URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

ANCIENT ROME
The Romans also adapted ideas from the advanced civilizations of the Phoenicians
and the Greeks who had set up colonies in Sicily and Italy.

Etruscans who migrated into Italy from Asia Minor seized Rome about 600 BCE.
During the next 100 years, the Romans absorbed many ideas from the Etruscan alphabet
GEOGRAPHY OF ROME which the Etruscans borrowed from the Greeks. They enjoyed Etruscan styles of art and
worshipped Etruscan gods alongside their own. They also learned Etruscan building
Italy is a boot-shaped peninsula extending into the central Mediterranean Sea. Off the techniques including the arch.
toe of the boot lies the island of Sicily. The sea provided some protection for the early people
of Italy. Later, the Romans used the sea as highway for conquest and trade. Italy is a
ROMAN REPUBLIC
mountainous country. The Alps are mountains situated at the top of the boot. It blocks the
cool winds, giving a region a pleasant climate. However, the Alps give only limited protection
Features of the Roman Government was developed under the Etruscan rule, the
from invaders. The Po River, which fed by the melting snow from Alps, provides water for the
Etruscan were responsible for bringing the first city-states civilization to Italy. A king of
rich farming region of the northern plain. Another mountain range, the Apennines, runs down
Etruscan descent ruled the state; elected to his office by the Latin tribal chieftains. He served
the length of Italy. Most people live in the west. There are also good harbors and long rivers
as high priest, as well as magistrate, and a group of nobles called the Senate, to advise him.
that can be easily navigated by boats.
These high ranking freemen were usually large landowners and were known as patricians or
fathers of the state. In contrast, the small farmers and trade people were known as Plebeians
The city of Rome enjoys many natural advantages due to its good geographic
or common people.
position. Living as they did on higher ground overlooking the Tiber River, the Romans could
watch for enemy attacks, so they could easily defend themselves. Located as they were in
EARLY GOVERNMENT
the center of Italy, the Romans became masters of that peninsula. Situated as they were near
the fertile plain, there are the peninsula’s crops with which they could feed their people.
There were two main classes of people in ancient Rome. The patricians were the
Because early Romans lived near the coast, they found it easy to expand into the
upper class, the nobility, and wealthy landowners. The plebeians were the lower class. It
Mediterranean region and eventually, extended their rule over large parts of Europe, Africa,
included everyone from well-to-do tradesmen all the way to the very poor.
and the Middle East. The Tiber provided food and transportation. The Romans built the port
of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber for ships too large to move up the river.
The patricians controlled the government of the early Republic through the Senate.
The Senate was made up of 300 patricians who served for life. It guided foreign and
EARLY PEOPLE domestic policies. Every year, the Senate chose two consuls or officials from their own class
to administer the laws of Rome. A popular assembly elected by the plebeians approved the
The people who founded Rome were farmers and herders during their early history.
choice of consuls, but has little voice. During their one-year term, consuls directed the
They fought for control of the neighboring areas. Their struggles helped shaped a belief in
government and commanded the army. The consuls had equal power. Each had the right to
duty, discipline, and patriotism.
veto or block an action of the other. In Latin, the word veto means "I forbid."
 URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
In 451 BCE,
In time of crisis, the Senate would appoint a dictator to replace the consuls. A Rome's first written law code was carved into 12 stone tablets that were found in the Forum.
dictator had absolute power but could only hold office for six months. It is called the Law of the Twelve Tables. This law showed the strict separation between the
THE ROMAN ARMY patricians and the plebeians from serving as consuls, entering the Senate, or marrying
patricians.
At first, only the patricians served in the Roman army. But the Republic faced many For the next 200 years, the plebeian won more rights. Marriage between the
enemies including the Etruscans, the neighboring Latins, and the Gauls who lived north of the patricians and plebeians were allowed. Tribunes won the power to veto any government
PO River. After the Gauls burned Rome in 390 BCE, the Senate turned to the plebeians' help. It action that threatened the rights of the plebeians. The Assembly of Tribes gained the right to
required all citizens who owned land including plebeians and patricians to serve in the army. pass laws. Eventually, the plebeians won the right to hold office, including consul. They were
even allowed into the Senate.
Roman soldiers trained in the use of slings, javelins, spears, and swords. Wealthy
Romans provided their own equipment and served without pay while citizens received small THE ROMAN FAMILY
salaries. Roman commanders enforced strict discipline. Such training and discipline Roman
army highly effective. The Romans lived in large extended families. Parents of many children were
rewarded and bachelors were penalized. Large families were guaranteed a steady supply of
The Roman army was divided into legions of about 6,000 soldiers. Each legion was soldiers to fight in wars and of farmers to settle in newly conquered lands.
divided into smaller units that could be moved around briskly.
Under Roman law, the father had absolute power over the entire household. Roman
Between 509 BCE and 133 BCE, Rome conquered many lands. As Rome grew, law gave him the right to sell his son or daughter into slavery.
plebeians who fought in wars demanded more rights. The Senate kept its power and prestige
but the government gradually changed. In practice, Roman fathers were generally fair-minded. Their discipline was strict, but
they were also concerned with the family welfare. Children learned their responsibilities early.
The popular Assembly was composed of the Assembly of Centuries and the Parents stressed the virtues of hard work, courage, and loyalty.
Assembly of Tribes. The Assembly of Centuries was made up of the entire Roman army,
including patricians and plebeians. It passed laws and elected the consuls, who until then had EDUCATION
been chosen by the Senate. It also chose other officials, including the censor who registered
the population for tax and voting purposes. The censor also enforced the moral code. Still, all Wealthy families imported Greek tutors to educate their children. But most fathers
government officials were patricians. supervised their children's education personally. Boys and girls from rich families attended
private schools. Girls often received education as thorough as the boys.
The Assembly of Tribes was made up of plebeians. It elected 10 tribunes to speak
for plebeian interests. At first, tribunes had no official role in government. But when angry Schools emphasized history. Stories of Roman heroes gave children a sense of pride.
plebeians refused to fight for Rome, the Senate accepted the demand for a code of law. Students were also taught practical skills such as reading, writing, and public speaking.
 URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
strengthen the Romans,
WOMEN IN ROMAN SOCIETY
leading them to fortify the city.

