make sandhi for six month or one year.When he

is full of power then he should proceed alone to fight with his

opponants. For starting any task a king should take advice of the

wise and learned. The king should appoint those persons, who are

perfect in Purusārthas.

199. ‘omkāraśabdo viprāno yena rāstran pravarddate’, ibid. 1.67.15