In the early part of the Roman republic, women had few rights. They were citizens
Another setback took place when other member of the Latin League revolted. After
and might be called on to testify in court but could not vote or hold public office. Later,
two years of war, Rome defeated its former allies, dissolved the league, and forced each tribe
women gained more rights when new laws gave them control over own property.
to sign a separate treaty. The Romans then turned north and conquered the Etruscans, who
were weak because of repeated attacks by the Gauls.
Roman attitudes towards women differed from those of the Greeks. The Romans did
not restrict women to a separate part of the house. Women could attend the theater and
The only serious rival left to the Romans on the Italian Peninsula were the Hellenistic
could join in public festivals. Women often shared in household decisions and kept the family
Greeks in southern Italy and Sicily. Their city-states were flourishing centers of Greek culture.
accounts.
The Greeks were alarmed at the growing power of Rome. And to help stop the Roman
expansion, they called upon Pyrrhus, a relative of Alexander the Great, an ambitious military
RELIGION
leader from Epirus in northern Greece. In 280 BCE with an army of 25,000 men and 20
elephants, he defeated the Romans in battle. The war elephants, unknown in Italy at the time
The Romans worshipped many gods. Each household had a shrine devoted to the
crushed the enemy forces much like the tanks have done in modern times.
spirits that the Romans believed protect their homes and the fields. Every day, family
gathered to make offerings to Vesta, goddess of the hearth.
Pyrrhus then invited the former members of the Latin League to join forces with him
against Rome but they refused. He made a peace offer to Rome, but it was rejected. Pyrrhus
The romans were fond of public religious festival and games to individual gods and
then launched a second successful attack, but he obtained great losses that he exclaimed,
goddesses. worshipped Janus; the god of beginnings, and Jupiter, an Etruscan God who was
"Another such victory and we are lost." To this day, a costly victory is known as a phyrric
identified with the Greek God Zeus. The Roman goddess Venus was similar to Aphrodite, the
victory
Greek goddess of love, Mars to them is the Greek god Ares, the god of war.

When the third battle failed to force the Romans to make peace, Pyrrhus returned to
ROMAN EXPANSION
Greece. The Romans then quickly conquered the Greek lands on the Italian Peninsula. By 270
BCE1, Rome was master of all central and southern Italy. Full citizenship was given to nearby
After Tarquin and the Etruscans were overthrown in 509 BCE, Rome and other Latin
Latins by the Romans. Other people were not given citizenship but they were allowed to
tribes got together to form a defensive alliance known as Latin League. By the start of 4th
control their own affairs.
century BCE Rome and the league successfully controlled the central Italian peninsula. Later,
setbacks to Roman expansion occurred. The first was the invasion in 390 BCE by the Gauls,
Military roads were built by the Romans like the Appian Way that connects Rome to
who were fierce warriors, who came from what is now known as France and northern Italy.
other Italian cities. This allowed troops to move rapidly and encouraged trade and helped
The Gauls destroyed the Roman army, and almost burned Rome to the ground, and held a
unify the people of Italy. The Roman farmers and soldiers who received land in the new
small group of Romans under siege for seven months. The Gauls left after they were paid a
territories spread Roman customs and the use of Latin, the Roman language.
huge ransom in gold, and damaged the Roman prestige. This defeat from the Gauls served to
 URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
PUNIC remain enemy of
WARS Rome for life.

The conquests made by Rome signaled the rivalry with a city-state on the coast of Hannibal declared war in 219 BCE, by attacking the city of Sagento in Spain. Sagento
North Africa named Carthage. Carthage was founded by Phoenician traders in 814 BCE. From was an ally of Rome. With cavalry, and about 40,000 infantrymen, he crossed through
then on, it grew into a large trading empire stretching across North Africa and into Spain. southern Gaul and crossed over the Alps into Italy.

When Rome conquered the Greek cities of Southern Italy, it inherited the rivalry Hannibal lost about half of his men, much of his equipment, and almost all of his
between the Greek cities and Carthage over trade. Later on, Rome and Carthage became elephants. Hannibal's opportunity came at Cannae in southern Italy on 216 BCE. He encircled
suspicious of each other. The struggle for the control of western Mediterranean became the Romans and wiped out a force. He was stopped from inflicting mortal blow upon Rome.
inevitable. Between 264 BCE and 146 BCE, Rome and Carthage fought three wars called He dared not lay siege to Rome without reserves of manpower and supplies. Romans and
Punic Wars. "Punic" comes from the Latin word Punicus, which means " Phoenicians." their allies controlled the seas so Hannibal was cut off from his resources.

The Punic War broke out in 264 BCE, and it was centered on the control on a Under the leadership of Scipio the Elder, a general believed to be Hannibal's match in
Carthaginian settlement on the northeastern tip of Sicily. The Carthaginians feared that once terms of military strategy, Roman forces invaded North Africa. Hannibal was forced to return
the Romans had conquered the Greek cities of southern Italy, they would move to control home to defend Carthage. At Zama in 202 BCE, Hannibal was defeated and fled to the east to
Sicily as well. The Romans on the other hand, were concerned that Carthage's strong navy save his life. The peace terms dictated by the Romans were harsh. Carthage gave up its navy,
could use the Strait of Messina as a short bridge from Sicily into the Italian Peninsula. lost its freedom in foreign affairs, paid annual tribute to Rome, and surrendered Spain. But
still, Rome was still afraid that Carthaginian power would grow once again.
Carthage, which was rich in gold, manpower, and ships, was at a vantage position
while the Romans; with a strong navy were not a seafaring people. The Romans realized that 3rd Punic War. Over the next 50 years, true to the Roman suspicion, Carthage slowly
to defeat Carthage, they should destroy its navy. With strong determination, the Romans built regained its power. Roman resentment of this growing strength reached a peak in 149 BCE,
up a navy. In a series of naval battles, several Roman fleets were destroyed, but finally in 241 Rome sent an ultimatum to Carthage demanding that Carthaginians abandon their city and
BCE, the Romans defeated the Carthaginians. settle away from the coast. The Carthaginians refused.

Sicily became the first Roman province and was made to pay an annual tribute of Rome attacked Carthage and laid siege (pinalibutan) to the city, an act that kept food
gram to Rome. Later, the islands of Sardinia and Corsica were conquered and made into a from coming to Carthage that led to widespread starvation. When finally the Romans entered
single province. Roman power was not only restricted to the Italian Peninsula, but was made Carthage, (10 days) they burned the city to the ground and was said to have destroyed the
supreme in the western Mediterranean, fertility of the soil by throwing salt into the fields. In 146 BCE, the third Punic War ended. The
few who survived were sold into slavery, and the Carthaginian lands in North Africa became
The second Punic War took place 22 years after the first Punic War ended. It was a the Roman province of Africa.
conflict between Rome and Hannibal. Hannibal was a young ambitious Carthaginian general
who is a military genius. According to stories, he had sworn to his father, another general, to THE RISE OF JULIUS CAESAR
 URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
Gaius was
By 100 BCE, Rome controlled almost every land that bordered the Mediterranean, elected ten years later and worked of his brother’s reforms. He was able to pass a bill, and
which the Romans called Mare Notrum – “Our Sea.” the wealthy were alarmed. Many of Gaius supporters were attacked. Gaius himself
committed suicide.
As Rome became increasingly involved in foreign affairs, the Senate grew in power
and prestige by conducting state negotiations. Political power had become concentrated in Rome then was the scene of bitter rivalry by the supporters of the plebeians and the
the Senate, and the tribunes had become pawns of the senators. Corruption in government patricians. The country was divided by violence and civil war.
increased, particularly in the provinces, where officials often used make themselves rich.
A strong supporter of the senate by the name of Sulla, an able general, restored
In addition to politics, the wars also hurt farming in the Italian Peninsula. The small order. As a dictator appointed by the Senate, he increased the size of the ruling council. He
landowners of the republic saw their lands devastated by Hannibal's army or left unattended made changes, thus, removing the many benefits of the plebeians. Peace was attained in the
because of frequent calls in military service. Added to these problems are the large supplies republic during his term and in 79 BCE, Sulla died. The changes he made did not last though.
of cheap grains coming in from Sicily.
JULIUS CAESAR BECAME A DICTATOR OF ROME
Many landowners who found that they could not compete in the market moved to
Rome in search of jobs. However, jobs were scarce. The rich landowners in Rome were using Julius Caesar rose into power during the time a popular general used his military
slaves who had been captured in wars to work in their land. An unhappy people, thus, strength to gain political power.
developed in the city.
Out of a long struggle arose a triumvirate who combined their efforts to control
On the other hand, the riches of war pouring in to Rome made some people wealthy. Roman politics. The first triumvirate was formed in 60 BCE and was made up of the military
Wealthy landowners who had plentiful slave laborers were encouraged to buy more land. men — Pompey, a wealthy Roman; Crassus, the shrewd politician; and Julius Caesar, a
Many stopped growing grain and shifted to the profitable production of olive oil and wine. brilliant general. After a successful military career in the Iberian Peninsula, Julius Caesar
This new wealth changed Roman attitudes toward the state. The tradition of public duty and joined with Pompey, another military hero and Crassus, one of the wealthiest man in Rome.
self- discipline gradually gave way to greed and soft living.
From 58 to 51 BCE, Julius Caesar undertook the conquest of Gaul. After a series of
Two brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, from a prominent family came to support the brilliant campaigns, Caesar defeated the Gauls. The land a Roman territory. Caesar expanded
dissatisfied masses. Tiberius was elected tribune who believed that the decline of Roman the province to include all territories from the Rhine (Europe) to the Atlantic and from the
character could be stopped if the small landowner were restored its old strength. Mediterranean to the North Sea. The victories and growing popularity of Caesar merited him
a triumph. The Senate, fearing his growing power, ordered him to return to Rome without his
To realize this, Tiberius proposed a law that would divide the farmlands gained in war army. Caesar knew that to obey meant imprisonment or death, and the end of his career.
among the out-of-work farmers. He also wanted to make it against the law for any person to However, to defy such order meant civil war.
own more than a certain amount of land. A group of rich men had Tiberius murdered.
 URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
Pompey and most of the Senators fled to Greece fearing Caesar and his legion.
Julius Caesar had made his grand-nephew and adapted son, Octavian, his heir even
Meanwhile, Caesar easily conquered Italy, crushed his enemies in Spain and then pursued
before his death. The 18-year old Octavian joined with Mark Anthony, Caesar’s chief
Pompey in Greece. The two met in the Battle of Pharsalia in 48 BCE, where Caesar won a
lieutenant, to restore order in Rome after Caesar's death and to punish the murderers. They
decisive victory. Pompey met his death in Egypt.
attacked Brutus and his fellow conspirators, defeating them in the battle of Philippi which
took place in 42 BCE.
From Egypt, Caesar proceeded to Asia Minor where he easily put down a revolt. In
three words, he made his report to Rome: "Veni, Vidi, Vici," which means "I came, I saw, I
Octavian and Anthony shared absolute power in the republic for the next ten years.
conquered." Upon his return to Rome, he was declared a dictator.
Octavian ruled Rome and the western part of the empire while Anthony ruled Egypt and the
eastern part. During the time, Octavian was shrewdly increasing his power in Rome, while
On January 10, 49 BCE, Caesar together with his army, crossed the Rubicon River, the
Anthony had fallen in love with Cleopatra, the ambitious queen of Egypt. When word reached
southern boundary of Caesar's province into the northern part of the Italian Peninsula. By
Rome that Anthony had given Roman territory to Cleopatra and was plotting to seize the
defying the Senate's order to come alone, Caesar in effect declared war on his former ally;
whole empire, Octavian persuaded the Romans to declare war on Egypt.
Pompey and the Senate. Today, the expression "crossing the Rubicon" means taking a step
towards a course of action. And Caesar’s action was war.
In the battle of Actium on the western coast of Greece on 31 BCE, Octavian's fleet
clashed with that of Anthony and Cleopatra. When Cleopatra fled the battle, Anthony deserted
CAESAR AS A DICTATOR
his men and followed her to Egypt. When Octavian landed in Egypt in the following year, both
Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide after failing to rally support against Octavian.
Caesar was great in war and far greater in peace. He was compassionate to his
Soon, Egypt became a Roman province.
enemies and pardoned all those who had fought against him. While he ruled as a dictator, he
ruled justly and wisely. The Senate gave him an honor, a dictator for life. He admitted into the
Octavian returned to Rome and proclaimed that he would restore the government to
Senate the common people. He passed laws to give relief to debtors. He settled the
a republic. Although he was careful to observe the forms of republican government, he still
unemployed in Roman colonies where they could easily support themselves. He revised the
kept the final power in his hands. He was called imperator, a term from which the word
system of taxation and land laws. These reforms were to strengthen Rome and Caesar's
"emperor" comes. In 27 BCE, the Senate gave Octavian the honorary title Augustus, a title
power. Roman citizenship was extended to persons living outside Italy, an action that helped
previously reserved for the gods meaning "the Majestic." After a century of civil war, Rome, at
to unite the Roman territory.
last, had been under one ruler. With Augustus, the Roman Empire began.
THE EMPIRE LASTED FOR MANY CENTURIES
He increased the pay of the soldiers and he even introduced a calendar based on
Egypt's ancient calendar called the Julian Calendar. With minor changes, it is still used today.
The Roman Empire extended east to the Euphrates River and west to the Atlantic
Ocean, north to the Rhine and Danube rivers, and south across the Mediterranean to the
A group of Senators led by Brutus and Cassius plotted his assassination. On March
Saharan desert during the reign of Augustus.
15, 44 BCE, a day known to the Romans as the "Ides of March," (75 th day of roman calendar)
the plotters surrounded Caesar on the floor of the Senate building and killed him.
PAX ROMANA
 URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
Tiberius was
The first two centuries of the empire were peaceful and prosperous. This period from followed by three other Julian Emperors. Caligula was a good king for the first few months of
27 BCE to 180 CE, is known as Pax Romana or Roman Peace. Business grew as conditions his reign. However, after an illness, he became bloodthirsty and slew many Romans.
for trade improved. Pirates and bandits were hunted down and roads and sea lanes were Eventually he was assassinated. It was Claudius who brought about the conquest of Britain,
cleared for commerce. and began the practice of letting the provinces send men to sit in the Senate. He was a well-
meaning emperor and was believed to have been poisoned by his ambitious wife, Agrippa,
Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber River, served as a seaport for Rome. Egypt, North who wanted Nero, her son by a previous marriage, to succeed to the throne. Nero governed
Africa, and Sicily furnished grain for the entire empire. Timber and various farm products well at first, but the possession of unlimited powers made him very wicked. A great fire broke
came from Gaul and central Europe, and the Iberian Peninsula supplied gold, silver, and lead. out, burning half of the city, and it was rumored that Nero set it. Nero cast the blame of the
Outside the empire, Rome carried on a thriving trade with distant lands such as India and fire upon the Christians and he ordered the first persecution of the Christians in which both
China. Peter and Paul were killed. Nero sank deeper into vice and crime and his suicide brought to
an end the rule of the Julian emperors.
In Augustus, the Romans found a wise and able ruler. Upon him were conferred great
powers and honors. He was consul, tribune, censor, imperator, and Augustus or highly The next lines of emperors were the Flavian emperors who ruled Rome for twenty-five
honored. He exercised control over political, military, and religious affairs of Rome. He years. Galba, Otho, and Vitallius ruled during the two years of disorder following the end of
pardoned many of his enemies, and improved the Roman administration in the provinces. He Julian emperors. Then came Vespasian who ruled well. He founded the Flavian line. He was
reorganized the army and drove corrupt men from public office. He built roads and drained remembered for the siege and capture of Jerusalem by his son, Titus, who later succeeded
swamps. He encouraged trade, erected fine buildings so that he was said to have boasted him. Emperor Titus was greatly loved by the people. He considered a day lost when the day
that while he found Rome a city of bricks, he left it a city of marble. Under Augustus, the his having done a good deed. Upon his death, he was succeeded by Domitian, his cruel
Romans enjoyed a long period of peace and prosperity. When Augustus died, the Senate brother. Domitian accomplished worthwhile things but he put hundreds to death that no one
voted his name among the other gods and the Romans erected temples throughout the felt safe him.
empire in his honor. From this, imperial cult (emperor worship) began and later this brought
conflict between the church and the state. He met his death at the hands of a freed man. During the 2nd century CE, the empire
enjoyed the rule of several competent emperors. They were called the Five Good Emperors.
The emperors that followed after Augustus did away with all the outward forms of The first of five was Nerval Next was Trajan, a Spanish general who ruled from 98 to 117 CE
the Republic, which both Julius and Augustus had kept Slowly, they strengthened their and was an ambitious military leader. Under his rule, the empire reached its greatest extent.
powers and unified the empire.
His successor Hadrian, ruled from 117 to 138 CE. Hadrian made it a policy to
Tiberius succeeded Augustus to the throne. It was during his term, which lasted until strengthen the frontiers. He supervised building of many public works. One of the most
37 CE, that Jesus was crucified in Judea. From the time of Tiberius to the end of the western famous projects was Hadrian's Wall in Britain, and was built as a protection against the Celtic
empire in 476 CE, Rome was ruled by 70 emperors, but only a few of them were capable. tribes of Scotland.
 URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
reservoirs in the country
Marcus Aurelius, who ruled from 161 to 180, was one of the few emperors to win the
to the cities.
respect of his people. Although he was troubled by invading Germanic tribes, he preferred
In the early years, the Romans had learned from the Etruscans how to build arched
reading than going to war. His books of essays, called "Meditations," remain one of the most
constructions called vaults. Gradually, the Romans improved vault forms so that large interior
powerful expressions of Stoic philosophy. It reveals his character. He made promotions in
spaces could enclosed. They also invented domes to roof structures.
the public office depending on merit. He reformed the criminal laws and did much for the
slaves and the poor. His son Commodus succeeded him. Commodus was slain bringing to
an end the rule of the Antonians.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

To make the structure solid and lasting Roman architecture used cement and
Following the death of Commodus was a period of disorder. This was also the period
concrete as basic materials. Exteriors Were faced with marble or stucco, a plaster that sets
known as the rule of the Barracks Emperors. Out of the chaos, Diocletian, the last of the
with a hard, like coat, and decorated with sculpture. The Romans preferred ornate decoration
Barrack Emperors, drove the barbarians back and crushed rebellions in the empire. He
The Romans' finest buildings were used for judicial or other public functions unlike the
reorganized the government to make it highly centralized and responsible to him alone. The
Greeks whose architectural achievements were used to honor their gods.
empire was divided into four prefectures. The two more populous prefectures were under
Caesar. These sections were further divided into provinces, each under a governor. The
Roman public buildings were magnificent and practical. The baths were multilevel
emperors held office for twenty years after which the Caesars succeeded in power. A spy
structures with steam rooms, bathing, and swimming pools, garden, gyms, and libraries.
system of secret police safeguarded the efficient and honest administration of the empire.
These places served as meeting places.

THE GRECO-ROMAN CULTURE

The Roman Colosseum, a huge amphitheater, was the main feature of a special
welfare system used by politicians to keep the plebeians happy. This welfare system known
Most roots of the Western civilization can be traced to the blend of Greek and Roman
as "bread and circuses," provided free grain and free entertainment. It is in colosseum where
culture known as classical culture. Classical culture flourished during the Pax Romana. The
much entertainment took place such as mock naval battles, gladiator fights, and chariot
Romans admired Hellenistic culture and borrowed extensively from the Greeks. In the
races.
process, certain elements of Roman culture were changed.

The Romans are famous for city planning. Provincial cities and towns were usually
ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND ENGINEERING
built around a forum, a public square that would be close to the crossing of two main roads.
The main civic buildings and the marketplace were centrally located in the forum area.
A network of roads knit together the Roman world. Roads were established to speed
up the movement of armies and military supplies and at the same time, used for travel and
SCIENCE
commerce. Roman roads were built of several layers and was said to be superior to any
highways constructed in Europe until the 1800s. Engineering skill was used throughout the
The Romans collected masses of information in works similar to encyclopedias.
empire in the construction of numerous dams, bridges, drainage systems, and aqueducts.
Pliny, the Elder, produced a 37-volume work entitled, "Natural History," a store house of
Aqueducts are bridge-like structures that hold water pipes. Aqueducts carry water from
information on subjects ranging from astronomy, medicine, geography, and botany.
 URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
return to the simple ways
The Romans made few contributions to scientific knowledge. They built the first of their ancestors.
hospitals. About 14 CE, the first school of medicine was established in Rome. It was there
Celsus, a Roman born physician, wrote and taught. One of his books describes surgical The Roman historian Tacitus was best known for “Germania,” his study of the
procedures for removing tonsils and cataracts. German tribes who lived north of the empire. Like Livy, he urged his people to return to
traditional Roman values. His work contrasts the strength and simplicity of the Germans with
ROMAN LITERATURE AND HISTORY the weaknesses and immorality of upper-class life in Rome.

Throughout the history of Rome, Greek Literature remained the most important Another important writer was Plutarch. His masterpiece, “Parallel Lives,” became the
influence on Latin literary works. An educated Roman was expected to know Greek. Wealthy invaluable source for later writers. He was known to be a well-balanced writer with a sound
families often owned a Greek slave who served as tutor for the children of the household. judgement.
With Greek models, the Romans developed a literature.
ROMAN LAW AND LATIN LANGUAGE
The wealth and leisure resulting from Roman conquests provided a growing audience
for literature. From 100 BCE to 14 CE, Latin literature reached its height. This period was Law in modern-day Italy, France, Spain, and Latin America were still using law codes
known as the "Golden Age of Latin Literature." based on Roman legal principle. English-speaking countries were also influenced greatly by
Roman law. In fact, along with the Latin language, this was probably the lasting contribution
One of the leading writers of the Golden Age was master statesman and polished made by the Romans. The standards set were largely influenced by the teachings of Stoic
orator, Cicero. His speeches, letters, and essays showed wide intellect philosophers and were based on common sense and practical ideas. Some of the most
important principles of Roman law were: All persons had the right to equal treatment under
Another famous statesman was Julius Caesar. He contributed to Latin literature with the law. All persons were considered innocent until proven guilty. The burden of proof rested
his "Commentaries on the Gallic Wars." In 47 CE, Caesar gained lasting fame with a brief and with the accuser rather than the accused. A person should be punished for actions, not
meaningful message sent to the Roman Senate after a victorious battle. Since then, the thoughts. Any law that seemed unreasonable or grossly unfair could be set aside.
message, containing only the words, Veni, Vidi, Vici, meaning "I came, I saw, I conquered" has
been studied by student’s generation after generation. Written law developed from the Law of the Twelve Tables. As Rome expanded, laws
governing noncitizens were added. The legal interpretations, or decisions were kept, and
The greatest poet was Virgil known as "Homer of Rome" because of his Aeneid. The these served as precedents, or examples to help other judges decide similar cases in court.
chief character in Virgil's work was Aeneas, a legendary Trojan hero. The most outstanding
aspect of Aeneid is Virgil's patriotic fervor; the glories of Rome were praised in stirring lines Sometimes the existing laws of a conquered place influenced the magistrates'
of poetry. decision. In this way, local rules and customs became part of the larger body of the Roman
law. Roman law became international, particularly laws dealing with commerce. When
Another patriotic writer was Livy, with his history of Rome called "From the Founding Augustus was emperor, professional law school was established to teach the law. Later in
of the City." By picturing the past greatness of Rome, he hoped to convince his readers to
 URDANETA CITY COLLEGE OF TEACHER
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
the 6th
century CE, Justinian, emperor of the Eastern Empire, had this huge body of laws codified.

Latin was the official language of business, religion, education, government, and the
arts throughout the empire. During the Roman years, two forms of Latin developed. One was
literary Latin, the form used in writing. It was highly admired for its logic and exactness. The
second form was the vernacular or informal spoken language used in everyday dealings.
From this form developed the modern romance languages, which include Spanish, French,
Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian.

By preserving and adding to Greek civilization, Rome strengthened cultural tradition.

The world would be a different place. Historian R.H. Barrow stated that Rome never fell
because it turned into something even greater.